Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Yule or Yuletide (Yule season) is an ancient festival observed by the Germanic peoples. It has connections to Woden (Odin) and sacrificial feasts. Like many other pagan festivities, Yule was Christianised and transformed into Christmastide. Despite this, Yule is still commonly used in carols and in connection with Christmas, such as the Yule log. How was this ancient festival celebrated, what was its meaning and how does it influence Christmas celebrations today? The Norse All Father, Odin, also bears the names jólfaðr (Old Norse for "Yule father") and jólnir ("the Yule one"). A link was later made to the French word jolif, meaning jolly, which was itself derived from Old Norse. It can also mean feast, as in hugins jól (Old Norse "Huginn's Yule"), which referred to "a raven's feast". The earliest written mention of Yule is from fourth century Gothic, in connection in the month that fell from November to January on the old lunisolar calendar. Yule was originally a 3-day celebration. During Yule, farmers gathered at the heathen temple and brought along food for the feast. All drank ale and livestock, including horses, were sacrificed. The sacrificial blood (hlaut) from them was collected in vessels (hlautbolli), which was then smeared around the inside and outside of the temple with sacrificial twigs (aspergills). The blood was also sprinkled around the pedestals of the statue representations of gods and on all men present. The meat, however, was boiled and served as food at the banquet. Fires were lit in the middle of the temple floor, and kettles hung over them. The chieftain blessed both the sacrificial meat and the sacrificial beaker, as he held it over the fire. Toasts were drunk to Odin "for victory and power to the king", a second to Njörðr and Freyr "for good harvests and for peace", and thirdly a beaker was to be drunk to the king himself. Toasts were then drunk to the memory of the departed. King Haakon I of Norway who ruled from 934–961 is credited with the Christianisation of Norway. He also rescheduled the date of Yule to coincide with Christian celebrations held at a similar time. When Haakon arrived in Norway, he was already a confirmed Christian, but the land was completely heathen. Haakon hid his Christianity to ensure the support of tribal chieftains. Eventually, Haakon introduced a law ensuring Yule celebrations took place at the same time as Christmas. When he solidly established himself and held power over the whole country, he then had the gospel preached. His popularity caused many to be baptised, and some stopped making sacrifices. Yule eventually became synonymous with Christmas, with the Yule Father being replaced with the jolly image of Santa Claus. Many modern pagans have since reclaimed Yule as their own and celebrate it with a mixture of ancient and modern traditions. Leave a comment Comments will be approved before showing up.	<urn:uuid:62d1ca9a-7bf0-4a86-991c-ee074d43c42b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ancientreasures.com/blogs/ancient-treasures/032-yule	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00405.warc.gz	en	0.985457	660	4.0625	4	[ 0.10787428915500641, 0.7416989803314209, 0.41335201263427734, -0.2601001560688019, 0.3420109152793884, 0.12444484978914261, 0.08344914019107819, 0.0014313702704384923, 0.07960333675146103, -0.16528412699699402, -0.10942200571298599, -0.17795243859291077, 0.23634502291679382, 0.041389074176...	11	Yule or Yuletide (Yule season) is an ancient festival observed by the Germanic peoples. It has connections to Woden (Odin) and sacrificial feasts. Like many other pagan festivities, Yule was Christianised and transformed into Christmastide. Despite this, Yule is still commonly used in carols and in connection with Christmas, such as the Yule log. How was this ancient festival celebrated, what was its meaning and how does it influence Christmas celebrations today? The Norse All Father, Odin, also bears the names jólfaðr (Old Norse for "Yule father") and jólnir ("the Yule one"). A link was later made to the French word jolif, meaning jolly, which was itself derived from Old Norse. It can also mean feast, as in hugins jól (Old Norse "Huginn's Yule"), which referred to "a raven's feast". The earliest written mention of Yule is from fourth century Gothic, in connection in the month that fell from November to January on the old lunisolar calendar. Yule was originally a 3-day celebration. During Yule, farmers gathered at the heathen temple and brought along food for the feast. All drank ale and livestock, including horses, were sacrificed. The sacrificial blood (hlaut) from them was collected in vessels (hlautbolli), which was then smeared around the inside and outside of the temple with sacrificial twigs (aspergills). The blood was also sprinkled around the pedestals of the statue representations of gods and on all men present. The meat, however, was boiled and served as food at the banquet. Fires were lit in the middle of the temple floor, and kettles hung over them. The chieftain blessed both the sacrificial meat and the sacrificial beaker, as he held it over the fire. Toasts were drunk to Odin "for victory and power to the king", a second to Njörðr and Freyr "for good harvests and for peace", and thirdly a beaker was to be drunk to the king himself. Toasts were then drunk to the memory of the departed. King Haakon I of Norway who ruled from 934–961 is credited with the Christianisation of Norway. He also rescheduled the date of Yule to coincide with Christian celebrations held at a similar time. When Haakon arrived in Norway, he was already a confirmed Christian, but the land was completely heathen. Haakon hid his Christianity to ensure the support of tribal chieftains. Eventually, Haakon introduced a law ensuring Yule celebrations took place at the same time as Christmas. When he solidly established himself and held power over the whole country, he then had the gospel preached. His popularity caused many to be baptised, and some stopped making sacrifices. Yule eventually became synonymous with Christmas, with the Yule Father being replaced with the jolly image of Santa Claus. Many modern pagans have since reclaimed Yule as their own and celebrate it with a mixture of ancient and modern traditions. Leave a comment Comments will be approved before showing up.	660	ENGLISH	1
Alaska was only considered a territory of the United States after the United States purchased it from the Russian Empire in 1867. It was not recognized as a state until 1959, remaining in the territorial status all along. Alaska was officially recognized as a state on January 3, 1959 after long struggles that lasted for decades. Why Alaska was Denied Statehood Alaska was earlier denied the state recognition because of its several incapacities. It was very sparsely populated and therefore did not match the standards of being recognized as a state. There was a minimum required number of people for it to be considered a state. Furthermore, the economy of Alaska was very fragile and unstable, convincing most legislators that Alaska not worth being one of the states that formed the United States. Also, Alaska is isolated and distant from the other states. Due to the isolation it was considered as an independent territory. Alaska Before Statehood After the United States purchased Alaska from Russia, it was set aside and was considered as a military district. Most of the military activities and military training took place in Alaska. The status of Alaska was upgraded in 1884 from a military district to a judicial district. Clerks, judges, marshals, and other officials were appointed by the federal government to help run and manage the Alaskan territory. Even after the gold rush, Alaska was still considered a district and the government offered little attention and concentration to the district. The Alaskans pushed for self-government from 1916 after they presented the bill the Congress. The struggle to attain statehood status went on until it bore fruits in 1959, decades later. Alaska’s Journey to Statehood Alaska was a Russian territory until 1867 when The United State bought it for $7.2 million. The campaign to have Alaska as one of the US states began in the early 20th century. However, the factors highlighted above always hindered Alaska from being granted the statehood recognition. During World War II, the Japanese and another invasion of Alaska discovered the potential Alaska had. Japan highlighted that Alaska was very strategically positioned to stage their attacks and other invasions. The discovery of oil was the turning point for the weak economy and negative perception of Alaska. Oil discovery at Swanson River on the Kenai Peninsula and its strategic position completely changed people’s perception towards Alaska leading to a journey towards statehood. There was also a major population increase in Alaska due to the Klondike Gold Rush. In 1916, the Congress received a bill that would lead to Alaska being recognized as a state. However, the push for statehood was not taken seriously until after World War II. On July 4, 1958, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Alaska Statehood Act which granted Alaska the statehood. It was not until on January 3, 1959 that Alaska was proclaimed a state. Juneau, which was the territorial capital, continued to serve as the state capital after Alaska was granted Statehood. William A Egan was the first governor of Alaska. It became the 49th state of the United States. When did Alaska become a state? Alaska was granted statehood by the United States of America on January 3, 1959. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:4718ad12-4573-4149-a865-7fdc14f46930>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/when-did-alaska-become-a-state.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00139.warc.gz	en	0.983179	714	3.796875	4	[ -0.5272367000579834, -0.25635939836502075, 0.10365574061870575, -0.028599156066775322, -0.2513602674007416, 0.07886258512735367, 0.22775954008102417, -0.06702595949172974, -0.31221166253089905, 0.0032437872141599655, 0.48512399196624756, -0.1480441689491272, 0.0531182736158371, 0.291193068...	2	Alaska was only considered a territory of the United States after the United States purchased it from the Russian Empire in 1867. It was not recognized as a state until 1959, remaining in the territorial status all along. Alaska was officially recognized as a state on January 3, 1959 after long struggles that lasted for decades. Why Alaska was Denied Statehood Alaska was earlier denied the state recognition because of its several incapacities. It was very sparsely populated and therefore did not match the standards of being recognized as a state. There was a minimum required number of people for it to be considered a state. Furthermore, the economy of Alaska was very fragile and unstable, convincing most legislators that Alaska not worth being one of the states that formed the United States. Also, Alaska is isolated and distant from the other states. Due to the isolation it was considered as an independent territory. Alaska Before Statehood After the United States purchased Alaska from Russia, it was set aside and was considered as a military district. Most of the military activities and military training took place in Alaska. The status of Alaska was upgraded in 1884 from a military district to a judicial district. Clerks, judges, marshals, and other officials were appointed by the federal government to help run and manage the Alaskan territory. Even after the gold rush, Alaska was still considered a district and the government offered little attention and concentration to the district. The Alaskans pushed for self-government from 1916 after they presented the bill the Congress. The struggle to attain statehood status went on until it bore fruits in 1959, decades later. Alaska’s Journey to Statehood Alaska was a Russian territory until 1867 when The United State bought it for $7.2 million. The campaign to have Alaska as one of the US states began in the early 20th century. However, the factors highlighted above always hindered Alaska from being granted the statehood recognition. During World War II, the Japanese and another invasion of Alaska discovered the potential Alaska had. Japan highlighted that Alaska was very strategically positioned to stage their attacks and other invasions. The discovery of oil was the turning point for the weak economy and negative perception of Alaska. Oil discovery at Swanson River on the Kenai Peninsula and its strategic position completely changed people’s perception towards Alaska leading to a journey towards statehood. There was also a major population increase in Alaska due to the Klondike Gold Rush. In 1916, the Congress received a bill that would lead to Alaska being recognized as a state. However, the push for statehood was not taken seriously until after World War II. On July 4, 1958, President Dwight Eisenhower signed the Alaska Statehood Act which granted Alaska the statehood. It was not until on January 3, 1959 that Alaska was proclaimed a state. Juneau, which was the territorial capital, continued to serve as the state capital after Alaska was granted Statehood. William A Egan was the first governor of Alaska. It became the 49th state of the United States. When did Alaska become a state? Alaska was granted statehood by the United States of America on January 3, 1959. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	748	ENGLISH	1
It was largely assumed that this is age related and that there was not much we could do about it, but that might not necessarily be true anymore. According to a paper published in the Science Translational Medicine, researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, and Ben-Gurion University are proposing that by reducing the brain inflammation, there is the potential to reverse issues such as dementia. This was tested out on senile mice where when they were given a drug designed to reduce brain inflammation, they were able to learn new tasks where they were nearly as good as mice that were half their age. This also seems to prove what researchers found back in 2007, where they suggested that a blood protein known as albumin could be what causes some of those problems. The researchers back then introduced albumin into the brain of mice, where within a week, the brains of young mice suddenly looked like the brains of old mice in terms of hyperexcitability and also their susceptibility to seizures. According to one of the researchers, Daniela Kaufer, “We got to this through this back door; we started with questions about plasticity having to do with the blood-brain barrier, traumatic brain injury and how epilepsy develops. But after we’d learned a lot about the mechanisms, we started thinking that maybe in aging it is the same story. This is new biology, a completely new angle on why neurological function deteriorates as the brain ages.”	<urn:uuid:f160d38d-72e5-4b8b-b7d6-cde11b6cd6fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ubergizmo.com/2019/12/reduce-brain-inflammation-reverse-dementia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00133.warc.gz	en	0.984818	296	3.5625	4	[ -0.5632951259613037, 0.011522781103849411, -0.01625451259315014, -0.03749276325106621, -0.20570030808448792, 0.4325069785118103, 0.39025577902793884, 0.40551885962486267, -0.4372982382774353, -0.05749433860182762, 0.1281638890504837, 0.0997098907828331, -0.0009031570516526699, 0.5170944929...	3	It was largely assumed that this is age related and that there was not much we could do about it, but that might not necessarily be true anymore. According to a paper published in the Science Translational Medicine, researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, and Ben-Gurion University are proposing that by reducing the brain inflammation, there is the potential to reverse issues such as dementia. This was tested out on senile mice where when they were given a drug designed to reduce brain inflammation, they were able to learn new tasks where they were nearly as good as mice that were half their age. This also seems to prove what researchers found back in 2007, where they suggested that a blood protein known as albumin could be what causes some of those problems. The researchers back then introduced albumin into the brain of mice, where within a week, the brains of young mice suddenly looked like the brains of old mice in terms of hyperexcitability and also their susceptibility to seizures. According to one of the researchers, Daniela Kaufer, “We got to this through this back door; we started with questions about plasticity having to do with the blood-brain barrier, traumatic brain injury and how epilepsy develops. But after we’d learned a lot about the mechanisms, we started thinking that maybe in aging it is the same story. This is new biology, a completely new angle on why neurological function deteriorates as the brain ages.”	293	ENGLISH	1
What connection does King George, Queen Caroline, the Prince of Wales, and the Duke of York have to the city of Lancaster? While you think about it, here’s some context. Lancaster County was erected on May 10, 1729. Shortly after, through some excellent political maneuvering, James Hamilton’s father purchased a large tract of land that soon became home to the future Lancaster City. Hamilton began laying out plans for a village in 1734 on the site of what had been called Hickory Town. Within two years, Lancaster Townstead (as it was then known) was well-established. In an attempt to demonstrate his loyalty to the crown and perhaps gain royal favor, Hamilton began to name his streets after the English monarchy. The main east-west street, called initially High Street, became King George Street. The principle north-south road honored his bride, Queen Caroline. One block to the West was Prince of Wales Street, and one block to the east was Duke of York Street. Some believe that Orange Street was named to recognize the royal house of King William III; however, there is little evidence to support that theory. Instead, the English had a tradition of naming streets after trees, nuts, berries, vines, and fruits. As such, Hamilton surrounded the royal avenues with Chestnut, Lime, Lemon, Vine, and Orange Streets. Orange is most likely a reference to the fruit and not the royal house. Lancastrians stopped using the old English names long before the start of the American Revolution, and those streets simply became King, Queen, Duke, and Prince as they are known today. Red Rose City Originally called Hickory Town, the city was renamed after the English city of Lancaster by native John Wright. Its symbol, the red rose, is from the House of Lancaster.	<urn:uuid:eadac629-a857-4b4e-923b-2e5c3c581041>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://unchartedlancaster.com/2020/01/15/pop-quiz-lancasters-surprising-royal-connection/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00012.warc.gz	en	0.981585	375	3.421875	3	[ -0.2549344301223755, -0.07040941715240479, 0.4953567087650299, 0.35617390275001526, -0.41531816124916077, -0.2139597088098526, 0.630696713924408, 0.14356470108032227, -0.020621363073587418, 0.27799439430236816, 0.06543216109275818, 0.19695442914962769, -0.05179877206683159, 0.1858886927366...	14	What connection does King George, Queen Caroline, the Prince of Wales, and the Duke of York have to the city of Lancaster? While you think about it, here’s some context. Lancaster County was erected on May 10, 1729. Shortly after, through some excellent political maneuvering, James Hamilton’s father purchased a large tract of land that soon became home to the future Lancaster City. Hamilton began laying out plans for a village in 1734 on the site of what had been called Hickory Town. Within two years, Lancaster Townstead (as it was then known) was well-established. In an attempt to demonstrate his loyalty to the crown and perhaps gain royal favor, Hamilton began to name his streets after the English monarchy. The main east-west street, called initially High Street, became King George Street. The principle north-south road honored his bride, Queen Caroline. One block to the West was Prince of Wales Street, and one block to the east was Duke of York Street. Some believe that Orange Street was named to recognize the royal house of King William III; however, there is little evidence to support that theory. Instead, the English had a tradition of naming streets after trees, nuts, berries, vines, and fruits. As such, Hamilton surrounded the royal avenues with Chestnut, Lime, Lemon, Vine, and Orange Streets. Orange is most likely a reference to the fruit and not the royal house. Lancastrians stopped using the old English names long before the start of the American Revolution, and those streets simply became King, Queen, Duke, and Prince as they are known today. Red Rose City Originally called Hickory Town, the city was renamed after the English city of Lancaster by native John Wright. Its symbol, the red rose, is from the House of Lancaster.	370	ENGLISH	1
We are learning all about the history of cinema and film in P6. We are looking at the creation of film and the very first moving images ever recorded. So far we have looked at Journey to the Moon – it was one of the first films to be very creative and explored how film could be used to tell a story. Today we were making thaumatropes in class. Thaumatropes were used in the late 1800s to create a moving image – people were amazed at this at that time! We drew two circles, each with an image on them. The two images should be something similar, or related, such as a fish and water. We cut out the two circles and put a length of string in between them, before gluing them together, with the string inside. When we twisted, or rolled, the string between our fingers it created an illusion of the two images being in the same place – the fish was now in the water. This led to further developments in moving images, which we will continue exploring after the October break.	<urn:uuid:794612d8-5318-40bf-be64-e20af8c30743>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/er/busbyprimary6/2017/10/12/thaumatropes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00360.warc.gz	en	0.981048	220	3.53125	4	[ -0.08175650238990784, -0.111971914768219, 0.14840297400951385, -0.12069354951381683, -0.3255685567855835, 0.48071902990341187, -0.2443190962076187, -0.19245386123657227, -0.12612611055374146, -0.06067569553852081, 0.11578866839408875, -0.4661455750465393, -0.17467881739139557, 0.1639151573...	1	We are learning all about the history of cinema and film in P6. We are looking at the creation of film and the very first moving images ever recorded. So far we have looked at Journey to the Moon – it was one of the first films to be very creative and explored how film could be used to tell a story. Today we were making thaumatropes in class. Thaumatropes were used in the late 1800s to create a moving image – people were amazed at this at that time! We drew two circles, each with an image on them. The two images should be something similar, or related, such as a fish and water. We cut out the two circles and put a length of string in between them, before gluing them together, with the string inside. When we twisted, or rolled, the string between our fingers it created an illusion of the two images being in the same place – the fish was now in the water. This led to further developments in moving images, which we will continue exploring after the October break.	218	ENGLISH	1
Colorado’s Pitkin County was named for Frederick Walker Pitkin, who served as governor of the state from 1879 to 1883. Born in Connecticut in 1837, Pitkin had settled in Milwaukee until ill health caused him to seek the “climate cure” first in Europe and then out west. He arrived in Colorado’s San Juan region in 1874, and upon regaining his health he opened a law practice and also invested in mining. After just a few years of living in the state, Pitkin, a Republican, ran for and was elected governor of Colorado, succeeding John L. Routt. Although Routt had been elected as Colorado’s first statehood governor, he had also been previously appointed as Territorial Governor. Therefore, Pitkin was the first state governor who had not previously been appointed to the territorial post. Pitkin’s time in office was characterized by several crises, including railroad conflicts, miner’s strikes, and relations with the Ute Indians. The Utes, who had been forced to give up their nomadic hunting traditions and take up farming, rebelled in 1879. In response, Pitkin brought in the militia and had the Utes removed to a reservation in Utah. (To learn more about the history and legacy of the Utes in Colorado, check out The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico from our library or visit History Colorado’s online exhibit, Ute Tribal Paths). Pitkin won re-election in 1880 (at that time governors served two-year terms). His 1881 address to the legislature, available online from our library, gives his perspective on the “Indian troubles,” the Leadville miners’ strike, and other issues of the day. During his era, Colorado state publications were printed not only in English, but also in German and Spanish. In our library collection you can find a German version of Pitkin’s 1881 inaugural speech as well as a Spanish version of his 1883 address to the legislature, given just before he left office. Our library has also digitized the German version the 1881 session laws. Governor Pitkin chose not to run again in 1882, instead trying for an open seat in the U.S. Senate, which he lost. After his defeat, he moved to Pueblo where he set up a law practice. He died at age 49 in 1886, leaving behind a wife, Fidelia, and three children.	<urn:uuid:8d1670c0-8d8e-46d7-806d-ab75d5a702cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/resource-sharing/state-pubs-blog/colorado-governors-frederick-w-pitkin/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00183.warc.gz	en	0.987295	514	3.484375	3	[ -0.26297080516815186, -0.10664109140634537, 0.6548757553100586, -0.12418588995933533, -0.32638102769851685, -0.04127177968621254, 0.1471288651227951, -0.05492374673485756, -0.3351913094520569, -0.06669385731220245, -0.4668441712856293, -0.12335032224655151, -0.02854720689356327, 0.08313125...	7	Colorado’s Pitkin County was named for Frederick Walker Pitkin, who served as governor of the state from 1879 to 1883. Born in Connecticut in 1837, Pitkin had settled in Milwaukee until ill health caused him to seek the “climate cure” first in Europe and then out west. He arrived in Colorado’s San Juan region in 1874, and upon regaining his health he opened a law practice and also invested in mining. After just a few years of living in the state, Pitkin, a Republican, ran for and was elected governor of Colorado, succeeding John L. Routt. Although Routt had been elected as Colorado’s first statehood governor, he had also been previously appointed as Territorial Governor. Therefore, Pitkin was the first state governor who had not previously been appointed to the territorial post. Pitkin’s time in office was characterized by several crises, including railroad conflicts, miner’s strikes, and relations with the Ute Indians. The Utes, who had been forced to give up their nomadic hunting traditions and take up farming, rebelled in 1879. In response, Pitkin brought in the militia and had the Utes removed to a reservation in Utah. (To learn more about the history and legacy of the Utes in Colorado, check out The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado and New Mexico from our library or visit History Colorado’s online exhibit, Ute Tribal Paths). Pitkin won re-election in 1880 (at that time governors served two-year terms). His 1881 address to the legislature, available online from our library, gives his perspective on the “Indian troubles,” the Leadville miners’ strike, and other issues of the day. During his era, Colorado state publications were printed not only in English, but also in German and Spanish. In our library collection you can find a German version of Pitkin’s 1881 inaugural speech as well as a Spanish version of his 1883 address to the legislature, given just before he left office. Our library has also digitized the German version the 1881 session laws. Governor Pitkin chose not to run again in 1882, instead trying for an open seat in the U.S. Senate, which he lost. After his defeat, he moved to Pueblo where he set up a law practice. He died at age 49 in 1886, leaving behind a wife, Fidelia, and three children.	528	ENGLISH	1
\|← Cultural Changes after the British Influence\|\|Racial Discrimination in the US →\| Buy custom Race and American Identity essay In a society with a rich history of immigration, the concept of belonging to a particular race affects many aspects of one’s identity including how they fit in with the rest of the communities. Belonging to a particular race may not affect one’s claim to their nationality in such a society but it clearly affects how they feel about their place in that nation. In the United States, there are people from various ethnic backgrounds including European, Asian, and African among others. In most cases, the effect of one’s race on their American identity is determined by the social constructs surrounding their race and its place in American history. The novel When the Emperor Was Divine by Japanese American writer JulieOtsuka, the characters live in a time when the social constructs on their race were particularly negative given that their home country was on the enemy side during the Second World War. As Japanese Americans, they not only faced negative social stigma but also were severely victimized by the government when they were separated and forced to stay apart for over three years in those internment camps in the desert. The paper examines the effect of race on defining the character’s American identity based on the novel When the Emperor Was Divine. Japanese American: The Conflicting Loyalties A Japanese American is an American citizen of Japanese ancestry. It means that they are American, but their immigration history can be traced back to Japan. During the Second World War, Japan and America fought on different sides. It implied that the Japanese and Americans were considered enemies and thus, being a Japnese in America was as bad as being an American in Japan at the time. Thus, it was a great challenge to belong to both of the two warring nationalities even by ancestry. The author writes, "We used to try to imagine what it would be like when we finally returned home... We would accept invitations, Go everywhere. Do everything to make up for all the years we had missed while we were away" (Otsuka 126). Japanese American citizens considered themselves more American than Japanese because they had moved to the US and started a new life embracing a new cultural context and becoming quite westernized compared to their fellow compatriots back in Japan. However, this was not the case in terms of the social constructs of the mixed race citizens. They were considered as more Japanese than American based on the ideology of being true to their roots. In this way, Japanese Americans were considered as threats during the Second World War. It was widely believed that they would unite and strike the US from within if they were not contained and thus, the internment camps and secret incarcerations that lasted over three years in this book and possibly more for others. American Identity: Who Are We? Japanese Americans in the US during the Second World War were neither Americans nor Japanese. They were not Americans because they were not trusted by the American government and they were taken away from their homes and separated from their loved ones simply because the government was afraid of what they could do if they had the time and the power with respect to the enemy side in the war. Otsuka says, "We looked at ourselves in the mirror and did not like what we saw: black hair, yellow skin, slanted eyes. The cruel face of the enemy" (Otsuka 119-120). Therefore, they had to contain those undefined people to avoid any surprises. They were not Japanese either, given that they had been living in the US for a while, and most of them were even born there. It made them wonder who they really were. In the book When the Emperor Was Divine, the characters do not define themselves as Americans. They are Americans, they live in the US, speak ordinary American English, and live like average Americans, but they look like the Japanese. Thus, their only tie to Japan is their physical appearance and for this, they are forced to pay dearly. They are seen to emphasize on their Japanese roots throughout the book’s plot due to the way they have been made feel by the very society to which they belong. The Second World War was a tricky period in the world. Cultural roots were considered as ground for suspicion, and each nationality had a side to fight for. Being caught in between was not a good option for anyone and more so, between the two main powers involved. American identity can be defined as being an American citizen, feeling like one, and acknowledging one’s position in the country as a citizen. It implies being able to fit in with the rest of the American society and not being singled out as an outsider for whatever reason. “American identity is thus a concept that varies with one’s race especially when it is at a time when the countries are at war” (Otsuka 54). Throughout the story in When the Emperor Was Divine, the author provides the experiences of the Japanese American family members in first person. These experiences are felt within the context of a society that is remorseful and yet relieved for having to relocate the citizens with Japanese ancestry. Thus, these Japanese Americans felt like aliens in America because they were treated as such. Related Sociology essays - Racial Discrimination in the US - Racism Psychology - Cultural Changes after the British Influence - Community-Oriented Policing Most popular orders BUS330 Week 3 Discussions Built to Last Research Article Critique and Research Proposal in the Public Relations Issues Morita Akio: Biography Narrative and Research Play in Education	<urn:uuid:41e7ef7d-e360-43df-ad64-580fafc3330e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://prime-essay.com/samples/sociology/race-and-american-identity-essay.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00032.warc.gz	en	0.984333	1,149	3.484375	3	[ 0.18354183435440063, 0.4107794761657715, 0.08892636001110077, 0.20264965295791626, -0.1265850067138672, 0.538855791091919, 0.05500568449497223, 0.0720578134059906, 0.26857516169548035, -0.12000346183776855, 0.4183151423931122, 0.18371500074863434, 0.09126609563827515, 0.17891722917556763, ...	1	\|← Cultural Changes after the British Influence\|\|Racial Discrimination in the US →\| Buy custom Race and American Identity essay In a society with a rich history of immigration, the concept of belonging to a particular race affects many aspects of one’s identity including how they fit in with the rest of the communities. Belonging to a particular race may not affect one’s claim to their nationality in such a society but it clearly affects how they feel about their place in that nation. In the United States, there are people from various ethnic backgrounds including European, Asian, and African among others. In most cases, the effect of one’s race on their American identity is determined by the social constructs surrounding their race and its place in American history. The novel When the Emperor Was Divine by Japanese American writer JulieOtsuka, the characters live in a time when the social constructs on their race were particularly negative given that their home country was on the enemy side during the Second World War. As Japanese Americans, they not only faced negative social stigma but also were severely victimized by the government when they were separated and forced to stay apart for over three years in those internment camps in the desert. The paper examines the effect of race on defining the character’s American identity based on the novel When the Emperor Was Divine. Japanese American: The Conflicting Loyalties A Japanese American is an American citizen of Japanese ancestry. It means that they are American, but their immigration history can be traced back to Japan. During the Second World War, Japan and America fought on different sides. It implied that the Japanese and Americans were considered enemies and thus, being a Japnese in America was as bad as being an American in Japan at the time. Thus, it was a great challenge to belong to both of the two warring nationalities even by ancestry. The author writes, "We used to try to imagine what it would be like when we finally returned home... We would accept invitations, Go everywhere. Do everything to make up for all the years we had missed while we were away" (Otsuka 126). Japanese American citizens considered themselves more American than Japanese because they had moved to the US and started a new life embracing a new cultural context and becoming quite westernized compared to their fellow compatriots back in Japan. However, this was not the case in terms of the social constructs of the mixed race citizens. They were considered as more Japanese than American based on the ideology of being true to their roots. In this way, Japanese Americans were considered as threats during the Second World War. It was widely believed that they would unite and strike the US from within if they were not contained and thus, the internment camps and secret incarcerations that lasted over three years in this book and possibly more for others. American Identity: Who Are We? Japanese Americans in the US during the Second World War were neither Americans nor Japanese. They were not Americans because they were not trusted by the American government and they were taken away from their homes and separated from their loved ones simply because the government was afraid of what they could do if they had the time and the power with respect to the enemy side in the war. Otsuka says, "We looked at ourselves in the mirror and did not like what we saw: black hair, yellow skin, slanted eyes. The cruel face of the enemy" (Otsuka 119-120). Therefore, they had to contain those undefined people to avoid any surprises. They were not Japanese either, given that they had been living in the US for a while, and most of them were even born there. It made them wonder who they really were. In the book When the Emperor Was Divine, the characters do not define themselves as Americans. They are Americans, they live in the US, speak ordinary American English, and live like average Americans, but they look like the Japanese. Thus, their only tie to Japan is their physical appearance and for this, they are forced to pay dearly. They are seen to emphasize on their Japanese roots throughout the book’s plot due to the way they have been made feel by the very society to which they belong. The Second World War was a tricky period in the world. Cultural roots were considered as ground for suspicion, and each nationality had a side to fight for. Being caught in between was not a good option for anyone and more so, between the two main powers involved. American identity can be defined as being an American citizen, feeling like one, and acknowledging one’s position in the country as a citizen. It implies being able to fit in with the rest of the American society and not being singled out as an outsider for whatever reason. “American identity is thus a concept that varies with one’s race especially when it is at a time when the countries are at war” (Otsuka 54). Throughout the story in When the Emperor Was Divine, the author provides the experiences of the Japanese American family members in first person. These experiences are felt within the context of a society that is remorseful and yet relieved for having to relocate the citizens with Japanese ancestry. Thus, these Japanese Americans felt like aliens in America because they were treated as such. Related Sociology essays - Racial Discrimination in the US - Racism Psychology - Cultural Changes after the British Influence - Community-Oriented Policing Most popular orders BUS330 Week 3 Discussions Built to Last Research Article Critique and Research Proposal in the Public Relations Issues Morita Akio: Biography Narrative and Research Play in Education	1,137	ENGLISH	1
Looking at the tools and machines from the companies Klein & Stiefel from Fulda and Albert Jürgens from Emsdetten as well as the many materials on show, visitors are able to understand the creation of clogs from the tree trunk to the finished product. Clogs are mostly made entirely of wood and are made of a single piece. Many forms and varieties exist: low and high types, with or without straps, even boots for various purposes, for example for work in the moors, or for butchers. They served as safety shoes in field work, on construction sites and in factories before they were replaced by steel-capped shoes and other gear. In addition, there were wooden slippers, galoshes and lace-up boots with wooden soles. Poplar wood, which is light and soft, is particularly well-suited for making clogs. Limewood, willow, and alder are also used. The oldest representation of wooden shoes known today is from the 15th century. These shoes were not only worn in the Netherlands, but in the northern half of Germany, too. In Hesse, people wore them into the 1930s. Clogs were worn in summer, too, with thick socks, which made wearing them more comfortable. Originally, these shoes were completely made by hand, today they can be partly or wholly machine-made. These days, they are hardly ever worn but are very popular as souvenirs.	<urn:uuid:c9a46ea6-5c22-4be6-99f4-95a47b3fab9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hessenpark.de/en/lexikon/handwerk/vorfuehrungen/hozschuhherstellung/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00466.warc.gz	en	0.990144	299	3.28125	3	[ -0.21478138864040375, 0.2984766364097595, 0.09505429118871689, -0.08293535560369492, 0.2190915197134018, 0.003621406387537718, -0.14713919162750244, -0.05293145403265953, -0.1826026886701584, -0.3013717830181122, -0.13896408677101135, -0.3143659830093384, -0.31133148074150085, 0.0881496891...	4	Looking at the tools and machines from the companies Klein & Stiefel from Fulda and Albert Jürgens from Emsdetten as well as the many materials on show, visitors are able to understand the creation of clogs from the tree trunk to the finished product. Clogs are mostly made entirely of wood and are made of a single piece. Many forms and varieties exist: low and high types, with or without straps, even boots for various purposes, for example for work in the moors, or for butchers. They served as safety shoes in field work, on construction sites and in factories before they were replaced by steel-capped shoes and other gear. In addition, there were wooden slippers, galoshes and lace-up boots with wooden soles. Poplar wood, which is light and soft, is particularly well-suited for making clogs. Limewood, willow, and alder are also used. The oldest representation of wooden shoes known today is from the 15th century. These shoes were not only worn in the Netherlands, but in the northern half of Germany, too. In Hesse, people wore them into the 1930s. Clogs were worn in summer, too, with thick socks, which made wearing them more comfortable. Originally, these shoes were completely made by hand, today they can be partly or wholly machine-made. These days, they are hardly ever worn but are very popular as souvenirs.	300	ENGLISH	1
Leonardo da Vinci was an ordinary man from Italy who possessed the extraordinary ability to grasp knowledge in numerous fields. He was a painter, architect, botanist, mathematician, inventor, engineer, sculptor, writer, geologist, an all-around genius. Several of his pieces of art are priceless and critically acclaimed including the Mona Lisa (the most famous painting of all time) and The Last Supper (the most reproduced religious painting in history). 5. Early Life Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in a small town Vinci, Republic of Florence (Italy). He was born to Messer Piero Frusino di Antonio da Vinci who was a legal notary and Caterina who was a servant and possibly even a slave brought to Italy from the Middle East. Leonardo da Vinci was born out-of-wedlock. He spent his childhood in a small town of Anchiano with his mother but later moved to live with his father, step-mother, grandparents, and uncle in Vinci where he learned basic arithmetic, reading, and writing. Da Vinci also studied Latin briefly. Leonardo da Vinci began to practice his artistic talent at the age of 14. He worked as an apprentice for an established artist known as Andrea di Clone (or Verrocchio) for seven years. It was there where he was introduced to other fields such as chemistry, metal working, leather working, carpentry, and mechanics. Da Vinci’s famous painting “The Baptism of Christ” was painted in Verrocchio’s workshop and was a collaboration between him and Verrocchio. Many historians believe that Leonardo was used as the model for Verrocchio’s statue “David”. In 1472, the 20-year-old Da Vinci was accepted into the painters guild of Florence and left to work independently in 1481. In 1482, Leonardo da Vinci moved to Milan where he lived until 1499 when the Second Italian War caused him to flee the city and move to Venice. It was in Milan that Leonardo worked on his most popular masterpieces including “The Last Supper” and “The Virgin of the Rocks.” He later moved back to his homeland of Florence where he shifted his concentration to his mathematical studies, although he also worked on several paintings such as the Mona Lisa. 3. Major Contributions Da Vinci made major contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, and the arts. He was also an influential inventor. He is famed with the painting of "Mona Lisa" which has been named the most famous painting of all time. He was also responsible for painting "the Last Supper" which is by far the most reproduced religious painting in history. He made deep investigations in topics such as zoology, botany, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, geology, optics, human anatomy, and flight. Da Vinci made unique and innovative sketches of machines that were not available in his lifetime until hundreds of years later like the parachute, helicopters, underwater breathing apparatus, airplanes, and army tanks. He contributed to the design of weapons and his ideas of canals, steam powered cannons, and water wheels were astounding. Other contributions include sculpture, engineering, architecture, mathematics, literature, history, writing, and cartography. Da Vinci lived in a period where the Roman Catholic Church’s power was in its prime, and the Pope held more authority than the King, a fact which meant that Leonardo da Vinci could have been charged with heresy if any of his works were deemed to contravene Christian doctrines. That fear prevented him from applying several of his theories which he wrote down in semi codes. Da Vinci also had experienced family disputes with his half-siblings over the inheritance of the father’s property. 1. Death and Legacy In his sunset years, Leonardo da Vinci lived in the Belvedere under the patronage of Pope Leo X and became a close friend of King Francis I. The king granted Leonardo residence in Clos Luce, a manor house near the royal Chateau d’Amboise. Leonardo da Vinci died in the manor house on May 2, 1519. Leonardo da Vinci is credited as being one of the key figures of the Renaissance Movement of the 16th century, and many of his theories have been used in modern technology such as the design of the battle tank as well as the helicopter. Many of his studies in the human anatomy were employed in the medical field several centuries after his death. Who Was Leonardo da Vinci? Leonardo da Vinci was an ordinary man from Italy who possessed the extraordinary ability to grasp knowledge in numerous fields. He was a painter, architect, botanist, mathematician, inventor, engineer, sculptor, writer, geologist, an all-around genius. Several of his pieces of art are priceless and critically acclaimed including the Mona Lisa. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:3e379cf6-401b-4c97-bc26-caf2ee178e2b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/leonardo-da-vinci-important-figures-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00235.warc.gz	en	0.98493	1,095	3.484375	3	[ -0.15385928750038147, 0.4221331477165222, 0.1689193993806839, -0.03226093947887421, -0.7343066334724426, 0.018830453976988792, 0.2591733932495117, 0.2928100824356079, 0.2544742226600647, 0.04227577894926071, 0.1155361607670784, -0.41468819975852966, 0.15646082162857056, 0.5513973832130432,...	2	Leonardo da Vinci was an ordinary man from Italy who possessed the extraordinary ability to grasp knowledge in numerous fields. He was a painter, architect, botanist, mathematician, inventor, engineer, sculptor, writer, geologist, an all-around genius. Several of his pieces of art are priceless and critically acclaimed including the Mona Lisa (the most famous painting of all time) and The Last Supper (the most reproduced religious painting in history). 5. Early Life Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in a small town Vinci, Republic of Florence (Italy). He was born to Messer Piero Frusino di Antonio da Vinci who was a legal notary and Caterina who was a servant and possibly even a slave brought to Italy from the Middle East. Leonardo da Vinci was born out-of-wedlock. He spent his childhood in a small town of Anchiano with his mother but later moved to live with his father, step-mother, grandparents, and uncle in Vinci where he learned basic arithmetic, reading, and writing. Da Vinci also studied Latin briefly. Leonardo da Vinci began to practice his artistic talent at the age of 14. He worked as an apprentice for an established artist known as Andrea di Clone (or Verrocchio) for seven years. It was there where he was introduced to other fields such as chemistry, metal working, leather working, carpentry, and mechanics. Da Vinci’s famous painting “The Baptism of Christ” was painted in Verrocchio’s workshop and was a collaboration between him and Verrocchio. Many historians believe that Leonardo was used as the model for Verrocchio’s statue “David”. In 1472, the 20-year-old Da Vinci was accepted into the painters guild of Florence and left to work independently in 1481. In 1482, Leonardo da Vinci moved to Milan where he lived until 1499 when the Second Italian War caused him to flee the city and move to Venice. It was in Milan that Leonardo worked on his most popular masterpieces including “The Last Supper” and “The Virgin of the Rocks.” He later moved back to his homeland of Florence where he shifted his concentration to his mathematical studies, although he also worked on several paintings such as the Mona Lisa. 3. Major Contributions Da Vinci made major contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, and the arts. He was also an influential inventor. He is famed with the painting of "Mona Lisa" which has been named the most famous painting of all time. He was also responsible for painting "the Last Supper" which is by far the most reproduced religious painting in history. He made deep investigations in topics such as zoology, botany, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, geology, optics, human anatomy, and flight. Da Vinci made unique and innovative sketches of machines that were not available in his lifetime until hundreds of years later like the parachute, helicopters, underwater breathing apparatus, airplanes, and army tanks. He contributed to the design of weapons and his ideas of canals, steam powered cannons, and water wheels were astounding. Other contributions include sculpture, engineering, architecture, mathematics, literature, history, writing, and cartography. Da Vinci lived in a period where the Roman Catholic Church’s power was in its prime, and the Pope held more authority than the King, a fact which meant that Leonardo da Vinci could have been charged with heresy if any of his works were deemed to contravene Christian doctrines. That fear prevented him from applying several of his theories which he wrote down in semi codes. Da Vinci also had experienced family disputes with his half-siblings over the inheritance of the father’s property. 1. Death and Legacy In his sunset years, Leonardo da Vinci lived in the Belvedere under the patronage of Pope Leo X and became a close friend of King Francis I. The king granted Leonardo residence in Clos Luce, a manor house near the royal Chateau d’Amboise. Leonardo da Vinci died in the manor house on May 2, 1519. Leonardo da Vinci is credited as being one of the key figures of the Renaissance Movement of the 16th century, and many of his theories have been used in modern technology such as the design of the battle tank as well as the helicopter. Many of his studies in the human anatomy were employed in the medical field several centuries after his death. Who Was Leonardo da Vinci? Leonardo da Vinci was an ordinary man from Italy who possessed the extraordinary ability to grasp knowledge in numerous fields. He was a painter, architect, botanist, mathematician, inventor, engineer, sculptor, writer, geologist, an all-around genius. Several of his pieces of art are priceless and critically acclaimed including the Mona Lisa. About the Author Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,062	ENGLISH	1
The Yakan have no compact villages; the houses are scattered among the fields, and there are vegetables and fruit trees around the house. Usually it is difficult to see where one settlement ends and the next begins. The center of the community is the mosque ( langgal ), which is a simple building. The houses are rectangular pile dwellings housing nuclear families. The traditional house has a steep thatched roof, although today corrugated iron is also used. The walls are made of either plaited reed or bamboo, or of wooden boards; the floor may be of bamboo, but is more often of timber. Usually the house has only one big room with no special quarters for the women. To the house is joined a kitchen. The house is entered through a porch, which is an important part of the house. The inhabitants of a settlement may be related, but it is not the rule. Some changes have recently taken place. Though houses may still be scattered, this is no longer the case everywhere. Some people now build closer to one another, which was formerly done rarely and only when the occupants of the houses were closely related. Also, some who can afford to do so now build better, more modern houses.	<urn:uuid:29acfa6c-f6a3-486d-9a1e-4976b1b0563a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Yakan-Settlements.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00368.warc.gz	en	0.982194	245	3.34375	3	[ 0.20416603982448578, -0.02126181498169899, 0.5547399520874023, 0.13957250118255615, 0.36217546463012695, -0.18498729169368744, -0.16115781664848328, -0.2930927574634552, -0.1863497644662857, -0.03684240207076073, 0.06259506195783615, -0.3652370572090149, 0.07067014276981354, 0.234072566032...	2	The Yakan have no compact villages; the houses are scattered among the fields, and there are vegetables and fruit trees around the house. Usually it is difficult to see where one settlement ends and the next begins. The center of the community is the mosque ( langgal ), which is a simple building. The houses are rectangular pile dwellings housing nuclear families. The traditional house has a steep thatched roof, although today corrugated iron is also used. The walls are made of either plaited reed or bamboo, or of wooden boards; the floor may be of bamboo, but is more often of timber. Usually the house has only one big room with no special quarters for the women. To the house is joined a kitchen. The house is entered through a porch, which is an important part of the house. The inhabitants of a settlement may be related, but it is not the rule. Some changes have recently taken place. Though houses may still be scattered, this is no longer the case everywhere. Some people now build closer to one another, which was formerly done rarely and only when the occupants of the houses were closely related. Also, some who can afford to do so now build better, more modern houses.	246	ENGLISH	1
William Wallace was a Scottish knight who was a central figure in the Wars of Scottish Independence. Regarded as one of Scotland’s greatest national heroes, he led the Scottish resistance forces during the early years of Scotland’s struggle for independence from English rule. Wallace grew up during the reign of King Alexander III of Scotland which was marked by peace and economic stability. But, chaos regarding the inheritance of the throne ensued after the king’s untimely death before John Balliol was named the king. However, King Edward I of England deposed and imprisoned the Scottish king and declared himself the ruler of Scotland. The citizens started resisting the rule of the English king and William Wallace gathered a group of men and burned the Scottish town of Lanark and killed its English sheriff. He then recruited a bigger army and began attacking the English forces, emerging as one of the main leaders during the Wars of Scottish Independence. Along with Andrew Moray, Wallace defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297. In this battle, Wallace’s forces were greatly outnumbered by the English armies, yet he managed to achieve a resounding victory. Appointed the Guardian of Scotland, he fought the English with great valor till the very end when he was captured and executed brutally on charges of high treason. - William Wallace was born circa 1270 in Elderslie, Renfrewshire, Scotland, as a member of the lesser nobility. Not much is known about his parentage or place of birth. Some sources state that his father was Sir Malcolm of Elderslie while William’s own seal gives his father’s name as Alan Wallace. It is however known from certain other sources that he had two brothers called Malcolm and John.There are records that claim that members of Wallace’s family held estates at Riccarton, Tarbolton, and Auchincruive in Kyle, and Stenton in East Lothian, and were vassals of James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland.Wallace grew up during the reign of King Alexander III of Scotland which was a period of peace and economic stability. The king, however, died in a horse riding accident on 19 March 1286. The heir to the throne was Alexander's granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway, who was still a child. Thus the Scottish lords set up a government of guardians to rule on her behalf until she came of age.Four years later, Margaret fell ill on the voyage to Scotland and died in Orkney on 26 September 1290. This left Scotland without a direct heir to the throne and several families laid claim to the throne.A period of chaos ensued and it was feared that Scotland would enter into civil war. The Scottish nobility invited King Edward I of England to arbitrate. Edward first proclaimed himself the Lord Paramount of Scotland and insisted that all contenders recognize him. Finally in November 1292, a feudal court was held in the castle at Berwick-upon-Tweed and it was adjudged that John Balliol had the strongest claim in law to the throne and thus he was made the king.John, however, proved to be a weak king and gained the ignominious names of "Toom Tabard" or "Empty Coat". Making use of the opportunity, King Edward I stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1296 and went on to defeat the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar in East Lothian. He then forced John to abdicate the throne and took over the control of Scotland in his hands and declared himself ruler of Scotland.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Military Campaigns - Many of the Scottish citizens were unhappy with this development and people protested against the English rule sporadically. In May 1297, William Wallace gathered a group of around 30 men and burned the Scottish town of Lanark, killing William de Heselrig, the English High Sheriff of Lanark.He then joined William the Hardy, Lord of Douglas, and they carried out the raid of Scone. At that time, several rebellions were taking place in Scotland, including the ones led by Andrew Moray in the North.Wallace and Moray, who each led separate rebellions in the beginning met and combined their forces. Together they led an army in September 1297 and faced English army under John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, at the Forth near Stirling.The English army, with 3,000 cavalry and 8,000 to 10,000 infantrymen vastly outnumbered the Scottish forces. However, the shrewd Scottish leader came up with a plan to outwit the English. To reach the Scottish forces, the English would have to first cross over to the north side of the river Forth using a narrow bridge.The bridge was so narrow that only a few men could cross it at a time. Keeping this detail in mind, Wallace and Moray placed the Scottish forces strategically, and let about half of the English soldiers cross over, giving the English the false impression that it was safe to cross over the bridge.The English fell into this trap, and as soon as the latter half of the soldiers began crossing, the Scots attacked them quickly and killed them as soon as they crossed. One of Wallace’s captains led a valiant charge that forced some of the English soldiers to retreat as others pushed forward on the bridge. The bridge gave way under the overwhelming weight of the English soldiers and many of them drowned in the river below. Thus Wallace and Moray were able to secure a resounding victory for Scotland.This victory over the English boosted the morale of the citizens involved in Scotland’s struggle for independence. The humiliating defeat of the English forces ensured that Scotland was nearly free of occupying English armies for a while.After the battle, both Moray and Wallace were given the title of Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland on behalf of King John Balliol. The brave Moray however died of the wounds suffered on the battlefield in late 1297.Around November 1297, Wallace invaded northern England and ravaged Northumberland and Cumberland counties. He was known for his brutality towards the English and he reportedly skinned a dead English soldier and kept his skin as a trophy.Continue Reading BelowTowards the end of the year, Wallace was knighted in a ceremony, at the 'Kirk o' the Forest'.Wallace’s victories over the English revealed a lot about his moral character. The opportunistic tactics employed by Wallace greatly departed from the contemporary views on chivalric warfare which were characterized by strength of arms and knightly combat. Following their defeat, the English’s contempt for Wallace grew manifold.Seething from his disgraceful defeat at the hands of the Scots, Edward was not someone to give up so easily and he ordered a second invasion of Scotland in April 1298. He reportedly had more than 25,000 foot soldiers, more than half of them Welsh, and roughly around 1500 horses under his command.The English armies stormed into Lothian, plundered the region and managed to recapture some castles. All this while Wallace failed to enter the battle. The Scots at first tried to shadow the English army, intending to avoid battle until the English were forced to withdraw their forces by themselves due to shortage of supplies and money. Wallace planned to attack the tired English forces after they were depleted of their resources.Meanwhile, the English’s supply fleet was delayed and by the time they reached central Scotland, the forces were tired, frustrated, and demoralized. Riots erupted within the English army and had to be put down by Edward’s cavalry. During this time, Edward received the news that Wallace and his men had taken up position near Falkirk, preparing to attack the English.The English proceeded to attack the scheming Scots and put the Scottish archers to flight. This time the English were in a strategically superior position and forced the Scottish cavalry to withdraw. Edward’s men fought aggressively in the battle and crushed the Scottish resistance, killing several of their major warriors. Wallace somehow managed to escape alive, but his military reputation was ruined forever. Following this inglorious defeat, Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland.The details regarding Wallace’s whereabouts over the next few years are obscure. Some sources suggest that he went to France to request King Philip IV to send French support for Scotland’s rebellion. It is also said that that Wallace may have intended to travel to Rome, although it is not known if he did.By 1304 most of the Scottish leaders had submitted before Edward and had accepted him as their king. Edward meanwhile continued to pursue Wallace relentlessly. Wallace was back in Scotland by 1304 and successfully evaded arrest for a while. He was finally arrested on 5 August 1305 and was taken to Westminster Hall, where he was tried for treason and for atrocities against civilians in war.Recommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Major Battles - William Wallace, along with Andrew Moray led the Scottish forces in the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297 against the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham. The Scots were able to defeat the English in spite of being vastly outnumbered and this victory proved to be an important milestone in Scotland’s struggle for independence against English rule.The Battle of Falkirk was another major battle Wallace fought in. When the English army led by Edward stormed into Scotland, Wallace planned to shadow the English until their resources were depleted and then launch his attack. His plan, however, backfired and the English gained a strategic advantage in the battle and proceeded to defeat the Scots.Personal Life & Legacy - It is not known for sure if William Wallace ever married or not though some sources state that he was married to a lady called Marion Braidfute.After his arrest by the English, Wallace was put on trial for high treason and brutally executed on 23 August 1305. He was first stripped naked and dragged through the city at the heels of a horse. Then he was strangled by hanging, but released before he died so that further tortures could be inflicted upon him. His stomach was cut open; the bowels pulled out and burned before his eyes. Finally he was beheaded and chopped into four pieces.After his gruesome death, his head was dipped in tar and placed on a pike atop London Bridge. His supreme sacrifice for his country however was not in vain as Scotland was able to achieve independence a few years later.He is regarded a prominent national hero in Scotland and in 1869 the Wallace Monument was erected, very close to the site of his victory at Stirling Bridge. How To CiteArticle Title- William Wallace BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/william-wallace-203.phpLast Updated- March 29, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:4248e8b0-4519-4f83-a9f9-02d9f9ac3690>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/william-wallace-203.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00452.warc.gz	en	0.983911	2,241	3.625	4	[ -0.33984634280204773, 0.20318634808063507, 0.17220240831375122, -0.07287827134132385, -0.30698931217193604, -0.5484058856964111, 0.12469930946826935, -0.09409504383802414, -0.05812607705593109, 0.13388478755950928, 0.0719253197312355, -0.3675391674041748, 0.18941499292850494, -0.2131706476...	1	William Wallace was a Scottish knight who was a central figure in the Wars of Scottish Independence. Regarded as one of Scotland’s greatest national heroes, he led the Scottish resistance forces during the early years of Scotland’s struggle for independence from English rule. Wallace grew up during the reign of King Alexander III of Scotland which was marked by peace and economic stability. But, chaos regarding the inheritance of the throne ensued after the king’s untimely death before John Balliol was named the king. However, King Edward I of England deposed and imprisoned the Scottish king and declared himself the ruler of Scotland. The citizens started resisting the rule of the English king and William Wallace gathered a group of men and burned the Scottish town of Lanark and killed its English sheriff. He then recruited a bigger army and began attacking the English forces, emerging as one of the main leaders during the Wars of Scottish Independence. Along with Andrew Moray, Wallace defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge in September 1297. In this battle, Wallace’s forces were greatly outnumbered by the English armies, yet he managed to achieve a resounding victory. Appointed the Guardian of Scotland, he fought the English with great valor till the very end when he was captured and executed brutally on charges of high treason. - William Wallace was born circa 1270 in Elderslie, Renfrewshire, Scotland, as a member of the lesser nobility. Not much is known about his parentage or place of birth. Some sources state that his father was Sir Malcolm of Elderslie while William’s own seal gives his father’s name as Alan Wallace. It is however known from certain other sources that he had two brothers called Malcolm and John.There are records that claim that members of Wallace’s family held estates at Riccarton, Tarbolton, and Auchincruive in Kyle, and Stenton in East Lothian, and were vassals of James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland.Wallace grew up during the reign of King Alexander III of Scotland which was a period of peace and economic stability. The king, however, died in a horse riding accident on 19 March 1286. The heir to the throne was Alexander's granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway, who was still a child. Thus the Scottish lords set up a government of guardians to rule on her behalf until she came of age.Four years later, Margaret fell ill on the voyage to Scotland and died in Orkney on 26 September 1290. This left Scotland without a direct heir to the throne and several families laid claim to the throne.A period of chaos ensued and it was feared that Scotland would enter into civil war. The Scottish nobility invited King Edward I of England to arbitrate. Edward first proclaimed himself the Lord Paramount of Scotland and insisted that all contenders recognize him. Finally in November 1292, a feudal court was held in the castle at Berwick-upon-Tweed and it was adjudged that John Balliol had the strongest claim in law to the throne and thus he was made the king.John, however, proved to be a weak king and gained the ignominious names of "Toom Tabard" or "Empty Coat". Making use of the opportunity, King Edward I stormed Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1296 and went on to defeat the Scots at the Battle of Dunbar in East Lothian. He then forced John to abdicate the throne and took over the control of Scotland in his hands and declared himself ruler of Scotland.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Military Campaigns - Many of the Scottish citizens were unhappy with this development and people protested against the English rule sporadically. In May 1297, William Wallace gathered a group of around 30 men and burned the Scottish town of Lanark, killing William de Heselrig, the English High Sheriff of Lanark.He then joined William the Hardy, Lord of Douglas, and they carried out the raid of Scone. At that time, several rebellions were taking place in Scotland, including the ones led by Andrew Moray in the North.Wallace and Moray, who each led separate rebellions in the beginning met and combined their forces. Together they led an army in September 1297 and faced English army under John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, at the Forth near Stirling.The English army, with 3,000 cavalry and 8,000 to 10,000 infantrymen vastly outnumbered the Scottish forces. However, the shrewd Scottish leader came up with a plan to outwit the English. To reach the Scottish forces, the English would have to first cross over to the north side of the river Forth using a narrow bridge.The bridge was so narrow that only a few men could cross it at a time. Keeping this detail in mind, Wallace and Moray placed the Scottish forces strategically, and let about half of the English soldiers cross over, giving the English the false impression that it was safe to cross over the bridge.The English fell into this trap, and as soon as the latter half of the soldiers began crossing, the Scots attacked them quickly and killed them as soon as they crossed. One of Wallace’s captains led a valiant charge that forced some of the English soldiers to retreat as others pushed forward on the bridge. The bridge gave way under the overwhelming weight of the English soldiers and many of them drowned in the river below. Thus Wallace and Moray were able to secure a resounding victory for Scotland.This victory over the English boosted the morale of the citizens involved in Scotland’s struggle for independence. The humiliating defeat of the English forces ensured that Scotland was nearly free of occupying English armies for a while.After the battle, both Moray and Wallace were given the title of Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland on behalf of King John Balliol. The brave Moray however died of the wounds suffered on the battlefield in late 1297.Around November 1297, Wallace invaded northern England and ravaged Northumberland and Cumberland counties. He was known for his brutality towards the English and he reportedly skinned a dead English soldier and kept his skin as a trophy.Continue Reading BelowTowards the end of the year, Wallace was knighted in a ceremony, at the 'Kirk o' the Forest'.Wallace’s victories over the English revealed a lot about his moral character. The opportunistic tactics employed by Wallace greatly departed from the contemporary views on chivalric warfare which were characterized by strength of arms and knightly combat. Following their defeat, the English’s contempt for Wallace grew manifold.Seething from his disgraceful defeat at the hands of the Scots, Edward was not someone to give up so easily and he ordered a second invasion of Scotland in April 1298. He reportedly had more than 25,000 foot soldiers, more than half of them Welsh, and roughly around 1500 horses under his command.The English armies stormed into Lothian, plundered the region and managed to recapture some castles. All this while Wallace failed to enter the battle. The Scots at first tried to shadow the English army, intending to avoid battle until the English were forced to withdraw their forces by themselves due to shortage of supplies and money. Wallace planned to attack the tired English forces after they were depleted of their resources.Meanwhile, the English’s supply fleet was delayed and by the time they reached central Scotland, the forces were tired, frustrated, and demoralized. Riots erupted within the English army and had to be put down by Edward’s cavalry. During this time, Edward received the news that Wallace and his men had taken up position near Falkirk, preparing to attack the English.The English proceeded to attack the scheming Scots and put the Scottish archers to flight. This time the English were in a strategically superior position and forced the Scottish cavalry to withdraw. Edward’s men fought aggressively in the battle and crushed the Scottish resistance, killing several of their major warriors. Wallace somehow managed to escape alive, but his military reputation was ruined forever. Following this inglorious defeat, Wallace resigned as Guardian of Scotland.The details regarding Wallace’s whereabouts over the next few years are obscure. Some sources suggest that he went to France to request King Philip IV to send French support for Scotland’s rebellion. It is also said that that Wallace may have intended to travel to Rome, although it is not known if he did.By 1304 most of the Scottish leaders had submitted before Edward and had accepted him as their king. Edward meanwhile continued to pursue Wallace relentlessly. Wallace was back in Scotland by 1304 and successfully evaded arrest for a while. He was finally arrested on 5 August 1305 and was taken to Westminster Hall, where he was tried for treason and for atrocities against civilians in war.Recommended Lists: Recommended Lists:Major Battles - William Wallace, along with Andrew Moray led the Scottish forces in the Battle of Stirling Bridge in 1297 against the combined English forces of John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey, and Hugh de Cressingham. The Scots were able to defeat the English in spite of being vastly outnumbered and this victory proved to be an important milestone in Scotland’s struggle for independence against English rule.The Battle of Falkirk was another major battle Wallace fought in. When the English army led by Edward stormed into Scotland, Wallace planned to shadow the English until their resources were depleted and then launch his attack. His plan, however, backfired and the English gained a strategic advantage in the battle and proceeded to defeat the Scots.Personal Life & Legacy - It is not known for sure if William Wallace ever married or not though some sources state that he was married to a lady called Marion Braidfute.After his arrest by the English, Wallace was put on trial for high treason and brutally executed on 23 August 1305. He was first stripped naked and dragged through the city at the heels of a horse. Then he was strangled by hanging, but released before he died so that further tortures could be inflicted upon him. His stomach was cut open; the bowels pulled out and burned before his eyes. Finally he was beheaded and chopped into four pieces.After his gruesome death, his head was dipped in tar and placed on a pike atop London Bridge. His supreme sacrifice for his country however was not in vain as Scotland was able to achieve independence a few years later.He is regarded a prominent national hero in Scotland and in 1869 the Wallace Monument was erected, very close to the site of his victory at Stirling Bridge. How To CiteArticle Title- William Wallace BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/william-wallace-203.phpLast Updated- March 29, 2017 People Also Viewed	2,272	ENGLISH	1
\|Born:\|\|January 9, 1959 (age 61)\| \|Career:\|\|Guatemalan indigenous rights activist, author\| Rigoberta Menchú has been a passionate spokesperson for the rights of indigenous peoples. She won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 for her work on behalf of the indigenous groups of Guatemala, her native country. However, her work has made her a leading voice for the rights of indigenous peoples throughout the Western Hemisphere. Rigoberta Menchú was born on January 9, 1959, in Chimel, a village in the Quiché province in the mountainous northwest region of Guatemala. Menchú started working on southern coastal cotton and coffee plantations when she was eight, and at age 13, she experienced her first close contact with people of Spanish culture when she worked as a maid for a wealthy family in Guatemala City. At this time, Menchú also experienced discrimination against Indians practiced by Latinos. Her employers made her sleep on the floor, on a mat next to the family dog. Menchú's political beliefs were shaped by Guatemala's troubled history. In 1954, a left-wing civilian president was removed from power by a coup d'état that was supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. After this coup, the country was ruled by military officers. When a guerrilla movement opposed to the military rulers began in 1962, the government responded violently. They arrested and killed not only the guerrillas, but also those who supported them or were believed to support them, especially in the countryside. Political violence began again in the 1970s, when government pressure was applied so widely and harshly that U.S. president Jimmy Carter halted economic aid to Guatemala after repeated warnings to the government to stop human rights violations. Guatemala's Indians, who made up 60 percent of the population, were forced to move into "model villages" and to serve in the military. In this environment, movements to benefit the conditions of Indians were viewed as part of a communist plot by the government. Menchú became politically active, inspired in part by her religious beliefs. Like many others in Central America, she was influenced by Liberation Theology, a movement that believes the Bible should be read through the eyes of the poor, and that Jesus Christ had a special message of freedom for poor people. Another important influence was Menchú's father, Vicente, who was active in the Peasant Unity Committee, a group that fought to obtain land for peasants and to protect the land they held from being seized by wealthy landowners. Rigoberta Menchú joined the committee in 1979, and was asked to organize the country's 22 Indian groups against exploitation. Later that year, her teenage brother was tortured and then killed by the army. The following year she lost her father when he, along with other representatives of indigenous groups, occupied the Spanish embassy in Guatemala City as part of a protest activity. The army attacked the embassy and burned it, killing 39 people, including Menchú's father. The next year Menchú's mother was kidnapped, tortured, and killed by the Guatemalan army, and two of her sisters joined the guerrillas. Life in Guatemala had become too dangerous, and Menchú fled to Mexico in 1981. There she began an international crusade to represent the hardships of the Guatemalan Indians and joined the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations. In 1983, while Menchú was in Paris to promote her cause, she dictated her life story to Elizabeth Burgos. The result was the widely read book "I, Rigoberta Menchú: An Indian Woman in Guatemala," which was translated into more than a dozen languages. It brought her worldwide attention and helped her to become the foremost spokesperson for indigenous peoples. In 1988, Menchú's first attempt to return to Guatemala ended badly when she was threatened and put in jail. However, she later visited her country again for short periods of time. In October of 1992, when Menchú was 33, she learned she would be given the Nobel Peace Prize for her work on behalf of the rights of indigenous peoples. In June 1993, during a political crisis in Guatemala, Menchú played a key role in the events that brought to power a new president, Ramiro de León Carpio, a human rights advocate. International pressure also helped force the government to ease up on military violence and violation of people's rights, and in 1995, many refugees who had fled from Guatemala to Mexico began to return. The following year, the Guatemalan government and rebel leaders signed a cease-fire agreement to end their 42-year conflict, Latin America's longest civil war. It was a war that Menchú and her family had fought hard to end. Menchú's actions and statements have been considered controversial. Conservatives have accused her of being associated with communist groups, and the story of her life in her autobiography was questioned by journalist David Stoll in 1998. In his own book, "Rigoberta Menchú and the Story of All Poor Guatemalans," Stoll argued that Menchú had distorted key facts in her autobiography. In 2000, she filed charges in a Spanish court against several officials in Guatemala's former military governments, accusing them of genocide, torture, and state terrorism against some 200,000 people who had been killed in her country during the 1980s. Menchú has also been a vocal opponent of the effects of globalization, or the increasing dominance of multinational corporations in the world's economy. In early 2002, she was among the most celebrated speakers at the World Social Forum, a gathering of anti-globalization protesters in Brazil that was timed to coincide with the World Economic Forum, a meeting of politicians and corporate officers that was held at the same time in New York, New York. In 2006, she and five other Nobel laureates - Shirin Ebadi, Jody Williams, Wangari Maathai, Betty Williams, and Mairead Corrigan Maguire - created the Nobel Women's Initiative to promote peace, justice and equality for women.	<urn:uuid:97d0eb4b-9dfa-4d2c-a7bb-7bc3062f281b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://awpc.cattcenter.iastate.edu/directory/rigoberta-menchu/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00479.warc.gz	en	0.982864	1,243	3.6875	4	[ -0.42902672290802, 0.3330596089363098, 0.11628687381744385, 0.10857200622558594, 0.008181324228644371, 0.07626305520534515, 0.44720911979675293, 0.2506064176559448, -0.5300881266593933, -0.14992107450962067, 0.3281571567058563, 0.13481611013412476, 0.10355843603610992, 0.05783573538064957,...	5	\|Born:\|\|January 9, 1959 (age 61)\| \|Career:\|\|Guatemalan indigenous rights activist, author\| Rigoberta Menchú has been a passionate spokesperson for the rights of indigenous peoples. She won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 for her work on behalf of the indigenous groups of Guatemala, her native country. However, her work has made her a leading voice for the rights of indigenous peoples throughout the Western Hemisphere. Rigoberta Menchú was born on January 9, 1959, in Chimel, a village in the Quiché province in the mountainous northwest region of Guatemala. Menchú started working on southern coastal cotton and coffee plantations when she was eight, and at age 13, she experienced her first close contact with people of Spanish culture when she worked as a maid for a wealthy family in Guatemala City. At this time, Menchú also experienced discrimination against Indians practiced by Latinos. Her employers made her sleep on the floor, on a mat next to the family dog. Menchú's political beliefs were shaped by Guatemala's troubled history. In 1954, a left-wing civilian president was removed from power by a coup d'état that was supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. After this coup, the country was ruled by military officers. When a guerrilla movement opposed to the military rulers began in 1962, the government responded violently. They arrested and killed not only the guerrillas, but also those who supported them or were believed to support them, especially in the countryside. Political violence began again in the 1970s, when government pressure was applied so widely and harshly that U.S. president Jimmy Carter halted economic aid to Guatemala after repeated warnings to the government to stop human rights violations. Guatemala's Indians, who made up 60 percent of the population, were forced to move into "model villages" and to serve in the military. In this environment, movements to benefit the conditions of Indians were viewed as part of a communist plot by the government. Menchú became politically active, inspired in part by her religious beliefs. Like many others in Central America, she was influenced by Liberation Theology, a movement that believes the Bible should be read through the eyes of the poor, and that Jesus Christ had a special message of freedom for poor people. Another important influence was Menchú's father, Vicente, who was active in the Peasant Unity Committee, a group that fought to obtain land for peasants and to protect the land they held from being seized by wealthy landowners. Rigoberta Menchú joined the committee in 1979, and was asked to organize the country's 22 Indian groups against exploitation. Later that year, her teenage brother was tortured and then killed by the army. The following year she lost her father when he, along with other representatives of indigenous groups, occupied the Spanish embassy in Guatemala City as part of a protest activity. The army attacked the embassy and burned it, killing 39 people, including Menchú's father. The next year Menchú's mother was kidnapped, tortured, and killed by the Guatemalan army, and two of her sisters joined the guerrillas. Life in Guatemala had become too dangerous, and Menchú fled to Mexico in 1981. There she began an international crusade to represent the hardships of the Guatemalan Indians and joined the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations. In 1983, while Menchú was in Paris to promote her cause, she dictated her life story to Elizabeth Burgos. The result was the widely read book "I, Rigoberta Menchú: An Indian Woman in Guatemala," which was translated into more than a dozen languages. It brought her worldwide attention and helped her to become the foremost spokesperson for indigenous peoples. In 1988, Menchú's first attempt to return to Guatemala ended badly when she was threatened and put in jail. However, she later visited her country again for short periods of time. In October of 1992, when Menchú was 33, she learned she would be given the Nobel Peace Prize for her work on behalf of the rights of indigenous peoples. In June 1993, during a political crisis in Guatemala, Menchú played a key role in the events that brought to power a new president, Ramiro de León Carpio, a human rights advocate. International pressure also helped force the government to ease up on military violence and violation of people's rights, and in 1995, many refugees who had fled from Guatemala to Mexico began to return. The following year, the Guatemalan government and rebel leaders signed a cease-fire agreement to end their 42-year conflict, Latin America's longest civil war. It was a war that Menchú and her family had fought hard to end. Menchú's actions and statements have been considered controversial. Conservatives have accused her of being associated with communist groups, and the story of her life in her autobiography was questioned by journalist David Stoll in 1998. In his own book, "Rigoberta Menchú and the Story of All Poor Guatemalans," Stoll argued that Menchú had distorted key facts in her autobiography. In 2000, she filed charges in a Spanish court against several officials in Guatemala's former military governments, accusing them of genocide, torture, and state terrorism against some 200,000 people who had been killed in her country during the 1980s. Menchú has also been a vocal opponent of the effects of globalization, or the increasing dominance of multinational corporations in the world's economy. In early 2002, she was among the most celebrated speakers at the World Social Forum, a gathering of anti-globalization protesters in Brazil that was timed to coincide with the World Economic Forum, a meeting of politicians and corporate officers that was held at the same time in New York, New York. In 2006, she and five other Nobel laureates - Shirin Ebadi, Jody Williams, Wangari Maathai, Betty Williams, and Mairead Corrigan Maguire - created the Nobel Women's Initiative to promote peace, justice and equality for women.	1,323	ENGLISH	1
World War II was the most destructive five year span in world history, taking its toll in human lives and security: in “shelter, sleep, warmth, gentleness, mercy, political refuge, rational discussion, legal process, civil tradition, and public truth. Millions of people were gassed, shot, starved, and worked to death by a paranoid fanatic. The war’s victims felt as if they’d come to the end of civilization” (Baker, 8). The trigger for the declaration of war was caused by the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. Yet, this event did not arise from nothing; there were many signs of growing unrest within Germany and in the country’s dealings with other nations. The aftermath of World War I, Hitler as a driving leader and the lack of enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles are all contributing causes to the invasion of Poland. The aftermath of World War I is believed to be a direct cause of the Second World War. At the end of World War I, nations worldwide gathered to form a peace to settle the violent waters of war. The big three, France, Britain and the United States, were paramount in drawing up the Treaty of Versailles, the document that would cause so much havoc. Each of the three nations had positive and negative reactions to the treaty, with France believing that it was not harsh enough on Germany and the United Kingdom feeling that it was too hard. Germany stood defeated and was pushed to sign a punishing treaty to ensure peace and end the British blockade. The treaty demanded fierce monetary compensation for the cost of the war as well as other limitations on the country’s activity. The German military was limited to 100,000 and the navy was disbanded. The country forfeited lost Alsace-Lorraine, all her colonies and other land in Europe. The treaty also created unmilitarized zones which did not permit military occupancy. The worldwide depression that followed World War I hit Germany even harder as it struggled to make restitution. Citizens fondly remembered the pre-war years as prosperous and happy as they lived under autocratic rule. The post-war democracy was met with suffering and loss. Internal changes in the German government allowed the president and cabinet to bypass parliament (Baker, 36). These events led to a general unhappiness and growing unrest within Germany. Emerging as a leader in Germany was Adolf Hitler. Young, brash and full of ideas on what the proper place for Germany should be, he was appointed chancellor in January 1933. He assisted President Paul von Hindenburg in canceling political and civil liberties within Germany in February after a widely publicized arson. After the Nazi party was the majority, it passed the Enabling Act, transferring the powers of the legislation to the Hitler’s right wing cabinet. The KPD and SPD, the only remaining political opposition Hitler faced, were banned as he focused his efforts on internal threats. This period was know as the Night of the Long Knives. When President Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler appointed himself the Führer, the new dictator that replaced the dual offices of chancellor and president, and the Third Reich was created. He demanded that Germany’s military oath include a statement of total allegiance to Hitler. These events lead historians to believe that Hitler was building toward a war and that it was, in fact, his goal. As Hitler moved forward in achieving his goal, he began to ease his way into violating different articles of the Treaty of Versailles, growing increasingly bold. In March 1935, Germany began rearming her military, quickly building an imposing force. The only object from France and Britain was an official protest. The two countries were more concerned with the economic requirements than the military ones. Many people in the United Kingdom believed that Germany had been forced to pay too harsh a price for World War I. An agreement was signed that allowed Germany to begin building a navy just one-third the size of England’s. In March of 1936, Germany moved troops into Rhineland, part of the unmilitarized zone. Again, the treaty was not enforced, though Poland began to get uneasy, requesting to activate the Franco-Polish Military Alliance. After Italy united with Germany, Hitler invaded Austria without violence in 1938. Soon after he began thinking about the German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia. Though the Czech army was powerful and the country had an alliance with the USSR and France, Hitler was not concerned about the treaty or the threat moved into Czechoslovakia’s Sudentenland area and surrounded the rest of the country with occupied forces. After a lengthy political battle with Germany, Britain wanted to appease Hitler and did not object to Germany’s activity. Despite the Czech’s million-man army, the president gave in and the country was soon occupied by Hungary and Poland as well. It was not long before Germany held the entire Czech nation. Hitler was exacting to specified plan to achieve his objective of world domination. There is no single direct cause of the Polish invasion, but the many events leading up to it make it clear that the escalating tension made war unavoidable. The aftermath of World War I clearly began the unrest that would lead the people of a country to follow someone with such radical ideas. Hitler’s very nature and his calculated rise to power are what drove Germany to invade Poland; without him as their leader, it is doubtful that such an action would have taken place. In addition, the policy of appeasement generated compliance in European powers that should have objected to Germany’s actions. These are the three main causes for the invasion of Poland and starting World War I.	<urn:uuid:78e8e274-f554-480d-adbd-0b2f607099bc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bereavementpractitioners.org/essay-german-invasion-poland-1939/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00039.warc.gz	en	0.980305	1,161	4.375	4	[ -0.2869008183479309, 0.6248056888580322, 0.2253488302230835, -0.027592165395617485, 0.058909930288791656, 0.0898212343454361, -0.1341492384672165, 0.30108410120010376, 0.11783306300640106, -0.03730364888906479, 0.3407755494117737, -0.14103177189826965, 0.2969323992729187, 0.665609896183013...	1	World War II was the most destructive five year span in world history, taking its toll in human lives and security: in “shelter, sleep, warmth, gentleness, mercy, political refuge, rational discussion, legal process, civil tradition, and public truth. Millions of people were gassed, shot, starved, and worked to death by a paranoid fanatic. The war’s victims felt as if they’d come to the end of civilization” (Baker, 8). The trigger for the declaration of war was caused by the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. Yet, this event did not arise from nothing; there were many signs of growing unrest within Germany and in the country’s dealings with other nations. The aftermath of World War I, Hitler as a driving leader and the lack of enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles are all contributing causes to the invasion of Poland. The aftermath of World War I is believed to be a direct cause of the Second World War. At the end of World War I, nations worldwide gathered to form a peace to settle the violent waters of war. The big three, France, Britain and the United States, were paramount in drawing up the Treaty of Versailles, the document that would cause so much havoc. Each of the three nations had positive and negative reactions to the treaty, with France believing that it was not harsh enough on Germany and the United Kingdom feeling that it was too hard. Germany stood defeated and was pushed to sign a punishing treaty to ensure peace and end the British blockade. The treaty demanded fierce monetary compensation for the cost of the war as well as other limitations on the country’s activity. The German military was limited to 100,000 and the navy was disbanded. The country forfeited lost Alsace-Lorraine, all her colonies and other land in Europe. The treaty also created unmilitarized zones which did not permit military occupancy. The worldwide depression that followed World War I hit Germany even harder as it struggled to make restitution. Citizens fondly remembered the pre-war years as prosperous and happy as they lived under autocratic rule. The post-war democracy was met with suffering and loss. Internal changes in the German government allowed the president and cabinet to bypass parliament (Baker, 36). These events led to a general unhappiness and growing unrest within Germany. Emerging as a leader in Germany was Adolf Hitler. Young, brash and full of ideas on what the proper place for Germany should be, he was appointed chancellor in January 1933. He assisted President Paul von Hindenburg in canceling political and civil liberties within Germany in February after a widely publicized arson. After the Nazi party was the majority, it passed the Enabling Act, transferring the powers of the legislation to the Hitler’s right wing cabinet. The KPD and SPD, the only remaining political opposition Hitler faced, were banned as he focused his efforts on internal threats. This period was know as the Night of the Long Knives. When President Hindenburg died in 1934, Hitler appointed himself the Führer, the new dictator that replaced the dual offices of chancellor and president, and the Third Reich was created. He demanded that Germany’s military oath include a statement of total allegiance to Hitler. These events lead historians to believe that Hitler was building toward a war and that it was, in fact, his goal. As Hitler moved forward in achieving his goal, he began to ease his way into violating different articles of the Treaty of Versailles, growing increasingly bold. In March 1935, Germany began rearming her military, quickly building an imposing force. The only object from France and Britain was an official protest. The two countries were more concerned with the economic requirements than the military ones. Many people in the United Kingdom believed that Germany had been forced to pay too harsh a price for World War I. An agreement was signed that allowed Germany to begin building a navy just one-third the size of England’s. In March of 1936, Germany moved troops into Rhineland, part of the unmilitarized zone. Again, the treaty was not enforced, though Poland began to get uneasy, requesting to activate the Franco-Polish Military Alliance. After Italy united with Germany, Hitler invaded Austria without violence in 1938. Soon after he began thinking about the German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia. Though the Czech army was powerful and the country had an alliance with the USSR and France, Hitler was not concerned about the treaty or the threat moved into Czechoslovakia’s Sudentenland area and surrounded the rest of the country with occupied forces. After a lengthy political battle with Germany, Britain wanted to appease Hitler and did not object to Germany’s activity. Despite the Czech’s million-man army, the president gave in and the country was soon occupied by Hungary and Poland as well. It was not long before Germany held the entire Czech nation. Hitler was exacting to specified plan to achieve his objective of world domination. There is no single direct cause of the Polish invasion, but the many events leading up to it make it clear that the escalating tension made war unavoidable. The aftermath of World War I clearly began the unrest that would lead the people of a country to follow someone with such radical ideas. Hitler’s very nature and his calculated rise to power are what drove Germany to invade Poland; without him as their leader, it is doubtful that such an action would have taken place. In addition, the policy of appeasement generated compliance in European powers that should have objected to Germany’s actions. These are the three main causes for the invasion of Poland and starting World War I.	1,156	ENGLISH	1
The beginning of the Ottoman-British relations started at the beginning of the 1580s and lasted until 1914. We can say that the Ottoman-British relations had been practiced in almost every period. The Levant Company was one of an English chartered company formed in 1592. Its purpose was to regulate English trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Levant. The company remained its existence until it was supplanted in 1825. A member of the company was known as a Turkey Merchant. Its charter was approved by Elizabeth I of England as a result of the union between the Venice Company and the Turkey Company. The one was carrying agricultural products from Venice’s overseas empire and the other one was carrying silks and finished luxuries from the Ottoman Empire. There were many attempts to explain the merger as reflecting a regionalist approach to Mediterranean trade. There were some complex explanations of the Levant Company. The currant was very popular edible in both Tudor and Stuart England. It can be used in baked goods and also eaten fresh. It provided a valuable source of sweetness at this time because sugar was seen as a luxury. There were only two islands in Europe where currants be acquired but both of them were under the control of Venice. Currants began to be shipped in English during the Spanish embargo. Also, a monopoly was established over this trade by the Venice Company. The royal treasury was best served by this arrangement. Elizabeth was convinced that an open arrangement was more to her benefit. The Venice merchants seemed to be agreed with Elizabeth since they had been working out the charter priviliges. The currant trade was so much profitable. At the same time, the merchants of Turkey Company were confronting an opposite problem. According to the terms of their charter, they had to maintain an agent in Constantinople. He took on the functions, and financial obligations of an official ambassador. Whereas the Turkey trade itself might be quite profitable, the organization of that trade under a chartered company appeared unsustainable because of the corporate political obligations that attached. The legation in Constantinople was essential for the protection of English merchants trading in the Mediterranean, and also their trading priviliges within the Ottoman Empire. At a time when Spain wanted to hurl its whole military power against the shores of England, the expert negotiations of the Turkey Company ambassador prevented a peace between Ottoman and Spanish and also kept valuable Spanish ships bottled up in the Mediterranean.	<urn:uuid:7d37c197-b078-440b-98a7-a636c206759d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fridayessay.com/the-was-supplanted-in-1825-a-member-of-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00299.warc.gz	en	0.98803	482	3.828125	4	[ -0.03498926758766174, -0.2983013391494751, 0.40412506461143494, -0.132069930434227, -0.2584979236125946, -0.5031110644340515, 0.42387792468070984, 0.2024230659008026, 0.0847679153084755, -0.1280842423439026, -0.27371007204055786, -0.78813236951828, -0.11121349036693573, 0.39715903997421265...	1	The beginning of the Ottoman-British relations started at the beginning of the 1580s and lasted until 1914. We can say that the Ottoman-British relations had been practiced in almost every period. The Levant Company was one of an English chartered company formed in 1592. Its purpose was to regulate English trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Levant. The company remained its existence until it was supplanted in 1825. A member of the company was known as a Turkey Merchant. Its charter was approved by Elizabeth I of England as a result of the union between the Venice Company and the Turkey Company. The one was carrying agricultural products from Venice’s overseas empire and the other one was carrying silks and finished luxuries from the Ottoman Empire. There were many attempts to explain the merger as reflecting a regionalist approach to Mediterranean trade. There were some complex explanations of the Levant Company. The currant was very popular edible in both Tudor and Stuart England. It can be used in baked goods and also eaten fresh. It provided a valuable source of sweetness at this time because sugar was seen as a luxury. There were only two islands in Europe where currants be acquired but both of them were under the control of Venice. Currants began to be shipped in English during the Spanish embargo. Also, a monopoly was established over this trade by the Venice Company. The royal treasury was best served by this arrangement. Elizabeth was convinced that an open arrangement was more to her benefit. The Venice merchants seemed to be agreed with Elizabeth since they had been working out the charter priviliges. The currant trade was so much profitable. At the same time, the merchants of Turkey Company were confronting an opposite problem. According to the terms of their charter, they had to maintain an agent in Constantinople. He took on the functions, and financial obligations of an official ambassador. Whereas the Turkey trade itself might be quite profitable, the organization of that trade under a chartered company appeared unsustainable because of the corporate political obligations that attached. The legation in Constantinople was essential for the protection of English merchants trading in the Mediterranean, and also their trading priviliges within the Ottoman Empire. At a time when Spain wanted to hurl its whole military power against the shores of England, the expert negotiations of the Turkey Company ambassador prevented a peace between Ottoman and Spanish and also kept valuable Spanish ships bottled up in the Mediterranean.	498	ENGLISH	1
Tiberinus, the god of the river Tiber, helped Aeneas in his travel from Troy, suggesting to him that he land in Latium. Legend says Rome's founders, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, were abandoned in a basket on its waters, where they were rescued by a she-wolf, Lupa. Later the twins founded the Roman Kingdom on the shore of this river. It was considered one of the most important rivers in the whole kingdom. The Tiber was also fast flowing, even at the end. During ancient times, starting in the later reign of emperor Tiberius, criminals executed on Gemonian stairs were then tossed into the mouth of the Tiber, which was many kilometers southwest of Rome. The Tiber river is the third longest river in Italy, the river has achieved lasting fame as the main watercourse of the city of Rome, which was founded on the Eastern banks. Popularly called flavus, the blonde, in reference to the yellowish color of its water. Just as Rome was founded on the shores of the Tiber River, there is a similar river that has followed the Roman beliefs to Camp Jupiter, a training ground for Roman demigods. The river is called the 'Little Tiber' mentioned several times throughout the book. Percy and Annabeth have lunch on the Tiber.	<urn:uuid:3c57f93a-fc44-4b03-8167-e6fa4b3fd2de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://riordan.fandom.com/wiki/Tiber	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00145.warc.gz	en	0.987804	278	3.390625	3	[ 0.08149433135986328, 0.020022766664624214, 0.4506756067276001, 0.019586388021707535, -0.1456102430820465, -0.4907947778701782, 0.08411034196615219, 0.21824149787425995, -0.012427050620317459, -0.41281405091285706, 0.211131751537323, -0.618666410446167, -0.10851828008890152, 0.2432228773832...	2	Tiberinus, the god of the river Tiber, helped Aeneas in his travel from Troy, suggesting to him that he land in Latium. Legend says Rome's founders, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, were abandoned in a basket on its waters, where they were rescued by a she-wolf, Lupa. Later the twins founded the Roman Kingdom on the shore of this river. It was considered one of the most important rivers in the whole kingdom. The Tiber was also fast flowing, even at the end. During ancient times, starting in the later reign of emperor Tiberius, criminals executed on Gemonian stairs were then tossed into the mouth of the Tiber, which was many kilometers southwest of Rome. The Tiber river is the third longest river in Italy, the river has achieved lasting fame as the main watercourse of the city of Rome, which was founded on the Eastern banks. Popularly called flavus, the blonde, in reference to the yellowish color of its water. Just as Rome was founded on the shores of the Tiber River, there is a similar river that has followed the Roman beliefs to Camp Jupiter, a training ground for Roman demigods. The river is called the 'Little Tiber' mentioned several times throughout the book. Percy and Annabeth have lunch on the Tiber.	276	ENGLISH	1
When William conquered England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 he encountered many problems that needed to be solved in order to establish his control over the Country. He needed to reward those who helped him at Hastings to keep them loyal. He needed money to run the country but he had no idea how much wealth there was and who owned what. He also needed to have an army (which he couldn’t afford) in order to keep control of the Kingdom. Another thing was that he had to find ways of controlling the local areas as the English hated him and would oppose him. William the Conqueror was one of the most superior and heroic kings that England had ever seen. He became successful and powerful as he established tactics that were unique and very efficient. He was feared throughout the whole of England because of his violence and strong determination. The Feudal System One of William’s most efficient and dominant strategies was known as the feudal system .How did this help him keep control? This tactic consisted of four levels of hierarchy that made it very effective! First of all at the top of the feudal system was obviously the king, William himself as he was the most superior! Secondly were the Barons that owed allegiance to the king. William had brought about 200 barons with him from Normandy. He divided up the land in England between them. In return for the land they had been given by the King, the Barons had to swear fealty to the King. They had to serve on the royal council, pay rent and provide the King with Knights for his army when he demanded it. They also had to provide lodgings and food for the King and his court when they travelled around the country. The Barons kept as much of their land as they wished for their own use, then divided the rest among their Knights. Barons were very rich. Next were the knights that ensured that both the king and the barons were protected and safe from danger they were given some money to ensure that they stayed focused and on duty. Finally were the peasants. They owed allegiance to everyone that was above them in the feudal system. They fought in battle and ensured that everyone was well fed. They were given a little bit of land to farm. This is only one of the effective strategies that William had hidden up his sleeve! This is what made him successful. It was new to England and was effective and unbelievably efficient. William the Conqueror built many towering and sturdy castles throughout England. He built them near major towns, cities and rivers, however how did this ensure that he kept control? He built different types of castles ranging from strong stone castles to wooden motte and bailey castles! The motte and bailey castle was built on the highest bit of ground in the area. They could be built by about 50 men within 40 days. They were regarded as temporary castles; they were unique and well equipped. He built as many of these as possible in strategic positions e.g. harbours so that he could control a wide area and observe enemy activity. They consisted of two mounds that held a small community and a keep. The small community ensured that the motte and bailey had a high defence and that it was well equipped with soldiers. The Keep was mounted on top of a towering hill that was surrounded by a ditch. This made it difficult for enemies to gain control and ambush the Normans! Surrounding the keep and the community was a bailey a wooden fence that helps protect the keep and community this was often built by Saxons! Building castles played a major part of how William controlled the land. It was impossible for foes to gain control due to the castles that were built in tactical places! William learned from the battle of Hastings that whoever had the higher ground would have a higher chance of success! So he used this knowledge and built the castles on a hill so he would have the upper…	<urn:uuid:e1a672f7-bdaf-488a-8c00-3ce24e11aee1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Mr-Bob-Stewart-573943.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00068.warc.gz	en	0.995594	795	3.8125	4	[ -0.4228206276893616, 0.3855632543563843, 0.1789526492357254, -0.09993167221546173, -0.2154678851366043, -0.38848888874053955, 0.2943922281265259, -0.12154075503349304, 0.02076168730854988, 0.16791582107543945, -0.15560585260391235, -0.3409016728401184, 0.3268469274044037, 0.234300851821899...	1	When William conquered England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 he encountered many problems that needed to be solved in order to establish his control over the Country. He needed to reward those who helped him at Hastings to keep them loyal. He needed money to run the country but he had no idea how much wealth there was and who owned what. He also needed to have an army (which he couldn’t afford) in order to keep control of the Kingdom. Another thing was that he had to find ways of controlling the local areas as the English hated him and would oppose him. William the Conqueror was one of the most superior and heroic kings that England had ever seen. He became successful and powerful as he established tactics that were unique and very efficient. He was feared throughout the whole of England because of his violence and strong determination. The Feudal System One of William’s most efficient and dominant strategies was known as the feudal system .How did this help him keep control? This tactic consisted of four levels of hierarchy that made it very effective! First of all at the top of the feudal system was obviously the king, William himself as he was the most superior! Secondly were the Barons that owed allegiance to the king. William had brought about 200 barons with him from Normandy. He divided up the land in England between them. In return for the land they had been given by the King, the Barons had to swear fealty to the King. They had to serve on the royal council, pay rent and provide the King with Knights for his army when he demanded it. They also had to provide lodgings and food for the King and his court when they travelled around the country. The Barons kept as much of their land as they wished for their own use, then divided the rest among their Knights. Barons were very rich. Next were the knights that ensured that both the king and the barons were protected and safe from danger they were given some money to ensure that they stayed focused and on duty. Finally were the peasants. They owed allegiance to everyone that was above them in the feudal system. They fought in battle and ensured that everyone was well fed. They were given a little bit of land to farm. This is only one of the effective strategies that William had hidden up his sleeve! This is what made him successful. It was new to England and was effective and unbelievably efficient. William the Conqueror built many towering and sturdy castles throughout England. He built them near major towns, cities and rivers, however how did this ensure that he kept control? He built different types of castles ranging from strong stone castles to wooden motte and bailey castles! The motte and bailey castle was built on the highest bit of ground in the area. They could be built by about 50 men within 40 days. They were regarded as temporary castles; they were unique and well equipped. He built as many of these as possible in strategic positions e.g. harbours so that he could control a wide area and observe enemy activity. They consisted of two mounds that held a small community and a keep. The small community ensured that the motte and bailey had a high defence and that it was well equipped with soldiers. The Keep was mounted on top of a towering hill that was surrounded by a ditch. This made it difficult for enemies to gain control and ambush the Normans! Surrounding the keep and the community was a bailey a wooden fence that helps protect the keep and community this was often built by Saxons! Building castles played a major part of how William controlled the land. It was impossible for foes to gain control due to the castles that were built in tactical places! William learned from the battle of Hastings that whoever had the higher ground would have a higher chance of success! So he used this knowledge and built the castles on a hill so he would have the upper…	806	ENGLISH	1
A 17th-century shipwreck described as the "biggest discovery since the Mary Rose" is rotting so rapidly that it could disappear within five years. The remains of the ship, known simply as the Swash Channel Wreck, were preserved for centuries under the seabed in six metres of water off the Dorset coast. But now its ornately carved timbers, the earliest still in existence in Britain, are literally being eaten away. The sand that protected it has been shifted by changing currents and tides, leaving the 40m vessel's timbers exposed to bacteria and the tunnelling of aquatic shipworms. Tests on the timbers and artefacts trace the ship's history back to Europe in the early 1600s, where it was probably engaged in the beginnings of international trade with the Far East. A Bournemouth University marine archaeology team has been studying the wreck since 2006. But they are now so concerned at its deterioration that they have decided to raise and preserve part of the hull next month . David Payton, senior lecturer in marine archaeology at the university, said: "The damage there has increased dramatically since we first started studying it. It's a race – you've only got a certain amount of time before it's too late and there's no point. "It's been buried until now, but in the last four or five years it's become exposed. The longer the wreck is exposed, the more damaged it will be. If nothing were done within the next five years there'd be nothing left."	<urn:uuid:a12d3d98-a4e3-4852-b4f3-0607abc3aa14>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.oceantreasures.org/blog/do/tag/swash-channel-wreck/5/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00179.warc.gz	en	0.982077	318	3.296875	3	[ 0.02330724522471428, -0.0137750543653965, 0.6652970314025879, -0.45159345865249634, 0.07055317610502243, -0.2583574056625366, -0.542072057723999, 0.15601846575737, -0.04266003146767616, 0.03502502664923668, 0.20347720384597778, -0.5311423540115356, -0.23319076001644135, 0.1403455138206482,...	1	A 17th-century shipwreck described as the "biggest discovery since the Mary Rose" is rotting so rapidly that it could disappear within five years. The remains of the ship, known simply as the Swash Channel Wreck, were preserved for centuries under the seabed in six metres of water off the Dorset coast. But now its ornately carved timbers, the earliest still in existence in Britain, are literally being eaten away. The sand that protected it has been shifted by changing currents and tides, leaving the 40m vessel's timbers exposed to bacteria and the tunnelling of aquatic shipworms. Tests on the timbers and artefacts trace the ship's history back to Europe in the early 1600s, where it was probably engaged in the beginnings of international trade with the Far East. A Bournemouth University marine archaeology team has been studying the wreck since 2006. But they are now so concerned at its deterioration that they have decided to raise and preserve part of the hull next month . David Payton, senior lecturer in marine archaeology at the university, said: "The damage there has increased dramatically since we first started studying it. It's a race – you've only got a certain amount of time before it's too late and there's no point. "It's been buried until now, but in the last four or five years it's become exposed. The longer the wreck is exposed, the more damaged it will be. If nothing were done within the next five years there'd be nothing left."	321	ENGLISH	1
During the war years there was a need for something safer than our houses, shelters that could better stand up to the heavy bombing raids, The house walls may of been strong but the roof was the weakest point and stood no chance against dropping bombs. Many houses with gardens built Anderson shelters, a curved corrugated iron sheet that was partly buried and covered with earth or sand bags. But many London homes did not have gardens, and if there was no basement the only protection was to sit under a strong table, sit under the stairs or using a Morrison shelter, a large iron cage that resembled a Rabbit hutch. So in some towns communal shelters were built, some of these were just piles of sand bags. but some were purpose built out of stone or brick and suitably located depending on size to provide shelter for several houses. In areas with higher population due to multi-floor housing or offices, Brick Communal Shelters as shown above were built in the street, or large underground structures and railway arches were converted into bomb shelters that could house even more during a raid. In London and other big cities that had a tube railway system, the stations were eventually opened up at night when the tube trains stopped work and the station platforms used as bomb shelters by hundreds of residents. Along the station walls wooden or metal frames were built to create bunk beds, sometimes 3 or 4 high, Some stations were so packed that sheets and blankets were made into hammocks and were strung across the actual railway tracks to provide more sleeping room. The underground tunnels and stations were also used as makeshift factories. In the City of London however, one of the stations which would of been used as a bomb shelter was required to remain open through the night to enable the running of trains transporting urgent supplies to rebuild London after the intense bombings. The platforms at Chancery Lane were needed to unload these building supplies from the trains, and this severley reduced the provision of air raid safety for those in that area, so during the war the Government decided to build a special 'Deep Shelter' for those in the vicinity to use. There were a few of these style shelters built across London. 31 - 33 High Holborn These 'Deep Shelters' built below the existing underground railways tunnels were to originally house 12,000 people. They were designed as a small city, supplied with their own water supplies, canteens, power generation and air filtration systems. The tunnels were lined with thousands of bunks. 1040 places were reserved for government officials The army was assigned to prevent others from trying to enter. Apart from being used as a air-raid facility, the complex was also used to store Government documents, Following the second world war it was used as the Public Records Office and the bunks which lined the walls of the tubes were used as shelving to house over 400 tons of documents which dated back to the Doomsday Book, and which eventually exceeded capacity of the complex and had to be moved and stored in other locations in Kent. Due to the high risk of communication failure if the telephone system and above ground communication buildings came under attack, the Post Office moved all their vital switchgear and exchange equipment into the tunnels More details about the Kingsway Tunnels can be found at the following website There are other Deep Level Shelters scattered across London No I don't think so. If you have already read my account of entering a secretive tunnel whilst I was a London Ambulanceman in the 80's then I am sure you will understand my doubts, if not then take a look at 'London Secret Tunnel - Kingsway' to understand. For one there is no Road access or ramp from the Kingsway into the Chancery Lane Deep Shelter, There were goods lifts but generally the site was accessed by steep steps sealed with airtight doors. The tunnels although long are not that high, certainly not high enough to drive an ambulance through. The tunnels do not open out into a very large area the size of a football pitch. If you look at the map of the Deep Underground Shelter above, and then compare this with the map of local roads using Google Earth or Multimap you can see that they are located within easy tunnelling reach of the Kingsway Tram Underpass, although the tram tunnels especially the entrance slope are similar, again there is no large area underground that matches. Maybe it was a combination of the two ? Maybe since the War years these two have been secretly linked together to provide vehicle access. but I don't think so, somebody would of recorded it and discussed the changes by now. And it still does not match what I saw! Maybe as more and more of these previously 'Secret' establishments are declassified we will learn more about what lies under London!	<urn:uuid:d71f16bd-a37c-4747-b906-f0786f0dc8e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://psm4u.co.uk/chancerylane.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00264.warc.gz	en	0.983655	981	3.78125	4	[ -0.1001623272895813, -0.08090926706790924, 0.44675782322883606, 0.02730504795908928, 0.33755213022232056, 0.0691685676574707, -0.29949018359184265, -0.158899188041687, -0.15779009461402893, 0.009869524277746677, -0.04829025641083717, -0.21224454045295715, 0.045646004378795624, 0.3822478353...	2	During the war years there was a need for something safer than our houses, shelters that could better stand up to the heavy bombing raids, The house walls may of been strong but the roof was the weakest point and stood no chance against dropping bombs. Many houses with gardens built Anderson shelters, a curved corrugated iron sheet that was partly buried and covered with earth or sand bags. But many London homes did not have gardens, and if there was no basement the only protection was to sit under a strong table, sit under the stairs or using a Morrison shelter, a large iron cage that resembled a Rabbit hutch. So in some towns communal shelters were built, some of these were just piles of sand bags. but some were purpose built out of stone or brick and suitably located depending on size to provide shelter for several houses. In areas with higher population due to multi-floor housing or offices, Brick Communal Shelters as shown above were built in the street, or large underground structures and railway arches were converted into bomb shelters that could house even more during a raid. In London and other big cities that had a tube railway system, the stations were eventually opened up at night when the tube trains stopped work and the station platforms used as bomb shelters by hundreds of residents. Along the station walls wooden or metal frames were built to create bunk beds, sometimes 3 or 4 high, Some stations were so packed that sheets and blankets were made into hammocks and were strung across the actual railway tracks to provide more sleeping room. The underground tunnels and stations were also used as makeshift factories. In the City of London however, one of the stations which would of been used as a bomb shelter was required to remain open through the night to enable the running of trains transporting urgent supplies to rebuild London after the intense bombings. The platforms at Chancery Lane were needed to unload these building supplies from the trains, and this severley reduced the provision of air raid safety for those in that area, so during the war the Government decided to build a special 'Deep Shelter' for those in the vicinity to use. There were a few of these style shelters built across London. 31 - 33 High Holborn These 'Deep Shelters' built below the existing underground railways tunnels were to originally house 12,000 people. They were designed as a small city, supplied with their own water supplies, canteens, power generation and air filtration systems. The tunnels were lined with thousands of bunks. 1040 places were reserved for government officials The army was assigned to prevent others from trying to enter. Apart from being used as a air-raid facility, the complex was also used to store Government documents, Following the second world war it was used as the Public Records Office and the bunks which lined the walls of the tubes were used as shelving to house over 400 tons of documents which dated back to the Doomsday Book, and which eventually exceeded capacity of the complex and had to be moved and stored in other locations in Kent. Due to the high risk of communication failure if the telephone system and above ground communication buildings came under attack, the Post Office moved all their vital switchgear and exchange equipment into the tunnels More details about the Kingsway Tunnels can be found at the following website There are other Deep Level Shelters scattered across London No I don't think so. If you have already read my account of entering a secretive tunnel whilst I was a London Ambulanceman in the 80's then I am sure you will understand my doubts, if not then take a look at 'London Secret Tunnel - Kingsway' to understand. For one there is no Road access or ramp from the Kingsway into the Chancery Lane Deep Shelter, There were goods lifts but generally the site was accessed by steep steps sealed with airtight doors. The tunnels although long are not that high, certainly not high enough to drive an ambulance through. The tunnels do not open out into a very large area the size of a football pitch. If you look at the map of the Deep Underground Shelter above, and then compare this with the map of local roads using Google Earth or Multimap you can see that they are located within easy tunnelling reach of the Kingsway Tram Underpass, although the tram tunnels especially the entrance slope are similar, again there is no large area underground that matches. Maybe it was a combination of the two ? Maybe since the War years these two have been secretly linked together to provide vehicle access. but I don't think so, somebody would of recorded it and discussed the changes by now. And it still does not match what I saw! Maybe as more and more of these previously 'Secret' establishments are declassified we will learn more about what lies under London!	978	ENGLISH	1
One of the challenges of teaching is finding the right books and materials to address specific instructional goals. Once a teacher has found the perfect book to help his or her students understand a literary element, practice a comprehension strategy, or tie into a thematic unit, it becomes part of his permanent teaching repertoire. However, one problem with these “perfect books” is that they are often not accessible to the struggling readers in the class. This is yet another way that these students might be missing out on instructional opportunities. A solution to this problem is to continue the search even after the perfect book has been found. Find two or three more perfect books, so that all of the students in your class have access to an appropriate text. A sixth-grade teacher, Peter, looks forward to National Poetry Month all year long. It is in April, right after a couple of weeks of grueling standardized testing. Then Peter and his students spend a glorious month enjoying poetry. He can feel the tension in the classroom dissipate as his students jump headfirst into his great collection of poetry books, Friday poetry read alouds, and wonderful poetry writing activities. In past years, one of the highlights of this unit has been the whole-class reading of the book, Bronx Masquerade. This edgy book really resonates with his urban students. However, after the latest reading conference with Jamal, Peter had to admit that Bronx Masquerade would be much too difficult for him. Although the book is written at a fifth-grade reading level — a full year below the expected reading level of the class -– Jamal would take one look at the text dense pages (the ones that don’t contain a poem) and throw his hands up in defeat without even trying. Peter mentioned the problem to Marla, the school’s literacy coach. She suggested that they meet after school to explore some possible solutions. The first thing that Marla showed Peter was his class profile. While Jamal, who was reading at a late second grade level, was sitting there at the bottom of the list, there were a few other students not too far above him — students reading at the third and fourth grade levels. Marla suggested that perhaps Bronx Masquerade might be too difficult for those students, too. Peter bristled at the thought. He had used the book for the past three or four years and it had always worked, or at least he thought it had. Marla thought that maybe Peter should offer other book options, so that these students could read a book that was more within their reach. She handed him a stack of books that she thought might work with the unit. Peter was disappointed. He had hoped that Marla would give him some suggestions for helping Jamal read Bronx Masquerade, using some kind of reading specialist’s trick that he didn’t know about. The last thing he wanted to do was to hand Jamal a second-grade book — he wouldn’t read it or even be caught dead with it in his possession. A few weeks before, a whole stack of leveled books from Jamal’s reading intervention class had been discovered stuffed into the back of his locker. Besides, Peter didn’t think that there could possibly be another book out there that told a great story, had compelling poetry, and was a reflection of his students’ lives. He took the stack of books that Marla offered him anyway, but he wasn’t optimistic. Peter was wrong. Not only was there another book that told a great story, had wonderful poems, and characters that his students could relate to – there were two of them! Just as in Bronx Masquerade, the characters in these books were students learning about poetry in school and using poetry to help them cope with issues in their lives. One of the books, Locomotion (Woodson, 2003) was written at a reading level about a year lower than Bronx Masquerade. It wasn’t quite so edgy, but the main character was an urban boy who was in foster care. There were a few families in Peter’s school’s community that took in foster children. This year, two of the students in his class lived with those families. The second book, Love That Dog (Creech, 2001) was a lot easier and not edgy at all. However, Peter still liked the book and thought that some of his students would, too. He didn’t want to just hand Jamal the easiest book, so he went back to Marla for ideas. She suggested that Peter first give book talks for all three books, then give the students a chance to peruse the books, and finally ask the students to write their names on a slip of paper along with the titles of their first and second choices. That was exactly what Peter did. He realized that several of his students would benefit most from Love That Dog, but he worried that they would be dissuaded from choosing it because of the stigma induced by its easy level. So he used the book talk as an opportunity to give Love That Dog a very hard sell, and he was surprised and gratified to see that a larger-than-expected number of students had bought into his pitch and selected it as their first choice — including, as he had hoped, Jamal. Peter formed groups, and they got to work. Peter taught the same poetry minilessons for Locomotion and Love That Dog that he had always taught for Bronx Masquerade, including poetic forms, literary devices, literary language, and line breaks. He also taught the same literature and comprehension minilessons such as characterization, visualizing, flashback, prediction, and making connections. The minilessons always sent the students back to their books to find examples. In writing workshop, they imitated the poems, like Jack did in Love That Dog. They also tried out concrete poetry, haiku, occasional poems, and free verse. They collected vivid verbs in their writing notebooks. Peter met with small groups three times a week, one day for each of the books. Each book group had eight to twelve students in it, and he extended an open invitation to all readers of the book who wished to meet with him. Usually, five or six students would come to the table. The other students read in pairs, in triads, or individually. He had individual conferences twice a week. In these conferences, he kept tabs on everyone’s progress with the books. Sometimes he would recommend that a student attend the next small group session or change reading partners. Some of the students ended up reading all three of the books. It made Peter uncomfortably aware that some of his students from past years had very likely finished Bronx Masquerade weeks before his lessons had ended. Now they had other reading options. Having students share across books made the lessons even more powerful. The class made the following chart to keep track of the comparisons. \|Bronx Masquerade\|\|Locomotion\|\|Love that Dog\| \|Main character\|\|Tyrone and his classmates\|\|Lonnie Collins Motion\|\|Jack\| \|Main character’s problem\|\|Overcoming challenges of poverty and adolescence\|\|Parents died and separated from sister \|Dog killed in auto accident\| \|The teacher\|\|Mr. Ward\|\|Mrs. Marcus\|\|Miss Stretchberry\| \|Types of poetry learned\|\|free verse \|Poets studied\|\|Langston Hughes James Weldon Johnson \|William Carlos Williams Walter Dean Meyers \|How they shared their poems\|\|Open Mike Fridays\|\|Poetry notebooks\|\|Bulletin board\| \|How poetry helped\|\|Gave them hope for the future\|\|Gave him a way to express his sadness\|\|Helped him deal with the death of his dog\| The poetry unit was a huge success. Peter’s students were never more engaged and on task during reading. As in past years, they had Open Mike Fridays, just like the characters in Bronx Masquerade, to read aloud favorite and original poems. This year, they also designated one of the classroom’s bulletin boards for posting their original poems, a la Miss Stretchberry in Love That Dog. Peter also invited the students to start poetry notebooks, like Lonnie in Locomotion. The notebooks started out as a place for the students to copy their favorite poems, but for many students it soon evolved into a place for both their imitated and original poetry. Peter had to expand his poetry book collection to include some of the works of the poets mentioned in the two new books. In past years’ units on Bronx Masquerade, he had not included any of Nikki Grimes’ poetry books in his collection because most of them were in picture book format. After all, it was sixth grade, and he was sure that his students would turn up their noses at them. This year, he took a risk and brought a few of them in. His students loved them! He raided the school and public libraries for all of the Grimes’ picture poetry books. These books were perfect for Jamal and the other struggling readers. There was no stigma in reading them because everyone was reading them. The school librarian told him that there were sequels to Locomotion — Peace, Locomotion (Woodson, 2010) and Love That Dog — Hate That Cat (Creech, 2010). She also gave him a stack of other novels in verse. He gave book talks on those books, too, and added them to the classroom library, where they were immediately checked out. Poetry provided a real breakthrough for Jamal. Peter insisted on polished performances for Open Mike Fridays, and Jamal would practice reading and rereading poems aloud in order to meet the necessary standards for him to participate. The repeated readings helped to improve Jamal’s fluency. Peter found the lyrics to popular rap songs for Jamal’s poetry notebook. His familiarity with the songs helped to build his sight word vocabulary. Jamal wasn’t nearly as intimidated by poetry, with its short lines and all the white space on the page, as he was by text-dense prose. Jamal’s reading log documented an increase in the number of books read, still mostly humorous poetry books and picture books. Jamal was more enthusiastic in reading conferences instead of monosyllabic and sullen. The conferences went on beyond the timer’s buzz because Jamal wanted to read “just one more” poem to Peter. Providing a book closer to Jamal’s reading level for this unit was not a miracle cure, but it did get Jamal to read more. Peter is hoping that the increase in number of texts that Jamal is now reading will lead to a real cure. Now Peter could no longer use a single book for whole class instruction in good conscience. His new challenge was to find a variety of books on the same topic to help better meet the collective instructional needs of all of his students.	<urn:uuid:777440d1-ef9a-4cc0-a918-61de58864f66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://choiceliteracy.com/article/just-right-poetry-and-individualizing-instruction/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00019.warc.gz	en	0.985188	2,226	3.5	4	[ -0.268837571144104, 0.1687392294406891, 0.26993346214294434, -0.24741221964359283, -0.5477646589279175, 0.03611300513148308, -0.3755534291267395, 0.08161723613739014, -0.2865356504917145, -0.14414969086647034, 0.12682008743286133, 0.0014368505217134953, -0.37105077505111694, 0.523721873760...	12	One of the challenges of teaching is finding the right books and materials to address specific instructional goals. Once a teacher has found the perfect book to help his or her students understand a literary element, practice a comprehension strategy, or tie into a thematic unit, it becomes part of his permanent teaching repertoire. However, one problem with these “perfect books” is that they are often not accessible to the struggling readers in the class. This is yet another way that these students might be missing out on instructional opportunities. A solution to this problem is to continue the search even after the perfect book has been found. Find two or three more perfect books, so that all of the students in your class have access to an appropriate text. A sixth-grade teacher, Peter, looks forward to National Poetry Month all year long. It is in April, right after a couple of weeks of grueling standardized testing. Then Peter and his students spend a glorious month enjoying poetry. He can feel the tension in the classroom dissipate as his students jump headfirst into his great collection of poetry books, Friday poetry read alouds, and wonderful poetry writing activities. In past years, one of the highlights of this unit has been the whole-class reading of the book, Bronx Masquerade. This edgy book really resonates with his urban students. However, after the latest reading conference with Jamal, Peter had to admit that Bronx Masquerade would be much too difficult for him. Although the book is written at a fifth-grade reading level — a full year below the expected reading level of the class -– Jamal would take one look at the text dense pages (the ones that don’t contain a poem) and throw his hands up in defeat without even trying. Peter mentioned the problem to Marla, the school’s literacy coach. She suggested that they meet after school to explore some possible solutions. The first thing that Marla showed Peter was his class profile. While Jamal, who was reading at a late second grade level, was sitting there at the bottom of the list, there were a few other students not too far above him — students reading at the third and fourth grade levels. Marla suggested that perhaps Bronx Masquerade might be too difficult for those students, too. Peter bristled at the thought. He had used the book for the past three or four years and it had always worked, or at least he thought it had. Marla thought that maybe Peter should offer other book options, so that these students could read a book that was more within their reach. She handed him a stack of books that she thought might work with the unit. Peter was disappointed. He had hoped that Marla would give him some suggestions for helping Jamal read Bronx Masquerade, using some kind of reading specialist’s trick that he didn’t know about. The last thing he wanted to do was to hand Jamal a second-grade book — he wouldn’t read it or even be caught dead with it in his possession. A few weeks before, a whole stack of leveled books from Jamal’s reading intervention class had been discovered stuffed into the back of his locker. Besides, Peter didn’t think that there could possibly be another book out there that told a great story, had compelling poetry, and was a reflection of his students’ lives. He took the stack of books that Marla offered him anyway, but he wasn’t optimistic. Peter was wrong. Not only was there another book that told a great story, had wonderful poems, and characters that his students could relate to – there were two of them! Just as in Bronx Masquerade, the characters in these books were students learning about poetry in school and using poetry to help them cope with issues in their lives. One of the books, Locomotion (Woodson, 2003) was written at a reading level about a year lower than Bronx Masquerade. It wasn’t quite so edgy, but the main character was an urban boy who was in foster care. There were a few families in Peter’s school’s community that took in foster children. This year, two of the students in his class lived with those families. The second book, Love That Dog (Creech, 2001) was a lot easier and not edgy at all. However, Peter still liked the book and thought that some of his students would, too. He didn’t want to just hand Jamal the easiest book, so he went back to Marla for ideas. She suggested that Peter first give book talks for all three books, then give the students a chance to peruse the books, and finally ask the students to write their names on a slip of paper along with the titles of their first and second choices. That was exactly what Peter did. He realized that several of his students would benefit most from Love That Dog, but he worried that they would be dissuaded from choosing it because of the stigma induced by its easy level. So he used the book talk as an opportunity to give Love That Dog a very hard sell, and he was surprised and gratified to see that a larger-than-expected number of students had bought into his pitch and selected it as their first choice — including, as he had hoped, Jamal. Peter formed groups, and they got to work. Peter taught the same poetry minilessons for Locomotion and Love That Dog that he had always taught for Bronx Masquerade, including poetic forms, literary devices, literary language, and line breaks. He also taught the same literature and comprehension minilessons such as characterization, visualizing, flashback, prediction, and making connections. The minilessons always sent the students back to their books to find examples. In writing workshop, they imitated the poems, like Jack did in Love That Dog. They also tried out concrete poetry, haiku, occasional poems, and free verse. They collected vivid verbs in their writing notebooks. Peter met with small groups three times a week, one day for each of the books. Each book group had eight to twelve students in it, and he extended an open invitation to all readers of the book who wished to meet with him. Usually, five or six students would come to the table. The other students read in pairs, in triads, or individually. He had individual conferences twice a week. In these conferences, he kept tabs on everyone’s progress with the books. Sometimes he would recommend that a student attend the next small group session or change reading partners. Some of the students ended up reading all three of the books. It made Peter uncomfortably aware that some of his students from past years had very likely finished Bronx Masquerade weeks before his lessons had ended. Now they had other reading options. Having students share across books made the lessons even more powerful. The class made the following chart to keep track of the comparisons. \|Bronx Masquerade\|\|Locomotion\|\|Love that Dog\| \|Main character\|\|Tyrone and his classmates\|\|Lonnie Collins Motion\|\|Jack\| \|Main character’s problem\|\|Overcoming challenges of poverty and adolescence\|\|Parents died and separated from sister \|Dog killed in auto accident\| \|The teacher\|\|Mr. Ward\|\|Mrs. Marcus\|\|Miss Stretchberry\| \|Types of poetry learned\|\|free verse \|Poets studied\|\|Langston Hughes James Weldon Johnson \|William Carlos Williams Walter Dean Meyers \|How they shared their poems\|\|Open Mike Fridays\|\|Poetry notebooks\|\|Bulletin board\| \|How poetry helped\|\|Gave them hope for the future\|\|Gave him a way to express his sadness\|\|Helped him deal with the death of his dog\| The poetry unit was a huge success. Peter’s students were never more engaged and on task during reading. As in past years, they had Open Mike Fridays, just like the characters in Bronx Masquerade, to read aloud favorite and original poems. This year, they also designated one of the classroom’s bulletin boards for posting their original poems, a la Miss Stretchberry in Love That Dog. Peter also invited the students to start poetry notebooks, like Lonnie in Locomotion. The notebooks started out as a place for the students to copy their favorite poems, but for many students it soon evolved into a place for both their imitated and original poetry. Peter had to expand his poetry book collection to include some of the works of the poets mentioned in the two new books. In past years’ units on Bronx Masquerade, he had not included any of Nikki Grimes’ poetry books in his collection because most of them were in picture book format. After all, it was sixth grade, and he was sure that his students would turn up their noses at them. This year, he took a risk and brought a few of them in. His students loved them! He raided the school and public libraries for all of the Grimes’ picture poetry books. These books were perfect for Jamal and the other struggling readers. There was no stigma in reading them because everyone was reading them. The school librarian told him that there were sequels to Locomotion — Peace, Locomotion (Woodson, 2010) and Love That Dog — Hate That Cat (Creech, 2010). She also gave him a stack of other novels in verse. He gave book talks on those books, too, and added them to the classroom library, where they were immediately checked out. Poetry provided a real breakthrough for Jamal. Peter insisted on polished performances for Open Mike Fridays, and Jamal would practice reading and rereading poems aloud in order to meet the necessary standards for him to participate. The repeated readings helped to improve Jamal’s fluency. Peter found the lyrics to popular rap songs for Jamal’s poetry notebook. His familiarity with the songs helped to build his sight word vocabulary. Jamal wasn’t nearly as intimidated by poetry, with its short lines and all the white space on the page, as he was by text-dense prose. Jamal’s reading log documented an increase in the number of books read, still mostly humorous poetry books and picture books. Jamal was more enthusiastic in reading conferences instead of monosyllabic and sullen. The conferences went on beyond the timer’s buzz because Jamal wanted to read “just one more” poem to Peter. Providing a book closer to Jamal’s reading level for this unit was not a miracle cure, but it did get Jamal to read more. Peter is hoping that the increase in number of texts that Jamal is now reading will lead to a real cure. Now Peter could no longer use a single book for whole class instruction in good conscience. His new challenge was to find a variety of books on the same topic to help better meet the collective instructional needs of all of his students.	2,182	ENGLISH	1
Well established as amongst the greatest of the heroes of Greek myth, Theseus is best known for successfully navigated the Cretan labyrinth and slaying the Minotaur. However, he had already confirmed himself a strong, intelligent young man long before his journey to the palace of Knossos and his battle with the creature that lived below. While his fellow demigod (and cousin) Heracles is better known for his Twelve Labours, Theseus himself overcame six great dangers on his first journey to Athens. His triumphs became collectively known as the Six Labours, setting the young Theseus on his path to becoming a legendary hero and the fabled founder of a unified Athens. Like many of the heroes of Greek mythology, Theseus’s parentage is a little complex. Born to the mortal woman Aethra, through the intervention of the goddess Athena Theseus was born the product of two fathers; the mortal Aegeus, King of Athens, and the god Poseidon. Leaving Theseus to be raised in the care of his mother, Aegeus left behind a sword and sandals before returning to Athens, buried beneath a massive rock. He left instruction that when his son had grown, he should retrieve the items and claim his birthright. That was, if he should be strong enough to lift the stone. Theseus grew up into a strong, brave young man, unaware of his true parentage. Once he was old enough, Aethra told him of Aegeus’ instructions. Theseus lifted the stone with ease and retrieved his father’s sword and sandals before setting out to travel to Athens. Rather than taking the relatively safe sea route, Theseus instead chose to travel by foot along the dangerous coastal road. Inspired by the earlier feats of Heracles, Theseus resolves to pick no quarrels on his journey. Instead, he would only take vengeance on those that attempted to waylay him, using the same method they had tried to employ. The Six Labours At Epidaurus, Theseus encountered the giant bandit Periphetes, son of the smith god Hephaestus. Some accounts reference a single eye in the centre of his face, suggesting Periphetes was one of the cyclops. Known by the nickname Coruntes, meaning ‘club-bearer’, he used his huge bronze club to kill travellers before robbing them. Theseus wrestled the club from his grasp and proceeded to beat him to death with it. Taken by the great weapon, he claimed it for himself. For his second foe, Theseus faced the robber Sinis. An outlaw from Corinth, Sinis was a particularly cruel murderer, binding his victim’s hands to two pine trees bent low to the ground before letting the trees go, ripping the unfortunate traveller in two. Like with Periphetes, Theseus killed Sinis using the same method he had utilised on so many victims. He easily overpowering the bandit, bound him to two bent pines and tore him in two. Before continuing Theseus spent the night with Sinis’s daughter, resulting in his eldest son Melanippus being conceived. Next, he reached the village of Crommyon. The region had been ravaged by a giant boar that had slain many farmers, preventing them planting crops. Little details are given of the encounter, other than Theseus successfully hunting down and killing the monster known as the Crommyon sow. Plutarch tells the tale slightly differently, claiming that ‘the sow’ instead referred to a violent and ill-mannered female robber named Phaia, who herself became the third great danger on the road to Athens slain by the young hero. Close to the town of Megara, travellers encountered an old man alongside the clifftop road, who would beseech them to stop to wash his feet. Once they stooped to do so the man, a robber named Sciron, would kick them over the cliff. Below, they would be consumed by a monstrous sea turtle that haunted the waters. After he made the mistake of attempting the trick on Theseus, the hero snatched him up by the ankles and cast him far out to sea, killing him. Around 11 miles from Athens, the town of Eleusis was ruled over by the cruel king Cercyon. Possessing great strength that made him a formidable wrestler, Cercyon would insist that travellers take him on in a wrestling match. He promised his kingdom to any man that could beat him. However, his strength meant that those who attempted to wrestle him were invariably crushed to death. Relying on skill rather than sheer power, Theseus got the better of the wicked king. After lifting him above his head he dashed Cercyon to the ground, killing him instantly. Theseus’s final opponent was the strange bandit known as Proscrustes the Stretcher. A former smith, Proscrustes would invite passers-by to spend the night on one of two iron beds he had crafted. Tall travellers were offered the smaller bed, while short ones the longer one. He would then attempt to ensure they fit the bed perfectly, either by stretching them out to fit or sawing off portions of their lower legs. Theseus killed Proscrustes using his own bizarre method, capturing and forcefully fitting him to one of his own beds. Reaching Athens proved to be just the beginning of Theseus’s exploits. I will cover the remainder, including his struggle to claim his rightful position as heir to Aegeus and his great battle with the minotaur, in a future blog.	<urn:uuid:23bd9d24-1e3d-4656-8e6b-771119cf742a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://darktales.blog/2020/01/12/the-six-labours-of-theseus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00423.warc.gz	en	0.980523	1,167	3.5625	4	[ -0.1736328899860382, 0.08646225184202194, 0.23296716809272766, -0.00635308213531971, -0.7981889247894287, -0.46102941036224365, 0.4282439351081848, 0.42472562193870544, -0.22627919912338257, -0.08424871414899826, -0.3150513768196106, -0.5153061747550964, -0.2858266830444336, 0.184826880693...	13	Well established as amongst the greatest of the heroes of Greek myth, Theseus is best known for successfully navigated the Cretan labyrinth and slaying the Minotaur. However, he had already confirmed himself a strong, intelligent young man long before his journey to the palace of Knossos and his battle with the creature that lived below. While his fellow demigod (and cousin) Heracles is better known for his Twelve Labours, Theseus himself overcame six great dangers on his first journey to Athens. His triumphs became collectively known as the Six Labours, setting the young Theseus on his path to becoming a legendary hero and the fabled founder of a unified Athens. Like many of the heroes of Greek mythology, Theseus’s parentage is a little complex. Born to the mortal woman Aethra, through the intervention of the goddess Athena Theseus was born the product of two fathers; the mortal Aegeus, King of Athens, and the god Poseidon. Leaving Theseus to be raised in the care of his mother, Aegeus left behind a sword and sandals before returning to Athens, buried beneath a massive rock. He left instruction that when his son had grown, he should retrieve the items and claim his birthright. That was, if he should be strong enough to lift the stone. Theseus grew up into a strong, brave young man, unaware of his true parentage. Once he was old enough, Aethra told him of Aegeus’ instructions. Theseus lifted the stone with ease and retrieved his father’s sword and sandals before setting out to travel to Athens. Rather than taking the relatively safe sea route, Theseus instead chose to travel by foot along the dangerous coastal road. Inspired by the earlier feats of Heracles, Theseus resolves to pick no quarrels on his journey. Instead, he would only take vengeance on those that attempted to waylay him, using the same method they had tried to employ. The Six Labours At Epidaurus, Theseus encountered the giant bandit Periphetes, son of the smith god Hephaestus. Some accounts reference a single eye in the centre of his face, suggesting Periphetes was one of the cyclops. Known by the nickname Coruntes, meaning ‘club-bearer’, he used his huge bronze club to kill travellers before robbing them. Theseus wrestled the club from his grasp and proceeded to beat him to death with it. Taken by the great weapon, he claimed it for himself. For his second foe, Theseus faced the robber Sinis. An outlaw from Corinth, Sinis was a particularly cruel murderer, binding his victim’s hands to two pine trees bent low to the ground before letting the trees go, ripping the unfortunate traveller in two. Like with Periphetes, Theseus killed Sinis using the same method he had utilised on so many victims. He easily overpowering the bandit, bound him to two bent pines and tore him in two. Before continuing Theseus spent the night with Sinis’s daughter, resulting in his eldest son Melanippus being conceived. Next, he reached the village of Crommyon. The region had been ravaged by a giant boar that had slain many farmers, preventing them planting crops. Little details are given of the encounter, other than Theseus successfully hunting down and killing the monster known as the Crommyon sow. Plutarch tells the tale slightly differently, claiming that ‘the sow’ instead referred to a violent and ill-mannered female robber named Phaia, who herself became the third great danger on the road to Athens slain by the young hero. Close to the town of Megara, travellers encountered an old man alongside the clifftop road, who would beseech them to stop to wash his feet. Once they stooped to do so the man, a robber named Sciron, would kick them over the cliff. Below, they would be consumed by a monstrous sea turtle that haunted the waters. After he made the mistake of attempting the trick on Theseus, the hero snatched him up by the ankles and cast him far out to sea, killing him. Around 11 miles from Athens, the town of Eleusis was ruled over by the cruel king Cercyon. Possessing great strength that made him a formidable wrestler, Cercyon would insist that travellers take him on in a wrestling match. He promised his kingdom to any man that could beat him. However, his strength meant that those who attempted to wrestle him were invariably crushed to death. Relying on skill rather than sheer power, Theseus got the better of the wicked king. After lifting him above his head he dashed Cercyon to the ground, killing him instantly. Theseus’s final opponent was the strange bandit known as Proscrustes the Stretcher. A former smith, Proscrustes would invite passers-by to spend the night on one of two iron beds he had crafted. Tall travellers were offered the smaller bed, while short ones the longer one. He would then attempt to ensure they fit the bed perfectly, either by stretching them out to fit or sawing off portions of their lower legs. Theseus killed Proscrustes using his own bizarre method, capturing and forcefully fitting him to one of his own beds. Reaching Athens proved to be just the beginning of Theseus’s exploits. I will cover the remainder, including his struggle to claim his rightful position as heir to Aegeus and his great battle with the minotaur, in a future blog.	1,144	ENGLISH	1
The feast day of St Nicholas is celebrated on 6 December. Known as Nicholas the Wonderworker because of the miracles attributed to him, the saint was born on 15 March 270 in Myra, Asia Minor, during the time of the Roman Empire. Saint Nicholas is the patron saint of sailors, merchants, archers, repentant thieves, prostitutes, children, brewers, pawnbrokers, and students in various cities and countries around Europe. Though Greece celebrates Saint Basil (1 December) as the saint for gift-giving, Saint Nich is the traditional model of Santa Claus for many countries around Europe due to his legendary habit of secret gift giving. The earliest accounts of his life were written centuries after his death on 6 December 343. READ MORE: Who really is Santa Claus? Born in the Greek seaport of Patara, Lycia, to wealthy Christian parents, he is said to have done many good deeds including the rescue of three girls being forced into prostitution. He saved them by dropping a sack of gold coins through the window of their house each night for three nights so that their father could pay a dowry for them. He is also known to have calmed a storm at sea and saved three innocent soldiers from wrongful execution. After a pilgrimage to Egypt and the Palestine area, he became Bishop of Myra. Cast into prison during the persecution of Christians by Diocletian, he was released after the accession of Constantine and attended the First COuncil of Nicaea in 325 though he is not mentioned in writings by people at the council. Other legends claim he was temporarily defrocked for slapping the heretic Arius at the council. Another famous late legend tells how he resurrected three children, who had been murdered and pickled in brine by a butcher planning to sell them as pork during a famine. Fewer than 200 years after Nicholas’s death, St Nicholas Church was built in Myra under the orders of Theodosius II, however his relics were moved without authorisation and are now enshrined in the Basilica di San Nicola in Bari and are said to exude a miraculous watery substance known as myrhh which are regarded as possessing supernatural powers. READ MORE: Noel Baba Today is the name day of Nicholas, Nick, Nicky, Nicoletta, Letta and those who have other derivatives of the name.	<urn:uuid:65dc7cb6-23c9-468e-b969-122ac85fc145>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://neoskosmos.com/en/153187/st-nicholas-an-important-feast-day-happy-name-day-nicholas-nick-nicky-and-more/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00136.warc.gz	en	0.982159	490	3.359375	3	[ 0.5026557445526123, 0.3283349573612213, 0.39699700474739075, -0.1284947693347931, -0.10470376163721085, -0.6672549843788147, 0.16569937765598297, 0.29801973700523376, 0.003626752644777298, 0.27764707803726196, -0.12374503910541534, 0.03857287019491196, -0.03571484982967377, 0.3496408760547...	3	The feast day of St Nicholas is celebrated on 6 December. Known as Nicholas the Wonderworker because of the miracles attributed to him, the saint was born on 15 March 270 in Myra, Asia Minor, during the time of the Roman Empire. Saint Nicholas is the patron saint of sailors, merchants, archers, repentant thieves, prostitutes, children, brewers, pawnbrokers, and students in various cities and countries around Europe. Though Greece celebrates Saint Basil (1 December) as the saint for gift-giving, Saint Nich is the traditional model of Santa Claus for many countries around Europe due to his legendary habit of secret gift giving. The earliest accounts of his life were written centuries after his death on 6 December 343. READ MORE: Who really is Santa Claus? Born in the Greek seaport of Patara, Lycia, to wealthy Christian parents, he is said to have done many good deeds including the rescue of three girls being forced into prostitution. He saved them by dropping a sack of gold coins through the window of their house each night for three nights so that their father could pay a dowry for them. He is also known to have calmed a storm at sea and saved three innocent soldiers from wrongful execution. After a pilgrimage to Egypt and the Palestine area, he became Bishop of Myra. Cast into prison during the persecution of Christians by Diocletian, he was released after the accession of Constantine and attended the First COuncil of Nicaea in 325 though he is not mentioned in writings by people at the council. Other legends claim he was temporarily defrocked for slapping the heretic Arius at the council. Another famous late legend tells how he resurrected three children, who had been murdered and pickled in brine by a butcher planning to sell them as pork during a famine. Fewer than 200 years after Nicholas’s death, St Nicholas Church was built in Myra under the orders of Theodosius II, however his relics were moved without authorisation and are now enshrined in the Basilica di San Nicola in Bari and are said to exude a miraculous watery substance known as myrhh which are regarded as possessing supernatural powers. READ MORE: Noel Baba Today is the name day of Nicholas, Nick, Nicky, Nicoletta, Letta and those who have other derivatives of the name.	496	ENGLISH	1
Neolithic is of or relating to the cultural periods of the Stone Age beginning around 10,000 B.C. in the Middle East and later elsewhere, characterized by the development of agriculture and the making of polished stone artifacts. The Neolithic Period is also called the New Stone Age. Many water pots and ceramic figures were found in the ruins of Neolithic society plots of earth. People of Neolithic times made many artifacts that were symbolic of their ways of life and culture such as water pots, fish, hunting and medical objects. Out of the artifacts found from the Neolithic period, the fish is symbolic to me because of the times spent with my father during fishing trips. The Neolithic Period extended from 10,000 B.C. to 3,000 B.C. It is also called the New Stone Age, and many new Advances and changes took place in this time. Unlike the nomadic life of the Old Stone Age, the New Stone Age was the dawning of settled life. People lived more towards lakes and river instead of caves and tree trunks. The change in environment led to the change of jobs, society, and culture. Neolithic everyday objects reveal that fishing and hunting were the main occupations of the people. Neolithic art is represented by a large number of objects found in isolated areas in Eastern Europe, Siberia and Central Asia. Neolithic people decorated clay water vessels in a wide variety of ways that were very large and colorful. They also created bone, horn and wooden figurines of people and animals. The Earliest Neolithic pottery found in Siberia and Central Asia is similar to pottery found in northern Britain, suggesting that early Neolithic colonist may have come to Ireland from northern Britain. The pottery bowls were made by winding coils of clay in a circle to form the sides of the bowl, smoothing them, and finally firing them on an open fire. After the making of these vessels were mastered, pottery was decorated with dots or lines in the surface of the clay. Neolithic people lived near rivers and lakes. The artifacts and life in the water became and important part of their lives by supporting them with food, cleansing and ceremonial artifacts such as fish and shells. Fishing was an important job, and way of life because the abundance of fish fed entire villages. The fish were appreciated so much to the Neolithic people that they began making clay fish, as a symbol for their way of life. Just as fishing, and the way of the water benefited the people of the Neolithic times, it also benefited my father and I. At one time, my father and I lived in the same house with no problems, however we never had a decent conversation of life and love for one another. Though I had no hatred towards my father, I always wondered what my father thought of me, and what did he think of my choices in life. It was my idea to have an outing with my father, without my stepmother, that would make us talk. Since I had never been fishing I asked my father if he could teach me how to fish. Because fishing is a quiet sport, it gave us no reason not to talk on the quiet boat. After the first fishing trip, my father and I began having so much more to talk about. The fishing trip was not only a fishing trip, but also an information session. Not only did I solve the problem of open communication with my father, I also learned how he felt on the accomplishments, and choices that I was making in life. Fish now play a very special part in my life. Every time I eat fish, it reminds me of the accomplishment I made of establishing better communication with someone I love. The fishing trips even went as far as me and my father hosting a big fish fry every summer for friends and relatives. The fish fry resembles a family reunion, because it brings everyone who attends closer together, returning every year with another great story to tell.	<urn:uuid:011e66ad-fc28-4027-96df-d57ffedf83b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/neolithic-pottery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00141.warc.gz	en	0.987131	798	3.625	4	[ 0.12036411464214325, 0.4202578067779541, 0.35807478427886963, 0.003095305059105158, 0.07615303993225098, -0.3401542901992798, 0.09137843549251556, -0.19992229342460632, -0.14883141219615936, -0.14860956370830536, -0.2210928499698639, -0.5549787282943726, 0.0528029203414917, 0.4946349263191...	1	Neolithic is of or relating to the cultural periods of the Stone Age beginning around 10,000 B.C. in the Middle East and later elsewhere, characterized by the development of agriculture and the making of polished stone artifacts. The Neolithic Period is also called the New Stone Age. Many water pots and ceramic figures were found in the ruins of Neolithic society plots of earth. People of Neolithic times made many artifacts that were symbolic of their ways of life and culture such as water pots, fish, hunting and medical objects. Out of the artifacts found from the Neolithic period, the fish is symbolic to me because of the times spent with my father during fishing trips. The Neolithic Period extended from 10,000 B.C. to 3,000 B.C. It is also called the New Stone Age, and many new Advances and changes took place in this time. Unlike the nomadic life of the Old Stone Age, the New Stone Age was the dawning of settled life. People lived more towards lakes and river instead of caves and tree trunks. The change in environment led to the change of jobs, society, and culture. Neolithic everyday objects reveal that fishing and hunting were the main occupations of the people. Neolithic art is represented by a large number of objects found in isolated areas in Eastern Europe, Siberia and Central Asia. Neolithic people decorated clay water vessels in a wide variety of ways that were very large and colorful. They also created bone, horn and wooden figurines of people and animals. The Earliest Neolithic pottery found in Siberia and Central Asia is similar to pottery found in northern Britain, suggesting that early Neolithic colonist may have come to Ireland from northern Britain. The pottery bowls were made by winding coils of clay in a circle to form the sides of the bowl, smoothing them, and finally firing them on an open fire. After the making of these vessels were mastered, pottery was decorated with dots or lines in the surface of the clay. Neolithic people lived near rivers and lakes. The artifacts and life in the water became and important part of their lives by supporting them with food, cleansing and ceremonial artifacts such as fish and shells. Fishing was an important job, and way of life because the abundance of fish fed entire villages. The fish were appreciated so much to the Neolithic people that they began making clay fish, as a symbol for their way of life. Just as fishing, and the way of the water benefited the people of the Neolithic times, it also benefited my father and I. At one time, my father and I lived in the same house with no problems, however we never had a decent conversation of life and love for one another. Though I had no hatred towards my father, I always wondered what my father thought of me, and what did he think of my choices in life. It was my idea to have an outing with my father, without my stepmother, that would make us talk. Since I had never been fishing I asked my father if he could teach me how to fish. Because fishing is a quiet sport, it gave us no reason not to talk on the quiet boat. After the first fishing trip, my father and I began having so much more to talk about. The fishing trip was not only a fishing trip, but also an information session. Not only did I solve the problem of open communication with my father, I also learned how he felt on the accomplishments, and choices that I was making in life. Fish now play a very special part in my life. Every time I eat fish, it reminds me of the accomplishment I made of establishing better communication with someone I love. The fishing trips even went as far as me and my father hosting a big fish fry every summer for friends and relatives. The fish fry resembles a family reunion, because it brings everyone who attends closer together, returning every year with another great story to tell.	799	ENGLISH	1
For our first Burn 2 Learn of the year, we had to work in groups find 7 envelopes hidden around school each containing the name of a different Central American country. Once we had collected all 7, we had to try and match them to the correct country on the map. In SPAG, we have been recapping all the different word classes. After reminding ourselves about verbs and adverbs, we decided to play a game where half the class were verbs while the other half were adverbs. We then had 30seconds to flip the cups so that our teams word was the right way up. After two games, it was 2-0 to the adverbs team. After finishing our latest text, Oceans of the World, we needed to answer a few questions about what we'd read. First though, we had to find the questions which were hidden around the room. One person from each table had to find a question and bring it back for everyone to answer before the next person could go search for the next question. Now we have started to learn about the Mayan gods. scattered around the school grounds were a number of facts about the Mayan gods and, after finding them, we had to sort them depending on whether they were similar to practices today or different (and some of them were very different!). In Maths, we have been learning about percentages. Some children had piece of paper with an answer on it while others had the question and the had to find their partners. A strange discovery was made by the class! We imagineered that we were explorers in Central America and had heard that a Mayan artefact had been discovered. We went outside and hunted for the pieces of pottery that turned out to be from the Mayan times. They fit them together to form two Mayan pots. In SPAG, we have been learning about prefixes. After being given a either a prefix or a word, the children had to work out which prefix went with which root word and find their partner. In Maths, we have been covering fractions, decimals and percentages. To test this knowledge, we had to find a series of problems hidden around school. Each question was worth points with the harder, better hidden question worth more. In SPAG, while recapping brackets, the children used a burn to learn to practice what they had learned. When the music played, the children had to copy their leaders actions but when it stopped they had to work together to insert brackets in the correct place within the sentence.	<urn:uuid:1d7f07c5-f7f9-4377-9282-bd7a62d708ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.westwood.leeds.sch.uk/burn-2-learns/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00204.warc.gz	en	0.991102	520	3.46875	3	[ -0.20426714420318604, 0.396780788898468, 0.18342377245426178, 0.017810894176363945, -0.04832515865564346, -0.012509046122431755, 0.13349083065986633, -0.0314205177128315, -0.05671912059187889, -0.35188916325569153, 0.060716696083545685, -0.2859358787536621, 0.06013402342796326, 0.206589072...	10	For our first Burn 2 Learn of the year, we had to work in groups find 7 envelopes hidden around school each containing the name of a different Central American country. Once we had collected all 7, we had to try and match them to the correct country on the map. In SPAG, we have been recapping all the different word classes. After reminding ourselves about verbs and adverbs, we decided to play a game where half the class were verbs while the other half were adverbs. We then had 30seconds to flip the cups so that our teams word was the right way up. After two games, it was 2-0 to the adverbs team. After finishing our latest text, Oceans of the World, we needed to answer a few questions about what we'd read. First though, we had to find the questions which were hidden around the room. One person from each table had to find a question and bring it back for everyone to answer before the next person could go search for the next question. Now we have started to learn about the Mayan gods. scattered around the school grounds were a number of facts about the Mayan gods and, after finding them, we had to sort them depending on whether they were similar to practices today or different (and some of them were very different!). In Maths, we have been learning about percentages. Some children had piece of paper with an answer on it while others had the question and the had to find their partners. A strange discovery was made by the class! We imagineered that we were explorers in Central America and had heard that a Mayan artefact had been discovered. We went outside and hunted for the pieces of pottery that turned out to be from the Mayan times. They fit them together to form two Mayan pots. In SPAG, we have been learning about prefixes. After being given a either a prefix or a word, the children had to work out which prefix went with which root word and find their partner. In Maths, we have been covering fractions, decimals and percentages. To test this knowledge, we had to find a series of problems hidden around school. Each question was worth points with the harder, better hidden question worth more. In SPAG, while recapping brackets, the children used a burn to learn to practice what they had learned. When the music played, the children had to copy their leaders actions but when it stopped they had to work together to insert brackets in the correct place within the sentence.	510	ENGLISH	1
Download this Term Paper in word format. He wants to resolve the situation as soon as possible and wants to start formulating a plan as soon as he can. This is why he calls his adviser so early. Use the sources, and your own knowledge to explain why Kennedy decided to blockade Cuba. Source B is a map showing the area of the crisis, the range of the missiles, the position of the blockade, and other details. It highlights a reason why Kennedy blockaded Cuba; the Soviets could hit most major American cities. The USA could have been destroyed in minutes. The Americans panicked; they wanted the missiles removed. Although the Americans did not like the constant Cuban missile crisis paper of nuclear attack, they had no qualms with doing the same to the Russians, who had to face American missiles over the border in Turkey for much longer. It explains more reasons for the blockade, including valuable insights as to what went on behind the scenes, because Robert Kennedy was the Presidents adviser as well as his brother. Troops were moved into Florida. He knew something must be done to remove the nuclear threat to the USA, but there are both national and personal reasons for what he did. The nation was worried about the missiles on Cuba and Kennedy did not want to appear weak in the public eye. He needed to make a stand, as he had only been in office 18 months, and had suffered humiliation and embarrassment over the Bay of Pigs fiasco. There were other problems during his early presidency, including the completion of the Berlin Wall, the Russian achievements in the space race and the shooting down over Cuba by Soviet missiles of an American U-2 spy plane. He was also concerned about US economic interests in the area, such as the Panama Canal, a vital link to the Pacific and infuriated that America had lost many different sources of income in Cuba. The sources are from different sides in the crisis; they will therefore give out a different perspective. The first is a broadcast made by President Kennedy to his nation on 22 October Kennedy puts the ball in the Russian court regarding attacks, and puts the onus on Khrushchev to stop the situation. He also appears to blame Khrushchev, because if Khrushchev could halt the problem, it must be within his side. He is trying to justify an attack on the USSR, should that happen, as he is putting to the American public a biased speech making out the Soviets as the aggressors. In doing so he has become a hypocrite- the Americans had missiles in Turkey bordering with the USSRItaly and Great Britain aimed at Russian cities, which were set up before the Cuban missiles and remained for longer afterwards. I think this source is mostly unreliable and irrelevant to the question, it is a one sided view, and only gives information about goings on when the crisis was underway, giving no reasons for events but it does show the nature of the crisis, and highlights how serious it was. It does however explain some reasons for the crisis, primarily Cuban nuclear capability, and this is the general reason behind the crisis, so it does have some value. The second source is from the memoirs of Gromyko, the Soviet foreign minister at the time of the crisis. This was published in This is significant, as it is after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian President Gorbachev followed a policy of Glasnost openness so therefore Gromyko could speak the truth without state intervention. He would not gain anything from lying about the affair, so it is likely that his evidence is correct. This source is fairly useful as it shows the political conflict of the two superpowers over Cuba. It gives as an insight into the American stance, a petty, controlling view. President Kennedy wants to be in control of Cuba. The Soviet perspective on the crisis is simply that Cuba should be free to govern itself, without US intervention. The source shows why there was conflict as the Cubans wanted to be free from the US, the Soviets supported this, and the US wanted to control Cuba. Source E is more useful than D in helping my understanding of why there was superpower conflict over Cuba.Cuban Missile Crisis Research Papers Cuban Missile Crisis Research Papers discuss the threat of nuclear war from the Soviet Union in the 's. This is a topic suggestion on Cuban Missile Crisis from Paper Masters. Use this topic or order a custom research paper, written exactly how you need it to be. The Cuban Missile Crisis The closest the world ever came to its own destruction was the event known to Americans as the Cuban Missile Crisis. In Cuba this event is known as the October Crisis of , and in the former Soviet Union it /5(1). Excerpt from Term Paper: American President John F. Kennedy's handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis played an important role in averting nuclear war between the Soviets and Americans. While critics (often rightly) accuse Kennedy of making mistakes, including creating the conditions for the crisis in his mismanagement of the Bay of Pigs, his overall performance during the crisis was helpful. The Cuban Missile Crisis The closest the world ever came to its own destruction was the event known to Americans as the Cuban Missile Crisis. In Cuba this event is known as the October Crisis of , and in the former Soviet Union it was known as the Caribbean Crisis/5(1). The Cuban Missile Crisis was an event occurred in October when the USA detected that the USSR had deployed medium range missiles in Cuba, which was ninety miles away from Florida. It was the period that the cold war reached its peak because of the possible confrontation between the two superpowers, the US and the USSR, at the time. Jan 04, · Watch video · The Cuban Missile Crisis begins. The Cuban Missile Crisis begins on October 14, , bringing the United States and the Soviet Union to the brink of nuclear conflict.	<urn:uuid:c37b0609-e9d4-4dca-88df-0da1e41c7c5d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hamoduduvojatepyz.lausannecongress2018.com/cuban-missile-crisis-paper-27521wo.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00505.warc.gz	en	0.980108	1,190	3.296875	3	[ -0.4997785985469818, -0.05952217057347298, -0.09173804521560669, 0.013517042621970177, 0.4904451370239258, 0.05140746757388115, 0.21077701449394226, 0.0031623104587197304, -0.2855314612388611, -0.15359443426132202, 0.0572906956076622, 0.2940942347049713, 0.050706908106803894, 0.42718493938...	2	Download this Term Paper in word format. He wants to resolve the situation as soon as possible and wants to start formulating a plan as soon as he can. This is why he calls his adviser so early. Use the sources, and your own knowledge to explain why Kennedy decided to blockade Cuba. Source B is a map showing the area of the crisis, the range of the missiles, the position of the blockade, and other details. It highlights a reason why Kennedy blockaded Cuba; the Soviets could hit most major American cities. The USA could have been destroyed in minutes. The Americans panicked; they wanted the missiles removed. Although the Americans did not like the constant Cuban missile crisis paper of nuclear attack, they had no qualms with doing the same to the Russians, who had to face American missiles over the border in Turkey for much longer. It explains more reasons for the blockade, including valuable insights as to what went on behind the scenes, because Robert Kennedy was the Presidents adviser as well as his brother. Troops were moved into Florida. He knew something must be done to remove the nuclear threat to the USA, but there are both national and personal reasons for what he did. The nation was worried about the missiles on Cuba and Kennedy did not want to appear weak in the public eye. He needed to make a stand, as he had only been in office 18 months, and had suffered humiliation and embarrassment over the Bay of Pigs fiasco. There were other problems during his early presidency, including the completion of the Berlin Wall, the Russian achievements in the space race and the shooting down over Cuba by Soviet missiles of an American U-2 spy plane. He was also concerned about US economic interests in the area, such as the Panama Canal, a vital link to the Pacific and infuriated that America had lost many different sources of income in Cuba. The sources are from different sides in the crisis; they will therefore give out a different perspective. The first is a broadcast made by President Kennedy to his nation on 22 October Kennedy puts the ball in the Russian court regarding attacks, and puts the onus on Khrushchev to stop the situation. He also appears to blame Khrushchev, because if Khrushchev could halt the problem, it must be within his side. He is trying to justify an attack on the USSR, should that happen, as he is putting to the American public a biased speech making out the Soviets as the aggressors. In doing so he has become a hypocrite- the Americans had missiles in Turkey bordering with the USSRItaly and Great Britain aimed at Russian cities, which were set up before the Cuban missiles and remained for longer afterwards. I think this source is mostly unreliable and irrelevant to the question, it is a one sided view, and only gives information about goings on when the crisis was underway, giving no reasons for events but it does show the nature of the crisis, and highlights how serious it was. It does however explain some reasons for the crisis, primarily Cuban nuclear capability, and this is the general reason behind the crisis, so it does have some value. The second source is from the memoirs of Gromyko, the Soviet foreign minister at the time of the crisis. This was published in This is significant, as it is after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian President Gorbachev followed a policy of Glasnost openness so therefore Gromyko could speak the truth without state intervention. He would not gain anything from lying about the affair, so it is likely that his evidence is correct. This source is fairly useful as it shows the political conflict of the two superpowers over Cuba. It gives as an insight into the American stance, a petty, controlling view. President Kennedy wants to be in control of Cuba. The Soviet perspective on the crisis is simply that Cuba should be free to govern itself, without US intervention. The source shows why there was conflict as the Cubans wanted to be free from the US, the Soviets supported this, and the US wanted to control Cuba. Source E is more useful than D in helping my understanding of why there was superpower conflict over Cuba.Cuban Missile Crisis Research Papers Cuban Missile Crisis Research Papers discuss the threat of nuclear war from the Soviet Union in the 's. This is a topic suggestion on Cuban Missile Crisis from Paper Masters. Use this topic or order a custom research paper, written exactly how you need it to be. The Cuban Missile Crisis The closest the world ever came to its own destruction was the event known to Americans as the Cuban Missile Crisis. In Cuba this event is known as the October Crisis of , and in the former Soviet Union it /5(1). Excerpt from Term Paper: American President John F. Kennedy's handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis played an important role in averting nuclear war between the Soviets and Americans. While critics (often rightly) accuse Kennedy of making mistakes, including creating the conditions for the crisis in his mismanagement of the Bay of Pigs, his overall performance during the crisis was helpful. The Cuban Missile Crisis The closest the world ever came to its own destruction was the event known to Americans as the Cuban Missile Crisis. In Cuba this event is known as the October Crisis of , and in the former Soviet Union it was known as the Caribbean Crisis/5(1). The Cuban Missile Crisis was an event occurred in October when the USA detected that the USSR had deployed medium range missiles in Cuba, which was ninety miles away from Florida. It was the period that the cold war reached its peak because of the possible confrontation between the two superpowers, the US and the USSR, at the time. Jan 04, · Watch video · The Cuban Missile Crisis begins. The Cuban Missile Crisis begins on October 14, , bringing the United States and the Soviet Union to the brink of nuclear conflict.	1,190	ENGLISH	1
Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a highly contagious respiratory disease. It is caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. Pertussis is known for uncontrollable, violent coughing which often makes it hard to breathe. After cough fits, someone with pertussis often needs to take deep breaths, which result in a “whooping” sound. Pertussis can affect people of all ages, but can be very serious, even deadly, for babies less than a year old. Learn why Laura decided to get the whooping cough vaccine in her 3rd trimester of pregnancy and how her baby girl was born with some protection against the disease.	<urn:uuid:514b3431-a60c-44fe-b56c-1236768ffd93>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/?fbclid=IwAR2etIKrYHAJdygGteUe5Ycry8T-df7cghE0jEuXUvMn2q1TXKQDiQu3DKI	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00282.warc.gz	en	0.980256	155	3.5	4	[ 0.09420569986104965, -0.14534799754619598, -0.09928566962480545, -0.14492511749267578, 0.18237192928791046, -0.196186363697052, 0.9335946440696716, 0.36260226368904114, -0.4313308894634247, 0.11887608468532562, -0.2741176187992096, -0.3973979949951172, -0.13895703852176666, 0.1248326599597...	19	Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a highly contagious respiratory disease. It is caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. Pertussis is known for uncontrollable, violent coughing which often makes it hard to breathe. After cough fits, someone with pertussis often needs to take deep breaths, which result in a “whooping” sound. Pertussis can affect people of all ages, but can be very serious, even deadly, for babies less than a year old. Learn why Laura decided to get the whooping cough vaccine in her 3rd trimester of pregnancy and how her baby girl was born with some protection against the disease.	152	ENGLISH	1
At the end of her life, Anne Bradstreet hoped to leave her children with two ideas about religion. One idea was overt in that the Puritan God did not chastise those whom He did not love. When chastising He did that by making a child sick or causing it to die or through financial setbacks. The other idea was covert and suggested that in the New World, the Puritan religion allowed for freedom of ideas and the creation of new gender constructs for men and women. Thus, religion allowed men and women to fully realize their ultimate human potential. Bradstreet recounted her struggle with finding God and her faith through her poetry and in her letter to her children near the end of her days. However, some of her writings suggest she did not follow the most obvious path in being true to her religion. Because she wrote and was published, even though her brother-in-law was the one who had her poems printed, it seemed Bradstreet was not the perfect Puritan woman. And her ideas about religion and humanism seem to be intricately woven with the New World. Through her prose readers get to know how Bradstreet thought about religion, life in the American wilderness, and what legacies she would leave her ancestors on earth. Bradstreet’s religious struggles are clearly evident in her writing. For example, in the poem “In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet who Deceased August 1665, Being a Year and a Half Old,” she wrote she bewailed the child’s loss, but at the poem’s end, she related she understood life and death were controlled by God. It seemed after feeling normal human emotions about a child’s death; she became complacent and relied on explanations for life and death that only He provided. Another aspect of Bradstreet’s religious views appeared in her letter to her children at the end of her life. In that letter, she discussed her efforts to come to terms with the ways in which even Puritans constructed their God. Her doubts are evident because she questioned why the Catholic religion was not the proper one, according to Puritans. She wrote, “They have the same God, the same Christ, the same word. They only interpret it one way, we another” (Baym 109). She questioned the very idea that there needed to be religious differences because all who worship have their sights on the same unseen being. Earlier in her religious life, Bradstreet said she questioned whether or not there was a God at all. Finally, because she lived in the wilderness, she came to understand that God existed because of the evidence of his works. The American landscape was often labeled as sublime, and Bradstreet seems to be no different when witnessing the awesomeness of the New World topography. In essence, she used Native American (or pagan) reasoning to come to realize God existed, even though she does not mention pagan ideas at all. Life in the New World also seems to affect Bradstreet’s religious views covertly concerning how men and women behave. Some of her poems speak of the love she has for her husband. She often wrote that the two were as one, as in the poem “To My Dear and Loving Husband.” But in the Puritan belief system, the woman’s head was the man as Paul in the Book of Ephesians, Chapter 5 verse 22 clearly stated, “Wives, be in subjection to your husbands” (Metzger 277). Bradstreet definitely does not suggest in her writing that she is weaker than her husband, nor she is the “helpmate” God created Eve to be as described in Genesis. Bradstreet steps outside the Puritan prescribed female role construct in two ways. For one, she was published, and, while embarrassed, she did not apologize for it as did Mary Rowlandson was made to do in 1682. Secondly, Bradstreet wrote about being one with her husband. Even though the poem “A Letter to Her Husband, Absent upon Public Employment” begins with the line “My head, my heart, mine eyes,” uses the word head as in she meant her husband was her head. Instead, the poem meant she was still one with her husband (Baym 108). They operated as the same unit through all their body parts and senses. Never does Bradstreet imply she is less than her husband. Her poems suggest a sexual fervor in their coming together as one in the human condition just as religious belief suggests similar emotions people have when meeting with Christ and God in a religious union. The legacies Bradstreet left to her children were ones of intelligence, openness, thoughtfulness, struggle, and triumph. Bradstreet expressed herself intelligently through her words. She opened up her innermost thoughts through poetry and thoughtfully struggled with religion, humanness, and love to come to the conclusion that there was a God. God existed because of His awesome works as evidenced in the New World. God loved those whom he chastised by causing children to die or by causing financial setbacks, as he did Job of the Old Testament. Bradstreet also evidenced that the New World offered new opportunities to love a spouse as one, equally, just as one united with God in the spirit realm. Bradstreet’s prose offers readers an exciting look into womanhood, faith, and love in the Puritan realm of New World in the 1600s. Her legacy she left to her family was one of the most interesting and complex women and the ideas that there was nothing wrong in intelligent, questioning, or human. Baym, Nina, ed The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Seventh Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008. Print. Casper, Scott E., and Richard O. Davies. Five Hundred Years: America in the New World. New York: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2006. Print. Metzger, Bruce. M. and Roland E. Murphy, eds. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal / Deuterocanonical Books. New York: Oxford University Press,	<urn:uuid:c37b411c-d03a-49a8-8f90-ef14248ddee6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/the-religion-attitudes-of-anne-bradstreet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00203.warc.gz	en	0.982183	1,267	3.296875	3	[ -0.19051119685173035, 0.3224415183067322, -0.28458917140960693, -0.2256939709186554, -0.31202948093414307, 0.3514387011528015, -0.10661231726408005, 0.13442936539649963, 0.21536391973495483, 0.14465731382369995, 0.058846063911914825, 0.018177423626184464, 0.13401776552200317, 0.02234683372...	2	At the end of her life, Anne Bradstreet hoped to leave her children with two ideas about religion. One idea was overt in that the Puritan God did not chastise those whom He did not love. When chastising He did that by making a child sick or causing it to die or through financial setbacks. The other idea was covert and suggested that in the New World, the Puritan religion allowed for freedom of ideas and the creation of new gender constructs for men and women. Thus, religion allowed men and women to fully realize their ultimate human potential. Bradstreet recounted her struggle with finding God and her faith through her poetry and in her letter to her children near the end of her days. However, some of her writings suggest she did not follow the most obvious path in being true to her religion. Because she wrote and was published, even though her brother-in-law was the one who had her poems printed, it seemed Bradstreet was not the perfect Puritan woman. And her ideas about religion and humanism seem to be intricately woven with the New World. Through her prose readers get to know how Bradstreet thought about religion, life in the American wilderness, and what legacies she would leave her ancestors on earth. Bradstreet’s religious struggles are clearly evident in her writing. For example, in the poem “In Memory of My Dear Grandchild Elizabeth Bradstreet who Deceased August 1665, Being a Year and a Half Old,” she wrote she bewailed the child’s loss, but at the poem’s end, she related she understood life and death were controlled by God. It seemed after feeling normal human emotions about a child’s death; she became complacent and relied on explanations for life and death that only He provided. Another aspect of Bradstreet’s religious views appeared in her letter to her children at the end of her life. In that letter, she discussed her efforts to come to terms with the ways in which even Puritans constructed their God. Her doubts are evident because she questioned why the Catholic religion was not the proper one, according to Puritans. She wrote, “They have the same God, the same Christ, the same word. They only interpret it one way, we another” (Baym 109). She questioned the very idea that there needed to be religious differences because all who worship have their sights on the same unseen being. Earlier in her religious life, Bradstreet said she questioned whether or not there was a God at all. Finally, because she lived in the wilderness, she came to understand that God existed because of the evidence of his works. The American landscape was often labeled as sublime, and Bradstreet seems to be no different when witnessing the awesomeness of the New World topography. In essence, she used Native American (or pagan) reasoning to come to realize God existed, even though she does not mention pagan ideas at all. Life in the New World also seems to affect Bradstreet’s religious views covertly concerning how men and women behave. Some of her poems speak of the love she has for her husband. She often wrote that the two were as one, as in the poem “To My Dear and Loving Husband.” But in the Puritan belief system, the woman’s head was the man as Paul in the Book of Ephesians, Chapter 5 verse 22 clearly stated, “Wives, be in subjection to your husbands” (Metzger 277). Bradstreet definitely does not suggest in her writing that she is weaker than her husband, nor she is the “helpmate” God created Eve to be as described in Genesis. Bradstreet steps outside the Puritan prescribed female role construct in two ways. For one, she was published, and, while embarrassed, she did not apologize for it as did Mary Rowlandson was made to do in 1682. Secondly, Bradstreet wrote about being one with her husband. Even though the poem “A Letter to Her Husband, Absent upon Public Employment” begins with the line “My head, my heart, mine eyes,” uses the word head as in she meant her husband was her head. Instead, the poem meant she was still one with her husband (Baym 108). They operated as the same unit through all their body parts and senses. Never does Bradstreet imply she is less than her husband. Her poems suggest a sexual fervor in their coming together as one in the human condition just as religious belief suggests similar emotions people have when meeting with Christ and God in a religious union. The legacies Bradstreet left to her children were ones of intelligence, openness, thoughtfulness, struggle, and triumph. Bradstreet expressed herself intelligently through her words. She opened up her innermost thoughts through poetry and thoughtfully struggled with religion, humanness, and love to come to the conclusion that there was a God. God existed because of His awesome works as evidenced in the New World. God loved those whom he chastised by causing children to die or by causing financial setbacks, as he did Job of the Old Testament. Bradstreet also evidenced that the New World offered new opportunities to love a spouse as one, equally, just as one united with God in the spirit realm. Bradstreet’s prose offers readers an exciting look into womanhood, faith, and love in the Puritan realm of New World in the 1600s. Her legacy she left to her family was one of the most interesting and complex women and the ideas that there was nothing wrong in intelligent, questioning, or human. Baym, Nina, ed The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Seventh Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008. Print. Casper, Scott E., and Richard O. Davies. Five Hundred Years: America in the New World. New York: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2006. Print. Metzger, Bruce. M. and Roland E. Murphy, eds. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal / Deuterocanonical Books. New York: Oxford University Press,	1,254	ENGLISH	1
The city of Athens was named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom and knowledge. It was the largest and most powerful state in ancient Greece. Athens controlled the land around it, a large region called Attica, which had valuable sources of silver, lead and marble. The Acropolis, which means 'high point city', was built as a citadel and fortress where the people of Athens could retreat when the city was attacked. It was built on a hill in the middle of the city of Athens and was surrounded by walls. The people of Athens believed their city was the best in the world. They wanted the Acropolis to be as grand as the city itself, so the best architects and sculptors were hired to construct the buildings of the Acropolis. The Parthenon was the most famous building in Athens. It was built on the highest part of the Acropolis and was dedicated to the goddess Athena. It was built in 447 BC and completed in 438 BC. The building was also used to store gold. Athens was first ruled by kings and then by small groups of powerful people called oligarchies. It was later ruled by the people as a democracy. Citizens above the age of 18 were allowed to vote in Athens. Women, slaves and foreigners could not become citizens so it meant that Athens was ruled by men. The agora was the central marketplace in Athens. People came to the agora to meet with friends, discuss politics, as well as buy items from the market. The agora was surrounded by buildings and had a large open area for meetings. Many of the buildings were temples including temples built to Hephaestus, Zeus and Apollo. Government buildings like the Mint, where coins were made, also surrounded the agora.	<urn:uuid:e92f080c-41ab-43c7-ac9f-3dec2d26be1d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/athens	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00458.warc.gz	en	0.995475	358	3.90625	4	[ 0.1524415761232376, 0.148051917552948, 0.2281723916530609, -0.148367777466774, -0.584875226020813, -0.18106314539909363, 0.397524356842041, 0.23648056387901306, -0.24590133130550385, 0.17127832770347595, -0.37439247965812683, -0.3825646638870239, -0.4035203456878662, 0.3981482684612274, ...	2	The city of Athens was named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom and knowledge. It was the largest and most powerful state in ancient Greece. Athens controlled the land around it, a large region called Attica, which had valuable sources of silver, lead and marble. The Acropolis, which means 'high point city', was built as a citadel and fortress where the people of Athens could retreat when the city was attacked. It was built on a hill in the middle of the city of Athens and was surrounded by walls. The people of Athens believed their city was the best in the world. They wanted the Acropolis to be as grand as the city itself, so the best architects and sculptors were hired to construct the buildings of the Acropolis. The Parthenon was the most famous building in Athens. It was built on the highest part of the Acropolis and was dedicated to the goddess Athena. It was built in 447 BC and completed in 438 BC. The building was also used to store gold. Athens was first ruled by kings and then by small groups of powerful people called oligarchies. It was later ruled by the people as a democracy. Citizens above the age of 18 were allowed to vote in Athens. Women, slaves and foreigners could not become citizens so it meant that Athens was ruled by men. The agora was the central marketplace in Athens. People came to the agora to meet with friends, discuss politics, as well as buy items from the market. The agora was surrounded by buildings and had a large open area for meetings. Many of the buildings were temples including temples built to Hephaestus, Zeus and Apollo. Government buildings like the Mint, where coins were made, also surrounded the agora.	355	ENGLISH	1
Polish civilians, including a Catholic priest, are held as hostages awaiting execution by Wehrmacht soldiers following Bloody Sunday (German: Bromberger Blutsonntag); a series of killings of members of the German ethnic minority that took place on 3 September 1939, two days after the beginning of the German invasion of Poland, in and around the city of Bydgoszcz. According to a British witness, a retreating Polish artillery unit was shot at by German saboteurs and ethnic German civilians from within a house; the Poles returned fire and were subsequently shot at from a church. In the ensuing fight both sides suffered casualties; captured German nonuniformed armed insurgents were executed on the spot and some were lynched by mobs. The killings were followed by swift German reprisals. A number of Polish civilians were executed by German military units of the Einsatzgruppen, Waffen-SS, and Wehrmacht. By 8 September 1939, between 200 to 400 Polish civilians had been killed. 876 Poles were tried by German tribunal for involvement in the events of Bloody Sunday before the end of 1939. 87 men and 13 women were sentenced without the right to appeal. Bydgoszcz, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland. September 1939. - 165 108 просмотров	<urn:uuid:8f410591-03dd-4c7a-b09f-f5835a5e4399>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://memoryofmotherland.wordpress.com/2014/01/15/polish-civilians-including-a-catholic-priest-are-held-as-hostages-awaiting-execution-by-wehrmacht-soldiers-following-bloody-sunday/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00161.warc.gz	en	0.986432	283	3.265625	3	[ -0.434967041015625, 0.7481427788734436, -0.40058186650276184, 0.10370171815156937, 0.4758145809173584, -0.0346834622323513, 0.06741754710674286, 0.20873361825942993, -0.3120051622390747, -0.29833799600601196, 0.17398591339588165, -0.11148151755332947, -0.023925846442580223, 0.2273566722869...	1	Polish civilians, including a Catholic priest, are held as hostages awaiting execution by Wehrmacht soldiers following Bloody Sunday (German: Bromberger Blutsonntag); a series of killings of members of the German ethnic minority that took place on 3 September 1939, two days after the beginning of the German invasion of Poland, in and around the city of Bydgoszcz. According to a British witness, a retreating Polish artillery unit was shot at by German saboteurs and ethnic German civilians from within a house; the Poles returned fire and were subsequently shot at from a church. In the ensuing fight both sides suffered casualties; captured German nonuniformed armed insurgents were executed on the spot and some were lynched by mobs. The killings were followed by swift German reprisals. A number of Polish civilians were executed by German military units of the Einsatzgruppen, Waffen-SS, and Wehrmacht. By 8 September 1939, between 200 to 400 Polish civilians had been killed. 876 Poles were tried by German tribunal for involvement in the events of Bloody Sunday before the end of 1939. 87 men and 13 women were sentenced without the right to appeal. Bydgoszcz, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, Poland. September 1939. - 165 108 просмотров	303	ENGLISH	1
The Elizabethan ruff is easily identified - a large, stiff, upright, usually lace collar that, in all honesty, looks uncomfortable and awkward. The Elizabethan collar that dominated fashion during the late 16th and 17th centuries, however, was an indicator of wealth, prestige, and social status. Ruffs became increasingly large and elaborate as methods to create them advanced. Hours were spent looping, ironing, and starching lace and linen into place. Embroidery, jewels, and precious metals were added to heighten the glamour of the ruff. By the late 16th century, what was once a simple collar had transitioned to become the ultimate display of excess. Ruffs in various forms have reappeared through history and continue to be seen on modern runways, now a stylistic embellishment rather than a symbol of Elizabethan society and politics. Although members of the working class wore ruffs, they didn't allow for ease of movement. Certainly, manual labor wasn't possible. Even the wealthiest men and women had difficulty eating while wearing ruffs, often adopting long utensils that extended the length of the neckpiece. Elaborate ruffs were made in part to highlight this impracticality. By wearing large ruffs made out of the finest materials, adorned with lace, and decorated with gold, wearers demonstrated to the world that they didn't have to perform tasks like those undertaken by commoners. Rather, ruff-wearers had servants to do that for them. They also had servants to launder, prepare, and maintain their ruffs, ironing and starching them when needed. The way a ruff affected posture was also part of their significance. While wearing a ruff, men and women had no choice but to keep their heads up, demonstrating confidence and pride. The practice of adding starch to a ruff began in the Low Countries during the mid-1560s. When Mistress Dinghen van der Plasse brought starch to England in 1564, she began training garment makers, English women, and interested parties how to starch their clothes. It was quickly discovered that adding a starch paste to a freshly washed ruff caused it to stand tall. After an initial pasting of starch was applied to pleated fabric - many times colored with some sort of vegetable dye - it was left to dry. Then a second coat was added. With the addition of starch, ruffs got bigger and more elaborate. Wires and other supports were still used, even boards that were hidden behind large folds. When goffering irons were introduced soon after starch, the shapes of ruffs were even more structured. By 1580, ruffs were so large they could extend the width of a nobleman or gentleman's shoulders. Goffered frills, or ruffs, began as an extension of a man's shirt. As the frilly add-ons grew larger and extended further, ruffs were transitioned into a separate accessory piece. Crafted using pleats in figure-eight shapes, ruffs were adopted by women by the early 1560s and were often made out of a mixture of linen and lace. By the 1570s, ruffs could be nothing but lace, held together with pieces of bone, wood, ivory, or steel. Ruffs were usually pinned to one's clothing to hold them in place. Queen Elizabeth was said to have ordered pins by the thousands to accommodate her wardrobe, ruffs included. The added benefit of starch made ruffs even available as stand-alone fashion pieces. Once a ruff was its own entity, it was tied around one's neck with a drawstring or tassels to keep it in place. As ruffs became bigger and stood out further - as far as 12 inches - they represented wealth, social status, and prestige. Ruff collars in Spain were made with numerous of yards of fabric, with one extant collar incorporating 42 yards of linen. In England, the amount of fabric that went into a Tudor ruff varied, with the earliest "cartwheel" or "fan-shaped" ruffs using about 6 yards of fabric. When Lady Cobham wrote to Bess of Hardwick in 1564, she remarked on a garment she was making, indicating how fashion had changed and that "10 yards is enough for the ruffs of the neck and hands." As the 16th century progressed, more and more lace and linen was necessary as ruffs became larger. During the 1580s, 18 yards of material were used with supporting wire, decorative edging, and elaborate ornamentation.	<urn:uuid:fb75e414-7611-4e14-a16e-04c72a568746>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ranker.com/list/history-of-elizabethan-collar/melissa-sartore	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00391.warc.gz	en	0.99001	943	3.640625	4	[ -0.06573347747325897, 0.09115045517683029, 0.3060154914855957, 0.25327378511428833, -0.007302236743271351, 0.069853775203228, -0.0432620644569397, 0.07951623201370239, -0.432272732257843, -0.3798249065876007, 0.40379130840301514, -0.16844123601913452, 0.35854658484458923, -0.20960202813148...	1	The Elizabethan ruff is easily identified - a large, stiff, upright, usually lace collar that, in all honesty, looks uncomfortable and awkward. The Elizabethan collar that dominated fashion during the late 16th and 17th centuries, however, was an indicator of wealth, prestige, and social status. Ruffs became increasingly large and elaborate as methods to create them advanced. Hours were spent looping, ironing, and starching lace and linen into place. Embroidery, jewels, and precious metals were added to heighten the glamour of the ruff. By the late 16th century, what was once a simple collar had transitioned to become the ultimate display of excess. Ruffs in various forms have reappeared through history and continue to be seen on modern runways, now a stylistic embellishment rather than a symbol of Elizabethan society and politics. Although members of the working class wore ruffs, they didn't allow for ease of movement. Certainly, manual labor wasn't possible. Even the wealthiest men and women had difficulty eating while wearing ruffs, often adopting long utensils that extended the length of the neckpiece. Elaborate ruffs were made in part to highlight this impracticality. By wearing large ruffs made out of the finest materials, adorned with lace, and decorated with gold, wearers demonstrated to the world that they didn't have to perform tasks like those undertaken by commoners. Rather, ruff-wearers had servants to do that for them. They also had servants to launder, prepare, and maintain their ruffs, ironing and starching them when needed. The way a ruff affected posture was also part of their significance. While wearing a ruff, men and women had no choice but to keep their heads up, demonstrating confidence and pride. The practice of adding starch to a ruff began in the Low Countries during the mid-1560s. When Mistress Dinghen van der Plasse brought starch to England in 1564, she began training garment makers, English women, and interested parties how to starch their clothes. It was quickly discovered that adding a starch paste to a freshly washed ruff caused it to stand tall. After an initial pasting of starch was applied to pleated fabric - many times colored with some sort of vegetable dye - it was left to dry. Then a second coat was added. With the addition of starch, ruffs got bigger and more elaborate. Wires and other supports were still used, even boards that were hidden behind large folds. When goffering irons were introduced soon after starch, the shapes of ruffs were even more structured. By 1580, ruffs were so large they could extend the width of a nobleman or gentleman's shoulders. Goffered frills, or ruffs, began as an extension of a man's shirt. As the frilly add-ons grew larger and extended further, ruffs were transitioned into a separate accessory piece. Crafted using pleats in figure-eight shapes, ruffs were adopted by women by the early 1560s and were often made out of a mixture of linen and lace. By the 1570s, ruffs could be nothing but lace, held together with pieces of bone, wood, ivory, or steel. Ruffs were usually pinned to one's clothing to hold them in place. Queen Elizabeth was said to have ordered pins by the thousands to accommodate her wardrobe, ruffs included. The added benefit of starch made ruffs even available as stand-alone fashion pieces. Once a ruff was its own entity, it was tied around one's neck with a drawstring or tassels to keep it in place. As ruffs became bigger and stood out further - as far as 12 inches - they represented wealth, social status, and prestige. Ruff collars in Spain were made with numerous of yards of fabric, with one extant collar incorporating 42 yards of linen. In England, the amount of fabric that went into a Tudor ruff varied, with the earliest "cartwheel" or "fan-shaped" ruffs using about 6 yards of fabric. When Lady Cobham wrote to Bess of Hardwick in 1564, she remarked on a garment she was making, indicating how fashion had changed and that "10 yards is enough for the ruffs of the neck and hands." As the 16th century progressed, more and more lace and linen was necessary as ruffs became larger. During the 1580s, 18 yards of material were used with supporting wire, decorative edging, and elaborate ornamentation.	960	ENGLISH	1
Portrait of a soldier Caesar’s centurions No personal account written by an ordinary soldier or junior officer survives for the Civil War. In the surviving narratives only a handful of men from the ranks are even mentioned by name, usually because they performed some conspicuous act of heroism. We know that soldiers were primarily recruited from the poorer classes. In normal circumstances most, if not all, were volunteers, but during civil wars many were probably unwilling conscripts. Soldiering had become a career, but the wages were low, lower than a man could earn as a labourer on the land or as a casual worker in the city. When Caesar doubled the pay of his soldiers, an ordinary legionary still received only 225 denarii (1,000 sesterces) a year. We do not know whether or not there were fixed terms of service, and the traditional maximum of 16 years may still have been in force, although during the civil wars some men served for more than two decades. Active campaigning, especially in a prosperous area, might bring greater rewards in the form of plunder, either taken individually or as the soldier’s share in the booty acquired by the entire army. The most successful generals rewarded their soldiers lavishly. Conditions in the army were basic and the discipline brutal. At the whim of his centurion a man could be flogged, and many other crimes were punishable by death. At the end of their service, soldiers hoped to be provided with some source of livelihood. Usually this meant the grant of a plot of land, which suggests that many recruits were still coming from rural areas.	<urn:uuid:197034fa-8c9b-4753-97b2-6442e10127c8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203494615/chapters/10.4324/9780203494615-11	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00351.warc.gz	en	0.98757	327	4.03125	4	[ -0.335753470659256, 0.4215547442436218, 0.5556149482727051, 0.06014614552259445, -0.04153186455368996, 0.046308934688568115, 0.34770527482032776, 0.03095371648669243, -0.06265433132648468, 0.04038755223155022, 0.24223332107067108, -0.12647409737110138, 0.1343686282634735, 0.242608085274696...	1	Portrait of a soldier Caesar’s centurions No personal account written by an ordinary soldier or junior officer survives for the Civil War. In the surviving narratives only a handful of men from the ranks are even mentioned by name, usually because they performed some conspicuous act of heroism. We know that soldiers were primarily recruited from the poorer classes. In normal circumstances most, if not all, were volunteers, but during civil wars many were probably unwilling conscripts. Soldiering had become a career, but the wages were low, lower than a man could earn as a labourer on the land or as a casual worker in the city. When Caesar doubled the pay of his soldiers, an ordinary legionary still received only 225 denarii (1,000 sesterces) a year. We do not know whether or not there were fixed terms of service, and the traditional maximum of 16 years may still have been in force, although during the civil wars some men served for more than two decades. Active campaigning, especially in a prosperous area, might bring greater rewards in the form of plunder, either taken individually or as the soldier’s share in the booty acquired by the entire army. The most successful generals rewarded their soldiers lavishly. Conditions in the army were basic and the discipline brutal. At the whim of his centurion a man could be flogged, and many other crimes were punishable by death. At the end of their service, soldiers hoped to be provided with some source of livelihood. Usually this meant the grant of a plot of land, which suggests that many recruits were still coming from rural areas.	329	ENGLISH	1
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadewell, Virginia. He grew up in a large family, having 10 brothers and sisters, 2 of which died at birth. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a planter and his mother Jane Randolph was the daughter of a ship’s captain. His first childhood memory was at the age of three, and was about a 50- mile horseback ride he took with his father’s slave, into Virginia wilderness.This journey was undertaken with his family as they moved to a plantation that Jefferson’s father was to manage, acting as executor of a friend’s estate. Along with his parents and three siblings—three other sisters and one brother were later born to the family—Jefferson spent the next six years roaming the woods and studying his book. According to an article titled “Thomas Jefferson,” from the History channel, During the revolutionary war which occcured in 1775 through 1783, Jefferson served in the Virginia legislature and the Continental Congress and was governor of Virginia. He later served as U.S. minister to France and U.S. secretary of state, and was vice president under John Adams (17-1801). Jefferson served in the office as president for 2 terms from 1801 to 1809. In 1800 the US held its 4th presedintial election from October 31st 1800 to December 3, 1800. The article from the history channel titled “Thomas Jefferson is elected,” talked about how Jefferson seemed well-suited to run for president since he drafted the declaration of independence and he had quite a bit of political background. The article said how the canidates of the election were democratic- republicans Jefferson and Aaron Burr and Jefferson. The federalist canidates were John Adams, John Jay, and Charles C. Pickney. After a bloodless however ugly campaign within which candidates and authoritative supporters on each side used the press, usually anonymously, as a forum to fire volleys at one another, then the laborious and confusing method of vote began in April 1800. Individual states scheduled elections at completely different times and though President Jefferson and Burr ran on an equivalent price ticket, as president and vice president severally, the Constitution still demanded votes for every individual to be counted one by one. As a result, by the top of Jan 1801, President Jefferson and Burr emerged tied at seventy three electoral votes each. Adams came in third at sixty five votes. One factor that raised Jefferson’s odds of getting to be President was the general mood of the nation. Amid the Adams administration, open discontent had ascended because of the Alien and Sedition Acts, an immediate duty in 1798, Federalist military arrangements, and the utilization of government troops to pound a minor expense disobedience drove by John Fries in Pennsylvania. Therefore, Jefferson appreciated a considerable amount of mainstream bolster for his restriction to Adams’ arrangements.According to an article called ” Jeffersonian Ideology” written by the Independence Hall Assosiation, “His presidential vision impressively combined philosophic principles with pragmatic effectiveness as a politician. Jefferson’s most fundamental political belief was an “absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority. Stemming from his deep optimism in human reason, Jefferson believed that the will of the people, expressed through elections, provided the most appropriate guidance for directing the republic’s course.” The authorization of The luisianna purchase in 1803 was one of Jefferson’s most well known actions he took place in on terms of domestic policies. On economic policies Jefferson believed that the federal government should be the ones to demonstrate frugality. Although Jefferson was no “blood-soaking” radical, as several of his Federalist opponents had charged, and no reign of terror occurred once he took workplace, variety of a lot of radical Republicans pressured Jefferson and the Republican-dominated Congress to create war on the Federalist judiciary.Thomas jefferson was a cabinet officer for George Washington when he was president, where he was appointed as the secretary of state.	<urn:uuid:c1918430-0810-4cf4-b262-ef05257554cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/thomas-first-childhood-memory-was-at-the-age-of/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00447.warc.gz	en	0.983433	837	3.546875	4	[ -0.05976497381925583, 0.4383052885532379, 0.24325987696647644, -0.5225682854652405, -0.1624055802822113, 0.29437708854675293, 0.046384721994400024, 0.09366123378276825, 0.2938367426395416, 0.264970064163208, 0.24574491381645203, 0.12930738925933838, -0.4780261218547821, -0.1283731907606125...	1	Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadewell, Virginia. He grew up in a large family, having 10 brothers and sisters, 2 of which died at birth. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a planter and his mother Jane Randolph was the daughter of a ship’s captain. His first childhood memory was at the age of three, and was about a 50- mile horseback ride he took with his father’s slave, into Virginia wilderness.This journey was undertaken with his family as they moved to a plantation that Jefferson’s father was to manage, acting as executor of a friend’s estate. Along with his parents and three siblings—three other sisters and one brother were later born to the family—Jefferson spent the next six years roaming the woods and studying his book. According to an article titled “Thomas Jefferson,” from the History channel, During the revolutionary war which occcured in 1775 through 1783, Jefferson served in the Virginia legislature and the Continental Congress and was governor of Virginia. He later served as U.S. minister to France and U.S. secretary of state, and was vice president under John Adams (17-1801). Jefferson served in the office as president for 2 terms from 1801 to 1809. In 1800 the US held its 4th presedintial election from October 31st 1800 to December 3, 1800. The article from the history channel titled “Thomas Jefferson is elected,” talked about how Jefferson seemed well-suited to run for president since he drafted the declaration of independence and he had quite a bit of political background. The article said how the canidates of the election were democratic- republicans Jefferson and Aaron Burr and Jefferson. The federalist canidates were John Adams, John Jay, and Charles C. Pickney. After a bloodless however ugly campaign within which candidates and authoritative supporters on each side used the press, usually anonymously, as a forum to fire volleys at one another, then the laborious and confusing method of vote began in April 1800. Individual states scheduled elections at completely different times and though President Jefferson and Burr ran on an equivalent price ticket, as president and vice president severally, the Constitution still demanded votes for every individual to be counted one by one. As a result, by the top of Jan 1801, President Jefferson and Burr emerged tied at seventy three electoral votes each. Adams came in third at sixty five votes. One factor that raised Jefferson’s odds of getting to be President was the general mood of the nation. Amid the Adams administration, open discontent had ascended because of the Alien and Sedition Acts, an immediate duty in 1798, Federalist military arrangements, and the utilization of government troops to pound a minor expense disobedience drove by John Fries in Pennsylvania. Therefore, Jefferson appreciated a considerable amount of mainstream bolster for his restriction to Adams’ arrangements.According to an article called ” Jeffersonian Ideology” written by the Independence Hall Assosiation, “His presidential vision impressively combined philosophic principles with pragmatic effectiveness as a politician. Jefferson’s most fundamental political belief was an “absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the majority. Stemming from his deep optimism in human reason, Jefferson believed that the will of the people, expressed through elections, provided the most appropriate guidance for directing the republic’s course.” The authorization of The luisianna purchase in 1803 was one of Jefferson’s most well known actions he took place in on terms of domestic policies. On economic policies Jefferson believed that the federal government should be the ones to demonstrate frugality. Although Jefferson was no “blood-soaking” radical, as several of his Federalist opponents had charged, and no reign of terror occurred once he took workplace, variety of a lot of radical Republicans pressured Jefferson and the Republican-dominated Congress to create war on the Federalist judiciary.Thomas jefferson was a cabinet officer for George Washington when he was president, where he was appointed as the secretary of state.	858	ENGLISH	1
World War II The 1940s Brought Great Upheaval to Dalat School, a Small School for Missionary Children in the Highlands of French Indochina (Now Vietnam) After the Fall of France during World War II, French Indochina was administered by the French Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. The Vichy government placed missionaries and Dalat students under house arrest for three months. Later in 1943, they were transferred to a Japanese internment camp in a city south of Saigon until the end of the war two years later. Franklin Irwin (brother of Dalat’s first student, George Irwin), who was a high school student at that time, said classes never stopped. His teacher taught him in the morning, and he taught the younger children in the afternoon. Bernard Jackson: Nothing Wasted After World War II ended, the school returned to the Villa Alliance campus in Da Lat. However, war and instability continued in French Indochina as the Viet Minh, the Communist army led by Hồ Chí Minh, fought against French occupation of the colony. This conflict would continue for eight years, until independence for Vietnam was declared. For Bernard Jackson, discovering a life calling wasn’t instantaneous. Rather, it was a slow and steady unveiling, with clues pieced together over time. Early on, it was difficult for Bernard to appreciate his unique upbringing — born in French Indochina in 1927, the third of four sons to U.S. citizens Richmond and Hazel Jackson, and growing up as a “missionary kid.” At the time, the challenges of cross-cultural living weren’t understood. Young children were separated from their parents to attend school, either returning to their home country or going to boarding school. And the region was plagued by political instability. Despite these hardships, hope shined through. “I’ve learned that in God’s economy, nothing is wasted,” Bernard wrote in an autobiographical essay. “I stand in awe of the kind of commitment that my parents and other missionaries made and lived out in their daily lives.” At age 6, Bernard began his education at Dalat School, traveling 1,000 miles away from home by train. It was a deeply painful separation but soothed by Bernard’s discovery that Dalat was a “loving and excellent school,” he wrote. And his dorm parents there were his Uncle Herbert and Aunt Lydia Jackson. They were Bernard’s blood-related uncle and aunt, although all of the students at Dalat called them “uncle” and “aunty.” A particularly vivid memory involved “Uncle Herb” teaching anatomy to older students by dissecting a deer after the younger kids had gone to bed. That experience, along with Bernard’s observations of a kind French doctor working with local patients, began attracting him toward the healthcare field. In late 1940, Japanese forces began invading the northern part of French Indochina. By the following summer, they expanded to the south — the area where Dalat School was located. Bernard began high school at Dalat that fall, but his parents soon decided to send him to the United States to finish high school. In October 1941, Bernard left French Indochina without his parents (traveling with another missionary family). For the next year, as World War II escalated, Bernard didn’t know if his parents were alive or dead. Finally, in his high school senior year, Bernard was reunited in the U.S. with his parents and younger brother, who had been imprisoned by the Japanese. With the war in full force and patriotism permeating the country, Bernard joined the U.S. Navy after completing high school. In his three years there, Bernard learned about nursing, operating room technique, working in a medical lab, and pharmaceuticals. Once he was released from the Navy, he was finally able to pursue the healthcare field he discovered God had called him to — dentistry. “There is no doubt in my mind that God, knowing my personality, temperament, and gifts, led me into dentistry,” Bernard wrote. “Deep satisfaction came to me as a result of knowing that I was involved in the physical healing process of those who come to my office with pain, but an even greater joy came with I was involved with a spiritual healing. …I went to my office each morning expectant and eager to see how God would work in the hearts of my patients that day.” For 30 years, that office was in Round Rock, Texas, where Bernard lived with his wife Joan. Together they raised four children: Peggy, Steven, Lora, and Melinda. And together they served missionally to touch the lives of all those who entered Bernard’s dental practice. After retiring, Bernard wrote: “As I look back…it is easy to see how God, always at work, was molding and making me into a man whom He could use. Nothing was wasted. My God saved me to serve Him.” In 2013, Bernard passed away at the age of 85.	<urn:uuid:b16f73e5-f115-4610-8911-d9f6f7011526>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dalat.org/web/da-schoolhistory1940s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00137.warc.gz	en	0.984571	1,095	3.609375	4	[ 0.025941520929336548, 0.4948011040687561, 0.1588859260082245, -0.533883810043335, 0.05511293560266495, 0.027962762862443924, -0.502496600151062, 0.38875341415405273, 0.09026477485895157, -0.09604064375162125, 0.5561866760253906, 0.06100020930171013, 0.6147936582565308, 0.7382592558860779, ...	5	World War II The 1940s Brought Great Upheaval to Dalat School, a Small School for Missionary Children in the Highlands of French Indochina (Now Vietnam) After the Fall of France during World War II, French Indochina was administered by the French Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. The Vichy government placed missionaries and Dalat students under house arrest for three months. Later in 1943, they were transferred to a Japanese internment camp in a city south of Saigon until the end of the war two years later. Franklin Irwin (brother of Dalat’s first student, George Irwin), who was a high school student at that time, said classes never stopped. His teacher taught him in the morning, and he taught the younger children in the afternoon. Bernard Jackson: Nothing Wasted After World War II ended, the school returned to the Villa Alliance campus in Da Lat. However, war and instability continued in French Indochina as the Viet Minh, the Communist army led by Hồ Chí Minh, fought against French occupation of the colony. This conflict would continue for eight years, until independence for Vietnam was declared. For Bernard Jackson, discovering a life calling wasn’t instantaneous. Rather, it was a slow and steady unveiling, with clues pieced together over time. Early on, it was difficult for Bernard to appreciate his unique upbringing — born in French Indochina in 1927, the third of four sons to U.S. citizens Richmond and Hazel Jackson, and growing up as a “missionary kid.” At the time, the challenges of cross-cultural living weren’t understood. Young children were separated from their parents to attend school, either returning to their home country or going to boarding school. And the region was plagued by political instability. Despite these hardships, hope shined through. “I’ve learned that in God’s economy, nothing is wasted,” Bernard wrote in an autobiographical essay. “I stand in awe of the kind of commitment that my parents and other missionaries made and lived out in their daily lives.” At age 6, Bernard began his education at Dalat School, traveling 1,000 miles away from home by train. It was a deeply painful separation but soothed by Bernard’s discovery that Dalat was a “loving and excellent school,” he wrote. And his dorm parents there were his Uncle Herbert and Aunt Lydia Jackson. They were Bernard’s blood-related uncle and aunt, although all of the students at Dalat called them “uncle” and “aunty.” A particularly vivid memory involved “Uncle Herb” teaching anatomy to older students by dissecting a deer after the younger kids had gone to bed. That experience, along with Bernard’s observations of a kind French doctor working with local patients, began attracting him toward the healthcare field. In late 1940, Japanese forces began invading the northern part of French Indochina. By the following summer, they expanded to the south — the area where Dalat School was located. Bernard began high school at Dalat that fall, but his parents soon decided to send him to the United States to finish high school. In October 1941, Bernard left French Indochina without his parents (traveling with another missionary family). For the next year, as World War II escalated, Bernard didn’t know if his parents were alive or dead. Finally, in his high school senior year, Bernard was reunited in the U.S. with his parents and younger brother, who had been imprisoned by the Japanese. With the war in full force and patriotism permeating the country, Bernard joined the U.S. Navy after completing high school. In his three years there, Bernard learned about nursing, operating room technique, working in a medical lab, and pharmaceuticals. Once he was released from the Navy, he was finally able to pursue the healthcare field he discovered God had called him to — dentistry. “There is no doubt in my mind that God, knowing my personality, temperament, and gifts, led me into dentistry,” Bernard wrote. “Deep satisfaction came to me as a result of knowing that I was involved in the physical healing process of those who come to my office with pain, but an even greater joy came with I was involved with a spiritual healing. …I went to my office each morning expectant and eager to see how God would work in the hearts of my patients that day.” For 30 years, that office was in Round Rock, Texas, where Bernard lived with his wife Joan. Together they raised four children: Peggy, Steven, Lora, and Melinda. And together they served missionally to touch the lives of all those who entered Bernard’s dental practice. After retiring, Bernard wrote: “As I look back…it is easy to see how God, always at work, was molding and making me into a man whom He could use. Nothing was wasted. My God saved me to serve Him.” In 2013, Bernard passed away at the age of 85.	1,056	ENGLISH	1
Kelly Miller Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Kelly Miller was an African-American mathematician, sociologist, activist, author, and professor. Kelly Miller was born in the town of Winnsboro, South Carolina, on July 18, 1863. His father, Kelly Miller Senior, was a freed black man. His mother, Elizabeth, was a former slave. He had nine siblings. Miller started his education in the local primary school in Winnsboro. After that, he studied at Dunbar High School. He then spent three years at the Fairfield Institute. He earned a scholarship for Howard University, where he studied mathematics, Latin, and Greek. He earned his degree in 1886. He then spent some time studying advanced mathematics with the English scientist Edgar Frisby. He also met the scientist Simon Newcomb. The two of them recommended him to Johns Hopkins University. He went there from 1887 to 1889 and he studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. He was the university’s first African-American student. He had to drop out before graduation because he had financial problems. In 1903, he earned a law degree from the Howard University School of Law. In 1889, Miller started teaching mathematics at the M Street High School in D. C. The next year, he became a mathematics professor at Howard University. In 1895, he also became a sociology professor. From 1907 to 1919, he served as dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. During this time, he modernized the curriculum and he added many new courses. He was focused on recruiting new students. He also worked on building a Negro-American library and museum. In 1919, he became the dean of a new junior college. Miller was involved in organizations and movements that promoted the rights of African Americans. His political views were moderate – neither conservative nor radical. He was one of the most active and prominent members of the American Negro Academy. In 1917, he wrote an open letter to President Woodrow Wilson against lynching. In 1924, he was chosen as the head of a civil rights conference in Chicago, called Negro Sanhedrin. Miller often wrote essays and articles. They were featured in over a hundred magazines, such as Educational Review, The Journal of Social Science, and many others. He helped edit The Crisis - the journal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. He worked on papers and sociological and historical researches. He also wrote and published his own books, including Race Adjustment and Kelly Miller’s History of the World War for Human Rights. Miller’s wife was named Annie May Butler. They had two daughters, named May and Irene, and three sons, named Kelly, Paul, and Isaac Newton. Kelly Miller passed away on December 29, 1939, on the campus of Howard University. He was 76 years old. A middle school and a housing development in Washington D. C. were named after Kelly Miller. Felix Christian Klein Elbert Frank Cox	<urn:uuid:231af746-2312-48d1-8a00-1c44e51b5acb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/kelly-miller/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00086.warc.gz	en	0.984572	622	3.28125	3	[ -0.2439618855714798, 0.31127387285232544, 0.4603798985481262, 0.2761353850364685, -0.23976896703243256, 0.1443597674369812, 0.4682561159133911, 0.04294491559267044, -0.22873950004577637, -0.22287310659885406, -0.510330319404602, 0.2656881511211395, 0.06791870296001434, 0.21016791462898254,...	1	Kelly Miller Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Kelly Miller was an African-American mathematician, sociologist, activist, author, and professor. Kelly Miller was born in the town of Winnsboro, South Carolina, on July 18, 1863. His father, Kelly Miller Senior, was a freed black man. His mother, Elizabeth, was a former slave. He had nine siblings. Miller started his education in the local primary school in Winnsboro. After that, he studied at Dunbar High School. He then spent three years at the Fairfield Institute. He earned a scholarship for Howard University, where he studied mathematics, Latin, and Greek. He earned his degree in 1886. He then spent some time studying advanced mathematics with the English scientist Edgar Frisby. He also met the scientist Simon Newcomb. The two of them recommended him to Johns Hopkins University. He went there from 1887 to 1889 and he studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy. He was the university’s first African-American student. He had to drop out before graduation because he had financial problems. In 1903, he earned a law degree from the Howard University School of Law. In 1889, Miller started teaching mathematics at the M Street High School in D. C. The next year, he became a mathematics professor at Howard University. In 1895, he also became a sociology professor. From 1907 to 1919, he served as dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. During this time, he modernized the curriculum and he added many new courses. He was focused on recruiting new students. He also worked on building a Negro-American library and museum. In 1919, he became the dean of a new junior college. Miller was involved in organizations and movements that promoted the rights of African Americans. His political views were moderate – neither conservative nor radical. He was one of the most active and prominent members of the American Negro Academy. In 1917, he wrote an open letter to President Woodrow Wilson against lynching. In 1924, he was chosen as the head of a civil rights conference in Chicago, called Negro Sanhedrin. Miller often wrote essays and articles. They were featured in over a hundred magazines, such as Educational Review, The Journal of Social Science, and many others. He helped edit The Crisis - the journal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. He worked on papers and sociological and historical researches. He also wrote and published his own books, including Race Adjustment and Kelly Miller’s History of the World War for Human Rights. Miller’s wife was named Annie May Butler. They had two daughters, named May and Irene, and three sons, named Kelly, Paul, and Isaac Newton. Kelly Miller passed away on December 29, 1939, on the campus of Howard University. He was 76 years old. A middle school and a housing development in Washington D. C. were named after Kelly Miller. Felix Christian Klein Elbert Frank Cox	656	ENGLISH	1
The Greek Civilization as a whole was very successful and had many positive qualities that helped them achieve their goals throughout the period of which they possessed so much power and high standing. If I had to take into account all the different aspects of their own civilization (Geography, Food Source, Culture, Permanent Settlements, Government, Economy) I would rate them on a scale of one to ten, ten being the highest, and give them an eight. The Greek Civilization has earned this rating because every different aspect of their society had excelled beyond the other societies living in their era. For example, the Greeks were the first to experiment successfully with the idea that citizens could govern themselves which was known as being a Democracy. This was an idea that the United States and many other countries have adopted and refined. . Greece kept themselves organized by forming settlements which were called city states or Polises. These "mini towns" all had the same aspects in common with each other. Each had an Acropolis (a hill in the center of town with other temples and buildings), a small population, very small acreage, and a market or "Agora." Using this system, Greece was able to keep very well organized and stay successful for a large number of years. Greeks used the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Ionian seas to their advantage. Fish was their main food source as well as other seafood. Sheep was the meat eaten most. The main grains they harvested were wheat and barley. Greece had the perfect climate to grow olives on olive trees. Grapes too, were harvested. As you can see, all of this food mentioned is very healthy and this is one reason why Greeks lived so long and stayed so healthy. Some people today even say eating fish makes you smarter. In this case, I"d have to agree with that saying since the Greeks proved themselves to be very intelligent people who came up with many ideas and philosophies we still use today.	<urn:uuid:c91498e2-1028-4dd7-a4bc-0712cab5d82d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/71547.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00534.warc.gz	en	0.992634	395	3.359375	3	[ -0.1480000913143158, 0.3515233099460602, 0.4135015308856964, -0.27669769525527954, -0.2731572985649109, -0.5507972240447998, 0.07955175638198853, 0.6239529848098755, -0.278483122587204, 0.10692964494228363, -0.4896068572998047, -0.4023585915565491, 0.0334848128259182, 0.29049763083457947, ...	1	The Greek Civilization as a whole was very successful and had many positive qualities that helped them achieve their goals throughout the period of which they possessed so much power and high standing. If I had to take into account all the different aspects of their own civilization (Geography, Food Source, Culture, Permanent Settlements, Government, Economy) I would rate them on a scale of one to ten, ten being the highest, and give them an eight. The Greek Civilization has earned this rating because every different aspect of their society had excelled beyond the other societies living in their era. For example, the Greeks were the first to experiment successfully with the idea that citizens could govern themselves which was known as being a Democracy. This was an idea that the United States and many other countries have adopted and refined. . Greece kept themselves organized by forming settlements which were called city states or Polises. These "mini towns" all had the same aspects in common with each other. Each had an Acropolis (a hill in the center of town with other temples and buildings), a small population, very small acreage, and a market or "Agora." Using this system, Greece was able to keep very well organized and stay successful for a large number of years. Greeks used the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Ionian seas to their advantage. Fish was their main food source as well as other seafood. Sheep was the meat eaten most. The main grains they harvested were wheat and barley. Greece had the perfect climate to grow olives on olive trees. Grapes too, were harvested. As you can see, all of this food mentioned is very healthy and this is one reason why Greeks lived so long and stayed so healthy. Some people today even say eating fish makes you smarter. In this case, I"d have to agree with that saying since the Greeks proved themselves to be very intelligent people who came up with many ideas and philosophies we still use today.	393	ENGLISH	1
The leading cause of death of children between the ages of 4 and 14 is automobile accidents. Since March of 1998, four major manufacturers of child safety seats have announced five recalls that involved nearly 10 million car seats that were determined to be unsafe by federal regulators. According to a recent survey, the use of child safety seat restraints is misused in 73% of the traffic accidents. Defective child restraints, such as car seats and booster seats, can lead to serious injury and even death. Children need special protection when they ride in motor vehicles. This is because their bodies are more delicate than ours, and, therefore, more susceptible to injury. Children are small, and their musculo -skeletal systems are not fully developed. Their skulls are more fragile, and their heads are larger. In order to protect them in a car, we must be aware of these physical differences. We must also recognize that vehicle seats and safety belts were built for the comfort and protection of adults, and not to secure small children. When children are properly restrained in a vehicle, their chance of being seriously injured or killed in a highway crash is greatly reduced.	<urn:uuid:f574b85f-909f-4964-a64a-f2307e2d23db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lawsofmalta.com/2019/12/06/children-need-special-protection-when-they-ride-in-motor-vehicles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00226.warc.gz	en	0.983862	231	3.421875	3	[ -0.02349250018596649, -0.25585564970970154, 0.27079465985298157, -0.43405500054359436, -0.37283357977867126, 0.6391433477401733, 0.3930031955242157, 0.6761537790298462, -0.1421259194612503, -0.09752558171749115, 0.08760371804237366, -0.0456555113196373, -0.02852369099855423, 0.472189933061...	4	The leading cause of death of children between the ages of 4 and 14 is automobile accidents. Since March of 1998, four major manufacturers of child safety seats have announced five recalls that involved nearly 10 million car seats that were determined to be unsafe by federal regulators. According to a recent survey, the use of child safety seat restraints is misused in 73% of the traffic accidents. Defective child restraints, such as car seats and booster seats, can lead to serious injury and even death. Children need special protection when they ride in motor vehicles. This is because their bodies are more delicate than ours, and, therefore, more susceptible to injury. Children are small, and their musculo -skeletal systems are not fully developed. Their skulls are more fragile, and their heads are larger. In order to protect them in a car, we must be aware of these physical differences. We must also recognize that vehicle seats and safety belts were built for the comfort and protection of adults, and not to secure small children. When children are properly restrained in a vehicle, their chance of being seriously injured or killed in a highway crash is greatly reduced.	240	ENGLISH	1
The discovery of payable quantities of gold in late 1864 sent miners swarming across the area between Greymouth and Hokitika, with rushes further south to Ross, Ōkārito, Gillespies Beach and Bruce Bay. The tide changed in early 1866, with rushes northwards to Brighton (near Fox River), Charleston, the Grey Valley and the coastal area north of Westport. The West Coast’s peak production of gold – more than 15 tonnes – occurred in 1866–67, and yields declined rapidly thereafter. During this period most of the claims were small. Equipment was relatively primitive, and sluicing was small-scale. The easily won alluvial gold was soon exhausted, and sluicing and dredging on a larger scale was needed to find gold. Miner’s phthisis (silicosis) was one of the most dreaded hazards of working in the quartz mines near Reefton. Inhaling quartz dust over a time led to breathing problems that were often fatal. The Miners Phthisis Act 1915 provided some financial compensation, and gradually led to improved working conditions. The discovery of gold-bearing quartz veins led to the opening of hard-rock mines in the Reefton–Lyell area. Ore obtained from the mines was transported out of the mine and crushed in a stamper battery to recover the gold. During a dredging boom in the early 1900s there were 40–50 dredges on the West Coast, but these had largely disappeared by the First World War. Larger electric dredges were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, often with overseas capital. The West Coast is the only part of New Zealand where high-quality bituminous coal is found. The main coalfields (Greymouth, Reefton and Buller) had been discovered by the early 1860s, and production was soon underway. There was a strong demand for bituminous coal as fuel for steamships, railway locomotives and industrial boilers, as well as for coal gas production. In the early 1900s the German navy was concerned about the wartime supply of high-quality coal for their warships in the Pacific Ocean. They identified the Buller coalfield as a possible source, and suggested that in an emergency it might be necessary to occupy Westport and the surrounding area. Fortunately these plans were never put into action. The quality of West Coast coal got worldwide publicity in 1889 when the Calliope, a British warship, was the only one of seven warships to survive a hurricane in Apia harbour, Samoa. Using coal from Denniston, it was fired up quickly and able to escape from the harbour. The Westport Coal Company featured this incident in their advertising for the next 50 years. West Coast coal production reached 1 million tonnes in 1907, and fluctuated around that level for the next 50 years. Because the price of gold was fixed for much of the 20th century, gold mining gradually became less profitable. The last underground mine closed in 1951, and after that there was only small production from a single dredge. The demand for bituminous coal decreased from the mid-1950s as ships and trains switched to oil, coal gas was replaced by natural gas and electricity, and less coal was used for household heating. The price of gold was allowed to float from 1973 and rapidly rose, leading to increased interest in gold mining. Many small alluvial operations were able to work ground that had previously been inaccessible or lacked water. A dredge in the Grey Valley worked river flats in the 1990s. After several years of prospecting and drilling, OceanaGold started producing ore from a large, hard-rock opencast pit near Reefton in 2007. The partly processed ore was transported by rail to Otago, where the gold was extracted. The Reefton mine closed in 2016, having produced 610,000 ounces of gold. From the 1990s there was a revival in coal production. High-quality bituminous coal from the West Coast was in demand overseas, particularly for specialised smelter operations. By 2013 annual coal production was 2.5 million tonnes, most of which was exported. Pike River mine disaster The Pike River underground coal mine on the Paparoa Range was opened by Pike River Coal in 2008. On 19 November 2010 a massive explosion occurred in the mine. Twenty-nine men working in the pit at the bottom were killed. Two men survived the explosion because they were in an access tunnel some distance from the pit. Rescue teams were prevented from entering the mine because the situation was too dangerous, and a second explosion occurred on 24 November. The Royal Commission on the Pike River Coal Mine Tragedy was established in 2010 to investigate the tragedy. Pike River Coal went into receivership, and the mine was bought by the state-owned Solid Energy in 2012. Solid Energy decided not to retrieve the bodies because it considered the mine remained too dangerous to enter. Some families objected to this decision and the tragedy remained a source of bitterness for many West Coasters. Solid Energy went into liquidation in 2018. In the same year, the government decided that an attempt would be made to re-enter the mine.	<urn:uuid:b71cc9ba-02c5-40d5-8f5e-85327efc68dd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://admin.teara.govt.nz/en/west-coast-region/page-9	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00350.warc.gz	en	0.981655	1,078	3.78125	4	[ -0.09580832719802856, 0.09766732156276703, 0.21241377294063568, 0.12147487699985504, 0.025104019790887833, -0.0025279573164880276, -0.2106328010559082, 0.11038360744714737, -0.5713788270950317, 0.051660552620887756, 0.47485604882240295, -0.6515076160430908, -0.09588398039340973, 0.33225846...	2	The discovery of payable quantities of gold in late 1864 sent miners swarming across the area between Greymouth and Hokitika, with rushes further south to Ross, Ōkārito, Gillespies Beach and Bruce Bay. The tide changed in early 1866, with rushes northwards to Brighton (near Fox River), Charleston, the Grey Valley and the coastal area north of Westport. The West Coast’s peak production of gold – more than 15 tonnes – occurred in 1866–67, and yields declined rapidly thereafter. During this period most of the claims were small. Equipment was relatively primitive, and sluicing was small-scale. The easily won alluvial gold was soon exhausted, and sluicing and dredging on a larger scale was needed to find gold. Miner’s phthisis (silicosis) was one of the most dreaded hazards of working in the quartz mines near Reefton. Inhaling quartz dust over a time led to breathing problems that were often fatal. The Miners Phthisis Act 1915 provided some financial compensation, and gradually led to improved working conditions. The discovery of gold-bearing quartz veins led to the opening of hard-rock mines in the Reefton–Lyell area. Ore obtained from the mines was transported out of the mine and crushed in a stamper battery to recover the gold. During a dredging boom in the early 1900s there were 40–50 dredges on the West Coast, but these had largely disappeared by the First World War. Larger electric dredges were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, often with overseas capital. The West Coast is the only part of New Zealand where high-quality bituminous coal is found. The main coalfields (Greymouth, Reefton and Buller) had been discovered by the early 1860s, and production was soon underway. There was a strong demand for bituminous coal as fuel for steamships, railway locomotives and industrial boilers, as well as for coal gas production. In the early 1900s the German navy was concerned about the wartime supply of high-quality coal for their warships in the Pacific Ocean. They identified the Buller coalfield as a possible source, and suggested that in an emergency it might be necessary to occupy Westport and the surrounding area. Fortunately these plans were never put into action. The quality of West Coast coal got worldwide publicity in 1889 when the Calliope, a British warship, was the only one of seven warships to survive a hurricane in Apia harbour, Samoa. Using coal from Denniston, it was fired up quickly and able to escape from the harbour. The Westport Coal Company featured this incident in their advertising for the next 50 years. West Coast coal production reached 1 million tonnes in 1907, and fluctuated around that level for the next 50 years. Because the price of gold was fixed for much of the 20th century, gold mining gradually became less profitable. The last underground mine closed in 1951, and after that there was only small production from a single dredge. The demand for bituminous coal decreased from the mid-1950s as ships and trains switched to oil, coal gas was replaced by natural gas and electricity, and less coal was used for household heating. The price of gold was allowed to float from 1973 and rapidly rose, leading to increased interest in gold mining. Many small alluvial operations were able to work ground that had previously been inaccessible or lacked water. A dredge in the Grey Valley worked river flats in the 1990s. After several years of prospecting and drilling, OceanaGold started producing ore from a large, hard-rock opencast pit near Reefton in 2007. The partly processed ore was transported by rail to Otago, where the gold was extracted. The Reefton mine closed in 2016, having produced 610,000 ounces of gold. From the 1990s there was a revival in coal production. High-quality bituminous coal from the West Coast was in demand overseas, particularly for specialised smelter operations. By 2013 annual coal production was 2.5 million tonnes, most of which was exported. Pike River mine disaster The Pike River underground coal mine on the Paparoa Range was opened by Pike River Coal in 2008. On 19 November 2010 a massive explosion occurred in the mine. Twenty-nine men working in the pit at the bottom were killed. Two men survived the explosion because they were in an access tunnel some distance from the pit. Rescue teams were prevented from entering the mine because the situation was too dangerous, and a second explosion occurred on 24 November. The Royal Commission on the Pike River Coal Mine Tragedy was established in 2010 to investigate the tragedy. Pike River Coal went into receivership, and the mine was bought by the state-owned Solid Energy in 2012. Solid Energy decided not to retrieve the bodies because it considered the mine remained too dangerous to enter. Some families objected to this decision and the tragedy remained a source of bitterness for many West Coasters. Solid Energy went into liquidation in 2018. In the same year, the government decided that an attempt would be made to re-enter the mine.	1,158	ENGLISH	1
Bhagat Singh is one of the well-known Indian Freedom Fighters whose contribution in getting freedom for India against British Rule was significant. He is also addressed as Shaheed (Hindi Language word) Bhagat Singh which means martyr, Bhagat Singh. He was imbued from childhood with the family’s spirit of patriotism. The early life of Bhagat Singh Bhagat Singh was born on 27 September 1907 at Banga in Lyallpur district. This place is in Pakistan now. His father name was Kishan Singh and mother was Vidya Vati. When he was born, his father Kishan Singh was in jail. His uncle, Sardar Ajit Singh, established the Indian Patriots’ Association. Ajit Singh had 22 cases against him and was forced to flee to Iran. He was considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian Nationalist Movement. He became involved with numerous revolutionary organizations. During teenage, he was a great follower of Mahatma Gandhi. He started following the Non-Cooperation Movement called by Mahatma Gandhi. He had openly defied the British and had followed Gandhi’s wishes by burning the government-sponsored books. Due to violent incidents of “Chauri Chaura”, Gandhi called for the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement. But he was unhappy with his decision. So, he isolated himself from Gandhi’s nonviolent action and joined the Young Revolutionary Movement. Rejection to Marriage: His parents planned to get him married when he was pursuing B.A. examination. But he rejected the suggestion and said that, if his marriage was to take place in Slave-India, my bride shall be only death.” He later joined the Hindustan Republican Association, a radical group, later known as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. He returned to his home in Lahore after assurances from his parents that he would not be compelled to get married. Murdering J.P. Saunders: On 30 October 1928, an all-parties procession, led by Lala Lajpat Rai, marched towards the Lahore railway station to protest against the arrival of the Simon Commission. To stop the procession, police made a lathi charge (hitting with the police stick) at the activists. The confrontation left Lala Lajpat Rai with severe injuries which led to his death. As revenge to the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh and his associates plotted the assassination of Scott, the Superintendent of Police, believed to have ordered the lathi charge. The revolutionaries, mistaking J.P. Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police, as Scott, killed him instead. Bhagat Singh quickly left Lahore to escape his arrest. To avoid recognition, he shaved his beard and cut his hair, a violation of the sacred tenets of Sikhism. Bomb explosion at assembly: In response to the formulation of Defence of India Act, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association planned to explode a bomb inside the assembly premises, where the ordinance was going to be passed. On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb onto the corridors of the assembly and shouted ‘Inquilab Zindabad!’ The bomb was not meant to kill or injure anyone and, therefore, it was thrown away from the crowded place. Following the blasts, both Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt courted arrest Death of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru: The British authority, while interrogating them, came to know about their involvement in the murder of J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were charged with the murder. Singh admitted to the murder and made statements against the British rule during the trial. He along with other revolutionaries found responsible for the Assembly bombing and murder of Saunders. On March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh was hanged in Lahore with his fellow comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev. Singh was cremated at Hussainiwala on banks of Sutlej river. There are several movies released on the life story of Bhagat Singh. If you want to know more about him, must watch those movies.	<urn:uuid:63d0d1bd-771f-4313-9b9f-d044e91140cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://catchupdates.com/shaheed-bhagat-singh-biography-real-epitome-patriotism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00394.warc.gz	en	0.983074	889	3.359375	3	[ -0.2586696147918701, 0.5338318347930908, -0.34329891204833984, -0.3411693274974823, -0.5024597644805908, -0.1155005395412445, 0.7443841099739075, 0.09508663415908813, 0.07839056849479675, -0.03665768355131149, 0.0792645663022995, -0.31180620193481445, 0.15639051795005798, -0.00691965408623...	6	Bhagat Singh is one of the well-known Indian Freedom Fighters whose contribution in getting freedom for India against British Rule was significant. He is also addressed as Shaheed (Hindi Language word) Bhagat Singh which means martyr, Bhagat Singh. He was imbued from childhood with the family’s spirit of patriotism. The early life of Bhagat Singh Bhagat Singh was born on 27 September 1907 at Banga in Lyallpur district. This place is in Pakistan now. His father name was Kishan Singh and mother was Vidya Vati. When he was born, his father Kishan Singh was in jail. His uncle, Sardar Ajit Singh, established the Indian Patriots’ Association. Ajit Singh had 22 cases against him and was forced to flee to Iran. He was considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian Nationalist Movement. He became involved with numerous revolutionary organizations. During teenage, he was a great follower of Mahatma Gandhi. He started following the Non-Cooperation Movement called by Mahatma Gandhi. He had openly defied the British and had followed Gandhi’s wishes by burning the government-sponsored books. Due to violent incidents of “Chauri Chaura”, Gandhi called for the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement. But he was unhappy with his decision. So, he isolated himself from Gandhi’s nonviolent action and joined the Young Revolutionary Movement. Rejection to Marriage: His parents planned to get him married when he was pursuing B.A. examination. But he rejected the suggestion and said that, if his marriage was to take place in Slave-India, my bride shall be only death.” He later joined the Hindustan Republican Association, a radical group, later known as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. He returned to his home in Lahore after assurances from his parents that he would not be compelled to get married. Murdering J.P. Saunders: On 30 October 1928, an all-parties procession, led by Lala Lajpat Rai, marched towards the Lahore railway station to protest against the arrival of the Simon Commission. To stop the procession, police made a lathi charge (hitting with the police stick) at the activists. The confrontation left Lala Lajpat Rai with severe injuries which led to his death. As revenge to the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Bhagat Singh and his associates plotted the assassination of Scott, the Superintendent of Police, believed to have ordered the lathi charge. The revolutionaries, mistaking J.P. Saunders, an Assistant Superintendent of Police, as Scott, killed him instead. Bhagat Singh quickly left Lahore to escape his arrest. To avoid recognition, he shaved his beard and cut his hair, a violation of the sacred tenets of Sikhism. Bomb explosion at assembly: In response to the formulation of Defence of India Act, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association planned to explode a bomb inside the assembly premises, where the ordinance was going to be passed. On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb onto the corridors of the assembly and shouted ‘Inquilab Zindabad!’ The bomb was not meant to kill or injure anyone and, therefore, it was thrown away from the crowded place. Following the blasts, both Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt courted arrest Death of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru: The British authority, while interrogating them, came to know about their involvement in the murder of J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were charged with the murder. Singh admitted to the murder and made statements against the British rule during the trial. He along with other revolutionaries found responsible for the Assembly bombing and murder of Saunders. On March 23, 1931, Bhagat Singh was hanged in Lahore with his fellow comrades Rajguru and Sukhdev. Singh was cremated at Hussainiwala on banks of Sutlej river. There are several movies released on the life story of Bhagat Singh. If you want to know more about him, must watch those movies.	887	ENGLISH	1
10 Amazing Tales Of Women In Sieges For much of the history of warfare, the siege has been the most common form of conflict. The large set-piece battles that we love to think of were relatively rare. Wars would be fought to capture territories and towns by surrounding them with your army and either waiting to starve your opponents out or attempting to breach the walls. Conversely, people were loath to leave the protection of their walls behind and so were quite happy to stay inside in safety. In most times and cultures, war has been seen as a man’s game. But when war comes to your door, everyone has to get involved. Women have made some notable contributions to sieges, and here are 10 of the most dramatic tales. 10 Women Of Weinsberg The Middle Ages was a time of bloody conflict in Europe but also a period that loved tales of trickery and cleverness. When Conrad III laid siege to the town of Weinsberg, it was just such a tale of quick thinking that emerged. As the Royal Chronicle of Cologne tells the story, the king laid siege to Weinsberg in 1140 because it belonged to his enemy. He was so enraged by the townspeople’s defiance that he was determined to put the defenders all to death. But being a man of honor, he declared that he would allow the women of the city to walk away unmolested with as many of their possessions as they could carry. The wives and women of the city all acted at once. Leaving their belongings behind, they each picked up one of the men of the city and walked out in front of the confounded king. When an ally of Conrad III suggested that the women should be stopped, Conrad III allowed them to leave, saying the word of a king should be trusted. While this has become a popular folktale, the first written source of this story was set down only 30 years after the supposed event. So, many historians see little reason to doubt that it took place as described. 9 Black Agnes Of Dunbar One of the roles of a great lady in the medieval world was to manage her lord husband’s lands while he was away at war. This led to many besieged castles being commanded by women. When the English army came to Scotland to attack their northern enemies, they came to the castle at Dunbar expecting an easy victory. But Black Agnes, Countess of Dunbar and March, was not about to give them one. The English demanded that Agnes surrender. She had few guards inside the castle to help her, but she sent back this somewhat poetic reply: “Of Scotland’s King I haud my house, He pays me meat and fee, And I will keep my gude auld house, while my house will keep me.” The Earl of Salisbury, who commanded the attackers, answered her rebuff by launching stones at the castle walls. As the catapults stopped firing, Agnes sent her maids to dust off the battlements with white handkerchiefs. When Salisbury tried to bring down her walls with a ram, Agnes had huge boulders thrown down to smash the English machinery. Having captured her brother, the Earl of Moray, the English paraded him in front of Agnes’s walls and threatened to kill him unless she surrendered. She simply shrugged and told them to go ahead—when he died, she would inherit his lands. The siege dragged on for five months before the English finally gave up and went home. 8 Dorothy Hazzard At Bristol The English civil war pitted two groups of believers against each other. The Royalists clung to the notion that God appointed the king, while the Puritans felt that even kings had to follow God’s laws (as the Puritans interpreted them). Dorothy Hazzard (some spell it “Hazard”) of Bristol was just one of the many women who would become embroiled in this conflict. Bristol was held by the Puritan Parliamentary forces in August 1643 when a Royalist force commanded by Prince Rupert attacked. Outside the walls, the forces of the town were beaten back but the Royalists could not penetrate the walls. When the besieging forces seemed about to breach the Frome Gate, Dorothy Hazzard and her friend Joan Batten led a group of women and children with bales of wool and soil to block it up. She even offered to lead a force of women outside to act as human shields and “dead the bullets” of the Royalist forces. The governor of the town turned down this suggestion and soon surrendered. After the war, the governor was put on trial for his cowardice and the ease with which he gave up the town. One of the witnesses against him was Dorothy Hazzard. 7 Nicholaa De La Haye Born in 1150, Nicholaa de la Haye was lucky enough to enter the world as a great heiress to lands and castles in England. But she had the bad fortune to be born into a time of great troubles for the country. King Richard the Lionheart is fondly remembered, but he was largely absent from England during his reign, leaving the governing of the realm to others. When Nicholaa’s husband was ordered to surrender a castle to the Crown, he refused. But it fell to Nicholaa to defend it. For 40 days, she held out until her husband reached a compromise with the Crown. When her husband died, Nicholaa was, unusually for a woman, made Sheriff of Lincolnshire and given Lincoln Castle in her own right. She attempted to surrender it to King John on the grounds of her age, but he bade her to protect it for him. When the rebels attacked Lincoln during the Barons’ Rebellion against King John, Nicholaa held the castle, allowing the king to triumph in the Battle of Lincoln. 6 Jeanne Hachette Jeanne Hachette (aka Joan the Hatchet) was a French heroine nicknamed for her use of an axe in the midst of battle. When the forces of Charles the Bold were besieging Beauvais in 1472, it was Jeanne who rallied the men and saved the town. There were only 300 soldiers manning the walls of the town, and Charles’s troops soon managed to scale the defenses. As one attacker planted his banner on the battlement, it seemed that the battle was already lost. It was then that Jeanne ran up with her hatchet and cut down the banner or, in some versions, the knight holding it. Her act of heroism inspired the rest of the defenders, and for 11 hours, they fought back until Charles the Bold had to make a less than bold retreat. For her role in the siege, Jeanne was granted marriage to a man she loved. Also, an annual parade was instituted in the city that paid tribute to the women who defended it. 5 Women Of Carthage The war between Rome and Carthage was one of the greatest struggles of the ancient world. Two mighty empires were expanding across the Mediterranean, and neither could allow the other to prosper at their expense. The Punic Wars that resulted set the stage for Roman domination of Europe for centuries. After many hard battles, the city of Carthage came under siege by Roman troops. Those inside Carthage knew that this was a battle for survival. The women of the city gave up their jewelry to pay for the city’s defense. They even cut off their hair to make bow strings and ropes for catapults. Men and women toiled together to make weapons for the coming fight. Even the temples were turned into factories where women worked through the night. The Carthaginians put up a strong defense, but the Romans were not about to give up. To completely close off the city, they began to build massive earthworks into the sea to shut Carthage’s harbor. To counter this, the Carthaginians dug a new channel to the sea—with women and children doing much of the work. When the passage to the sea was complete, the Carthaginian navy sailed out to meet the Romans. But it was too little, too late. Carthage fell, and the men of the city were put to death while the women and children were carried off to slavery. The Roman general Scipio wept to see it happen. Not because he pitied the Carthaginians but because he realized that one day even Rome might fall. 4 Maria Pita Maria Mayor Fernandez de Camara y Pita, more pithily called Maria Pita, was the heroine of the siege of Coruna in 1589. English forces under Admiral Sir Francis Drake were raiding Spain in retaliation for the failed invasion of the Spanish Armada the year before. The English were poorly prepared but still managed to capture the lower part of the city. They were about to seize the fortified heart of it when the battle was turned. Maria and several other women had gone to join their husbands on the walls. A crossbow bolt felled Maria’s husband, but she continued fighting. An English soldier that managed to reach the wall was killed by Maria, and she stood on the battlements to shout, “Whoever has honor, follow me!” The others did follow her, and the English were driven back. For her bravery, Maria was granted a pension. A statue of her now stands in Coruna. 3 Sichelgaita Of Salerno Sichelgaita of Salerno was the 11th-century wife of the notably warlike Robert, Duke of Apulia. While many women were left behind during war, it seems to have been Sichelgaita’s habit to follow her husband into battle or even lead the troops herself. At the battle of Dyrrhachium, she rode beside Robert in full armor. When she saw some of her own troops retreating, she picked up a spear and charged at them to drive them back into the fight. She shouted, “How far will you run? Stop, be men!” Other accounts have Sichelgaita being wounded by an arrow during a battle or nearly being captured during a naval skirmish. Not only was she part of Robert’s army but she was sometimes placed in command. For example, she led the siege of Trani in 1080 while Robert moved on to another battle. 2 Arachidamia Of Sparta Sparta was famous in the Greek world for the liberties given to its women. While respectable women in Athens were supposed to be kept in the house and never seen by men outside their family, women in Sparta were allowed to own property and shape public affairs. When the Spartan queen Gorgo was asked, “Why is it that you Spartan women are the only women that lord it over your men,” she said, “Because we are the only women that are mothers of men.” Queen Arachidamia was an equally feisty Spartan. When King Pyrrhus of Epirus set out on one of his conquering sprees, he turned his sights on Sparta. By the third century BC, Sparta was not the fearsome military force it had once been and their king was away elsewhere. It seemed obvious that Sparta would fall. When the men still in the city considered sending the women and children away to safety, Arachidamia marched into the city council with a sword in her hand. “How do you expect us to survive the destruction of our city?” she asked them. They set about defending the city. As part of their defenses, the Spartans dug a trench to slow Pyrrhus’s charge. One-third of the trench was completed by the women and children. Sparta was saved. 1 Unknown Mother Pyrrhus of Epirus was a bit mad when it came to battles. He won and lost several kingdoms over the course of his life. He also gave his name to “pyrrhic victories” when he won a battle at such great cost that he was done for if he had many more such triumphs. Still, he just could not seem to shake the urge for warfare. Immediately after his defeat at Sparta, he went to attack the city of Argos and it was a woman who stopped him in his tracks again. He breached the walls of the city, but the narrow streets soon became clogged with men. While trapped there, a defender managed to wound the king with a spear. Pyrrhus immediately attacked the man. This proved to be a mistake—the man’s mother was watching. The women of Argos were watching the fighting from the rooftops. When this unnamed mother saw her son being attacked, she pulled off a roof tile and flung it at Pyrrhus. Catching him on the back of the neck, it knocked Pyrrhus from his horse and stunned him. He was dragged into a doorway by enemy soldiers and beheaded, probably much to the satisfaction of the watching mothers above.	<urn:uuid:646bab5f-aec0-458c-96b3-2dd34076c744>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listverse.com/2019/07/31/10-amazing-tales-of-women-in-sieges/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00165.warc.gz	en	0.985433	2,727	3.515625	4	[ -0.3649604618549347, 0.5382648706436157, -0.041600584983825684, 0.21839091181755066, -0.30514073371887207, 0.21878820657730103, 0.06413744390010834, -0.03692667558789253, -0.0035777464509010315, -0.2963266968727112, -0.42812013626098633, -0.09631107747554779, 0.08122827112674713, 0.0645630...	7	10 Amazing Tales Of Women In Sieges For much of the history of warfare, the siege has been the most common form of conflict. The large set-piece battles that we love to think of were relatively rare. Wars would be fought to capture territories and towns by surrounding them with your army and either waiting to starve your opponents out or attempting to breach the walls. Conversely, people were loath to leave the protection of their walls behind and so were quite happy to stay inside in safety. In most times and cultures, war has been seen as a man’s game. But when war comes to your door, everyone has to get involved. Women have made some notable contributions to sieges, and here are 10 of the most dramatic tales. 10 Women Of Weinsberg The Middle Ages was a time of bloody conflict in Europe but also a period that loved tales of trickery and cleverness. When Conrad III laid siege to the town of Weinsberg, it was just such a tale of quick thinking that emerged. As the Royal Chronicle of Cologne tells the story, the king laid siege to Weinsberg in 1140 because it belonged to his enemy. He was so enraged by the townspeople’s defiance that he was determined to put the defenders all to death. But being a man of honor, he declared that he would allow the women of the city to walk away unmolested with as many of their possessions as they could carry. The wives and women of the city all acted at once. Leaving their belongings behind, they each picked up one of the men of the city and walked out in front of the confounded king. When an ally of Conrad III suggested that the women should be stopped, Conrad III allowed them to leave, saying the word of a king should be trusted. While this has become a popular folktale, the first written source of this story was set down only 30 years after the supposed event. So, many historians see little reason to doubt that it took place as described. 9 Black Agnes Of Dunbar One of the roles of a great lady in the medieval world was to manage her lord husband’s lands while he was away at war. This led to many besieged castles being commanded by women. When the English army came to Scotland to attack their northern enemies, they came to the castle at Dunbar expecting an easy victory. But Black Agnes, Countess of Dunbar and March, was not about to give them one. The English demanded that Agnes surrender. She had few guards inside the castle to help her, but she sent back this somewhat poetic reply: “Of Scotland’s King I haud my house, He pays me meat and fee, And I will keep my gude auld house, while my house will keep me.” The Earl of Salisbury, who commanded the attackers, answered her rebuff by launching stones at the castle walls. As the catapults stopped firing, Agnes sent her maids to dust off the battlements with white handkerchiefs. When Salisbury tried to bring down her walls with a ram, Agnes had huge boulders thrown down to smash the English machinery. Having captured her brother, the Earl of Moray, the English paraded him in front of Agnes’s walls and threatened to kill him unless she surrendered. She simply shrugged and told them to go ahead—when he died, she would inherit his lands. The siege dragged on for five months before the English finally gave up and went home. 8 Dorothy Hazzard At Bristol The English civil war pitted two groups of believers against each other. The Royalists clung to the notion that God appointed the king, while the Puritans felt that even kings had to follow God’s laws (as the Puritans interpreted them). Dorothy Hazzard (some spell it “Hazard”) of Bristol was just one of the many women who would become embroiled in this conflict. Bristol was held by the Puritan Parliamentary forces in August 1643 when a Royalist force commanded by Prince Rupert attacked. Outside the walls, the forces of the town were beaten back but the Royalists could not penetrate the walls. When the besieging forces seemed about to breach the Frome Gate, Dorothy Hazzard and her friend Joan Batten led a group of women and children with bales of wool and soil to block it up. She even offered to lead a force of women outside to act as human shields and “dead the bullets” of the Royalist forces. The governor of the town turned down this suggestion and soon surrendered. After the war, the governor was put on trial for his cowardice and the ease with which he gave up the town. One of the witnesses against him was Dorothy Hazzard. 7 Nicholaa De La Haye Born in 1150, Nicholaa de la Haye was lucky enough to enter the world as a great heiress to lands and castles in England. But she had the bad fortune to be born into a time of great troubles for the country. King Richard the Lionheart is fondly remembered, but he was largely absent from England during his reign, leaving the governing of the realm to others. When Nicholaa’s husband was ordered to surrender a castle to the Crown, he refused. But it fell to Nicholaa to defend it. For 40 days, she held out until her husband reached a compromise with the Crown. When her husband died, Nicholaa was, unusually for a woman, made Sheriff of Lincolnshire and given Lincoln Castle in her own right. She attempted to surrender it to King John on the grounds of her age, but he bade her to protect it for him. When the rebels attacked Lincoln during the Barons’ Rebellion against King John, Nicholaa held the castle, allowing the king to triumph in the Battle of Lincoln. 6 Jeanne Hachette Jeanne Hachette (aka Joan the Hatchet) was a French heroine nicknamed for her use of an axe in the midst of battle. When the forces of Charles the Bold were besieging Beauvais in 1472, it was Jeanne who rallied the men and saved the town. There were only 300 soldiers manning the walls of the town, and Charles’s troops soon managed to scale the defenses. As one attacker planted his banner on the battlement, it seemed that the battle was already lost. It was then that Jeanne ran up with her hatchet and cut down the banner or, in some versions, the knight holding it. Her act of heroism inspired the rest of the defenders, and for 11 hours, they fought back until Charles the Bold had to make a less than bold retreat. For her role in the siege, Jeanne was granted marriage to a man she loved. Also, an annual parade was instituted in the city that paid tribute to the women who defended it. 5 Women Of Carthage The war between Rome and Carthage was one of the greatest struggles of the ancient world. Two mighty empires were expanding across the Mediterranean, and neither could allow the other to prosper at their expense. The Punic Wars that resulted set the stage for Roman domination of Europe for centuries. After many hard battles, the city of Carthage came under siege by Roman troops. Those inside Carthage knew that this was a battle for survival. The women of the city gave up their jewelry to pay for the city’s defense. They even cut off their hair to make bow strings and ropes for catapults. Men and women toiled together to make weapons for the coming fight. Even the temples were turned into factories where women worked through the night. The Carthaginians put up a strong defense, but the Romans were not about to give up. To completely close off the city, they began to build massive earthworks into the sea to shut Carthage’s harbor. To counter this, the Carthaginians dug a new channel to the sea—with women and children doing much of the work. When the passage to the sea was complete, the Carthaginian navy sailed out to meet the Romans. But it was too little, too late. Carthage fell, and the men of the city were put to death while the women and children were carried off to slavery. The Roman general Scipio wept to see it happen. Not because he pitied the Carthaginians but because he realized that one day even Rome might fall. 4 Maria Pita Maria Mayor Fernandez de Camara y Pita, more pithily called Maria Pita, was the heroine of the siege of Coruna in 1589. English forces under Admiral Sir Francis Drake were raiding Spain in retaliation for the failed invasion of the Spanish Armada the year before. The English were poorly prepared but still managed to capture the lower part of the city. They were about to seize the fortified heart of it when the battle was turned. Maria and several other women had gone to join their husbands on the walls. A crossbow bolt felled Maria’s husband, but she continued fighting. An English soldier that managed to reach the wall was killed by Maria, and she stood on the battlements to shout, “Whoever has honor, follow me!” The others did follow her, and the English were driven back. For her bravery, Maria was granted a pension. A statue of her now stands in Coruna. 3 Sichelgaita Of Salerno Sichelgaita of Salerno was the 11th-century wife of the notably warlike Robert, Duke of Apulia. While many women were left behind during war, it seems to have been Sichelgaita’s habit to follow her husband into battle or even lead the troops herself. At the battle of Dyrrhachium, she rode beside Robert in full armor. When she saw some of her own troops retreating, she picked up a spear and charged at them to drive them back into the fight. She shouted, “How far will you run? Stop, be men!” Other accounts have Sichelgaita being wounded by an arrow during a battle or nearly being captured during a naval skirmish. Not only was she part of Robert’s army but she was sometimes placed in command. For example, she led the siege of Trani in 1080 while Robert moved on to another battle. 2 Arachidamia Of Sparta Sparta was famous in the Greek world for the liberties given to its women. While respectable women in Athens were supposed to be kept in the house and never seen by men outside their family, women in Sparta were allowed to own property and shape public affairs. When the Spartan queen Gorgo was asked, “Why is it that you Spartan women are the only women that lord it over your men,” she said, “Because we are the only women that are mothers of men.” Queen Arachidamia was an equally feisty Spartan. When King Pyrrhus of Epirus set out on one of his conquering sprees, he turned his sights on Sparta. By the third century BC, Sparta was not the fearsome military force it had once been and their king was away elsewhere. It seemed obvious that Sparta would fall. When the men still in the city considered sending the women and children away to safety, Arachidamia marched into the city council with a sword in her hand. “How do you expect us to survive the destruction of our city?” she asked them. They set about defending the city. As part of their defenses, the Spartans dug a trench to slow Pyrrhus’s charge. One-third of the trench was completed by the women and children. Sparta was saved. 1 Unknown Mother Pyrrhus of Epirus was a bit mad when it came to battles. He won and lost several kingdoms over the course of his life. He also gave his name to “pyrrhic victories” when he won a battle at such great cost that he was done for if he had many more such triumphs. Still, he just could not seem to shake the urge for warfare. Immediately after his defeat at Sparta, he went to attack the city of Argos and it was a woman who stopped him in his tracks again. He breached the walls of the city, but the narrow streets soon became clogged with men. While trapped there, a defender managed to wound the king with a spear. Pyrrhus immediately attacked the man. This proved to be a mistake—the man’s mother was watching. The women of Argos were watching the fighting from the rooftops. When this unnamed mother saw her son being attacked, she pulled off a roof tile and flung it at Pyrrhus. Catching him on the back of the neck, it knocked Pyrrhus from his horse and stunned him. He was dragged into a doorway by enemy soldiers and beheaded, probably much to the satisfaction of the watching mothers above.	2,678	ENGLISH	1
William Shakespeare is quite possibly one of the most famous playwrights in theatrical history. The bard was very talented, being able to produce play after play in very short periods of time. What is even more amazing is in those short lengths of time, he wrote beautiful poetry and prose, and many quotations and common phrases have been adopted in everyday language today. He captured the human essence: what it is to love, to hate, to feel. As such, Shakespeare's works are first taught at a high school level, and usually the tragedies such as Hamlet and Macbeth are introduced. However, Shakespeare's tragedies contain themes that may not be appropriate for a high school audience, including death, and psychological issues. Therefore it seems that light hearted themes in Shakespearian comedies are more suitable for a secondary education level. Every Shakespearian tragedy contains common elements; included in these are the moral flaws or weaknesses of a tragic hero. The tragic hero is usually a member of the noble class, and an exclusive flaw brings about his downfall. In Hamlet's case, he is rash, unable to act, and ill tempered. Because he was unable to recognize his weaknesses, his and the lives of those around him were lost. Similarly, Macbeth's ambition to become king eventually leads to his demise. This is not a good moral to teach at a high school level because it creates an impression upon students that their own moral flaws can lead to tragedy. . The themes of madness and delusion are other common themes in Shakespeare's tragedies. The most obvious example is the appearance of Banquo's ghost to Macbeth in which only Macbeth can see; everyone else around him is oblivious to his vision and therefore considers him mad. In many cases, these elements of madness are too complex for a high school audience to fully comprehend. Furthermore, some of the madness can be quite disturbing, such as Ophelia's songs: .	<urn:uuid:040c2970-e060-4668-9a8f-e1d8e98dba18>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/28338.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00274.warc.gz	en	0.98481	395	3.859375	4	[ 0.19242215156555176, -0.22539153695106506, 0.6562179327011108, -0.20786458253860474, -0.38117945194244385, 0.0407702662050724, 0.20034579932689667, 0.17505113780498505, -0.13001087307929993, -0.3580508232116699, -0.05558537319302559, -0.15838214755058289, -0.2503545880317688, 0.27255824208...	1	William Shakespeare is quite possibly one of the most famous playwrights in theatrical history. The bard was very talented, being able to produce play after play in very short periods of time. What is even more amazing is in those short lengths of time, he wrote beautiful poetry and prose, and many quotations and common phrases have been adopted in everyday language today. He captured the human essence: what it is to love, to hate, to feel. As such, Shakespeare's works are first taught at a high school level, and usually the tragedies such as Hamlet and Macbeth are introduced. However, Shakespeare's tragedies contain themes that may not be appropriate for a high school audience, including death, and psychological issues. Therefore it seems that light hearted themes in Shakespearian comedies are more suitable for a secondary education level. Every Shakespearian tragedy contains common elements; included in these are the moral flaws or weaknesses of a tragic hero. The tragic hero is usually a member of the noble class, and an exclusive flaw brings about his downfall. In Hamlet's case, he is rash, unable to act, and ill tempered. Because he was unable to recognize his weaknesses, his and the lives of those around him were lost. Similarly, Macbeth's ambition to become king eventually leads to his demise. This is not a good moral to teach at a high school level because it creates an impression upon students that their own moral flaws can lead to tragedy. . The themes of madness and delusion are other common themes in Shakespeare's tragedies. The most obvious example is the appearance of Banquo's ghost to Macbeth in which only Macbeth can see; everyone else around him is oblivious to his vision and therefore considers him mad. In many cases, these elements of madness are too complex for a high school audience to fully comprehend. Furthermore, some of the madness can be quite disturbing, such as Ophelia's songs: .	389	ENGLISH	1
The first recorded game between two college teams occurred on February 9, 1895, when Hamline University faced Minnesota A&M (which later became a part of the University of Minnesota). Minnesota A&M won the game, which was played under rules allowing nine players per side, 9–3. The first intercollegiate match using the modern rule of five players per side is often credited as a game between the University of Chicago and the University of Iowa, in Iowa City, Iowa, on January 18, 1896. The Chicago team won the game 15-12, under the coaching of Amos Alonzo Stagg, who had learned the game from James Naismith at Springfield YMCA. However, some sources state the first “true” five-on-five intercollegiate match was a game in 1897 between Yale and Penn, because although the Iowa team that played Chicago in 1896 was composed of University of Iowa students, it reportedly did not officially represent the university, rather it was organized through a YMCA. By 1900, the game of basketball had spread to colleges across the country.	<urn:uuid:669e4f22-72e9-4bca-ab95-e99927198f6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://powerdreamteam.info/college-basketball-coloring-pages/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00485.warc.gz	en	0.990171	225	3.359375	3	[ -0.3260319232940674, 0.4503222703933716, 0.03623579069972038, -0.5641406774520874, -0.22998590767383575, 0.34863507747650146, 0.08629747480154037, 0.18414278328418732, 0.2229357808828354, -0.15085150301456451, 0.029776956886053085, -0.330951064825058, 0.14216254651546478, 0.044556219130754...	2	The first recorded game between two college teams occurred on February 9, 1895, when Hamline University faced Minnesota A&M (which later became a part of the University of Minnesota). Minnesota A&M won the game, which was played under rules allowing nine players per side, 9–3. The first intercollegiate match using the modern rule of five players per side is often credited as a game between the University of Chicago and the University of Iowa, in Iowa City, Iowa, on January 18, 1896. The Chicago team won the game 15-12, under the coaching of Amos Alonzo Stagg, who had learned the game from James Naismith at Springfield YMCA. However, some sources state the first “true” five-on-five intercollegiate match was a game in 1897 between Yale and Penn, because although the Iowa team that played Chicago in 1896 was composed of University of Iowa students, it reportedly did not officially represent the university, rather it was organized through a YMCA. By 1900, the game of basketball had spread to colleges across the country.	245	ENGLISH	1
In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations. The army also provided a mean of personal advancement for auxiliary soldiers recruited from the native peoples, as a man obtained hereditary Roman citizenship on retirement after service in an auxiliary regiment. Such units recruited on an ad hoc (as needed) basis from the area in which they were stationed, and there was evidently large-scale recruitment within Britain. The total numbers were at least 12,500 men up to the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), with a peak around A.D. 80. Although a small proportion of the total population, this perhaps had a massive local impact when a large proportion of the young men were removed from an area. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another province from whence it was unlikely that individual recruits would ever return. Most units raised in Britain went elsewhere on the European continent, although one is recorded in Morocco. The reverse process brought young men to Britain, where many continued to live after their 20 to 25 years of service, and this added to the cosmopolitan Roman character of the frontier population. By the later Roman period, frontier garrisons (groups of soldiers) were only rarely transferred, service in units became effectively hereditary, and forts were no longer populated or maintained at full strength. This process of settling in as a community over several generations, combined with local recruitment, presumably accounts for the apparent stability of the British northern frontier in the later Roman period. It also explains why some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to have any formal authority in Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The circumstances that had allowed natives to become Romanized also led the self-sustaining military community of the frontier area to become effectively British.	<urn:uuid:b247667f-42cc-473c-a330-473c1a4a8974>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.peakgmt.com/web/UB2T0_213BU36S1YO$.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00341.warc.gz	en	0.983481	826	4.03125	4	[ -0.3225014805793762, 0.18334372341632843, 0.8564326763153076, -0.033760473132133484, 0.22425848245620728, -0.2887415289878845, -0.10061989724636078, 0.1738741546869278, -0.253775954246521, -0.5208503603935242, 0.26534348726272583, -0.2740859389305115, 0.07763663679361343, 0.127630278468132...	1	In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations. The army also provided a mean of personal advancement for auxiliary soldiers recruited from the native peoples, as a man obtained hereditary Roman citizenship on retirement after service in an auxiliary regiment. Such units recruited on an ad hoc (as needed) basis from the area in which they were stationed, and there was evidently large-scale recruitment within Britain. The total numbers were at least 12,500 men up to the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), with a peak around A.D. 80. Although a small proportion of the total population, this perhaps had a massive local impact when a large proportion of the young men were removed from an area. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another province from whence it was unlikely that individual recruits would ever return. Most units raised in Britain went elsewhere on the European continent, although one is recorded in Morocco. The reverse process brought young men to Britain, where many continued to live after their 20 to 25 years of service, and this added to the cosmopolitan Roman character of the frontier population. By the later Roman period, frontier garrisons (groups of soldiers) were only rarely transferred, service in units became effectively hereditary, and forts were no longer populated or maintained at full strength. This process of settling in as a community over several generations, combined with local recruitment, presumably accounts for the apparent stability of the British northern frontier in the later Roman period. It also explains why some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to have any formal authority in Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The circumstances that had allowed natives to become Romanized also led the self-sustaining military community of the frontier area to become effectively British.	842	ENGLISH	1
LIFE OF CONFUCIUS Confucius was believed to have been born in 551 BC., in the state of Lu, known today as the Shandong province. His parents, who died while he was a child, named him Kong Qui. Confucius was derived from the Latin word Kongfuzi which means Great Master Kong. Confucius was the most influential and respected philosopher in Chinese history. His ideas were the single strongest influence on Chinese society from around 100 BC. to the AD. 1900's. The Chinese government made his ideas the official state philosophy and many nearby countries honored his beliefs. Confucius wanted to gain the position as an adviser to a wise ruler, but he failed. He hoped to do this in order to be able to employ his ideas for reforming society. If it wasn't for the disciples of Confucius his teachings would have never been spread around China, and he would have never been made known. His teachings were never written down by him, but his conversations and sayings were written down by his disciples in the analects. CONFUCIANISM Confucianism was the single most important thing in Chinese life. It affected everything in China; education, government, and attitudes toward behavior in public and private life. Confucianism is not a religion, but it is more a philosophy and a guide to morality and good government. At the time Confucius was born, China was in a constant state of war, and rapid political change altered the structure of Chinese society so much that people no longer respected the established behavioral guidelines. Confucius stated that the ideal person was one of good moral character. The ideal person was also truly reverent in worship and sincerely respected his father and his ruler. He was expected to think for himself, guided by definite rules of conduct. As Confucius said, he was expected to take "as much trouble to discover what was right as lesser men take to discover what will pay". Confucius believed that this type of behavior by rulers had a greater effect on the people than did laws or codes of punishment. So when these types of people were rulers, their moral example would inspire the people to lead good lives. Confucius died sometime around 479 B.C., and his philosophy was not very well known. If it weren't for his disciples his ideas would probably still be unknown. Confucius never wrote anything down himself; his disciples wrote all of his sayings down in a collection of books called the Analects. These contain all that modern day man knows about Confucius. There existed two important Confucian philosophers-Mencius (390-305 BC) and Xunzi (mid 200's B.C.). They held beliefs similar to Confucius but they were somewhat different. Mencius's viewpoint was that people were born good, and that they had to "preserve the natural compassion of the heart". Xunzi opposed this by saying that people could be good and live peacefully only if their minds were shaped by education and conduct. Both of these ideas parallel Confucius', in that they both state that people can be good. Confucianism was concerned primarily with the needs of society, and unlike Buddhism and Taoism, not the ability for a person to live in harmony with nature. Beginning in the 200's B.C. Buddhism and Taoism began to affect and reshape the standards of Confucianism, and things such as nature came into play. Around A.D. 200 to 600, there was a rapid decline in the Confucian Beliefs in China. This was partly because Confucianism now had to compete with Buddhism and Taoism, which were developed around this time. These religions were to Confucianism as night is to day, in other words, they were exact opposites. Buddhism and Taoism were largely concerned with the meaning of suffering and death, while Confucianism largely ignored these. The revival of Confucianism began around the 600's and was fully revived by the 700's. In the 1100's, there was a movement lead by Zhu-Xi called the Neo-Confucianism movement. He developed a branch of this movement known as the rational-wing, it dealt with the study of Li, the relationship between humans and nature. Another branch was called the intuitional-wing and it dealt mostly with enlightenment by a combination of meditation and moral action. In the 1900's there was a clash between Confucianism and Western beliefs such as Communism. For many years after the Communist change in China, the Government greatly opposed Confucianism because it tended to look into the past rather than to the future. However, all government opposition ended in 1977.	<urn:uuid:7455306e-e836-4939-9b30-bb02edfd1a63>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ww.novelguide.com/reportessay/history/asian-history/confucius-and-confucianism	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00529.warc.gz	en	0.992836	970	3.921875	4	[ -0.38850337266921997, 0.33623117208480835, 0.38868021965026855, -0.264853298664093, -0.1162358820438385, 0.26717349886894226, 0.7283470630645752, 0.13429924845695496, 0.06673991680145264, -0.14956235885620117, 0.34773582220077515, -0.3140466511249542, 0.5932326316833496, 0.129792258143425,...	3	LIFE OF CONFUCIUS Confucius was believed to have been born in 551 BC., in the state of Lu, known today as the Shandong province. His parents, who died while he was a child, named him Kong Qui. Confucius was derived from the Latin word Kongfuzi which means Great Master Kong. Confucius was the most influential and respected philosopher in Chinese history. His ideas were the single strongest influence on Chinese society from around 100 BC. to the AD. 1900's. The Chinese government made his ideas the official state philosophy and many nearby countries honored his beliefs. Confucius wanted to gain the position as an adviser to a wise ruler, but he failed. He hoped to do this in order to be able to employ his ideas for reforming society. If it wasn't for the disciples of Confucius his teachings would have never been spread around China, and he would have never been made known. His teachings were never written down by him, but his conversations and sayings were written down by his disciples in the analects. CONFUCIANISM Confucianism was the single most important thing in Chinese life. It affected everything in China; education, government, and attitudes toward behavior in public and private life. Confucianism is not a religion, but it is more a philosophy and a guide to morality and good government. At the time Confucius was born, China was in a constant state of war, and rapid political change altered the structure of Chinese society so much that people no longer respected the established behavioral guidelines. Confucius stated that the ideal person was one of good moral character. The ideal person was also truly reverent in worship and sincerely respected his father and his ruler. He was expected to think for himself, guided by definite rules of conduct. As Confucius said, he was expected to take "as much trouble to discover what was right as lesser men take to discover what will pay". Confucius believed that this type of behavior by rulers had a greater effect on the people than did laws or codes of punishment. So when these types of people were rulers, their moral example would inspire the people to lead good lives. Confucius died sometime around 479 B.C., and his philosophy was not very well known. If it weren't for his disciples his ideas would probably still be unknown. Confucius never wrote anything down himself; his disciples wrote all of his sayings down in a collection of books called the Analects. These contain all that modern day man knows about Confucius. There existed two important Confucian philosophers-Mencius (390-305 BC) and Xunzi (mid 200's B.C.). They held beliefs similar to Confucius but they were somewhat different. Mencius's viewpoint was that people were born good, and that they had to "preserve the natural compassion of the heart". Xunzi opposed this by saying that people could be good and live peacefully only if their minds were shaped by education and conduct. Both of these ideas parallel Confucius', in that they both state that people can be good. Confucianism was concerned primarily with the needs of society, and unlike Buddhism and Taoism, not the ability for a person to live in harmony with nature. Beginning in the 200's B.C. Buddhism and Taoism began to affect and reshape the standards of Confucianism, and things such as nature came into play. Around A.D. 200 to 600, there was a rapid decline in the Confucian Beliefs in China. This was partly because Confucianism now had to compete with Buddhism and Taoism, which were developed around this time. These religions were to Confucianism as night is to day, in other words, they were exact opposites. Buddhism and Taoism were largely concerned with the meaning of suffering and death, while Confucianism largely ignored these. The revival of Confucianism began around the 600's and was fully revived by the 700's. In the 1100's, there was a movement lead by Zhu-Xi called the Neo-Confucianism movement. He developed a branch of this movement known as the rational-wing, it dealt with the study of Li, the relationship between humans and nature. Another branch was called the intuitional-wing and it dealt mostly with enlightenment by a combination of meditation and moral action. In the 1900's there was a clash between Confucianism and Western beliefs such as Communism. For many years after the Communist change in China, the Government greatly opposed Confucianism because it tended to look into the past rather than to the future. However, all government opposition ended in 1977.	1,007	ENGLISH	1
The Yellow Wallpaper and Feminism In the 19th century, male chauvinism was the dominant social idea in America. In the domestic environment, women had to obey to men. Women could not violate what men asked them to do and this oppressive environment had important impacts on how women perceived themselves and their roles in society. It was very unfair to all the women at that period of history. Nevertheless, with the gradual emergence of feminism, some women began to advocate the gender equality and resist the male chauvinism. The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman is a classic feminism masterpiece. It was a story about a married woman who suffered from mental depression and was rebellious to her controlling husband. Her husband, who was a physician, had the family move to a house in order to treat her wife’s nerve problem with a rest therapy. With the requirement to rest and do nothing, she developed delusion over the physical environment of the room. The yellow wallpaper in the room became her obsession and source of fear in imagination. Although some people considered this story as a psychological or horror story, it definitely was a story of feminism because the woman in the novel struggled to break away from her husband constraining all her activities, and she was seeking freedom and independence for her own life. Therefore, the Yellow Wallpaper exposed the darkness of the male chauvinism, and the author tried to awaken women to seek freedom. She promoted the consciousness of independence in order to achieve women’s individual freedom for expression and choice. First of all, Gilman presented the domestic environment as a prison for women and this oppressive environment could be embodied in the old nursery house. In the story, the narrator was arranged to move into a house in order to have the fresh air and good rest for her nerve problem. However, this big house looked very “strange” and “queer”. From the beginning, the woman felt there was “something strange about the house. ”(239) When her anxiety about the place grew, she began to notice the similarly “strange yellow” of the wallpaper in her room. Therefore, although the house was supposed to be a resting place for the narrator to recover from her sickness, it turned out to be a place that she never felt like home. As a matter of fact, it was more like a prison than a home. When describing the details of the house environment, she mentioned the house used to be a nursery for children and “the windows are barred for little children, and there are rings and things in the walls. ”(239) She went on to detail about how ugly and repellent the wallpaper was: “the color is repellent, almost revolting; a smouldering unclean yellow, strangely faded by the slow-turning sunlight. It is a dull yet lurid orange in some places, a sickly sulphur tint in others. ”(240) Here the attention was given to the color of the wallpaper. All of these words, such as “repellent”, “revolting”, “unclean” and “faded”, indicated how the narrator perceived the environment as something that was contradictory to the purpose of a resting house. The narrator never regarded this house as a relaxing place. On the contrary, it was more like a confining prison space which only made her illness worse. When asked about the purpose of writing the novel, Gilman confessed that she did not want to see the rest cure misguide the treatment. She mentioned that “it has to my knowledge saved one women from a similar fate. ”(Gilman) It seemed clear that the rest cure became rather a prison-style confinement method. Gilman wrote the novel to expose the adverse effect of this cruel method. Therefore, putting a woman in a resting place seemed the purpose of oppression and constraint, which is never to the benefit of a woman suffering from mental illness. This physical environment symbolized the oppression to women in those history. Secondly, John’s treatment of the narrator also embodies in the social constraints on females and the unequal relationship between the male and the female in the 19th century society. As a husband and a physician, John seemed to show a great deal of concerns for his wife by arranging the house for her to recover from illness and planning almost everything for her. He thought what he did was all beneficial and reasonable for his wife. However, the relationship was never equal. John was always telling the narrator what was right to do and what was not. When the narrator told John that she liked writing, the answer from John was “he hates to have me write a word,”(240) because he believed it was bad for her recovery. Also, when arranging her wife’s daily activities, John “thought it might do me good to see a little company, so we just had Mother and Nellie and the children down for a week. ”(242) During the progress of the narrator’s recovery, John decided “if I don’t pick up faster he shall send me to Weir Mitchell in the fall. ”(242) Opposing to the narrator’s idea of going out and living an active life, John said again “it is good for me, and to sleep all I can. (246). These were many examples in the novel about how John was making decisions for his wife about what to do and even what to think. Although the narrator took it as an expression of the love from her husband at the beginning, it gradually turned into something that was constraining and even frightening. As the narrator said, she started “getting a little afraid of John” with the increasing demands from John on her daily activities. It finally got to the point that the narrator came to realize John “pretended to be very loving and kind” with all sorts of questions. 249) At this moment, John love had turned into a chain in the cover of kindness and concern. Greg Johnson, in his analysis of Gilman’s novel from the perspective of “Gothic allegory”, perfectly made the point that John “exerts his tyrannical control in the guise of protectiveness makes the narrator feel all the more stifled and precludes outright defiance. ” (Johnson, 521) It became clear that hiding behind the love and care for his wife was the true sense of domination and oppression, which was often taken for granted by not only John but also most men living in that time. Therefore, John’s treatment of his wife symbolizes the male-dominant society and the oppression of women in that social history. Thirdly, the narrator’s efforts to break herself out of the depressive domestic environment embodied her resistance to the male chauvinism’s society, though her resistance ended up in a tragedy. Despite the careful arrangements of the husband in the story, the narrator was never submissive to the environment. She had rebellious ideas reflected in her body from the beginning and this idea reached its high point in the end with her confrontation with the environment. The strong sense of herself and individual position could be found in the beginning of the novel, when the narrator shared some of her opposing ideas about the rest therapy and medicine treatment from the husband and her brother. She said, “personally, I disagree with their ideas. Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good. ”(238) Here the narrator had some independent ideas about what was actually good for her. While the narrator was constantly forbidden to write by her husband, she still felt that “I must say what I feel and think in some way-it is such a relief! (239) For her, keeping a note of her experiences and feelings was a great relief from the constraints from both the physical environment and the control of her husband. That was the only time she felt like being herself and being free. The final confrontation with John and the physical environment came in the end of story, when the narrator came to the psychological status of expressing aggressively. She tried to bite off a piece of the bed and “peeled off all the paper she could reach standing on the floor. (250) When John finally had the door open, the narrator looked at him over her shoulder and said, “I’ve got out at last in spite of you and Jane. And I’ve pulled off most of the paper, so you can’t put me back! ” (251) Here though being crazy, the narrator was finally challenging the man who had been controlling her in the name of a husband and a physician. By tearing the yellow wallpaper, the narrator symbolically set herself free from the constraint of the room and John. This was her way of resistance against John and the male-dominated society. Feldstein also argued that the woman in the novel “responds by resisting his authority in many ways, feigning sleep at night, pretending not to write, and refusing to respond to his treatment. ” (Feldstein 269)Therefore, the resistance becomes a hidden thing appearing in various details of the story. Some may argue that the madness in the end may not be quite feminist, the symbolic meaning of creeping over John and leaving the room became the high point of the resistance. All in all, “The Yellow Wallpaper” represented a classic feminist allegory from different perspectives. All the story provided the example of how women were restrained by men in doing everything and they could not freely express their feelings. First of all, Gilman described the domestic environment as prison to the narrator in order to display the oppression to women from men in that period of history. Although John took care of his wife very much, it was not what she wanted. In addition, the author described how John treated his wife as a person with no thinking and reasoning ability. John’s treatment of the narrator displayed the social inequality between women and men. Last but not least, the author described how the narrator resisted her husband throughout the story. It indicated that women’s position in the 19th century was very low and they had no power to talk about what they wanted. Therefore, facing the male chauvinism, their resistance could be viewed as irrational or unreasonable thinking. This eventually led to the tragic ending of the narrator in this story.	<urn:uuid:7e06244a-3c2d-408d-908f-28cedd93a7e3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/the-yellow-wallpaper-and-feminism-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00147.warc.gz	en	0.983465	2,170	3.75	4	[ 0.09180399775505066, 0.40273207426071167, 0.24225762486457825, 0.7173420190811157, -0.05898847058415413, 0.22005417943000793, 0.23224014043807983, 0.20008617639541626, 0.24048751592636108, -0.07849118113517761, -0.242002472281456, -0.07804274559020996, 0.135575532913208, 0.4123768806457519...	1	The Yellow Wallpaper and Feminism In the 19th century, male chauvinism was the dominant social idea in America. In the domestic environment, women had to obey to men. Women could not violate what men asked them to do and this oppressive environment had important impacts on how women perceived themselves and their roles in society. It was very unfair to all the women at that period of history. Nevertheless, with the gradual emergence of feminism, some women began to advocate the gender equality and resist the male chauvinism. The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman is a classic feminism masterpiece. It was a story about a married woman who suffered from mental depression and was rebellious to her controlling husband. Her husband, who was a physician, had the family move to a house in order to treat her wife’s nerve problem with a rest therapy. With the requirement to rest and do nothing, she developed delusion over the physical environment of the room. The yellow wallpaper in the room became her obsession and source of fear in imagination. Although some people considered this story as a psychological or horror story, it definitely was a story of feminism because the woman in the novel struggled to break away from her husband constraining all her activities, and she was seeking freedom and independence for her own life. Therefore, the Yellow Wallpaper exposed the darkness of the male chauvinism, and the author tried to awaken women to seek freedom. She promoted the consciousness of independence in order to achieve women’s individual freedom for expression and choice. First of all, Gilman presented the domestic environment as a prison for women and this oppressive environment could be embodied in the old nursery house. In the story, the narrator was arranged to move into a house in order to have the fresh air and good rest for her nerve problem. However, this big house looked very “strange” and “queer”. From the beginning, the woman felt there was “something strange about the house. ”(239) When her anxiety about the place grew, she began to notice the similarly “strange yellow” of the wallpaper in her room. Therefore, although the house was supposed to be a resting place for the narrator to recover from her sickness, it turned out to be a place that she never felt like home. As a matter of fact, it was more like a prison than a home. When describing the details of the house environment, she mentioned the house used to be a nursery for children and “the windows are barred for little children, and there are rings and things in the walls. ”(239) She went on to detail about how ugly and repellent the wallpaper was: “the color is repellent, almost revolting; a smouldering unclean yellow, strangely faded by the slow-turning sunlight. It is a dull yet lurid orange in some places, a sickly sulphur tint in others. ”(240) Here the attention was given to the color of the wallpaper. All of these words, such as “repellent”, “revolting”, “unclean” and “faded”, indicated how the narrator perceived the environment as something that was contradictory to the purpose of a resting house. The narrator never regarded this house as a relaxing place. On the contrary, it was more like a confining prison space which only made her illness worse. When asked about the purpose of writing the novel, Gilman confessed that she did not want to see the rest cure misguide the treatment. She mentioned that “it has to my knowledge saved one women from a similar fate. ”(Gilman) It seemed clear that the rest cure became rather a prison-style confinement method. Gilman wrote the novel to expose the adverse effect of this cruel method. Therefore, putting a woman in a resting place seemed the purpose of oppression and constraint, which is never to the benefit of a woman suffering from mental illness. This physical environment symbolized the oppression to women in those history. Secondly, John’s treatment of the narrator also embodies in the social constraints on females and the unequal relationship between the male and the female in the 19th century society. As a husband and a physician, John seemed to show a great deal of concerns for his wife by arranging the house for her to recover from illness and planning almost everything for her. He thought what he did was all beneficial and reasonable for his wife. However, the relationship was never equal. John was always telling the narrator what was right to do and what was not. When the narrator told John that she liked writing, the answer from John was “he hates to have me write a word,”(240) because he believed it was bad for her recovery. Also, when arranging her wife’s daily activities, John “thought it might do me good to see a little company, so we just had Mother and Nellie and the children down for a week. ”(242) During the progress of the narrator’s recovery, John decided “if I don’t pick up faster he shall send me to Weir Mitchell in the fall. ”(242) Opposing to the narrator’s idea of going out and living an active life, John said again “it is good for me, and to sleep all I can. (246). These were many examples in the novel about how John was making decisions for his wife about what to do and even what to think. Although the narrator took it as an expression of the love from her husband at the beginning, it gradually turned into something that was constraining and even frightening. As the narrator said, she started “getting a little afraid of John” with the increasing demands from John on her daily activities. It finally got to the point that the narrator came to realize John “pretended to be very loving and kind” with all sorts of questions. 249) At this moment, John love had turned into a chain in the cover of kindness and concern. Greg Johnson, in his analysis of Gilman’s novel from the perspective of “Gothic allegory”, perfectly made the point that John “exerts his tyrannical control in the guise of protectiveness makes the narrator feel all the more stifled and precludes outright defiance. ” (Johnson, 521) It became clear that hiding behind the love and care for his wife was the true sense of domination and oppression, which was often taken for granted by not only John but also most men living in that time. Therefore, John’s treatment of his wife symbolizes the male-dominant society and the oppression of women in that social history. Thirdly, the narrator’s efforts to break herself out of the depressive domestic environment embodied her resistance to the male chauvinism’s society, though her resistance ended up in a tragedy. Despite the careful arrangements of the husband in the story, the narrator was never submissive to the environment. She had rebellious ideas reflected in her body from the beginning and this idea reached its high point in the end with her confrontation with the environment. The strong sense of herself and individual position could be found in the beginning of the novel, when the narrator shared some of her opposing ideas about the rest therapy and medicine treatment from the husband and her brother. She said, “personally, I disagree with their ideas. Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good. ”(238) Here the narrator had some independent ideas about what was actually good for her. While the narrator was constantly forbidden to write by her husband, she still felt that “I must say what I feel and think in some way-it is such a relief! (239) For her, keeping a note of her experiences and feelings was a great relief from the constraints from both the physical environment and the control of her husband. That was the only time she felt like being herself and being free. The final confrontation with John and the physical environment came in the end of story, when the narrator came to the psychological status of expressing aggressively. She tried to bite off a piece of the bed and “peeled off all the paper she could reach standing on the floor. (250) When John finally had the door open, the narrator looked at him over her shoulder and said, “I’ve got out at last in spite of you and Jane. And I’ve pulled off most of the paper, so you can’t put me back! ” (251) Here though being crazy, the narrator was finally challenging the man who had been controlling her in the name of a husband and a physician. By tearing the yellow wallpaper, the narrator symbolically set herself free from the constraint of the room and John. This was her way of resistance against John and the male-dominated society. Feldstein also argued that the woman in the novel “responds by resisting his authority in many ways, feigning sleep at night, pretending not to write, and refusing to respond to his treatment. ” (Feldstein 269)Therefore, the resistance becomes a hidden thing appearing in various details of the story. Some may argue that the madness in the end may not be quite feminist, the symbolic meaning of creeping over John and leaving the room became the high point of the resistance. All in all, “The Yellow Wallpaper” represented a classic feminist allegory from different perspectives. All the story provided the example of how women were restrained by men in doing everything and they could not freely express their feelings. First of all, Gilman described the domestic environment as prison to the narrator in order to display the oppression to women from men in that period of history. Although John took care of his wife very much, it was not what she wanted. In addition, the author described how John treated his wife as a person with no thinking and reasoning ability. John’s treatment of the narrator displayed the social inequality between women and men. Last but not least, the author described how the narrator resisted her husband throughout the story. It indicated that women’s position in the 19th century was very low and they had no power to talk about what they wanted. Therefore, facing the male chauvinism, their resistance could be viewed as irrational or unreasonable thinking. This eventually led to the tragic ending of the narrator in this story.	2,104	ENGLISH	1
Dr . Zaccarini The civil conflict was the one and only war People in america had with themselves. As opposed to the other wars, in which America battled for their countries freedom or to assist additional countries in need, the civil war was People in the usa against People in the usa; North against South. Eventhough, the detrimental war was an all American war, either side had a purpose, and an objective of why they fought in this war. Now, hundreds of years later, we come face to face with the question " Was the Civil War Unavoidable? ". Let me go through the reasons of why the civil war began and it will always be answered since it is read. We can start from the beginning, when American first did start to come together. The people of New Great britain, left Britain mainly for faith based reasons. The folks were referred to as Puritans. The Puritan were very well-informed and they primarily based their techniques for living by their religious philosophy. The Puritans felt the only method they may protect their very own congregation was going to move to America ( Faragher 41). When the Puritans showed up to America, they had to master to plantation, fish, and build their own homes (Faragher 42). However, The Va Ordinance was very different from New Great britain altogether. The folks that came coming from England to Virginia, reached Virginia for wealth. The aim of these people would have been to find rare metal and other issues that would take them wealth. They came with mostly men and indentured maids. Indenture servants work their debt away by doing work in the tobacco field. Because of such severe treatment and hard labor, many indentured servants tried to escape, taking risk of being caught and having their very own serving period doubled ( Faragher 40). Because more indentured servant were possibly freed from their or steered clear of, this introduced the use of slaves. They now used slaves that they purchased, to complete what the indentured servants were doing. The slaves had been different from indentured servants, since they were held and they cannot be free. The labor from...	<urn:uuid:9afc3aca-43a4-4c7a-9334-824964971117>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://albanytechnicalcollegenow.com/was-the-city-war-inescapable/24463-was-the-city-war-inescapable-essay.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00081.warc.gz	en	0.987322	440	3.609375	4	[ -0.4270903766155243, 0.3442401885986328, 0.11744453012943268, -0.28703516721725464, -0.24928255379199982, -0.12401900440454483, 0.17236827313899994, -0.03415859490633011, -0.23717790842056274, 0.2551129460334778, 0.094999760389328, 0.057599108666181564, -0.2705177664756775, 0.3318421542644...	1	Dr . Zaccarini The civil conflict was the one and only war People in america had with themselves. As opposed to the other wars, in which America battled for their countries freedom or to assist additional countries in need, the civil war was People in the usa against People in the usa; North against South. Eventhough, the detrimental war was an all American war, either side had a purpose, and an objective of why they fought in this war. Now, hundreds of years later, we come face to face with the question " Was the Civil War Unavoidable? ". Let me go through the reasons of why the civil war began and it will always be answered since it is read. We can start from the beginning, when American first did start to come together. The people of New Great britain, left Britain mainly for faith based reasons. The folks were referred to as Puritans. The Puritan were very well-informed and they primarily based their techniques for living by their religious philosophy. The Puritans felt the only method they may protect their very own congregation was going to move to America ( Faragher 41). When the Puritans showed up to America, they had to master to plantation, fish, and build their own homes (Faragher 42). However, The Va Ordinance was very different from New Great britain altogether. The folks that came coming from England to Virginia, reached Virginia for wealth. The aim of these people would have been to find rare metal and other issues that would take them wealth. They came with mostly men and indentured maids. Indenture servants work their debt away by doing work in the tobacco field. Because of such severe treatment and hard labor, many indentured servants tried to escape, taking risk of being caught and having their very own serving period doubled ( Faragher 40). Because more indentured servant were possibly freed from their or steered clear of, this introduced the use of slaves. They now used slaves that they purchased, to complete what the indentured servants were doing. The slaves had been different from indentured servants, since they were held and they cannot be free. The labor from...	445	ENGLISH	1
Guinea Pigs in Historical Art Museum Adolf Dietrich (November 9, 1877 – June 4, 1957) was a Swiss labourer and, as one of the most renowned naïve artists, one of the leading Swiss painters of the 20th century. Adolf Dietrich was born to poor farmers in the canton of Thurgau as the youngest of seven children. Upon discovering his exceptional graphical talents, his schoolteacher suggested that he become a lithographer. His parents, however, refused: their youngest son was needed as a farmhand. Dietrich would remain in the house of his parents, as a bachelor, for the rest of his life. Because the small farm provided little income, he had to work as a home worker and as a day labourer in a local textile mill as well as in the woods. Only on Sundays was he free to engage in drawing and painting. His first sketchbook dates to 1896, his first paintings to 1900. He created his works without any training or examples; but he did heed the advice of passing landscape painters to trust in his powers of observation. The motives of Dietrich's works are limited to his immediate surroundings in Berlingen, and include rural landscapes, animals, people and still lifes.	<urn:uuid:2c6a197d-3ef1-4bad-80d0-f17b4be5a66b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.guineapigarcade.com/MASTER/Dietrich	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00553.warc.gz	en	0.991078	254	3.28125	3	[ 0.14856348931789398, 0.7258234024047852, 0.05146300047636032, 0.16970394551753998, 0.05699098855257034, -0.231397807598114, -0.2152445912361145, -0.15922532975673676, -0.19791792333126068, 0.12537667155265808, 0.1839524209499359, -0.8473085761070251, 0.2272789180278778, 0.49447712302207947...	7	Guinea Pigs in Historical Art Museum Adolf Dietrich (November 9, 1877 – June 4, 1957) was a Swiss labourer and, as one of the most renowned naïve artists, one of the leading Swiss painters of the 20th century. Adolf Dietrich was born to poor farmers in the canton of Thurgau as the youngest of seven children. Upon discovering his exceptional graphical talents, his schoolteacher suggested that he become a lithographer. His parents, however, refused: their youngest son was needed as a farmhand. Dietrich would remain in the house of his parents, as a bachelor, for the rest of his life. Because the small farm provided little income, he had to work as a home worker and as a day labourer in a local textile mill as well as in the woods. Only on Sundays was he free to engage in drawing and painting. His first sketchbook dates to 1896, his first paintings to 1900. He created his works without any training or examples; but he did heed the advice of passing landscape painters to trust in his powers of observation. The motives of Dietrich's works are limited to his immediate surroundings in Berlingen, and include rural landscapes, animals, people and still lifes.	271	ENGLISH	1
Ever since the Mona Lisa was stolen on August 21, 1911, there have been myths and misconceptions about the theft and the man who stole her. And these "alternative facts" continue to this very day. Here are ten that many people think are true -- and why they're not. 1. THE THEFT HAPPENED AUGUST 22, 1911 The theft actually happened on Monday, August 21, 1911 between 7:00 – 7:30 am. Monday was the day the Louvre was closed to the public and only maintenance workers, Louvre staff and student copyists had access to the museum. The theft was discovered on Tuesday, August 22 when the museum reopened. Guards had noticed the empty space on the wall where the painting hung but assumed that it had been taken on Monday to the photographer's studio and simply not returned. It was around 11:00 am on Tuesday when a Louvre employee found the Mona Lisa’s empty frame on a service staircase. After a brief search by museum officials, the Mona Lisa was deemed missing and the police were called. 2. PERUGGIA WAS A CARPENTER WHO BUILT THE SHADOW BOX THAT HELD THE MONA LISA According to the police records and Peruggia’s death certificate, he was a painter. He had been trained in his hometown of Dumenza to learn the art of decorative painting. In Paris, he worked for a company named Gobier that also did glazing work. In fact, they had been the official glaziers of the Louvre since the 1830s. In 1909, Gobier was brought in to help the Louvre framers put 1600 masterpieces under glass to prevent vandalism. The job was done over two years in two sessions that lasted four months each. Peruggia was one of the five trusted Gobier workers who cut and cleaned the glass. So by working at the Louvre, Peruggia became familiar with the layout of the museum. 3. TO STEAL THE PAINTING, PERUGGIA HID IN A MUSEUM BROOM CLOSET OVERNIGHT This is one of the biggest misconceptions. No overnight stay was necessary. In his police interrogation, Peruggia said that even though he had not worked at the Louvre for eight months, he simply entered the museum around 7:00 am that Monday morning dressed in his customary workman’s smock. He was able to blend in with the other workers and wasn’t noticed. With security in the Louvre as loose as it was back then, it was simple for him to get in and out of the museum. 4. TO EXIT THE MUSEUM WITH THE PAINTING, HE HID IT UNDER HIS SMOCK The police records say that Vincenzo Peruggia was 5’3”. Even though the Mona Lisa is a small painting, it measures 21” x 30” - too big for a man of his size to hide under a smock …unless he took off his smock and wrapped it around the painting and carried it out under his arm -- which is what he said he did. 5. THREE MEN STOLE THE MONA LISA BECAUSE THE PAINTING WAS TOO HEAVY FOR ONE MAN TO CARRY Some say the Mona Lisa in its frame and glass weighed more than 200 pounds (see reference to Karl Decker below). But according to Louvre Conservator Vincent Delieuvin, the Mona Lisa’s curator, one man can carry the painting and its glass-covered frame. In fact, M. Delieuvin says he has carried it by himself. 6. PERUGGIA KEPT THE MONA LISA IN A SUITCASE UNDER HIS BED According to Peruggia and his daughter Celestina, he first kept the Mona Lisa on a table in his room covered by a piece of cloth. Later, he made a wooden crate with a false bottom to hide the painting. He stored this crate in a 6x6 closet in his room. He used this trunk to bring the Mona Lisa to Italy. 7. PERUGGIA STOLE THE MONA LISA BECAUSE SHE LOOKED LIKE A WOMAN HE HAD BEEN IN LOVE WITH Peruggia was known to have been involved with a woman named Mathilde Deutschmann, a cook in the home of a doctor where Peruggia had once had a job as a decorative painter. According to Mathilde’s police deposition, she met Peruggia in September 1912 – a full year after the theft. She says she never saw the Mona Lisa but did see the trunk in his room. Peruggia never told her what was in it. As far as Mathilde looking like the Mona Lisa... she was German with blue-eyes and blonde hair. 8. THE THEFT WAS ORCHESTRATED BY A CONMAN NAMED VALFIERNO TO SELL MONA LISA FORGERIES This is a well-known story but it has no basis in fact. It first appeared more than 20 years after the theft in the June 25, 1932 issue of The Saturday Evening Post. The article was written by a journalist named Karl Decker who claimed he was told the story by the man behind the crime – a shadowy conman who went by the name of the Marques Eduardo de Valfierno. Valfierno allegedly had a forger named Yves Chaudron make a perfect copy of the Mona Lisa and from that he made six more. Valfierno then lined up six gullible American millionaires who were eager to buy the original. The conman paid Peruggia and two associates to steal the Mona Lisa from the Louvre. Valfierno was then able to palm off the copies as the real thing. The problem is that Valfierno, Chaudron and the six copies have never been known to exist. In our research, we found a number of articles about other art thefts from which we believe Karl Decker extracted material to concoct this story. Decker was trained as a journalist under William Randolph Hearst so he wasn’t above exaggerating or spinning fiction into fact. In our opinion, the Valfierno story is a complete fabrication. 9. IN LATER LIFE, PERUGGIA OPENED A PAINT AND VARNISH STORE IN HAUTE SAVOIE AND DIED IN 1947 According to his daughter and family records, he never opened a paint store and died in 1925. Several days after Peruggia’s release from prison in 1914, World War I was declared. Peruggia joined the Italian Army, fought and was captured by the Austrians. He remained a prisoner of war for two years. After the war, there was no work for him in Italy so he returned to Paris, taking with him his young wife Annunciata. To avoid being detected by the French officials, Peruggia used his given birth name Pietro Peruggia (he was born Pietro Vincenzo Antonio Peruggia on October 8, 1881.) He died from a heart attack at the age of 44, on his birthday in 1925, as his daughter Celestina and his death records attest. The 1947 date comes from articles in French newspapers that appeared in September 1947. They said that that Peruggia had recently died in the Haute Savoie region of France. But according to Peruggia’s daughter, this man was an imposter who had been using Peruggia’s name. 10. PERUGGIA STOLE THE MONA LISA TO RETURN IT TO ITALY He did want to return it to Italy, but not for purely patriotic motives. In the Florence archives, we found the letters he wrote to his parents after the theft. They give a good indication of his true motive. Patriotism is never mentioned.	<urn:uuid:8d6964fc-7e36-4afe-b35a-b50f99e813b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.monalisamissing.com/single-post/2015/07/26/10-Misconceptions-About-Vincenzo-Peruggia-and-the-Theft-of-the-Mona-Lisa	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00275.warc.gz	en	0.982838	1,666	3.28125	3	[ -0.4229397177696228, 0.11599557101726532, 0.028361208736896515, 0.055141471326351166, -0.0659572035074234, -0.11803934723138809, 0.7073072195053101, 0.24159134924411774, 0.0014411343727260828, 0.23781952261924744, 0.39995428919792175, -0.026420678943395615, -0.02462693676352501, 0.45127797...	1	Ever since the Mona Lisa was stolen on August 21, 1911, there have been myths and misconceptions about the theft and the man who stole her. And these "alternative facts" continue to this very day. Here are ten that many people think are true -- and why they're not. 1. THE THEFT HAPPENED AUGUST 22, 1911 The theft actually happened on Monday, August 21, 1911 between 7:00 – 7:30 am. Monday was the day the Louvre was closed to the public and only maintenance workers, Louvre staff and student copyists had access to the museum. The theft was discovered on Tuesday, August 22 when the museum reopened. Guards had noticed the empty space on the wall where the painting hung but assumed that it had been taken on Monday to the photographer's studio and simply not returned. It was around 11:00 am on Tuesday when a Louvre employee found the Mona Lisa’s empty frame on a service staircase. After a brief search by museum officials, the Mona Lisa was deemed missing and the police were called. 2. PERUGGIA WAS A CARPENTER WHO BUILT THE SHADOW BOX THAT HELD THE MONA LISA According to the police records and Peruggia’s death certificate, he was a painter. He had been trained in his hometown of Dumenza to learn the art of decorative painting. In Paris, he worked for a company named Gobier that also did glazing work. In fact, they had been the official glaziers of the Louvre since the 1830s. In 1909, Gobier was brought in to help the Louvre framers put 1600 masterpieces under glass to prevent vandalism. The job was done over two years in two sessions that lasted four months each. Peruggia was one of the five trusted Gobier workers who cut and cleaned the glass. So by working at the Louvre, Peruggia became familiar with the layout of the museum. 3. TO STEAL THE PAINTING, PERUGGIA HID IN A MUSEUM BROOM CLOSET OVERNIGHT This is one of the biggest misconceptions. No overnight stay was necessary. In his police interrogation, Peruggia said that even though he had not worked at the Louvre for eight months, he simply entered the museum around 7:00 am that Monday morning dressed in his customary workman’s smock. He was able to blend in with the other workers and wasn’t noticed. With security in the Louvre as loose as it was back then, it was simple for him to get in and out of the museum. 4. TO EXIT THE MUSEUM WITH THE PAINTING, HE HID IT UNDER HIS SMOCK The police records say that Vincenzo Peruggia was 5’3”. Even though the Mona Lisa is a small painting, it measures 21” x 30” - too big for a man of his size to hide under a smock …unless he took off his smock and wrapped it around the painting and carried it out under his arm -- which is what he said he did. 5. THREE MEN STOLE THE MONA LISA BECAUSE THE PAINTING WAS TOO HEAVY FOR ONE MAN TO CARRY Some say the Mona Lisa in its frame and glass weighed more than 200 pounds (see reference to Karl Decker below). But according to Louvre Conservator Vincent Delieuvin, the Mona Lisa’s curator, one man can carry the painting and its glass-covered frame. In fact, M. Delieuvin says he has carried it by himself. 6. PERUGGIA KEPT THE MONA LISA IN A SUITCASE UNDER HIS BED According to Peruggia and his daughter Celestina, he first kept the Mona Lisa on a table in his room covered by a piece of cloth. Later, he made a wooden crate with a false bottom to hide the painting. He stored this crate in a 6x6 closet in his room. He used this trunk to bring the Mona Lisa to Italy. 7. PERUGGIA STOLE THE MONA LISA BECAUSE SHE LOOKED LIKE A WOMAN HE HAD BEEN IN LOVE WITH Peruggia was known to have been involved with a woman named Mathilde Deutschmann, a cook in the home of a doctor where Peruggia had once had a job as a decorative painter. According to Mathilde’s police deposition, she met Peruggia in September 1912 – a full year after the theft. She says she never saw the Mona Lisa but did see the trunk in his room. Peruggia never told her what was in it. As far as Mathilde looking like the Mona Lisa... she was German with blue-eyes and blonde hair. 8. THE THEFT WAS ORCHESTRATED BY A CONMAN NAMED VALFIERNO TO SELL MONA LISA FORGERIES This is a well-known story but it has no basis in fact. It first appeared more than 20 years after the theft in the June 25, 1932 issue of The Saturday Evening Post. The article was written by a journalist named Karl Decker who claimed he was told the story by the man behind the crime – a shadowy conman who went by the name of the Marques Eduardo de Valfierno. Valfierno allegedly had a forger named Yves Chaudron make a perfect copy of the Mona Lisa and from that he made six more. Valfierno then lined up six gullible American millionaires who were eager to buy the original. The conman paid Peruggia and two associates to steal the Mona Lisa from the Louvre. Valfierno was then able to palm off the copies as the real thing. The problem is that Valfierno, Chaudron and the six copies have never been known to exist. In our research, we found a number of articles about other art thefts from which we believe Karl Decker extracted material to concoct this story. Decker was trained as a journalist under William Randolph Hearst so he wasn’t above exaggerating or spinning fiction into fact. In our opinion, the Valfierno story is a complete fabrication. 9. IN LATER LIFE, PERUGGIA OPENED A PAINT AND VARNISH STORE IN HAUTE SAVOIE AND DIED IN 1947 According to his daughter and family records, he never opened a paint store and died in 1925. Several days after Peruggia’s release from prison in 1914, World War I was declared. Peruggia joined the Italian Army, fought and was captured by the Austrians. He remained a prisoner of war for two years. After the war, there was no work for him in Italy so he returned to Paris, taking with him his young wife Annunciata. To avoid being detected by the French officials, Peruggia used his given birth name Pietro Peruggia (he was born Pietro Vincenzo Antonio Peruggia on October 8, 1881.) He died from a heart attack at the age of 44, on his birthday in 1925, as his daughter Celestina and his death records attest. The 1947 date comes from articles in French newspapers that appeared in September 1947. They said that that Peruggia had recently died in the Haute Savoie region of France. But according to Peruggia’s daughter, this man was an imposter who had been using Peruggia’s name. 10. PERUGGIA STOLE THE MONA LISA TO RETURN IT TO ITALY He did want to return it to Italy, but not for purely patriotic motives. In the Florence archives, we found the letters he wrote to his parents after the theft. They give a good indication of his true motive. Patriotism is never mentioned.	1,697	ENGLISH	1
Medieval castle of Bodiam; East Sussex England UK, by WyrdLight.com. The medieval castle was the foundation of military defense for nearly a millennium. Kingdoms were caught up in an arms race to build wood and stone structures that were most effective in halting armies on campaign. After their successful invasion and conquest of England, the Normans began a period of castle building that was to last right through the medieval period. Although castles had been built in England since the time of the Romans, they had never been built with such speed or across such a wide area. This map shows the number of Norman castles built during the reign of William the Conqueror (1066-1087) Within an Existing Roman Fortress The earliest medieval castles built by the Normans were either constructed within an existing Roman Fort or were Motte and Bailey castles. These were soon replaced by Stone Keep castles as they offered better protection from attack. Concentric castles developed during the 12th and 13th Centuries and were virtually impossible to conquer. Pevensey castle in East Sussex is an example of a Norman Castle built inside an existing Roman Fort. Motte and Bailey Castles Motte and Bailiey castles were the earliest form of medieval castles built completely from scratch by the Normans. As their name suggests they had two parts the Motte and the Bailey. The Motte was a large hill made of earth on which was built a wooden keep or lookout. The outer edge was then surrounded with a large wooden fence called a palisade. The Bailey was separated from the Motte by a wooden bridge that could be removed if the Bailey was occupied by enemies. The Bailey was the part of the castle where people lived and animals were kept. A large castle might have more than one Bailey. To give added protection to the castle, both the Motte and Bailey would be surrounded by a ditch, sometimes filled with water. A drawbridge was used for access to the castle. Stone Keep Castle This type of medieval castle soon replaced the Motte and Bailey castles as it offered a better form of defence. A stone keep was the central feature, with thick walls and few windows. Entrance to the keep was by stone steps leading to the first floor. The kitchens were situated on the ground floor while living quarters were on the upper floors. The first keeps were rectangular in shape but later ones were often circular. The Stone Keep would be surrounded by a thick stone wall containing turrets for lookouts. The Bailey was now the area outside the keep but within the outer walls and shelter for animals or craft workshops might be built against the walls. The entire castle might be surrounded by a ditch or moat and entrance to the castle was by drawbridge. The Concentric castle was developed in the 12th and 13th Centuries and offered the best protection against attack. The main feature of the concentric medieval castle is its walls. An inner wall built of thick stone with turrets positioned at intervals is then surrounded by an equally thick but lower stone wall. The walls are built at different levels so that archers on the inner walls can fire over the archers on the outer walls. The space between the two walls was known as the ‘death hole’ for being trapped within the walls would almost certainly result in death for the attacker. The entire castle was then often surrounded with a moat and entry would be across a drawbridge. This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the medieval period. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Middle Ages. Cite This Article"The Medieval Castle: Four Different Types" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 28, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-castle> More Citation Information.	<urn:uuid:897bd82a-0cdc-459c-85ed-4ef97f751157>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-castle	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00456.warc.gz	en	0.983784	789	3.6875	4	[ -0.2676351070404053, 0.34599703550338745, 0.3745785355567932, -0.1226498931646347, 0.035746775567531586, -0.4032418429851532, -0.099383145570755, -0.16410517692565918, -0.09775213897228241, -0.07072126865386963, -0.16954518854618073, -0.6152859926223755, 0.10411600023508072, 0.028073059394...	1	Medieval castle of Bodiam; East Sussex England UK, by WyrdLight.com. The medieval castle was the foundation of military defense for nearly a millennium. Kingdoms were caught up in an arms race to build wood and stone structures that were most effective in halting armies on campaign. After their successful invasion and conquest of England, the Normans began a period of castle building that was to last right through the medieval period. Although castles had been built in England since the time of the Romans, they had never been built with such speed or across such a wide area. This map shows the number of Norman castles built during the reign of William the Conqueror (1066-1087) Within an Existing Roman Fortress The earliest medieval castles built by the Normans were either constructed within an existing Roman Fort or were Motte and Bailey castles. These were soon replaced by Stone Keep castles as they offered better protection from attack. Concentric castles developed during the 12th and 13th Centuries and were virtually impossible to conquer. Pevensey castle in East Sussex is an example of a Norman Castle built inside an existing Roman Fort. Motte and Bailey Castles Motte and Bailiey castles were the earliest form of medieval castles built completely from scratch by the Normans. As their name suggests they had two parts the Motte and the Bailey. The Motte was a large hill made of earth on which was built a wooden keep or lookout. The outer edge was then surrounded with a large wooden fence called a palisade. The Bailey was separated from the Motte by a wooden bridge that could be removed if the Bailey was occupied by enemies. The Bailey was the part of the castle where people lived and animals were kept. A large castle might have more than one Bailey. To give added protection to the castle, both the Motte and Bailey would be surrounded by a ditch, sometimes filled with water. A drawbridge was used for access to the castle. Stone Keep Castle This type of medieval castle soon replaced the Motte and Bailey castles as it offered a better form of defence. A stone keep was the central feature, with thick walls and few windows. Entrance to the keep was by stone steps leading to the first floor. The kitchens were situated on the ground floor while living quarters were on the upper floors. The first keeps were rectangular in shape but later ones were often circular. The Stone Keep would be surrounded by a thick stone wall containing turrets for lookouts. The Bailey was now the area outside the keep but within the outer walls and shelter for animals or craft workshops might be built against the walls. The entire castle might be surrounded by a ditch or moat and entrance to the castle was by drawbridge. The Concentric castle was developed in the 12th and 13th Centuries and offered the best protection against attack. The main feature of the concentric medieval castle is its walls. An inner wall built of thick stone with turrets positioned at intervals is then surrounded by an equally thick but lower stone wall. The walls are built at different levels so that archers on the inner walls can fire over the archers on the outer walls. The space between the two walls was known as the ‘death hole’ for being trapped within the walls would almost certainly result in death for the attacker. The entire castle was then often surrounded with a moat and entry would be across a drawbridge. This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the medieval period. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Middle Ages. Cite This Article"The Medieval Castle: Four Different Types" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 28, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-castle> More Citation Information.	800	ENGLISH	1
By Andrew Bieszad This article will be a series of ongoing pieces about the role of St. Mary in the defeat of Islam. Islam was born from a conglomeration of Christian heresies mixed with pagan lore that abounded in the Arabian peninsula of his time. One of the most obsitant and dangerous of those heresies was called Arianism, named after the rogue priest Arius who denied Jesus’ divinity. Arianism reached the zenith of its influence in the early 4th century, but persisted in many areas of the Roman Empire for centuries. One of those pockets was among the Visigothic peoples, who migrated from northern Europe and settled in Spain. Due to the danger of their beliefs, much effort was invested in converting them to the Faith. There were many great men in the fight against Arianism within Spain. One of those men was Leander of Seville (534 –600 ). His efforts were so notable that as a gesture of thanks, Pope Gregory “The Great” (540 –604) gave him a statue of Mary as a gift. This was not just any mere statue, as it has been sculpted by Luke the Gospel writer himself. Leander took it back to his native Spain and installed it in an unnamed church, where it stayed for the next century and a half until the armies of Islam invaded. Muslim general Tariq ibn Ziyad, acting under the command of Musa ibn Nusayr crossed from Morocco to the “mountain” at Spain’s southernmost point, which he renamed “Tariq’s mountain,” or Jabal Tariq (from whence the name“Gibraltar” comes) in 711. The Muslim armies began a reign of terror against the inhabitants of southern Spain, gradually moving their way up the eastern Iberian coastline as they conquered and either converted or subjugated the native Christians in the area. The churches which the Muslims did not destroy were converted into mosques, and word arrived soon that the Muslims would be upon the church. The priests knew that it was unlikely that Islam’s armies could be stopped at this time, and that the church would meet the same fate as those in other parts of Spain. Acting quickly, the priests took the statue and rushed it away to the arid Spanish heartland of Extremadura and buried it at a bank on a tributary of the Guadiana River, known locally as the Wolf River. Their timing could not have been better, since the church was soon after desecrated into a mosque. However, the statue remained hidden. In the midst of the chaos, the statue’s location was forgotten. Within a few generations story became legend, and it passed into the memory of future generations who wondered where Leander’s Virgin lay. For six centuries, the statue rested under the ground below the burning Spanish sun, waiting to be recovered and restored to its rightful place. One day in 1326, a pious shepherd named Gil Cordero was tending his sheep when Mary appeared to him. She told him to go to a certain location she would show him on the Wolf River with the local priest and dig, and there they would find the statue. Gil obeyed, and having told the local priest, the men went and upon digging found the statue as she spoke. The finding of the statue was an immediate succor to the Spanish, who were in the midst of fierce fighting in Extremadura against Islamic armies from Seville. A shrine and monastery were immediately constructed, and her statue became a place of pilgrimage for the Spanish. They called it wadi lupe, which is a construct from the Arabic and Latin meaning “Our Lady of the Wolf River,” and was soon reformulated into a new Spanish word, Guadalupe. Fourteen years later, a report came that the Muslim marinids from Morocco were attempting another mass invasion into Spain to try and overthrow the Catholic resistance from the north. King Alfonso XI of Castile and King Alfonso IV of Portugal allied and made pilgrimage to Our Lady of Guadalupe and petitioned her intercession for victory as Christians have done throughout the ages with Islam. As sure as Providence would will it, the Battle of Rio Salado on October 4th, 1340 was a decisive victory that not only crushed the Muslims but marked the end of attempts at mass invasion by Musilm armies up until the end of the Reconquista in 1492. It was after the power of Islam was stripped from the Muslims and the Andalusian Caliphate abolished in 1492 that the Spanish then sailed west to colonize and Christianize the recently discovered Americas. The memory of Our Lady of Guadalupe from Extremadura and the victory she won them over the Muslims came with them as they conquered Mexico in 1520. The sought her intercession as they subdued the bestial Aztec culture and its demonic human sacrifice rituals to their false sun god Quetzacoatl, as well as for the conversion of the native American peoples to the Faith. One of these new converts was a peasant who, following his conversion, took the name Juan Diego. One day in 1531 when Juan was walking home, Our Lady appeared to him. She asked Juan to tell the archbishop, Juan de Zumarrága, to build a church to her honor on Tepeyac Hill. He obeyed, but the bishop did not believe him and requested a sign. Juan returned and after a series of subsequent apparitions, she told him to pick all of the roses he would find on the hill and bring them to this bishop in his tilma, a robe used by the Aztecs for carrying goods, and she would perform a miracle. When Juan showed his tilma to Archbishop Zumarrága, there appeared with the rose pedals emblazoned on it an image of Mary standing upon the crescent moon. Amazed, he immediately acted upon her request and built the church to her. He named the apparition Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe) due to the fact that she is standing upon a crescent moon, which is a traditional symbol of Islam carried on the flags of Muslim invaders throughout history. The image of La Guadalupana, as she is sometimes called, was later carried by the Italian Holy League Command Gianandrea Doria into victorious battle against the Ottoman navy at Lepanto in 1571. Christians today need to remember that the spiritual and material battle are of equal importance. It is within the union of these two domains that Islam can be defeated. Our Lady of Guadalupe is an example of this, and as Islam rises in America, it would be wise to remember the victories she assisted in gaining for the glory of Christ over Islam throughout the centuries. Andrew Bieszad has an MA in Islamic Studies from Hartford Seminary with concentration in the Islamic equivalent of Dogmatic Theology. He is the author of Lions of the Faith: Saints, Blesseds, and Heroes of the Catholic Faith in the Struggle with Islam. He is a sought after writer and speaker on Islamic topics.	<urn:uuid:bc186679-35df-48f4-90ae-f6ea93c05f7a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://shoebat.com/2015/02/17/mary-mother-jesus-fighting-islam-one-greatest-warriors-jihad/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00279.warc.gz	en	0.983449	1,495	3.640625	4	[ 0.16769416630268097, 0.5809054374694824, 0.17421044409275055, -0.014848397113382816, -0.1720011830329895, -0.1272924244403839, -0.34924817085266113, 0.06649364531040192, 0.3701173663139343, 0.016910411417484283, -0.5077692270278931, -0.2216440737247467, 0.004436973948031664, 0.105219170451...	5	By Andrew Bieszad This article will be a series of ongoing pieces about the role of St. Mary in the defeat of Islam. Islam was born from a conglomeration of Christian heresies mixed with pagan lore that abounded in the Arabian peninsula of his time. One of the most obsitant and dangerous of those heresies was called Arianism, named after the rogue priest Arius who denied Jesus’ divinity. Arianism reached the zenith of its influence in the early 4th century, but persisted in many areas of the Roman Empire for centuries. One of those pockets was among the Visigothic peoples, who migrated from northern Europe and settled in Spain. Due to the danger of their beliefs, much effort was invested in converting them to the Faith. There were many great men in the fight against Arianism within Spain. One of those men was Leander of Seville (534 –600 ). His efforts were so notable that as a gesture of thanks, Pope Gregory “The Great” (540 –604) gave him a statue of Mary as a gift. This was not just any mere statue, as it has been sculpted by Luke the Gospel writer himself. Leander took it back to his native Spain and installed it in an unnamed church, where it stayed for the next century and a half until the armies of Islam invaded. Muslim general Tariq ibn Ziyad, acting under the command of Musa ibn Nusayr crossed from Morocco to the “mountain” at Spain’s southernmost point, which he renamed “Tariq’s mountain,” or Jabal Tariq (from whence the name“Gibraltar” comes) in 711. The Muslim armies began a reign of terror against the inhabitants of southern Spain, gradually moving their way up the eastern Iberian coastline as they conquered and either converted or subjugated the native Christians in the area. The churches which the Muslims did not destroy were converted into mosques, and word arrived soon that the Muslims would be upon the church. The priests knew that it was unlikely that Islam’s armies could be stopped at this time, and that the church would meet the same fate as those in other parts of Spain. Acting quickly, the priests took the statue and rushed it away to the arid Spanish heartland of Extremadura and buried it at a bank on a tributary of the Guadiana River, known locally as the Wolf River. Their timing could not have been better, since the church was soon after desecrated into a mosque. However, the statue remained hidden. In the midst of the chaos, the statue’s location was forgotten. Within a few generations story became legend, and it passed into the memory of future generations who wondered where Leander’s Virgin lay. For six centuries, the statue rested under the ground below the burning Spanish sun, waiting to be recovered and restored to its rightful place. One day in 1326, a pious shepherd named Gil Cordero was tending his sheep when Mary appeared to him. She told him to go to a certain location she would show him on the Wolf River with the local priest and dig, and there they would find the statue. Gil obeyed, and having told the local priest, the men went and upon digging found the statue as she spoke. The finding of the statue was an immediate succor to the Spanish, who were in the midst of fierce fighting in Extremadura against Islamic armies from Seville. A shrine and monastery were immediately constructed, and her statue became a place of pilgrimage for the Spanish. They called it wadi lupe, which is a construct from the Arabic and Latin meaning “Our Lady of the Wolf River,” and was soon reformulated into a new Spanish word, Guadalupe. Fourteen years later, a report came that the Muslim marinids from Morocco were attempting another mass invasion into Spain to try and overthrow the Catholic resistance from the north. King Alfonso XI of Castile and King Alfonso IV of Portugal allied and made pilgrimage to Our Lady of Guadalupe and petitioned her intercession for victory as Christians have done throughout the ages with Islam. As sure as Providence would will it, the Battle of Rio Salado on October 4th, 1340 was a decisive victory that not only crushed the Muslims but marked the end of attempts at mass invasion by Musilm armies up until the end of the Reconquista in 1492. It was after the power of Islam was stripped from the Muslims and the Andalusian Caliphate abolished in 1492 that the Spanish then sailed west to colonize and Christianize the recently discovered Americas. The memory of Our Lady of Guadalupe from Extremadura and the victory she won them over the Muslims came with them as they conquered Mexico in 1520. The sought her intercession as they subdued the bestial Aztec culture and its demonic human sacrifice rituals to their false sun god Quetzacoatl, as well as for the conversion of the native American peoples to the Faith. One of these new converts was a peasant who, following his conversion, took the name Juan Diego. One day in 1531 when Juan was walking home, Our Lady appeared to him. She asked Juan to tell the archbishop, Juan de Zumarrága, to build a church to her honor on Tepeyac Hill. He obeyed, but the bishop did not believe him and requested a sign. Juan returned and after a series of subsequent apparitions, she told him to pick all of the roses he would find on the hill and bring them to this bishop in his tilma, a robe used by the Aztecs for carrying goods, and she would perform a miracle. When Juan showed his tilma to Archbishop Zumarrága, there appeared with the rose pedals emblazoned on it an image of Mary standing upon the crescent moon. Amazed, he immediately acted upon her request and built the church to her. He named the apparition Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (Our Lady of Guadalupe) due to the fact that she is standing upon a crescent moon, which is a traditional symbol of Islam carried on the flags of Muslim invaders throughout history. The image of La Guadalupana, as she is sometimes called, was later carried by the Italian Holy League Command Gianandrea Doria into victorious battle against the Ottoman navy at Lepanto in 1571. Christians today need to remember that the spiritual and material battle are of equal importance. It is within the union of these two domains that Islam can be defeated. Our Lady of Guadalupe is an example of this, and as Islam rises in America, it would be wise to remember the victories she assisted in gaining for the glory of Christ over Islam throughout the centuries. Andrew Bieszad has an MA in Islamic Studies from Hartford Seminary with concentration in the Islamic equivalent of Dogmatic Theology. He is the author of Lions of the Faith: Saints, Blesseds, and Heroes of the Catholic Faith in the Struggle with Islam. He is a sought after writer and speaker on Islamic topics.	1,495	ENGLISH	1
Romeo and Juliet Compare and Contrast to Pyramus and Thisbe The stories of Romeo and Juliet and Pyramus and Thisbe both talk of young lovers willing to be together no matter what the consequences may be. The love between the two couples was so strong that they were would die for their lovers. Although, the sequence of events that lead to the tragic endings of these stories have their differences as well. Ovid’s story of Pyramus and Thisbe came out a little before Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Many believe because of the similarities in plot, Shakespeare’s sources or influences for his story could have came from ‘Pyramus and Thisbe’. In the stories, there are many similarities as there are differences. Star crossed lovers is a phrase we would use to describe both of the couples; A pair of lovers whose relationship is constantly threatened by outside forces. In both of the stories, the couples have to deal with the fact that their parents have their issues and would refuse to let them be together. However, that wasn’t enough to make the lovers discontinue the relations they had. Another similarity that came across were the endings in a tomb. Romeo and Juliet ended in the Capulet’s crypt. Somewhat like that, Pyramus and Thisbe ended in the tomb of Ninus. To me, this seems as if both author’s of the stories were foreshadowing the deaths that would take place. When I read both of the stories, I almost knew the death of the couples was going to happen. The way Romeo and Juliet’s deaths took place is almost exactly alike. In Shakespeare’s story, Juliet drinks a poison to make her appear dead. When Romeo finds out Juliet is “dead”, he buys poison, drinks it at her tomb, and dies. Juliet wakes up to find her lover dead, so she took his dagger and stabbed herself in the chest. Ovid’s story says Pyramus found Thisbe’s bloody cloak and assumed she was dead so he killed himself. Thisbe was in fact not dead and saw the body of her dead lover so in the end she killed herself. Now the similarity here is quite clear. The man was the one to assume the women was dead, in return, they committed suicide. When the women discovered their partner wasn’t alive, they did the same as well. From my interpretation, the plots are the same in general. Both show that love makes you do crazy things. Romeo and Juliet and Pyramus and Thisbe thought with there hearts instead of their heads being in those situations at those times. Had they both given a little time and thinking before their actions, both of the stories could’ve ended happily. As for differences, I came upon many that I think show how the authors might’ve felt about star crossed love, young love, or just love in general. The little details I picked at really do draw lines between the two stories and give them both different meaning. The first thing I noticed were the way the relations between the couples began in the stories. Pyramus and Thisbe grew up together and were in love since they were children. Romeo and Juliet fell in love at first sight. After the moment they have spotted each other, they fell head over heels in love with one another. When does that ever happen? I believe this is when Shakespeare was trying to show that there was going to be consequences for being so naive. Shakespeare probably felt young love, especially at first sight, was foolish. Romeo and Juliet shows the consequences of young love and moving too fast. That is how I read it. Since Pyramus and Thisbe were not love at first sight and had loved each other for a long time, maybe Ovid felt strongly towards love. In the story I think he wanted to show how strong love can grow to be. The mood I was getting from the story of Pyramus and Thisbe was very different from Romeo and Juliet. Something to add on to that thought is the fact that Romeo was with another women before Juliet in Romeo and Juliet. Not only that but Juliet was going to marry another man before Romeo came along. I think this adds on to the ridiculousness of love at first sight. Unlike Pyramus and Thisbe where no one interfered besides their parents. The pair only had each other and no one came before that. In addition to the way Shakespeare could have felt about love, body’s were thrown left and right in his story. The deaths of some of the characters seemed only to be needed for conflict. For me, it took away the importance and sorrow of Romeo and Juliet’s death. The question is, was it intentional of the author? Whereas, Pyramus and Thisbe being the only characters dying adds on to the significance of there love and even makes it more emotional. The only thing in memorial for Romeo and Juliet after their deaths were gold statues of themselves placed next to each other. A statue would not last forever and at some point in time it would not exist. Pyramus and Thisbe were cremated and their ashes were put together in the same urn. Ashes could never be separated, therefore, Pyramus and Thisbe are literally together forever. Also, a mulberry tree with white berries turned red and remained that way forever in memorial of Pyramus and Thisbe. This seems more eaningful than gold statues. When I read Pyramus and Thisbe, I felt bad that they took their lives so effortlessly over simple assumptions. Towards the end I was amazed and happy for them. On the other hand, Romeo and Juliet made me slightly irritated. I was thinking how in the world could Romeo be so naive. Someone who believes in love at first sight might’ve enjoyed the story more than I did. Hopefully, I’m not the only one who felt that way, I would hope it was the author’s intention more than just the way I interpreted the stories. Ovid seemed to think the idea of the love he wrote about was beautiful. It is those minor details that lead me to believe in this. Shakespeare, I’m not quite sure about. Maybe he was in love with the idea of love but could never depict or grasp the concept so he got frustrated and wrote Romeo and Juliet. We may never know, but we can analyze, compare and contrast, and conclude, as I have. The similarities and differences are there, it’s just up to the reader to interpret and come up with conclusions. There may never be a final answer, but we can at least input our ideas.	<urn:uuid:0e934934-1d4f-4a35-b191-0d9edb40282d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/romeo-and-juliet-compare-and-contrast-to-pyramus-and-thisbe-71845	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00522.warc.gz	en	0.98309	1,384	3.34375	3	[ -0.28872254490852356, 0.02924327552318573, 0.09091417491436005, 0.15380898118019104, -0.44781628251075745, -0.032680414617061615, 0.13296368718147278, 0.3167835772037506, 0.2985154092311859, -0.33307403326034546, 0.10925339162349701, -0.4088737964630127, 0.08983951807022095, -0.09037932008...	1	Romeo and Juliet Compare and Contrast to Pyramus and Thisbe The stories of Romeo and Juliet and Pyramus and Thisbe both talk of young lovers willing to be together no matter what the consequences may be. The love between the two couples was so strong that they were would die for their lovers. Although, the sequence of events that lead to the tragic endings of these stories have their differences as well. Ovid’s story of Pyramus and Thisbe came out a little before Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Many believe because of the similarities in plot, Shakespeare’s sources or influences for his story could have came from ‘Pyramus and Thisbe’. In the stories, there are many similarities as there are differences. Star crossed lovers is a phrase we would use to describe both of the couples; A pair of lovers whose relationship is constantly threatened by outside forces. In both of the stories, the couples have to deal with the fact that their parents have their issues and would refuse to let them be together. However, that wasn’t enough to make the lovers discontinue the relations they had. Another similarity that came across were the endings in a tomb. Romeo and Juliet ended in the Capulet’s crypt. Somewhat like that, Pyramus and Thisbe ended in the tomb of Ninus. To me, this seems as if both author’s of the stories were foreshadowing the deaths that would take place. When I read both of the stories, I almost knew the death of the couples was going to happen. The way Romeo and Juliet’s deaths took place is almost exactly alike. In Shakespeare’s story, Juliet drinks a poison to make her appear dead. When Romeo finds out Juliet is “dead”, he buys poison, drinks it at her tomb, and dies. Juliet wakes up to find her lover dead, so she took his dagger and stabbed herself in the chest. Ovid’s story says Pyramus found Thisbe’s bloody cloak and assumed she was dead so he killed himself. Thisbe was in fact not dead and saw the body of her dead lover so in the end she killed herself. Now the similarity here is quite clear. The man was the one to assume the women was dead, in return, they committed suicide. When the women discovered their partner wasn’t alive, they did the same as well. From my interpretation, the plots are the same in general. Both show that love makes you do crazy things. Romeo and Juliet and Pyramus and Thisbe thought with there hearts instead of their heads being in those situations at those times. Had they both given a little time and thinking before their actions, both of the stories could’ve ended happily. As for differences, I came upon many that I think show how the authors might’ve felt about star crossed love, young love, or just love in general. The little details I picked at really do draw lines between the two stories and give them both different meaning. The first thing I noticed were the way the relations between the couples began in the stories. Pyramus and Thisbe grew up together and were in love since they were children. Romeo and Juliet fell in love at first sight. After the moment they have spotted each other, they fell head over heels in love with one another. When does that ever happen? I believe this is when Shakespeare was trying to show that there was going to be consequences for being so naive. Shakespeare probably felt young love, especially at first sight, was foolish. Romeo and Juliet shows the consequences of young love and moving too fast. That is how I read it. Since Pyramus and Thisbe were not love at first sight and had loved each other for a long time, maybe Ovid felt strongly towards love. In the story I think he wanted to show how strong love can grow to be. The mood I was getting from the story of Pyramus and Thisbe was very different from Romeo and Juliet. Something to add on to that thought is the fact that Romeo was with another women before Juliet in Romeo and Juliet. Not only that but Juliet was going to marry another man before Romeo came along. I think this adds on to the ridiculousness of love at first sight. Unlike Pyramus and Thisbe where no one interfered besides their parents. The pair only had each other and no one came before that. In addition to the way Shakespeare could have felt about love, body’s were thrown left and right in his story. The deaths of some of the characters seemed only to be needed for conflict. For me, it took away the importance and sorrow of Romeo and Juliet’s death. The question is, was it intentional of the author? Whereas, Pyramus and Thisbe being the only characters dying adds on to the significance of there love and even makes it more emotional. The only thing in memorial for Romeo and Juliet after their deaths were gold statues of themselves placed next to each other. A statue would not last forever and at some point in time it would not exist. Pyramus and Thisbe were cremated and their ashes were put together in the same urn. Ashes could never be separated, therefore, Pyramus and Thisbe are literally together forever. Also, a mulberry tree with white berries turned red and remained that way forever in memorial of Pyramus and Thisbe. This seems more eaningful than gold statues. When I read Pyramus and Thisbe, I felt bad that they took their lives so effortlessly over simple assumptions. Towards the end I was amazed and happy for them. On the other hand, Romeo and Juliet made me slightly irritated. I was thinking how in the world could Romeo be so naive. Someone who believes in love at first sight might’ve enjoyed the story more than I did. Hopefully, I’m not the only one who felt that way, I would hope it was the author’s intention more than just the way I interpreted the stories. Ovid seemed to think the idea of the love he wrote about was beautiful. It is those minor details that lead me to believe in this. Shakespeare, I’m not quite sure about. Maybe he was in love with the idea of love but could never depict or grasp the concept so he got frustrated and wrote Romeo and Juliet. We may never know, but we can analyze, compare and contrast, and conclude, as I have. The similarities and differences are there, it’s just up to the reader to interpret and come up with conclusions. There may never be a final answer, but we can at least input our ideas.	1,331	ENGLISH	1
Toward the end of 1499, a woman stood atop the walls of the Rocca di Ravaldino in Forlì, some 185 miles north of Rome. The troops of the Borgias, a powerful rival family, were holding her children hostage and threatening to kill them if she did not yield the fortress and her lands to them. But she refused, raised her skirts, and cried: “Kill them if you will, I have the means to make many more! You will never make me surrender." The tale may be apocryphal but, given what is known about the extraordinary Caterina Sforza, it has a ring of truth. One of the most exceptional figures of the Italian Renaissance, Sforza rubbed shoulders with the artistic and cultural geniuses of her era. She defied convention, studied alchemy, and welcomed confrontation with the Borgias and other powerful families. (Read more about the most famous Borgia, Lucrezia.) Caterina was born in 1463 in Milan, an illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, who, later in her childhood, would become Duke of Milan. Despite her illegitimacy, she was brought up at the center of her father’s household, where she received an education imbued with the humanist spirit of the age. Like other girls in this remarkable family, she studied military tactics and weaponry alongside boys. (Read about humanism in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel art.) In 1473, when Caterina was 10, her family made a political alliance and betrothed her to Girolamo Riario, a man 20 years her senior and nephew of Pope Sixtus IV. Lord of Imola and Forlì—a city south of Milan in Romagna—Girolamo took his child bride to live in Rome after she turned 14. The move helped consolidate their place at the center of the papal court. Caterina would give birth to several children and become a powerful intermediary between Rome and Milan. In August 1484 Pope Sixtus IV’s death caused political chaos as Italy’s families jockeyed to put one of their own on the throne of St. Peter. (Learn the meanings of different colored smoke in choosing a new pope today.) Caterina's husband was in a precarious position: Many factions seeking to seize his lands after his uncle's death. Riario had been away from Rome, campaigning against these rival factions, but now he was prevented from returning to the city to shore up his position. Caterina, despite being seven months pregnant, did it for him. She commanded her forces to seize Rome’s Castel Sant’Angelo. She refused to cede it, claiming that Pope Sixtus had bestowed control of it to her family before his death. The only person she would hand it over to would be the next pope. Knowing the cardinals feared her artillery, Caterina seized the castle to buy some for her husband to strike a deal. Caterina and Riaro left Rome only after securing 8,000 ducats in compensation and recognition of their estates in Imola and Forlì, as well as Riaro's appointment as captain-general of the Vatican troops. Caterina had the chance to prove her political skills at her new home in Forlì. After Riaro was murdered in 1488 by supporters of the new pope, Innocent VIII, she acted as regent for her oldest son Ottaviano, who was not yet of age. She shrewdly lowered taxes to win the alliegience of her citizens. She formed strong alliances with neighboring states through her marriage to her children. She also took command of her army’s military training. A few months after her husband’s death, Caterina secretly married Giacomo Feo with whom she had a son, Bernardino Carlo. The passion she felt for the ambitious young man proved to be a weakness. She removed her eldest son, Ottaviano, from power and gave control of the state over to her husband. She also put Feo’s relatives in charge of the fortresses defending the city. Ottaviano’s supporters did not approve and hatched a successful plot to murder Caterina’s second husband in 1495. Unbowed and unbroken, the widow had his assassins and their families massacred in retaliation. In 1497, at age 34, Caterina obtained permission from her uncle, Duke Ludovico Sforza, to marry Giovanni de’ Medici, a member of the powerful Florentine family. She had met him a year earlier when he came to Forlì as an ambassador from Florence. Once again, the marriage would end in death, and she would be widowed: Barely a year after Caterina gave birth to a son, Giovanni (later known as Giovanni delle Bande Nere, a famous military commander), Medici died of pneumonia in the middle of a conflict between Florence and Venice. Braving the Borgias Shortly afterward, Pope Alexander VI, a Borgia, set out to enlarge the Papal States by absorbing cities in Romagna, including Caterina's lands in Forlì and Imola. Caterina Sforza immediately began expanding her military defenses, improving her weaponry, and creating large stores of food and ammunition in case she was besieged. Cesare Borgia, Duke of Valentinois, stood opposed to Caterina who had taken up residency at the fortress of nearby Ravaldino, the Rocca di Ravaldino. Son of Pope Alexander, Cesare Borgia was a powerful enemy with major forces at his command. After Imola and Forlì fell, Borgia set about besieging the Rocca di Ravaldino on December 19, 1499. Caterina personally commanded the defense with the aid of more than 1,000 soldiers. She refused one peace offer after another, even—as the legend says—at the cost of her children’s lives. On January 12, 1500, after a hard-fought defense, Borgia’s troops took Ravaldino, and captured Caterina. Although she asked to be placed in the custody of the King of France, Louis XII, Borgia did not relinquish his prisoner and held her for two years. It was not long, however, before Borgia did send her to Rome, where Caterina was held by Pope Alexander in Belvedere, a beautiful villa near the city. The Borgia pope insisted on treating his prisoner as an honored guest, in accordance with her rank, but all the attention he lavished on her failed to quash Sforza’s rebellious spirit. After an unsuccessful escape attempt, the troublesome duchess was sent to Castel Sant’Angelo, the fortress she had seized years earlier. A peaceful end After the King of France interceded on her behalf, Caterina was released in 1501 and retired to a family villa in Florence. It was there, following the death of Pope Alexander VI, that she attempted to reclaim her lands from the new pontiff, one of the great art patrons of the Renaissance, Pope Julius II. However, both the cities of Forlì and Imola objected to her return, and so she passed into the hands of a Vatican nobleman called Antonio Maria Ordelaffi. Caterina spent the last few years of her life with her children, continuing her lifelong study of alchemy. In May 1509, when she was just 46 years old, she died of pneumonia. She was buried in the Convent of Santa Maria delle Murate, in an anonymous tomb, as stipulated in her will. Her grandson, Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, later ordered a white marble gravestone be placed over her grave. In 1835 that stone was destroyed when the convent’s flooring was renovated. Caterina, it seems, would not be contradicted—even in death.	<urn:uuid:e35a7fd4-be13-442d-96c9-c300f38c2722>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2016/05-06/caterina-sforza/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00151.warc.gz	en	0.980565	1,659	3.28125	3	[ -0.26462605595588684, 0.39118683338165283, 0.06466346979141235, 0.27401483058929443, -0.5170707106590271, -0.13982808589935303, 0.10195828974246979, 0.36962324380874634, 0.07270755618810654, -0.02337031625211239, 0.12149614095687866, -0.3657533824443817, 0.011678550392389297, 0.27203720808...	5	Toward the end of 1499, a woman stood atop the walls of the Rocca di Ravaldino in Forlì, some 185 miles north of Rome. The troops of the Borgias, a powerful rival family, were holding her children hostage and threatening to kill them if she did not yield the fortress and her lands to them. But she refused, raised her skirts, and cried: “Kill them if you will, I have the means to make many more! You will never make me surrender." The tale may be apocryphal but, given what is known about the extraordinary Caterina Sforza, it has a ring of truth. One of the most exceptional figures of the Italian Renaissance, Sforza rubbed shoulders with the artistic and cultural geniuses of her era. She defied convention, studied alchemy, and welcomed confrontation with the Borgias and other powerful families. (Read more about the most famous Borgia, Lucrezia.) Caterina was born in 1463 in Milan, an illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, who, later in her childhood, would become Duke of Milan. Despite her illegitimacy, she was brought up at the center of her father’s household, where she received an education imbued with the humanist spirit of the age. Like other girls in this remarkable family, she studied military tactics and weaponry alongside boys. (Read about humanism in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel art.) In 1473, when Caterina was 10, her family made a political alliance and betrothed her to Girolamo Riario, a man 20 years her senior and nephew of Pope Sixtus IV. Lord of Imola and Forlì—a city south of Milan in Romagna—Girolamo took his child bride to live in Rome after she turned 14. The move helped consolidate their place at the center of the papal court. Caterina would give birth to several children and become a powerful intermediary between Rome and Milan. In August 1484 Pope Sixtus IV’s death caused political chaos as Italy’s families jockeyed to put one of their own on the throne of St. Peter. (Learn the meanings of different colored smoke in choosing a new pope today.) Caterina's husband was in a precarious position: Many factions seeking to seize his lands after his uncle's death. Riario had been away from Rome, campaigning against these rival factions, but now he was prevented from returning to the city to shore up his position. Caterina, despite being seven months pregnant, did it for him. She commanded her forces to seize Rome’s Castel Sant’Angelo. She refused to cede it, claiming that Pope Sixtus had bestowed control of it to her family before his death. The only person she would hand it over to would be the next pope. Knowing the cardinals feared her artillery, Caterina seized the castle to buy some for her husband to strike a deal. Caterina and Riaro left Rome only after securing 8,000 ducats in compensation and recognition of their estates in Imola and Forlì, as well as Riaro's appointment as captain-general of the Vatican troops. Caterina had the chance to prove her political skills at her new home in Forlì. After Riaro was murdered in 1488 by supporters of the new pope, Innocent VIII, she acted as regent for her oldest son Ottaviano, who was not yet of age. She shrewdly lowered taxes to win the alliegience of her citizens. She formed strong alliances with neighboring states through her marriage to her children. She also took command of her army’s military training. A few months after her husband’s death, Caterina secretly married Giacomo Feo with whom she had a son, Bernardino Carlo. The passion she felt for the ambitious young man proved to be a weakness. She removed her eldest son, Ottaviano, from power and gave control of the state over to her husband. She also put Feo’s relatives in charge of the fortresses defending the city. Ottaviano’s supporters did not approve and hatched a successful plot to murder Caterina’s second husband in 1495. Unbowed and unbroken, the widow had his assassins and their families massacred in retaliation. In 1497, at age 34, Caterina obtained permission from her uncle, Duke Ludovico Sforza, to marry Giovanni de’ Medici, a member of the powerful Florentine family. She had met him a year earlier when he came to Forlì as an ambassador from Florence. Once again, the marriage would end in death, and she would be widowed: Barely a year after Caterina gave birth to a son, Giovanni (later known as Giovanni delle Bande Nere, a famous military commander), Medici died of pneumonia in the middle of a conflict between Florence and Venice. Braving the Borgias Shortly afterward, Pope Alexander VI, a Borgia, set out to enlarge the Papal States by absorbing cities in Romagna, including Caterina's lands in Forlì and Imola. Caterina Sforza immediately began expanding her military defenses, improving her weaponry, and creating large stores of food and ammunition in case she was besieged. Cesare Borgia, Duke of Valentinois, stood opposed to Caterina who had taken up residency at the fortress of nearby Ravaldino, the Rocca di Ravaldino. Son of Pope Alexander, Cesare Borgia was a powerful enemy with major forces at his command. After Imola and Forlì fell, Borgia set about besieging the Rocca di Ravaldino on December 19, 1499. Caterina personally commanded the defense with the aid of more than 1,000 soldiers. She refused one peace offer after another, even—as the legend says—at the cost of her children’s lives. On January 12, 1500, after a hard-fought defense, Borgia’s troops took Ravaldino, and captured Caterina. Although she asked to be placed in the custody of the King of France, Louis XII, Borgia did not relinquish his prisoner and held her for two years. It was not long, however, before Borgia did send her to Rome, where Caterina was held by Pope Alexander in Belvedere, a beautiful villa near the city. The Borgia pope insisted on treating his prisoner as an honored guest, in accordance with her rank, but all the attention he lavished on her failed to quash Sforza’s rebellious spirit. After an unsuccessful escape attempt, the troublesome duchess was sent to Castel Sant’Angelo, the fortress she had seized years earlier. A peaceful end After the King of France interceded on her behalf, Caterina was released in 1501 and retired to a family villa in Florence. It was there, following the death of Pope Alexander VI, that she attempted to reclaim her lands from the new pontiff, one of the great art patrons of the Renaissance, Pope Julius II. However, both the cities of Forlì and Imola objected to her return, and so she passed into the hands of a Vatican nobleman called Antonio Maria Ordelaffi. Caterina spent the last few years of her life with her children, continuing her lifelong study of alchemy. In May 1509, when she was just 46 years old, she died of pneumonia. She was buried in the Convent of Santa Maria delle Murate, in an anonymous tomb, as stipulated in her will. Her grandson, Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, later ordered a white marble gravestone be placed over her grave. In 1835 that stone was destroyed when the convent’s flooring was renovated. Caterina, it seems, would not be contradicted—even in death.	1,668	ENGLISH	1
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below. The groundwork for the Reformation was laid by the various reform movements of late medieval Christianity, by the increased interest in learning that marked the renaissance, and by the printing press. Europe was ripe for Reformation. All it needed was something to set it off. That something came in the form of a monk in Wittenberg, Germany. On October 31, 1517 Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses, a proposal for public discussion, to the door of the cathedral in Wittenberg. The world would never be the same. The 95 theses hit the Roman Catholic Church in the place that mattered most, the pocketbook. Contrary to popular belief, the 95 theses had nothing to do with the great doctrines of the Reformation: faith only, grace only, and Scripture only. They concerned one of Rome's major sources of income: indulgences. Johann Tetzel was touring Germany at the time, collecting money in return for the promise that the pope would release dead relatives from purgatory. Indulgences are a release from temporary punishments that the Roman Catholic Church said that people receive for sins they commit, sins which were not bad enough to send people to hell. Martin Luther argued that the pope had no such power, and if he did, then he ought to use it—without monetary return and as an act of love—to remit all temporal punishment. The people listened. Thanks to the printing press, Martin Luther's writings spread rapidly throughout Germany. Luther helped make this happen by having audacity to write in German, the common language of the people, rather than in Latin like most other theological treatises. Tetzel's sales of indulgences plummeted. The pope, who was trying to build St. Peter's Basilica at the time, had to do something about it. He sent Johannes Eck to Germany to debate the upstart monk from Wittenberg. Eck's goal was simple. He did not need to defeat the monk in debate. All he had to do was to get Luther to deny the pope's authority on the matter of indulgences. Once that was done, Luther would be a heretic, and he could be excommunicated. He succeeded, but his plan did not go as well as hoped. Luther was not intimidated by excommunication. Instead, he publicly burned the papal bull that excommunicated him. It turned out that in Germany, this little monk was more popular than the pope. Not just the people, but also a number of the feudal lords sided with Luther. With their armies on his side, much of Germany became Lutheran rather than Catholic. The Reformation was in full swing. It was not just Luther spreading Reformation. In Switzerland the preaching of people like Peter Farel had prepared the country well for the Reformation. In Zurich, a priest named Ulrich Zwingli, a contemporary of Luther, won over the city council with Scripture and got them to separate from Rome. Later, John Calvin would similarly lead the city of Geneva to Reformation doctrines. Many others took up the torch of Reformation. Heinrich Bullinger replaced Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich in 1531, and though he remained there until his death in 1575, his writings and teaching spread nearly as widely as Luther's. In England, the Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared the king of England to be the "only supreme head" of the church in England. This formalized England's break with the Pope in Rome and left an open door for Reformation doctrines. The Act was brought about when Pope Clement VII refused to annul King Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Once the king and parliament had passed laws against papal authority and appointed new church leaders, the Church of England was officially in royal hands. The teachings of the Reformation affected the doctrines of the Church of England, but not its structure or liturgy. It retained much of the form it had when it was Roman Catholic. There were some, however, who were not satisfied with just a change in doctrine. They were called "Puritans" for their desire to purify the Anglican Church. After the Puritans came the Separatists, who grew hopeless that the state church would ever reform. They resolved to form their own free churches, apart from government interference, though many were strongly persecuted. From 1553 to 1558, Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine, ruled as a Catholic. Mary's execution of unrepentant Puritans gave her the title of "Bloody Mary" and led to many Puritans and Separatists fleeing England. After her death her half sister Elizabeth reigned, and the Church of England has remained Protestant since. Since modern Protestants are descendants of the Reformation, it's easy to read our culture back into 16th-century Europe. That doesn't work, however. In 16th century Europe having your own faith would get you imprisoned, killed, or banished. If the lord (or city council) that ruled over you were Protestant, then you were Protestant, too. If he were Catholic, then you were Catholic. The Reformation spread from noble to noble and city government to city government, not from person to person. The early Protestant church was still a state church. Individual freedoms would have to wait for the rise of Pietism and the departure of the Puritans to the Americas in the 17th century. Except for the 2nd century church, the Radical Reformation is my favorite period of history. I'm disappointed I haven't done a page on it yet, but I am longing to do so. Conrad Grebel was a student of Ulrich Zwingli in the early days in Zurich, but he soon left Zwingli behind. He wanted to go further than Zwingli did, though the main point of contention was infant baptism (a practice continued by all three major Reformers: Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli.). Because even in Zurich Christianity was a state religion, Grebel was forced to debate Zwingli before the Zurich city council. He was declared the loser. Undeterred he went to a home in Zollikon, where he baptized Georg Blaurock, who then baptized twelve others, forming the first "Anabaptist" church. Persecution eventually destroyed the church in Zollikon. Georg Blaurock was beaten and banished from Zurich. Felix Manz, another major leader of the Anabaptist movement, was drowned by the city council, and Grebel was jailed and eventually died of ill health. Nonetheless, the Anabaptist movement spread. It was by far (in my opinion) the most Scriptural movement of the Reformation. Persecuted by Protestants and Catholics alike, rejecting violence, and arguing for freedom of conscience, they spread their Gospel the way the early church did, by testifying for it with their lives and with their suffering. My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1!	<urn:uuid:74d1de4f-60b4-4242-aaad-330925227e9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.christian-history.org/the-reformation-2.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00194.warc.gz	en	0.982161	1,483	4	4	[ -0.28453516960144043, 0.31077349185943604, -0.15866057574748993, 0.013195930048823357, -0.17267274856567383, -0.06117524206638336, -0.5967448353767395, 0.16722436249256134, 0.13027042150497437, 0.280007004737854, -0.11567799001932144, 0.016228877007961273, 0.0078058997169137, -0.1050416901...	1	Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below. The groundwork for the Reformation was laid by the various reform movements of late medieval Christianity, by the increased interest in learning that marked the renaissance, and by the printing press. Europe was ripe for Reformation. All it needed was something to set it off. That something came in the form of a monk in Wittenberg, Germany. On October 31, 1517 Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses, a proposal for public discussion, to the door of the cathedral in Wittenberg. The world would never be the same. The 95 theses hit the Roman Catholic Church in the place that mattered most, the pocketbook. Contrary to popular belief, the 95 theses had nothing to do with the great doctrines of the Reformation: faith only, grace only, and Scripture only. They concerned one of Rome's major sources of income: indulgences. Johann Tetzel was touring Germany at the time, collecting money in return for the promise that the pope would release dead relatives from purgatory. Indulgences are a release from temporary punishments that the Roman Catholic Church said that people receive for sins they commit, sins which were not bad enough to send people to hell. Martin Luther argued that the pope had no such power, and if he did, then he ought to use it—without monetary return and as an act of love—to remit all temporal punishment. The people listened. Thanks to the printing press, Martin Luther's writings spread rapidly throughout Germany. Luther helped make this happen by having audacity to write in German, the common language of the people, rather than in Latin like most other theological treatises. Tetzel's sales of indulgences plummeted. The pope, who was trying to build St. Peter's Basilica at the time, had to do something about it. He sent Johannes Eck to Germany to debate the upstart monk from Wittenberg. Eck's goal was simple. He did not need to defeat the monk in debate. All he had to do was to get Luther to deny the pope's authority on the matter of indulgences. Once that was done, Luther would be a heretic, and he could be excommunicated. He succeeded, but his plan did not go as well as hoped. Luther was not intimidated by excommunication. Instead, he publicly burned the papal bull that excommunicated him. It turned out that in Germany, this little monk was more popular than the pope. Not just the people, but also a number of the feudal lords sided with Luther. With their armies on his side, much of Germany became Lutheran rather than Catholic. The Reformation was in full swing. It was not just Luther spreading Reformation. In Switzerland the preaching of people like Peter Farel had prepared the country well for the Reformation. In Zurich, a priest named Ulrich Zwingli, a contemporary of Luther, won over the city council with Scripture and got them to separate from Rome. Later, John Calvin would similarly lead the city of Geneva to Reformation doctrines. Many others took up the torch of Reformation. Heinrich Bullinger replaced Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich in 1531, and though he remained there until his death in 1575, his writings and teaching spread nearly as widely as Luther's. In England, the Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared the king of England to be the "only supreme head" of the church in England. This formalized England's break with the Pope in Rome and left an open door for Reformation doctrines. The Act was brought about when Pope Clement VII refused to annul King Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Once the king and parliament had passed laws against papal authority and appointed new church leaders, the Church of England was officially in royal hands. The teachings of the Reformation affected the doctrines of the Church of England, but not its structure or liturgy. It retained much of the form it had when it was Roman Catholic. There were some, however, who were not satisfied with just a change in doctrine. They were called "Puritans" for their desire to purify the Anglican Church. After the Puritans came the Separatists, who grew hopeless that the state church would ever reform. They resolved to form their own free churches, apart from government interference, though many were strongly persecuted. From 1553 to 1558, Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine, ruled as a Catholic. Mary's execution of unrepentant Puritans gave her the title of "Bloody Mary" and led to many Puritans and Separatists fleeing England. After her death her half sister Elizabeth reigned, and the Church of England has remained Protestant since. Since modern Protestants are descendants of the Reformation, it's easy to read our culture back into 16th-century Europe. That doesn't work, however. In 16th century Europe having your own faith would get you imprisoned, killed, or banished. If the lord (or city council) that ruled over you were Protestant, then you were Protestant, too. If he were Catholic, then you were Catholic. The Reformation spread from noble to noble and city government to city government, not from person to person. The early Protestant church was still a state church. Individual freedoms would have to wait for the rise of Pietism and the departure of the Puritans to the Americas in the 17th century. Except for the 2nd century church, the Radical Reformation is my favorite period of history. I'm disappointed I haven't done a page on it yet, but I am longing to do so. Conrad Grebel was a student of Ulrich Zwingli in the early days in Zurich, but he soon left Zwingli behind. He wanted to go further than Zwingli did, though the main point of contention was infant baptism (a practice continued by all three major Reformers: Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli.). Because even in Zurich Christianity was a state religion, Grebel was forced to debate Zwingli before the Zurich city council. He was declared the loser. Undeterred he went to a home in Zollikon, where he baptized Georg Blaurock, who then baptized twelve others, forming the first "Anabaptist" church. Persecution eventually destroyed the church in Zollikon. Georg Blaurock was beaten and banished from Zurich. Felix Manz, another major leader of the Anabaptist movement, was drowned by the city council, and Grebel was jailed and eventually died of ill health. Nonetheless, the Anabaptist movement spread. It was by far (in my opinion) the most Scriptural movement of the Reformation. Persecuted by Protestants and Catholics alike, rejecting violence, and arguing for freedom of conscience, they spread their Gospel the way the early church did, by testifying for it with their lives and with their suffering. My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1!	1,497	ENGLISH	1
Many people have never heard of British scientist Rosalind Franklin. Her research helped solve the mystery of the structure of DNA - the building blocks of life. In 1952, Franklin took X-Ray photographs of a molecule that showed DNA contains two strands wrapped around each other in a double helix, like a twisted ladder. The clearest image, known as photograph 51, enabled other scientists to build a model of DNA, and they received credit for it. In Washington, a play at the Jewish Community Center called ?Photograph 51? depicts Franklin as the only woman doing DNA research then in a man?s world. The play coincides with women's history month in the US. It?s a magical moment in ?Photograph 51.? Scientist Rosalind Franklin sees the double helix of a DNA molecule. Franklin was a chemist with a doctorate from Britain's Cambridge University. It was the early 1950s. She was in her 30s when she was working on DNA research. The play shows Franklin working tirelessly and mostly independently on her research. She often clashed with male colleagues who she felt treated her dismissively. ?She wasn?t called Dr. Franklin, she was called Miss Franklin. She wasn?t allowed to eat in the senior common room; all the men were allowed to eat in the senior common room. That absolutely crippled her and created an environment where she didn?t trust the people she was working with,? said Daniella Topol, the director of the play. Franklin tried to figure out how the double helix worked but wasn?t able to. Without her permission, Franklin?s co-worker, Maurice Wilkins, secretly showed her photos to American scientist James Watson. He and Francis Crick, his British research partner, were trying to build a DNA model. When Watson saw the photographs, he realized that DNA is a double-stranded helix and the two were able to complete the model. Franklin learned about their breakthrough from her colleague Wilkins. In 1962, Crick, Watson, and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was four years after Franklin had died from cancer, at the age of 37. The award is given only to people who are alive. During the ceremony, no credit was given to Franklin. And Watson has largely dismissed her role. But Crick, who died in 2004, has said Franklin was only ?two steps away? from solving the DNA puzzle. Topol hopes people who see the play will not only learn about Franklin but will have a better understanding of her. ?I want people to think about everything Rosalind Franklin accomplished, and how much more she could have accomplished had she not been isolated and marginalized and misunderstood and discriminated against,? she said. Franklin was a pioneer, whose valuable DNA photograph helped change the world of genetics forever.	<urn:uuid:75424d0c-27c8-4b96-a07c-18a86e7d8b6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.voanews.com/silicon-valley-technology/rosalind-franklins-research-led-discovery-dna-structure	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00105.warc.gz	en	0.986188	587	3.515625	4	[ -0.28207695484161377, 0.2927494943141937, -0.11155426502227783, -0.04586418718099594, 0.1684650182723999, -0.04986713081598282, 0.49867892265319824, 0.4583738446235657, -0.3388901948928833, -0.16390050947666168, 0.26030290126800537, -0.2604832649230957, -0.2073763906955719, 0.1364674270153...	4	Many people have never heard of British scientist Rosalind Franklin. Her research helped solve the mystery of the structure of DNA - the building blocks of life. In 1952, Franklin took X-Ray photographs of a molecule that showed DNA contains two strands wrapped around each other in a double helix, like a twisted ladder. The clearest image, known as photograph 51, enabled other scientists to build a model of DNA, and they received credit for it. In Washington, a play at the Jewish Community Center called ?Photograph 51? depicts Franklin as the only woman doing DNA research then in a man?s world. The play coincides with women's history month in the US. It?s a magical moment in ?Photograph 51.? Scientist Rosalind Franklin sees the double helix of a DNA molecule. Franklin was a chemist with a doctorate from Britain's Cambridge University. It was the early 1950s. She was in her 30s when she was working on DNA research. The play shows Franklin working tirelessly and mostly independently on her research. She often clashed with male colleagues who she felt treated her dismissively. ?She wasn?t called Dr. Franklin, she was called Miss Franklin. She wasn?t allowed to eat in the senior common room; all the men were allowed to eat in the senior common room. That absolutely crippled her and created an environment where she didn?t trust the people she was working with,? said Daniella Topol, the director of the play. Franklin tried to figure out how the double helix worked but wasn?t able to. Without her permission, Franklin?s co-worker, Maurice Wilkins, secretly showed her photos to American scientist James Watson. He and Francis Crick, his British research partner, were trying to build a DNA model. When Watson saw the photographs, he realized that DNA is a double-stranded helix and the two were able to complete the model. Franklin learned about their breakthrough from her colleague Wilkins. In 1962, Crick, Watson, and Wilkins received the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was four years after Franklin had died from cancer, at the age of 37. The award is given only to people who are alive. During the ceremony, no credit was given to Franklin. And Watson has largely dismissed her role. But Crick, who died in 2004, has said Franklin was only ?two steps away? from solving the DNA puzzle. Topol hopes people who see the play will not only learn about Franklin but will have a better understanding of her. ?I want people to think about everything Rosalind Franklin accomplished, and how much more she could have accomplished had she not been isolated and marginalized and misunderstood and discriminated against,? she said. Franklin was a pioneer, whose valuable DNA photograph helped change the world of genetics forever.	594	ENGLISH	1
In ancient China, dynasties changed quite frequently. Due to the special political system, few dynasties can last more than three or four hundred years, and many of them are only a few years old, or even less than a year. Here is an inventory of the top ten dynasties with the shortest rule of china. Dashun Dynasty (1644-1645) The regime was established in Xi’an by the leader of the famous peasant army “Li Zicheng” at the end of the Ming Dynasty. Dashun first took Xi’an as a Beijing division and then moved to Beijing. The territory once covered many provinces in the Central Plains. In the 17th year of Chongzhen, Li Zicheng became the emperor, and his country was named Dashun. In May, Li Zicheng died in Nanjiugongshan, Tongshan County, Hubei. In less than one year, the Dashun regime was replaced by the Qing soldiers. It is one of the shortest-lived dynasties in Chinese history. Xuanhan Dynasty (23-25 years) It is a political power that emerged after the New Dynasty in Chinese history. It is also called Xuanhan Dynasty and was established by the Western Han Dynasty’s royal family, Liu Xuan. The Xuan Han inherited the new dynasty and started the Eastern Han Dynasty. It nominally unified most of the territory in the late Western Han Dynasty. Since Liu Xuanwan was ruled as the emperor in 23 AD, until the Red Eyebrow Army invaded Chang’an in 25 AD, Liu Xuan was killed after the surrender, and the Xuan and Han regimes were destroyed. Xuan Han pioneered the success of the former imperial clan in the history of centralization in China to successfully recapture the regime, but due to Liu Xuan’s mediocrity and incompetence, he could only end in failure. Ran Wei Dynasty (350-352) During the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, the regime established by the Han Chinese Ran Min was only 2 years old. In 350 AD, Ran Min killed Hou Zhao ’s monarch Shi Jian while the Hou Zhao political situation was chaotic. He seized Hou Zhao ’s power and became emperor. Ran Min massacred the Hu people during his reign, and even many Han people were brutally murdered, which aroused the strong resistance of the Hu people. In 352 AD, Ran Min was defeated and beheaded by the former Yan monarch Murong Jun, and the Ran Wei regime was declared dead. Hou Han Dynasty (947-950) During the period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms, it was built by Liu Zhiyuan, the envoy of the Jin Dynasty, and the capital city was Kaifeng, Tokyo. The state was 3 years old. In 947 AD, Liu Zhiyuan was named emperor in Taiyuan, with Han as the country’s title, history as the post-Han, and the world as the post-Han Gaozu. In 950 AD, the Emperor Hidden Emperor of the Han Dynasty murdered former ministers Yang Yang, Shi Hongzhao, Wang Zhang, etc., and conspired to murder Guo Wei who guarded the capital. Guo Wei heard the news, and then raised his troops to resist, led the army to kill Ben Liang, Han Yin Emperor was killed by the defeat of the army, and then Han died. It took less than four years since the founding of Han Dynasty and its destruction. It experienced 2 emperors and was the shortest-lived regime in the Five Dynasties and Ten Countries. Hou Zhou Dynasty (951-960) One of the Ten Dynasties of the Five Dynasties and the last Central Plains Dynasty of the Five Dynasties. It was established by Han after Guo Wei’s annihilation and the capital of Kaifeng, Tokyo. In 950 AD, Guo Wei was forced to rebel because of the suspicion of the Emperor of the Han Dynasty. The following year, he became the emperor, and changed to Guangshun in Yuan Dynasty. In 960, the famous “Chen Qiaoyi mutiny” took place. Hou Zhou had almost no resistance. Emperor Zhou Gongchen was located in Zhao Kuangyin, and the Northern Song Dynasty was born. Hou Zhou enjoyed the country for 10 years and went through three emperors. The “little whirlwind” Chai Jin in the Water Margin was the descendant of the late emperor. Hou Jin Dynasty (936-947) The dynasty of the Twenty-Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was established by Shi Jinglian. It was initially settled in Luoyang and later moved to Kaifeng. In 936 AD, Shi Jinglian colluded with Khitan and recognized the Lord of Khitan Yaludekwang as the father, and at the expense of Youyun 16 states, he became the emperor in Taiyuan with the support of Khitan, changed the heavenly blessing, and was called Hou Jin in history. After Shi Jinglian’s death, he was passed on to his nephew, Shi Chonggui, because he had no children. In 947, Khitan went south for the third time, and Hou Jinzhong’s Du Chongwei rebelled and lowered Khitan, Hou Jin’s main force was lost. Shi Jinglian’s nephew, Shi Chonggui, surrendered and was captured. Later Jin had a total of 2 emperors and 12 years in the state. Nanyan Dynasty (398-410) During the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, it was built by Murongde and built a sliding platform. In 398 AD, the Northern Wei Dynasty broke through Zhongshan, and Houyan was cut into two parts. Murongde took advantage of the 40,000 southward migration platform, known as the King of Yan and Nanyan in history. In 409 AD, Liu Yu of the Eastern Jin Dynasty led a northern expedition, and the following year Guanggu fell and Nanyan died. Nan Yan enjoyed the country for 12 years and experienced 2 emperors. The last emperor was Murong Chao. Historians refer to him as the Lord of the South Yan, and at the same time, he was the last emperor from the Xianbei Murong Department during the period of the Wuhu and Sixteen Kingdoms. Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC) The Qin Dynasty was the first centrally centralized dynasty in Chinese history, and it was also an extremely short-lived dynasty. It was originally the Qin Kingdom during the Warring States Period. After Qin Wangzheng took power, he swept Liuhe and completed the great cause of reunification. In 221 BC, Xunzheng called the emperor “Qin Shihuang”, implying that the dynasty was endless, and the famous Qin dynasty was born. In 210 BC, Emperor Qin Shihuang died of the dunes, and his son Hu Hai was enthroned, and the dynasty went from bad to worse. Uprisings continued. It eventually died in 207 BC, during which there were 2 emperors and 14 years in the kingdom. New Mang Dynasty (8-23 years) The short-lived dynasty that was born of the “Wang Man usurped the Han” incident during the Western Han Dynasty. Since the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Liu’s power has gradually fallen into the hands of the Wang’s foreign relative group with Emperor Xiaoyuan and Wang Zhengjun as the core, and Wang Mang has entered the stage of history ever since. He abolished Han Yingzi, Liu Ying, as An Dinggong in 8 AD, changed the country name to new, and built the capital Chang’an (now Xi’an Han Chang’an City Ruins). Until 23 AD, due to the failure of Wang Mang’s reform, the new dynasty was overthrown by the Green Forest Army and the dynasty was overthrown. A total of 1 emperor, 15 years in the country. Sui Dynasty (581-619) Regardless of whether it was established or destroyed, the dynasty is very similar to the Qin Dynasty-Sui Dynasty. It ended the nearly 300-year-long division since the end of the Western Jin Dynasty and completed the reunification of China. From 581 AD, Yang insisted on emperor, and his country was named “Sui”. Until 619 AD, Emperor Tai Yang was dismissed by Wang Shichong. In the meantime, the Sui Dynasty was prosperous for the National Games and had a well-known rule of emperor. It carried out many reforms in the fields of politics, economy, culture and diplomacy. However, due to the Emperor Sui’s great joy, poor soldiers, and the construction of the Grand Canal, the national power was seriously depleted, and mutiny and rebellion continued in many places. The Sui Dynasty eventually died, and the country was 38 years old.	<urn:uuid:e6bddbf7-4a81-49e0-ba02-15efd5b16017>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.whatchina.cn/ten-dynasties-with-the-shortest-rule-of-china.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00423.warc.gz	en	0.98123	1,894	3.5625	4	[ -0.5487669110298157, 0.4347909390926361, 0.7344167828559875, -0.28574487566947937, -0.055380646139383316, 0.09916677325963974, -0.15342538058757782, -0.2601354718208313, 0.19092883169651031, -0.0923725813627243, 0.5908740162849426, -0.38807034492492676, 0.40833738446235657, 0.1644106060266...	3	In ancient China, dynasties changed quite frequently. Due to the special political system, few dynasties can last more than three or four hundred years, and many of them are only a few years old, or even less than a year. Here is an inventory of the top ten dynasties with the shortest rule of china. Dashun Dynasty (1644-1645) The regime was established in Xi’an by the leader of the famous peasant army “Li Zicheng” at the end of the Ming Dynasty. Dashun first took Xi’an as a Beijing division and then moved to Beijing. The territory once covered many provinces in the Central Plains. In the 17th year of Chongzhen, Li Zicheng became the emperor, and his country was named Dashun. In May, Li Zicheng died in Nanjiugongshan, Tongshan County, Hubei. In less than one year, the Dashun regime was replaced by the Qing soldiers. It is one of the shortest-lived dynasties in Chinese history. Xuanhan Dynasty (23-25 years) It is a political power that emerged after the New Dynasty in Chinese history. It is also called Xuanhan Dynasty and was established by the Western Han Dynasty’s royal family, Liu Xuan. The Xuan Han inherited the new dynasty and started the Eastern Han Dynasty. It nominally unified most of the territory in the late Western Han Dynasty. Since Liu Xuanwan was ruled as the emperor in 23 AD, until the Red Eyebrow Army invaded Chang’an in 25 AD, Liu Xuan was killed after the surrender, and the Xuan and Han regimes were destroyed. Xuan Han pioneered the success of the former imperial clan in the history of centralization in China to successfully recapture the regime, but due to Liu Xuan’s mediocrity and incompetence, he could only end in failure. Ran Wei Dynasty (350-352) During the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, the regime established by the Han Chinese Ran Min was only 2 years old. In 350 AD, Ran Min killed Hou Zhao ’s monarch Shi Jian while the Hou Zhao political situation was chaotic. He seized Hou Zhao ’s power and became emperor. Ran Min massacred the Hu people during his reign, and even many Han people were brutally murdered, which aroused the strong resistance of the Hu people. In 352 AD, Ran Min was defeated and beheaded by the former Yan monarch Murong Jun, and the Ran Wei regime was declared dead. Hou Han Dynasty (947-950) During the period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms, it was built by Liu Zhiyuan, the envoy of the Jin Dynasty, and the capital city was Kaifeng, Tokyo. The state was 3 years old. In 947 AD, Liu Zhiyuan was named emperor in Taiyuan, with Han as the country’s title, history as the post-Han, and the world as the post-Han Gaozu. In 950 AD, the Emperor Hidden Emperor of the Han Dynasty murdered former ministers Yang Yang, Shi Hongzhao, Wang Zhang, etc., and conspired to murder Guo Wei who guarded the capital. Guo Wei heard the news, and then raised his troops to resist, led the army to kill Ben Liang, Han Yin Emperor was killed by the defeat of the army, and then Han died. It took less than four years since the founding of Han Dynasty and its destruction. It experienced 2 emperors and was the shortest-lived regime in the Five Dynasties and Ten Countries. Hou Zhou Dynasty (951-960) One of the Ten Dynasties of the Five Dynasties and the last Central Plains Dynasty of the Five Dynasties. It was established by Han after Guo Wei’s annihilation and the capital of Kaifeng, Tokyo. In 950 AD, Guo Wei was forced to rebel because of the suspicion of the Emperor of the Han Dynasty. The following year, he became the emperor, and changed to Guangshun in Yuan Dynasty. In 960, the famous “Chen Qiaoyi mutiny” took place. Hou Zhou had almost no resistance. Emperor Zhou Gongchen was located in Zhao Kuangyin, and the Northern Song Dynasty was born. Hou Zhou enjoyed the country for 10 years and went through three emperors. The “little whirlwind” Chai Jin in the Water Margin was the descendant of the late emperor. Hou Jin Dynasty (936-947) The dynasty of the Twenty-Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was established by Shi Jinglian. It was initially settled in Luoyang and later moved to Kaifeng. In 936 AD, Shi Jinglian colluded with Khitan and recognized the Lord of Khitan Yaludekwang as the father, and at the expense of Youyun 16 states, he became the emperor in Taiyuan with the support of Khitan, changed the heavenly blessing, and was called Hou Jin in history. After Shi Jinglian’s death, he was passed on to his nephew, Shi Chonggui, because he had no children. In 947, Khitan went south for the third time, and Hou Jinzhong’s Du Chongwei rebelled and lowered Khitan, Hou Jin’s main force was lost. Shi Jinglian’s nephew, Shi Chonggui, surrendered and was captured. Later Jin had a total of 2 emperors and 12 years in the state. Nanyan Dynasty (398-410) During the period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, it was built by Murongde and built a sliding platform. In 398 AD, the Northern Wei Dynasty broke through Zhongshan, and Houyan was cut into two parts. Murongde took advantage of the 40,000 southward migration platform, known as the King of Yan and Nanyan in history. In 409 AD, Liu Yu of the Eastern Jin Dynasty led a northern expedition, and the following year Guanggu fell and Nanyan died. Nan Yan enjoyed the country for 12 years and experienced 2 emperors. The last emperor was Murong Chao. Historians refer to him as the Lord of the South Yan, and at the same time, he was the last emperor from the Xianbei Murong Department during the period of the Wuhu and Sixteen Kingdoms. Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC) The Qin Dynasty was the first centrally centralized dynasty in Chinese history, and it was also an extremely short-lived dynasty. It was originally the Qin Kingdom during the Warring States Period. After Qin Wangzheng took power, he swept Liuhe and completed the great cause of reunification. In 221 BC, Xunzheng called the emperor “Qin Shihuang”, implying that the dynasty was endless, and the famous Qin dynasty was born. In 210 BC, Emperor Qin Shihuang died of the dunes, and his son Hu Hai was enthroned, and the dynasty went from bad to worse. Uprisings continued. It eventually died in 207 BC, during which there were 2 emperors and 14 years in the kingdom. New Mang Dynasty (8-23 years) The short-lived dynasty that was born of the “Wang Man usurped the Han” incident during the Western Han Dynasty. Since the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Liu’s power has gradually fallen into the hands of the Wang’s foreign relative group with Emperor Xiaoyuan and Wang Zhengjun as the core, and Wang Mang has entered the stage of history ever since. He abolished Han Yingzi, Liu Ying, as An Dinggong in 8 AD, changed the country name to new, and built the capital Chang’an (now Xi’an Han Chang’an City Ruins). Until 23 AD, due to the failure of Wang Mang’s reform, the new dynasty was overthrown by the Green Forest Army and the dynasty was overthrown. A total of 1 emperor, 15 years in the country. Sui Dynasty (581-619) Regardless of whether it was established or destroyed, the dynasty is very similar to the Qin Dynasty-Sui Dynasty. It ended the nearly 300-year-long division since the end of the Western Jin Dynasty and completed the reunification of China. From 581 AD, Yang insisted on emperor, and his country was named “Sui”. Until 619 AD, Emperor Tai Yang was dismissed by Wang Shichong. In the meantime, the Sui Dynasty was prosperous for the National Games and had a well-known rule of emperor. It carried out many reforms in the fields of politics, economy, culture and diplomacy. However, due to the Emperor Sui’s great joy, poor soldiers, and the construction of the Grand Canal, the national power was seriously depleted, and mutiny and rebellion continued in many places. The Sui Dynasty eventually died, and the country was 38 years old.	1,938	ENGLISH	1
In the early 18th century, women were constantly portrayed as lifeless, passive creatures that were only recognised by whichever compelling male figure had happened to be associated with them. Till this present day, women are still being considered yielding beings, especially due to their “maternal nature of giving”. This has allowed men to believe that they have a right to take advantage of them without receiving little to no serious consequences. Women as a whole, were only given the legal right to equally vote in 1928, after years of protesting and campaigning (Parliament, 2017). Their voices were not only not recognised as actual voices, but were treated more as background noise, “a person or thing considered to be irrelevant or incidental to the main issue or situation” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2017). Men began to realise the power that came from a woman’s mind and made history by allowing women to think and be viewed as equal rather than using them as what Saylor Academy’s (2017) research report described as “instruments for men’s happiness”. Since then, women have managed to be taken more seriously as well as excel in other areas than just the bedroom or kitchen. We now have female painters, workers and designers. My research within this essay has been based on the opinions of women from the beginning of the enlightenment period (Wikipedia, 2017). The enlightenment period was basically what established the Eurocentric mindset that still has a hold of the world. European men had jurisdiction over everything. They would observe, catalogue and publish their ideas of the perfect world, persuading others that they too needed to live a Eurocentric way of life, instilling their opinions into everything. Indigenous practices from different cultures were considered “wrong” at this time and that the way of their living was something that shouldn’t be celebrated or revered. “Art is a product of its time” (Santa Cruz, K. 2017) Art is created by the social, economical and political issues surrounding it’s time period. The female nude became an iconic image within the Western culture. Their concept of what a Eurocentric women should be was all that was considered normal and prevailed for a great deal of time in art. An early example of the nude painting is Venus and the Lute Player (1565–1570) by Titian. Wikipedia (2017) provides information claiming that Titian was a very versatile Italian painter whose work can be considered the key influencer for the future generations of Western art. Marina Abramović is a Yugoslavia-born performance artist that loves to challenge the relationship between the audience and the performer. The video (Marina Abramovic Institute 2016), Abramovic describes ‘Rhythm 0’ (1974) as being one of her is one of her most acknowledged projects as she completely pushed her body to it’s limit. It was an interactive instillation in which she allowed herself to be passive and the audience to be in control. She decided to take a passive role because she wanted to achieve the recognition of just another object rather than another person, with thoughts and feelings. 72 other objects were set out onto a table in front of where she stood. The audience were allowed to do whatever they pleased, and could even shoot and kill her with the pistol she had put down if that is what they so desired. Abramović’s aim was to see what the public were “really about” while she stood still, lifeless like a puppet for 6 hours each day. At the beginning of the project, she recalled the crowd being very shy and sweet but as the days went on, it rapidly grew into aggressive, inhuman behaviour. They would cut her skin with the knives, pull the thorns out of the roses and pin them into her arms and rip off her clothes with no question but once she would start to move around again after her shift was over, the audience would run scarce due to the fear of confrontation and coming to terms with what they had let themselves do to her. Her work revealed the terrible side of humanity, showing how fast a person can want to hurt you under favourable circumstances. It exhibited how easy it was to dehumanise someone who would not argue or fight back and how much you can get away with when there are no repercussions. Such questions arise after this piece was created; if she were male rather than female, would the audience have reacted in the same way? Does this suggest that they would have stopped causing her distress if she just asked? And that consequences are needed when allowing people to do what they want so they do not go “too far”. Maybe this factor is what pushed them to do such things. Such similarities can be recognised from nude paintings of women dating back to the 1800’s. The way in which women are now anticipated has definitely changed in comparison to the 18th century. Rather than a woman being nude, she is now also naked; bare and explicit. The word nude has been defined as “a naked human figure, typically as the subject of a painting, sculpture, or photograph.” (Oxford Dictionary, 2017) whereas naked has been defined as “(of a person or part of the body) without clothes.” or “(especially of feelings or behaviour) expressed openly; undisguised.” (Oxford Dictionary, 2017). John Berger, the author of the book “Ways of Seeing” (1972), highlights the hidden meanings behind the nude females look. The gaze of the female subject within paintings are often there to symbolise how women have involuntarily become objective. Their eyes meet the viewers, as they glance out of their canvas and begin to acknowledge them in the construct of their glare. But is this for the satisfaction of the audience or for the painter? Art allows you to understand the world view and reality of that particular artist.. However, when we read or view art; Berger argues that there key assumptions that influence how the work is understood. These influences include beauty, truth, genius, civilisation, form, status and taste. Somethings have been designed so well and thought through too thoroughly that there has to be a reason behind it just like there has to be a reason as to why the nude female has been positioned this same way constantly throughout art-history? When you think about who have always commissioned and consumed the art prehistorically, it has been men. And it has always been men, only up until recently. Looking back into the Eurocentric approach of things, the nude painting was definitely affected by this. Not only has it made the female body a much bigger deal than it needed to be but it has consistently displayed the same type of body. That constant of a carbon copy body has now manifested into becoming the optimal body. It was only until recently that artists began to challenge the way in which the female body was perceived. An example of this is Lucien Freud’s painting Benefits Supervisor Sleeping (1995). He worked with an obese, naked woman to create this piece because he wanted to paint people “not because of what they are like, not exactly in spite of what they are like, but how they happen to be” (Lucien Freud, 1995). Work like this has helped us as people because we have come to accept various body shapes and sizes that have existed in this world the whole time. After taking a visit to The National Portrait Gallery, you were able to distinguish the difference between the nude female and the nude male. The nude male, although he is uncovered and bare, revealing his true naked self, he still has and will be recognised as capable, athletic and brave who can typically be strong through anything. John Berger was definitely able to recognise the distinction between the two and acknowledged this with a quote; “A man’s presence suggests what he is capable of doing to you or for you. By contrast, a woman’s presence . . . defines what can and cannot be done to her.” (Berger, 1972, pg.45-46.) Although they are both naked, one almost always managed to look more captivating and hold the viewer with her stronger gaze, “hinting” that she wanted to be controlled whereas the male would assert themselves by imposing their powers over others. Guerrilla Girls (1985) found and stated that 5% of artists within art galleries are women whereas 85% of nude paintings have female subjects. They created their most iconic coloured poster using the famous ‘Odalisque and slave’ (1842) painting by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and placed a gorilla’s face over the head to almost disguise her. Their aim was to highlight the sexual discrimination and sexualisation of women that exists within the art industry, asking if they had to be naked to be allowed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This suggested that their bodies were the only things that mattered about them and were most captivating when they were bare, not their talent. Since then, women in paintings are now no longer naked all the time, in fact some are even portrayed the same way a man would be, but the over sexualisation of women’s bodies from the past has affected the equality divide between men and women. Men mean business, whereas women are there for whatever you desire. When men reveal their bare chests, they are deemed as sexy, confident and cool but when women reveal their naked chests, they are seen as whores with easy-access, who are open for invitation. The main problem with the way women have been perceived in the past is that they only had two options of what they could be in life; these choices were either whores or domesticated wives and/or mothers (Saylor Academy, 2017). This limited women in being taken seriously or even identified as in charge or leaders. Feminism has been described as “the advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes.” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2017). The feminist art movement appeared within the late 1960’s. Suzanne Lacy explained the goal of feminist art being to “influence cultural attitudes and transform stereotypes”. Feminism has helped women to no longer be bound to what they do or have done but shows how they are as people, just like men. Women artists have begun to emerge by taking advantage of the nude female body, to make statements projecting how much more in control they all are of themselves now in comparison the 18th century. It creates a bigger statement because of how controversial it is for women to use their bodies as tool, the same thing that men have been doing all these years. Rihanna Fenty has become a fashion icon through her brave and risky choices, truly showing that to be a woman, specifically a woman of colour, you can do whatever you please. She considers herself a feminist (Instagram, 2017) and plays with her vanity rather than brushing it away. She has over 53 million followers on Instagram and has built a creative platform which explores art through her. To conclude this essay and to be brutally honest, it will take a very long time for women to be viewed as completely equal to men in any category by every single person in this world. There has been a certain type of misrepresentation of women that has been going around for centuries that we are still trying to diminish and get rid of till this day. Although we have made the progress of having different types of women in art, whether they are the artists themselves or the subject, they are no longer forced to be at the service of men unless they want to be.”Men act, women appear.” Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at. (Berger, 1972, p.75). Women used to do everything in life for men because her own sense of being herself had been overthrown by a sense of being appreciated as herself by the man. We have been able to build a sense of self which doesn’t require the approval of our bodies by men. Instead our minds and thoughts will be recognised.	<urn:uuid:e35fe94d-3869-4282-87ba-ecdeaf9971c9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://elladhc.wordpress.com/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00095.warc.gz	en	0.98402	2,494	3.4375	3	[ 0.03881634771823883, 0.5294219255447388, 0.10460452735424042, 0.07926223427057266, -0.16790761053562164, 0.47689366340637207, 0.14765150845050812, 0.24802595376968384, 0.12908069789409637, 0.14676058292388916, 0.11150601506233215, -0.28059816360473633, 0.0022482271306216717, 0.240301355719...	1	In the early 18th century, women were constantly portrayed as lifeless, passive creatures that were only recognised by whichever compelling male figure had happened to be associated with them. Till this present day, women are still being considered yielding beings, especially due to their “maternal nature of giving”. This has allowed men to believe that they have a right to take advantage of them without receiving little to no serious consequences. Women as a whole, were only given the legal right to equally vote in 1928, after years of protesting and campaigning (Parliament, 2017). Their voices were not only not recognised as actual voices, but were treated more as background noise, “a person or thing considered to be irrelevant or incidental to the main issue or situation” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2017). Men began to realise the power that came from a woman’s mind and made history by allowing women to think and be viewed as equal rather than using them as what Saylor Academy’s (2017) research report described as “instruments for men’s happiness”. Since then, women have managed to be taken more seriously as well as excel in other areas than just the bedroom or kitchen. We now have female painters, workers and designers. My research within this essay has been based on the opinions of women from the beginning of the enlightenment period (Wikipedia, 2017). The enlightenment period was basically what established the Eurocentric mindset that still has a hold of the world. European men had jurisdiction over everything. They would observe, catalogue and publish their ideas of the perfect world, persuading others that they too needed to live a Eurocentric way of life, instilling their opinions into everything. Indigenous practices from different cultures were considered “wrong” at this time and that the way of their living was something that shouldn’t be celebrated or revered. “Art is a product of its time” (Santa Cruz, K. 2017) Art is created by the social, economical and political issues surrounding it’s time period. The female nude became an iconic image within the Western culture. Their concept of what a Eurocentric women should be was all that was considered normal and prevailed for a great deal of time in art. An early example of the nude painting is Venus and the Lute Player (1565–1570) by Titian. Wikipedia (2017) provides information claiming that Titian was a very versatile Italian painter whose work can be considered the key influencer for the future generations of Western art. Marina Abramović is a Yugoslavia-born performance artist that loves to challenge the relationship between the audience and the performer. The video (Marina Abramovic Institute 2016), Abramovic describes ‘Rhythm 0’ (1974) as being one of her is one of her most acknowledged projects as she completely pushed her body to it’s limit. It was an interactive instillation in which she allowed herself to be passive and the audience to be in control. She decided to take a passive role because she wanted to achieve the recognition of just another object rather than another person, with thoughts and feelings. 72 other objects were set out onto a table in front of where she stood. The audience were allowed to do whatever they pleased, and could even shoot and kill her with the pistol she had put down if that is what they so desired. Abramović’s aim was to see what the public were “really about” while she stood still, lifeless like a puppet for 6 hours each day. At the beginning of the project, she recalled the crowd being very shy and sweet but as the days went on, it rapidly grew into aggressive, inhuman behaviour. They would cut her skin with the knives, pull the thorns out of the roses and pin them into her arms and rip off her clothes with no question but once she would start to move around again after her shift was over, the audience would run scarce due to the fear of confrontation and coming to terms with what they had let themselves do to her. Her work revealed the terrible side of humanity, showing how fast a person can want to hurt you under favourable circumstances. It exhibited how easy it was to dehumanise someone who would not argue or fight back and how much you can get away with when there are no repercussions. Such questions arise after this piece was created; if she were male rather than female, would the audience have reacted in the same way? Does this suggest that they would have stopped causing her distress if she just asked? And that consequences are needed when allowing people to do what they want so they do not go “too far”. Maybe this factor is what pushed them to do such things. Such similarities can be recognised from nude paintings of women dating back to the 1800’s. The way in which women are now anticipated has definitely changed in comparison to the 18th century. Rather than a woman being nude, she is now also naked; bare and explicit. The word nude has been defined as “a naked human figure, typically as the subject of a painting, sculpture, or photograph.” (Oxford Dictionary, 2017) whereas naked has been defined as “(of a person or part of the body) without clothes.” or “(especially of feelings or behaviour) expressed openly; undisguised.” (Oxford Dictionary, 2017). John Berger, the author of the book “Ways of Seeing” (1972), highlights the hidden meanings behind the nude females look. The gaze of the female subject within paintings are often there to symbolise how women have involuntarily become objective. Their eyes meet the viewers, as they glance out of their canvas and begin to acknowledge them in the construct of their glare. But is this for the satisfaction of the audience or for the painter? Art allows you to understand the world view and reality of that particular artist.. However, when we read or view art; Berger argues that there key assumptions that influence how the work is understood. These influences include beauty, truth, genius, civilisation, form, status and taste. Somethings have been designed so well and thought through too thoroughly that there has to be a reason behind it just like there has to be a reason as to why the nude female has been positioned this same way constantly throughout art-history? When you think about who have always commissioned and consumed the art prehistorically, it has been men. And it has always been men, only up until recently. Looking back into the Eurocentric approach of things, the nude painting was definitely affected by this. Not only has it made the female body a much bigger deal than it needed to be but it has consistently displayed the same type of body. That constant of a carbon copy body has now manifested into becoming the optimal body. It was only until recently that artists began to challenge the way in which the female body was perceived. An example of this is Lucien Freud’s painting Benefits Supervisor Sleeping (1995). He worked with an obese, naked woman to create this piece because he wanted to paint people “not because of what they are like, not exactly in spite of what they are like, but how they happen to be” (Lucien Freud, 1995). Work like this has helped us as people because we have come to accept various body shapes and sizes that have existed in this world the whole time. After taking a visit to The National Portrait Gallery, you were able to distinguish the difference between the nude female and the nude male. The nude male, although he is uncovered and bare, revealing his true naked self, he still has and will be recognised as capable, athletic and brave who can typically be strong through anything. John Berger was definitely able to recognise the distinction between the two and acknowledged this with a quote; “A man’s presence suggests what he is capable of doing to you or for you. By contrast, a woman’s presence . . . defines what can and cannot be done to her.” (Berger, 1972, pg.45-46.) Although they are both naked, one almost always managed to look more captivating and hold the viewer with her stronger gaze, “hinting” that she wanted to be controlled whereas the male would assert themselves by imposing their powers over others. Guerrilla Girls (1985) found and stated that 5% of artists within art galleries are women whereas 85% of nude paintings have female subjects. They created their most iconic coloured poster using the famous ‘Odalisque and slave’ (1842) painting by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and placed a gorilla’s face over the head to almost disguise her. Their aim was to highlight the sexual discrimination and sexualisation of women that exists within the art industry, asking if they had to be naked to be allowed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This suggested that their bodies were the only things that mattered about them and were most captivating when they were bare, not their talent. Since then, women in paintings are now no longer naked all the time, in fact some are even portrayed the same way a man would be, but the over sexualisation of women’s bodies from the past has affected the equality divide between men and women. Men mean business, whereas women are there for whatever you desire. When men reveal their bare chests, they are deemed as sexy, confident and cool but when women reveal their naked chests, they are seen as whores with easy-access, who are open for invitation. The main problem with the way women have been perceived in the past is that they only had two options of what they could be in life; these choices were either whores or domesticated wives and/or mothers (Saylor Academy, 2017). This limited women in being taken seriously or even identified as in charge or leaders. Feminism has been described as “the advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes.” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2017). The feminist art movement appeared within the late 1960’s. Suzanne Lacy explained the goal of feminist art being to “influence cultural attitudes and transform stereotypes”. Feminism has helped women to no longer be bound to what they do or have done but shows how they are as people, just like men. Women artists have begun to emerge by taking advantage of the nude female body, to make statements projecting how much more in control they all are of themselves now in comparison the 18th century. It creates a bigger statement because of how controversial it is for women to use their bodies as tool, the same thing that men have been doing all these years. Rihanna Fenty has become a fashion icon through her brave and risky choices, truly showing that to be a woman, specifically a woman of colour, you can do whatever you please. She considers herself a feminist (Instagram, 2017) and plays with her vanity rather than brushing it away. She has over 53 million followers on Instagram and has built a creative platform which explores art through her. To conclude this essay and to be brutally honest, it will take a very long time for women to be viewed as completely equal to men in any category by every single person in this world. There has been a certain type of misrepresentation of women that has been going around for centuries that we are still trying to diminish and get rid of till this day. Although we have made the progress of having different types of women in art, whether they are the artists themselves or the subject, they are no longer forced to be at the service of men unless they want to be.”Men act, women appear.” Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at. (Berger, 1972, p.75). Women used to do everything in life for men because her own sense of being herself had been overthrown by a sense of being appreciated as herself by the man. We have been able to build a sense of self which doesn’t require the approval of our bodies by men. Instead our minds and thoughts will be recognised.	2,500	ENGLISH	1
Those who remained in Egypt struggled to gain control of what was happening in Rome. Human nature being what it is conflict was inevitable. Ptolemy IX Lathyros’ initiative in moving to Rome as Sulla was partly to extend the process of controlling what was happening in Rome but partly to ensure that actions taken in Rome actions supported of his own objectives. He was promoting not only his own position but also the position of his son who became Ptolemy XII. The civil wars in Rome were simply a by-product of the civil wars in Eqypt. We may assume that Julius Caesar and Pompey were in an an opposing faction. Certainly Pompey supported Ptolemy XI who was the nephew of Ptolemy IX Lathyros and the son of a brother (Ptolemy X) with whom Lathyros was in continual conflict. Eventually Caesar defected to the Sulla faction (only after Sulla’s death). In the complexity of Eqyptian politics,this meant he was aligned with Cleopatra VII (the Cleopatra) before he ever met her. Incidentally few writers have queried why Pompey ran to Egypt after his defeat by Caesar at Pharselus. It is of course because he believed his faction was in control in Egypt and he would be allowed to retire into Egyptian society. Caesar pursued him to prevent him reactivating his faction in Egypt. The stories of who killed Pompey are highly conjectural.	<urn:uuid:43db755e-c155-402c-b1c0-0f54847fc340>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ximene.net/home/300-other-research/pseudo-history/the-alternative-new-testament/book-ii-cleopatra/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00482.warc.gz	en	0.990315	311	3.484375	3	[ -0.22280915081501007, 0.6559455394744873, 0.41814500093460083, 0.036463167518377304, -0.6856507062911987, -0.4039780795574188, 0.32757076621055603, 0.02736906334757805, 0.08734142780303955, 0.16252294182777405, -0.1285267025232315, -0.5436246395111084, 0.13902749121189117, 0.40694832801818...	15	Those who remained in Egypt struggled to gain control of what was happening in Rome. Human nature being what it is conflict was inevitable. Ptolemy IX Lathyros’ initiative in moving to Rome as Sulla was partly to extend the process of controlling what was happening in Rome but partly to ensure that actions taken in Rome actions supported of his own objectives. He was promoting not only his own position but also the position of his son who became Ptolemy XII. The civil wars in Rome were simply a by-product of the civil wars in Eqypt. We may assume that Julius Caesar and Pompey were in an an opposing faction. Certainly Pompey supported Ptolemy XI who was the nephew of Ptolemy IX Lathyros and the son of a brother (Ptolemy X) with whom Lathyros was in continual conflict. Eventually Caesar defected to the Sulla faction (only after Sulla’s death). In the complexity of Eqyptian politics,this meant he was aligned with Cleopatra VII (the Cleopatra) before he ever met her. Incidentally few writers have queried why Pompey ran to Egypt after his defeat by Caesar at Pharselus. It is of course because he believed his faction was in control in Egypt and he would be allowed to retire into Egyptian society. Caesar pursued him to prevent him reactivating his faction in Egypt. The stories of who killed Pompey are highly conjectural.	298	ENGLISH	1
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murray, Earls of MURRAY (or Moray), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corresponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross. Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346, when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville’s Cross. According to some authorities the earldom was then held by John's sister Agnes (c. 1312–1369) and her husband, Patrick Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285–1368). However this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a grandson of Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar, who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455), called themselves earl and countess of Moray. The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural son, James Stuart (c. 1499–1544), earl of Moray. James died without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514–1562), who was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it wa.s bestowed in 1562 by Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January 1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom. He, who was called the “bonny earl,” was killed by his hereditary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James (d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680 to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737–1810), was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart. See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul (1909).	<urn:uuid:e56010e7-066d-488a-8779-e65f4e449c93>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Murray,_Earls_of	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00184.warc.gz	en	0.985052	642	3.4375	3	[ -0.38935571908950806, -0.019932040944695473, 0.12346905469894409, -0.1926528960466385, 0.06825988739728928, -0.3196699619293213, 0.4532163143157959, -0.07407967746257782, -0.1276453137397766, -0.2247481495141983, 0.4608961045742035, -0.5507422089576721, 0.525347888469696, -0.30825304985046...	1	1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Murray, Earls of MURRAY (or Moray), EARLS OF. The earldom of Moray was one of the seven original earldoms of Scotland, its lands corresponding roughly to the modern counties of Inverness and Ross. Little is known of the earls until about 1314, when Sir Thomas Randolph, a nephew of King Robert Bruce, was created earl of Moray (q.v.), and the Randolphs held the earldom until 1346, when the childless John Randolph, 3rd earl of this line and a soldier of repute, was killed at the battle of Neville’s Cross. According to some authorities the earldom was then held by John's sister Agnes (c. 1312–1369) and her husband, Patrick Dunbar, earl of March or Dunbar (c. 1285–1368). However this may be, in 1359 an English prince, Henry Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster (d. 1361), was made earl of Moray by King David II.; but in 1372 John Dunbar (d. 1391), a grandson of Sir Thomas Randolph and a son-in-law of Robert II., obtained the earldom. The last of the Dunbar earls was James Dunbar, who was murdered in August 1429, and after this date his daughter Elizabeth and her husband, Archibald Douglas (d. 1455), called themselves earl and countess of Moray. The next family to bear this title was an illegitimate branch of the royal house of Stuart, James IV. creating his natural son, James Stuart (c. 1499–1544), earl of Moray. James died without sons, and after the title had been borne for a short time by George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly (c. 1514–1562), who was killed at Corrichie in 1562, it wa.s bestowed in 1562 by Mary Queen of Scots upon her half-brother, an illegitimate son of James V. This was the famous regent, James Stuart, earl of Moray, or Murray (see below), who was murdered in January 1570; after this event a third James Stuart, who had married the regent's daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), held the earldom. He, who was called the “bonny earl,” was killed by his hereditary enemies, the Gordons, in February 1592, when his son James (d. 1638) succeeded to the title. The earldom of Moray has remained in the Stuart family since this date. Alexander, the 4th earl (d. 1701), was secretary of state for Scotland from 1680 to 1689; and in 1796 Francis, the 9th earl (1737–1810), was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Stuart. See vol. vi. of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul (1909).	726	ENGLISH	1
1st Essay Sample on Brown v. Board of education Stepped up efforts to change the educational system. In the fall of 1950 members of the Topeka, Kansas, Chapter of National Association for the Advancement of colored people agreed to again challenge the “separate but equal” doctrine governing public education. The NAACP was eager to assist the Brown’s, as it had long wanted to challenge segregation in public schools. With Browns complaint, it had “the right plaintiff at the right time.” Other black parents joined Brown, and, in 1951, the NAACP requested an injunction that would forbid the segregation of Topeka’s public schools. Their plan involved enlisting the support of fellow NAACP members and personal friends as plaintiffs in what would be a class action suit filed against the Board of Education of Topeka Public Schools. A group of thirteen parents agreed to participate on behalf of their children (twenty children). “I had to drive my two children right across town, past two all white schools, to an all-black school” quoted Zelma Henderson, one of the other parents who joined in the lawsuit. Each plaintiff was to watch the paper for enrollment and were denied, they were to report back to the NAACP. This would provide the attorneys with the documentation needed to file a law suite against the Topeka School Board. Individuals in the Topeka case moved ahead unaware that at the same time legal counsel for the NAACP headquarters was representing plaintiffs in school cases from Delaware, Virginia, South Carolina and Washington D.C. When the Topeka case made its way to the United States Supreme Court it was combined with other lawsuits challenging the school segregation laws of South Carolina, Delaware, Virginia and the District of Columbia. Thurgood Marshall, who later became thefirst African American to sit on the United States supreme Court, was their lawyer. He successfully argued the combined cases, now officially named as Oliver L. 2nd Essay Sample on Brown v. Board of education Thurgood Marshall was a man with strong social convictions for human rights.His teacher, Charles Hamilton Houston, implied this upon him.The case of Brown vs. the Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas was a case about black rights and would eventually become a landmark case in the early 1900s.The case was actually a mixture of four cases in one. Charles Houston was a black lawyer, the best there was.He felt blacks were being discriminated against due to a case known as Plessy vs. Ferguson.This case said segregation is legal, as long as facilities are equal.It also considered segregation not to be considered a form of discrimination.Houston believed this “dragon” had to be killed.To do this, he needed to destroy Plessy.The best way to do this, Houston believed, was in schools, as they affected nearly everyone in the United States. He took one of his best law students to South Carolina to document school conditions in the South.In one county under the “separate but equal” ruling, a black elementary school’s facilities would not provide books for black students.They used old books thrown away by the white schools.The county wouldn’t provide anything to the school but the teacher’s salary. In another school under the same ruling in Chester, South Carolina, there were 68 black students crammed into one room.There were ten books, no desks, and no equipment.The total amount of spending money given to the black school was $628.00 a year.In the white school of the same town, there were only 32 students to a room.They were also given $332,000 a year for spending money, plus equipment, desks, and books. Though there seemed to be enough evidence in elementary schools to start a court case, blacks were not willing to stand up for their rights or the rights of their children.Houston decided to start with cases in graduate law schools.	<urn:uuid:02da252d-0d6b-455b-9acf-d887b135206a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paperap.com/paper-on-brown-v-board-of-education-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00039.warc.gz	en	0.982352	809	3.3125	3	[ -0.641166090965271, -0.36220821738243103, -0.11139969527721405, -0.4033640921115875, -0.0848599448800087, -0.10264650732278824, -0.11516879498958588, -0.07370872795581818, -0.16864599287509918, 0.11172212660312653, -0.2852476239204407, 0.07009069621562958, -0.2906040847301483, -0.018660834...	4	1st Essay Sample on Brown v. Board of education Stepped up efforts to change the educational system. In the fall of 1950 members of the Topeka, Kansas, Chapter of National Association for the Advancement of colored people agreed to again challenge the “separate but equal” doctrine governing public education. The NAACP was eager to assist the Brown’s, as it had long wanted to challenge segregation in public schools. With Browns complaint, it had “the right plaintiff at the right time.” Other black parents joined Brown, and, in 1951, the NAACP requested an injunction that would forbid the segregation of Topeka’s public schools. Their plan involved enlisting the support of fellow NAACP members and personal friends as plaintiffs in what would be a class action suit filed against the Board of Education of Topeka Public Schools. A group of thirteen parents agreed to participate on behalf of their children (twenty children). “I had to drive my two children right across town, past two all white schools, to an all-black school” quoted Zelma Henderson, one of the other parents who joined in the lawsuit. Each plaintiff was to watch the paper for enrollment and were denied, they were to report back to the NAACP. This would provide the attorneys with the documentation needed to file a law suite against the Topeka School Board. Individuals in the Topeka case moved ahead unaware that at the same time legal counsel for the NAACP headquarters was representing plaintiffs in school cases from Delaware, Virginia, South Carolina and Washington D.C. When the Topeka case made its way to the United States Supreme Court it was combined with other lawsuits challenging the school segregation laws of South Carolina, Delaware, Virginia and the District of Columbia. Thurgood Marshall, who later became thefirst African American to sit on the United States supreme Court, was their lawyer. He successfully argued the combined cases, now officially named as Oliver L. 2nd Essay Sample on Brown v. Board of education Thurgood Marshall was a man with strong social convictions for human rights.His teacher, Charles Hamilton Houston, implied this upon him.The case of Brown vs. the Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas was a case about black rights and would eventually become a landmark case in the early 1900s.The case was actually a mixture of four cases in one. Charles Houston was a black lawyer, the best there was.He felt blacks were being discriminated against due to a case known as Plessy vs. Ferguson.This case said segregation is legal, as long as facilities are equal.It also considered segregation not to be considered a form of discrimination.Houston believed this “dragon” had to be killed.To do this, he needed to destroy Plessy.The best way to do this, Houston believed, was in schools, as they affected nearly everyone in the United States. He took one of his best law students to South Carolina to document school conditions in the South.In one county under the “separate but equal” ruling, a black elementary school’s facilities would not provide books for black students.They used old books thrown away by the white schools.The county wouldn’t provide anything to the school but the teacher’s salary. In another school under the same ruling in Chester, South Carolina, there were 68 black students crammed into one room.There were ten books, no desks, and no equipment.The total amount of spending money given to the black school was $628.00 a year.In the white school of the same town, there were only 32 students to a room.They were also given $332,000 a year for spending money, plus equipment, desks, and books. Though there seemed to be enough evidence in elementary schools to start a court case, blacks were not willing to stand up for their rights or the rights of their children.Houston decided to start with cases in graduate law schools.	803	ENGLISH	1
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22nd in 1963 shocked, saddened, and bewildered American children. Girls and boys of all ages watched the funeral broadcast on television—including those who lived abroad during the 1960s. For many children, seeing their distraught parents and other adults in mourning undermined their sense of security. The meanings that Kennedy’s assassination had on a seven-year-old American girl can be gleaned from her elementary school essay. Children’s cultural productions (whether written or drawn) present researchers with opportunities as well as obstacles to eliciting their understanding of past events. Even a handwritten source like this one cannot provide a thoroughly unmediated understanding of the assassination’s meanings to her. Although a descriptive source that recounts an occurrence, it is not necessarily free of partiality. (Consider, for instance, the ways in which she weaves the everyday lessons imparted by adults to children into her history.) In order to achieve an understanding of the past that is as precise as possible using a source like this, interrogate or "unpack" it by subjecting it to questions about authorship, audience, purpose, content, context, reliability, and meanings. In what ways was this youngster struggling to make sense of the narrative of events surrounding the assignation? What events in her recounting of the past were based in fact and which were influenced by her imagination? What genres and rhetorical strategies familiar to a child might have influenced the narrative structure of her story? As with adults, reading informs writing. Also consider the issue of motivation. What difference might it have made if the child had been inspired to write this for herself rather than for to satisfy her teacher’s civic literacy assignment? In 1960 Kennedy was elected. He is a very good president. One day as he was going home from some place with the governor and his wife and the driver, Kennedy was told someone would do something now or later if we went in a[n] open car. But Kennedy wanted to be with his people. Someone shot [from] the top of a house. He shot at the governor and Kennedy. He left the gun and ran down the stairs as quick as a mouse. A policeman tried to catch him but the man shot him dead. Now everyone new. They rushed to get him to the hospital but it was to late. He was dead. Mrs. Kennedy flew back to Washington D.C. By then the man got into the movies. But the policemen got him because he was standing up The man’s name was Oswald. They took him to a place to ask him questions. On their way back a man named Ruby shot Oswald dead. They got hold of the man and took him to prison. A few days later was Kennedy’s funeral and Kennedy was buried. Annotated by Miriam Forman-Brunell.	<urn:uuid:7fe614d3-7541-47f1-9286-0eda46e19a2e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldhistorycommons.org/jfks-assassination	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00090.warc.gz	en	0.987045	589	3.640625	4	[ -0.1944631040096283, 0.3673313856124878, 0.2799234986305237, -0.14282841980457306, 0.13603588938713074, 0.6942332983016968, 0.24697250127792358, 0.13243305683135986, -0.07949510961771011, -0.19395993649959564, 0.42952147126197815, 0.5667611956596375, 0.04503285884857178, 0.2157805860042572...	3	The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22nd in 1963 shocked, saddened, and bewildered American children. Girls and boys of all ages watched the funeral broadcast on television—including those who lived abroad during the 1960s. For many children, seeing their distraught parents and other adults in mourning undermined their sense of security. The meanings that Kennedy’s assassination had on a seven-year-old American girl can be gleaned from her elementary school essay. Children’s cultural productions (whether written or drawn) present researchers with opportunities as well as obstacles to eliciting their understanding of past events. Even a handwritten source like this one cannot provide a thoroughly unmediated understanding of the assassination’s meanings to her. Although a descriptive source that recounts an occurrence, it is not necessarily free of partiality. (Consider, for instance, the ways in which she weaves the everyday lessons imparted by adults to children into her history.) In order to achieve an understanding of the past that is as precise as possible using a source like this, interrogate or "unpack" it by subjecting it to questions about authorship, audience, purpose, content, context, reliability, and meanings. In what ways was this youngster struggling to make sense of the narrative of events surrounding the assignation? What events in her recounting of the past were based in fact and which were influenced by her imagination? What genres and rhetorical strategies familiar to a child might have influenced the narrative structure of her story? As with adults, reading informs writing. Also consider the issue of motivation. What difference might it have made if the child had been inspired to write this for herself rather than for to satisfy her teacher’s civic literacy assignment? In 1960 Kennedy was elected. He is a very good president. One day as he was going home from some place with the governor and his wife and the driver, Kennedy was told someone would do something now or later if we went in a[n] open car. But Kennedy wanted to be with his people. Someone shot [from] the top of a house. He shot at the governor and Kennedy. He left the gun and ran down the stairs as quick as a mouse. A policeman tried to catch him but the man shot him dead. Now everyone new. They rushed to get him to the hospital but it was to late. He was dead. Mrs. Kennedy flew back to Washington D.C. By then the man got into the movies. But the policemen got him because he was standing up The man’s name was Oswald. They took him to a place to ask him questions. On their way back a man named Ruby shot Oswald dead. They got hold of the man and took him to prison. A few days later was Kennedy’s funeral and Kennedy was buried. Annotated by Miriam Forman-Brunell.	579	ENGLISH	1
“Adversity is like a strong wind. It tears away from us all but the things that cannot be torn, so that we see ourselves as we really are.” Adversity implies difficulties, trouble and misfortune as it tests the potential of man and strengthens his spirit of self confidence. In the novel Indian Horse written by Richard Wagamese there are many circumstances where the main character Saul is forced to overcome the adversity in which once shattered his human spirit and made him feel worthless. The ideas of adversity such as being beaten at residential schools and the racism he faced while playing hockey, demonstrates Saul’s constant inner struggle and his desire to become a more powerful individual. Throughout the novel Saul is exposed to many painful experiences that leave him little to no identity and an unimaginable outlook on life. We quickly learn that when Saul was a child, he was taken away from his family and forced into an Indian Residential School where he witnessed and experienced abuses at the hands of the school’s educators. “They called it a school but it was never that….There were no tests or examinations.	<urn:uuid:5cdb0508-d863-4b6c-bbed-0501c1378bb7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://myssec.com/adversity-is-like-a-strong-wind/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00388.warc.gz	en	0.99041	223	3.671875	4	[ -0.06389214843511581, 0.25944286584854126, -0.016680201515555382, 0.11597184836864471, -0.42260193824768066, 0.34698376059532166, 0.18402314186096191, -0.07614072412252426, 0.1456814557313919, -0.2872140109539032, -0.1389056146144867, 0.019567692652344704, 0.610927164554596, 0.380894392728...	4	“Adversity is like a strong wind. It tears away from us all but the things that cannot be torn, so that we see ourselves as we really are.” Adversity implies difficulties, trouble and misfortune as it tests the potential of man and strengthens his spirit of self confidence. In the novel Indian Horse written by Richard Wagamese there are many circumstances where the main character Saul is forced to overcome the adversity in which once shattered his human spirit and made him feel worthless. The ideas of adversity such as being beaten at residential schools and the racism he faced while playing hockey, demonstrates Saul’s constant inner struggle and his desire to become a more powerful individual. Throughout the novel Saul is exposed to many painful experiences that leave him little to no identity and an unimaginable outlook on life. We quickly learn that when Saul was a child, he was taken away from his family and forced into an Indian Residential School where he witnessed and experienced abuses at the hands of the school’s educators. “They called it a school but it was never that….There were no tests or examinations.	217	ENGLISH	1
Washington: The Democrat-controlled House of Representatives has voted to impeach President Donald Trump on the basis of two charges — abuse of power and obstruction of the Congress. But he is not the first American President to be impeached. The others were as the following: Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the US and he served from April 1865 to March 1869. He was President Abraham Lincoln’s Vice President and assumed presidency after the latter was assassinated. He came to power just as the Civil War concluded and according to a BBC report, Johnson constantly sparred with the Republican-held Congress over how to rebuild the defeated US South. The Republicans pushed for a legislation to punish former Confederate leaders and protect the rights of freed slaves. Johnson used his presidential veto to block the Republican efforts at every turn. This led to a conflict, leading to his impeachment by the House of Representatives. But he was subsequently acquitted in the Senate by one vote. Richard Nixon, the 37th President of the US, served from January 1969 to August 1974. His near-impeachment traces back to the 1972 break-in of the Democratic Party’s headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington D.C. Investigations revealed that the burglars were paid by funds from Nixon’s re-election campaign. In August 1974, as the House Judiciary Committee prepared impeachment articles, Nixon was forced to release Oval Office recordings in which he was heard ordering his staff to have the CIA tell the FBI to stop its investigation into the Watergate break-in. Fearing a loss of political support and that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned that same month. He remains the only US President in history to have done so. Within a year of taking office in January 1993, Bill Clinton, the 42nd American President, was under probe by a Justice Department special prosecutor into real estate dealings and his affair with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In December 1998, the House of Representatives voted along party lines to impeach Clinton on two counts: perjury and obstruction of Congress. But in February 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Republican-controlled Senate. For the year that the Lewinsky-Clinton scandal consumed the country, the President resisted growing calls to resign, the BBC said in a report. But Clinton left office in January 2001 with a 65 per cent approval rating – the highest of any of American President since the Second World War. Recent Random Post:	<urn:uuid:8527c400-5051-4e92-b932-1db412918161>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.manatelugu.to/impeached-american-presidents/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00541.warc.gz	en	0.982585	509	3.28125	3	[ -0.11817538738250732, 0.13139165937900543, 0.5652357935905457, -0.13812115788459778, -0.21525856852531433, 0.22769027948379517, 0.0026363572105765343, -0.1617593914270401, 0.2349620908498764, 0.17830917239189148, 0.38019847869873047, 0.5275521278381348, -0.16643337905406952, 0.373077094554...	3	Washington: The Democrat-controlled House of Representatives has voted to impeach President Donald Trump on the basis of two charges — abuse of power and obstruction of the Congress. But he is not the first American President to be impeached. The others were as the following: Andrew Johnson was the 17th President of the US and he served from April 1865 to March 1869. He was President Abraham Lincoln’s Vice President and assumed presidency after the latter was assassinated. He came to power just as the Civil War concluded and according to a BBC report, Johnson constantly sparred with the Republican-held Congress over how to rebuild the defeated US South. The Republicans pushed for a legislation to punish former Confederate leaders and protect the rights of freed slaves. Johnson used his presidential veto to block the Republican efforts at every turn. This led to a conflict, leading to his impeachment by the House of Representatives. But he was subsequently acquitted in the Senate by one vote. Richard Nixon, the 37th President of the US, served from January 1969 to August 1974. His near-impeachment traces back to the 1972 break-in of the Democratic Party’s headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington D.C. Investigations revealed that the burglars were paid by funds from Nixon’s re-election campaign. In August 1974, as the House Judiciary Committee prepared impeachment articles, Nixon was forced to release Oval Office recordings in which he was heard ordering his staff to have the CIA tell the FBI to stop its investigation into the Watergate break-in. Fearing a loss of political support and that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon resigned that same month. He remains the only US President in history to have done so. Within a year of taking office in January 1993, Bill Clinton, the 42nd American President, was under probe by a Justice Department special prosecutor into real estate dealings and his affair with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky. In December 1998, the House of Representatives voted along party lines to impeach Clinton on two counts: perjury and obstruction of Congress. But in February 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Republican-controlled Senate. For the year that the Lewinsky-Clinton scandal consumed the country, the President resisted growing calls to resign, the BBC said in a report. But Clinton left office in January 2001 with a 65 per cent approval rating – the highest of any of American President since the Second World War. Recent Random Post:	532	ENGLISH	1
This 1840, in New Jersey. After her This investigation will evaluate the role of women in the civil war. It is important to recognize the contributions women made to the civil war because without the support of women of the time, the outcome and events of the war could have differed greatly. The scope of this investigation focuses on the years of the war from 1861-1865 and focuses on the roles women played not only on the homefront, but on the battlefield. Women played a very influential role in the American civil war. This can be seen through women’s work as munitions workers, nurses on the battlefield, and their support from the homefront. One method that will be used during this investigation is an analysis of the letters written by Cornelia Hancock, which details what it was like to be a nurse in the civil war. This source will be used to demonstrate the instrumental role women played in saving injured soldiers on the battlefield. Another method that will be used during this investigation is Josie Underwood’s Civil War Diary, who gives a detailed account of the civil war from the perspective of a union sympathizer living in the South. This method will be used to The first source to be investigated is the letters of Cornelia Hancock. Hancock was born on February 8, 1840, in New Jersey. After her brothers and cousins went to fight in the Union army, Hancock decided to do her part and volunteered to be a nurse for the Union. During her time as a nurse, she wrote letters to her family back home. The purpose of Hancock’s letters was to inform her relatives of her experience working and Union Nurse. These letter contain detailed accounts of the events that occurred at the battle of Gettysburg, and she details her emotions and describes in detail what the battlefield looked like after the battle. This is a very valuable primary source because it provides a detailed account of the role of a civil war nurse and the events that occurred at the battle from the perspective of a Union nurse. While these letter are a very useful primary source, they are limited but the fact that they could potentially be very biased. Because Hancock was a nurse of the Union, her version of events could potentially differ from the version of events from a confederate nurse. This could I’ve the historian a biased account of the Battle of Gettysburg instead of an impartial account. The second source that will be analyzed is the diary of Josie Underwood. Josie Underwood was a well-educated member of a prominent political family. Her family were staunch Unionist supporters living in Bowling Green, Kentucky; an area predominantly populated by confederates. Her diary gives a detailed account of the early years of the war, as well as her experience when her town was occupied by confederate soldiers. This primary source document is valuable because it gives a detailed account of the early stages of the war and what it was like for a town to be occupied by soldiers, from the perspective of a unionist living in a confederate area. This source is, however, limited by the fact that it only gives the viewpoint of a Unionist. Because of this the reader is not able to see how the early years of the war and the occupation could have been perceived by a confederate supporter. Part B:With the majority of men fighting in the civil war, women had to take on the roles that would usually be performed by men. This paper will answer the question, “what role did women play in the civil war?” It is very important to understand the roles that women played in the civil war. This is because most people are very familiar with the roles men played as soldiers and leaders during the civil war. However, many people are unaware of the hugely significant roles that women played during the course of the civil war. The scope of this investigation will focus of the years of the war between 1861-1865. Women played a very significant role in the civil war. This can be seen through women’s work as munitions workers, nurses on the battlefield, and support from the home front. This paper will also align with the orthodox view of historiography which states that slavery was the main cause of the civil war. The civil war occurred between the years of 1862-1865. Abraham Lincoln was the president of the United States of America during this tumultuous time. The war was caused because several southern states seceded from the union in fear that slavery would be made illegal. These states then formed their own “new country” called the Confederate States of America. A man by the name of Jefferson Davis was president of the confederacy during its short time being independent from the United States. The United States made several attempts to get the confederacy back into the Union, but after every attempt failed, the only option left was war. It was initially thought that the war would be easily won by the Union as they had major advantages over the confederacy. These advantages include: large amounts of advanced weaponry and ammunition, a stable economy and trade system which allowed the Union to supply their troops with every necessity, a far larger army, well trained soldiers, and a much more extensive railroad system. However, after the Union lost the first battles, their confidence was drained. Union generals were less confident in the strength of their soldiers and they were wary of taking risks. While the Union did ultimately emerge victorious, the war ended up lasting 4 years and caused the death of approximately 620,000 people. While men were off fighting the war, the women they left behind did not wait idly for their husbands to return home. Because most men had gone to fight in the war, women were required to take on the roles of men in order to support the war effort. One of the jobs women took over for men is they worked as munitions workers; making guns and other weaponry and ammunition. “The tremendous demand for munitions created employment opportunities for women.”(Silber). Most women did not work while their husbands were at home. However, once their husbands were gone to war, they had to find ways of supporting themselves and their families until the men returned home. Because of the war, there was an extremely high demand for weapons and ammunition. Without barely any men to work this job the women stepped up and filled it. Working as munitions workers gave women a way to make money to support their families and support the war from home. The war changed the role of women greatly in society as they went from housewives to making weapons and greatly supporting the war effort. Even if only temporarily, the war brought into question the roles of women in everyday life and what women can be capable of if given the opportunity. Additionally, “Southern women also worked in munitions plants, where a number of them lost their lives.” (Zeinert). Working with explosives is extremely dangerous and requires a lot of skill and courage. Because most women of the time did not work, especially with weaponry, they were very inexperienced with how to handle the explosives. This lack of experience led to many deaths among the women who made the weapons to support the war effort. Especially in the confederacy were there was no established trading system with other countries such a Great Britain, it was vital that women make weapons and ammunition for the soldiers. Without the bravery of the women, the confederacy would have quickly run out of weapons and ammunition. Because of this, women played a huge role in the early success of the confederacy, and their ability to hold off the Union for so long. Aside from making weapons to support the war effort, there were other ways women contributed to the war on the homefront.Women who did not work making weapons and ammunition found other ways to support the war effort from home. Because men were not home to take of the farms, women took on that role to preserve their way of life and keep the economy from shutting down. “Agricultural output remained high and employment in agriculture constant, suggesting that with men gone, women assumed more of the responsibility of running farms.” (Giesberg). While their husbands were away fight the war, the women took on the responsibility of running the farms. This allowed them to continue to produce food. The continuous output of food allowed the economy to remain stable so more resources could be put into support the war. Women’s ability to maintain their property was able to open societies eyes to the capabilities of women of the time, as well as challenged gender roles. “Societies made virtual factories of homes, schools, and churches by sending food, clothing, and medical supplies to the front.” (Schultz). Women on the homefront put everything they had into supporting the war. Women showed strength and leadership as they were able to make factories out of any space they had. They were able to send out a variety of resources to support the troops fighting in the war. The initiative the women of the time showed by being able to make something out of virtually nothing challenged society’s view of women. Women, at least temporarily, were not seen as domestic housewives, but as leaders that played a major role in the civil war. Along with support the war effort from the homefront, many women supported the war on the battlefield.Nurses on the battlefield played a vital role in the civil war. While women on the homefront were courageous in their efforts to support the war effort, it was the nurses on the battlefield that showed the most pure and memorable from of bravery. “Ten thousand groups mobilized in the first year of the war alone.” (Schultz). In the first year of the civil war there was major support show by the women. Most women of the time were housewives and hadn’t experience working, let alone treating the sick and wounded on the battlefield. The fact that ten thousand groups of women nurses mobilized in the first year of the war alone, shows the lengths women were willing to go to to support the war and the risk they were willing to accept to do so. Without the overwhelming support of the women of the time and their surprising acceptance of the risk of death played an enormous role in the civil war. “I am very tired tonight; have been on the field all day.” (Hancock). The strength and tenacity of women of the time was never thought to be all that high. But the nurses of the civil war proved that all to be wrong. They would work tirelessly on the battlefield in order to save as many lives as humanly possible. Women were not forced to join the war effort and become nurses, but their own desire and determination drove them to it. This not only proved to have a massive impact on the success of the armies but it also was somewhat able to change societies views on the capabilities of women. It can be said that history exaggerates the impact that women really had on the success of both armies. However, it is hard to visualize the success of either army without the help of women that took on leadership positions at home, made weapons and ammunition to be sent to the troops, and the women that were on the battlefield healing the sick and injured.	<urn:uuid:89aa40f6-5630-4b8e-8aa3-b54207e3be31>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/this-1840-in-new-jersey-after-her/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00079.warc.gz	en	0.985303	2,272	3.53125	4	[ -0.2975303530693054, 0.6363106966018677, 0.37506014108657837, -0.12478414922952652, -0.1502622812986374, 0.38072142004966736, 0.5256470441818237, 0.2219015657901764, -0.5067925453186035, -0.1739630103111267, -0.029285969212651253, 0.1635226607322693, 0.11520862579345703, 0.3240787088871002...	1	This 1840, in New Jersey. After her This investigation will evaluate the role of women in the civil war. It is important to recognize the contributions women made to the civil war because without the support of women of the time, the outcome and events of the war could have differed greatly. The scope of this investigation focuses on the years of the war from 1861-1865 and focuses on the roles women played not only on the homefront, but on the battlefield. Women played a very influential role in the American civil war. This can be seen through women’s work as munitions workers, nurses on the battlefield, and their support from the homefront. One method that will be used during this investigation is an analysis of the letters written by Cornelia Hancock, which details what it was like to be a nurse in the civil war. This source will be used to demonstrate the instrumental role women played in saving injured soldiers on the battlefield. Another method that will be used during this investigation is Josie Underwood’s Civil War Diary, who gives a detailed account of the civil war from the perspective of a union sympathizer living in the South. This method will be used to The first source to be investigated is the letters of Cornelia Hancock. Hancock was born on February 8, 1840, in New Jersey. After her brothers and cousins went to fight in the Union army, Hancock decided to do her part and volunteered to be a nurse for the Union. During her time as a nurse, she wrote letters to her family back home. The purpose of Hancock’s letters was to inform her relatives of her experience working and Union Nurse. These letter contain detailed accounts of the events that occurred at the battle of Gettysburg, and she details her emotions and describes in detail what the battlefield looked like after the battle. This is a very valuable primary source because it provides a detailed account of the role of a civil war nurse and the events that occurred at the battle from the perspective of a Union nurse. While these letter are a very useful primary source, they are limited but the fact that they could potentially be very biased. Because Hancock was a nurse of the Union, her version of events could potentially differ from the version of events from a confederate nurse. This could I’ve the historian a biased account of the Battle of Gettysburg instead of an impartial account. The second source that will be analyzed is the diary of Josie Underwood. Josie Underwood was a well-educated member of a prominent political family. Her family were staunch Unionist supporters living in Bowling Green, Kentucky; an area predominantly populated by confederates. Her diary gives a detailed account of the early years of the war, as well as her experience when her town was occupied by confederate soldiers. This primary source document is valuable because it gives a detailed account of the early stages of the war and what it was like for a town to be occupied by soldiers, from the perspective of a unionist living in a confederate area. This source is, however, limited by the fact that it only gives the viewpoint of a Unionist. Because of this the reader is not able to see how the early years of the war and the occupation could have been perceived by a confederate supporter. Part B:With the majority of men fighting in the civil war, women had to take on the roles that would usually be performed by men. This paper will answer the question, “what role did women play in the civil war?” It is very important to understand the roles that women played in the civil war. This is because most people are very familiar with the roles men played as soldiers and leaders during the civil war. However, many people are unaware of the hugely significant roles that women played during the course of the civil war. The scope of this investigation will focus of the years of the war between 1861-1865. Women played a very significant role in the civil war. This can be seen through women’s work as munitions workers, nurses on the battlefield, and support from the home front. This paper will also align with the orthodox view of historiography which states that slavery was the main cause of the civil war. The civil war occurred between the years of 1862-1865. Abraham Lincoln was the president of the United States of America during this tumultuous time. The war was caused because several southern states seceded from the union in fear that slavery would be made illegal. These states then formed their own “new country” called the Confederate States of America. A man by the name of Jefferson Davis was president of the confederacy during its short time being independent from the United States. The United States made several attempts to get the confederacy back into the Union, but after every attempt failed, the only option left was war. It was initially thought that the war would be easily won by the Union as they had major advantages over the confederacy. These advantages include: large amounts of advanced weaponry and ammunition, a stable economy and trade system which allowed the Union to supply their troops with every necessity, a far larger army, well trained soldiers, and a much more extensive railroad system. However, after the Union lost the first battles, their confidence was drained. Union generals were less confident in the strength of their soldiers and they were wary of taking risks. While the Union did ultimately emerge victorious, the war ended up lasting 4 years and caused the death of approximately 620,000 people. While men were off fighting the war, the women they left behind did not wait idly for their husbands to return home. Because most men had gone to fight in the war, women were required to take on the roles of men in order to support the war effort. One of the jobs women took over for men is they worked as munitions workers; making guns and other weaponry and ammunition. “The tremendous demand for munitions created employment opportunities for women.”(Silber). Most women did not work while their husbands were at home. However, once their husbands were gone to war, they had to find ways of supporting themselves and their families until the men returned home. Because of the war, there was an extremely high demand for weapons and ammunition. Without barely any men to work this job the women stepped up and filled it. Working as munitions workers gave women a way to make money to support their families and support the war from home. The war changed the role of women greatly in society as they went from housewives to making weapons and greatly supporting the war effort. Even if only temporarily, the war brought into question the roles of women in everyday life and what women can be capable of if given the opportunity. Additionally, “Southern women also worked in munitions plants, where a number of them lost their lives.” (Zeinert). Working with explosives is extremely dangerous and requires a lot of skill and courage. Because most women of the time did not work, especially with weaponry, they were very inexperienced with how to handle the explosives. This lack of experience led to many deaths among the women who made the weapons to support the war effort. Especially in the confederacy were there was no established trading system with other countries such a Great Britain, it was vital that women make weapons and ammunition for the soldiers. Without the bravery of the women, the confederacy would have quickly run out of weapons and ammunition. Because of this, women played a huge role in the early success of the confederacy, and their ability to hold off the Union for so long. Aside from making weapons to support the war effort, there were other ways women contributed to the war on the homefront.Women who did not work making weapons and ammunition found other ways to support the war effort from home. Because men were not home to take of the farms, women took on that role to preserve their way of life and keep the economy from shutting down. “Agricultural output remained high and employment in agriculture constant, suggesting that with men gone, women assumed more of the responsibility of running farms.” (Giesberg). While their husbands were away fight the war, the women took on the responsibility of running the farms. This allowed them to continue to produce food. The continuous output of food allowed the economy to remain stable so more resources could be put into support the war. Women’s ability to maintain their property was able to open societies eyes to the capabilities of women of the time, as well as challenged gender roles. “Societies made virtual factories of homes, schools, and churches by sending food, clothing, and medical supplies to the front.” (Schultz). Women on the homefront put everything they had into supporting the war. Women showed strength and leadership as they were able to make factories out of any space they had. They were able to send out a variety of resources to support the troops fighting in the war. The initiative the women of the time showed by being able to make something out of virtually nothing challenged society’s view of women. Women, at least temporarily, were not seen as domestic housewives, but as leaders that played a major role in the civil war. Along with support the war effort from the homefront, many women supported the war on the battlefield.Nurses on the battlefield played a vital role in the civil war. While women on the homefront were courageous in their efforts to support the war effort, it was the nurses on the battlefield that showed the most pure and memorable from of bravery. “Ten thousand groups mobilized in the first year of the war alone.” (Schultz). In the first year of the civil war there was major support show by the women. Most women of the time were housewives and hadn’t experience working, let alone treating the sick and wounded on the battlefield. The fact that ten thousand groups of women nurses mobilized in the first year of the war alone, shows the lengths women were willing to go to to support the war and the risk they were willing to accept to do so. Without the overwhelming support of the women of the time and their surprising acceptance of the risk of death played an enormous role in the civil war. “I am very tired tonight; have been on the field all day.” (Hancock). The strength and tenacity of women of the time was never thought to be all that high. But the nurses of the civil war proved that all to be wrong. They would work tirelessly on the battlefield in order to save as many lives as humanly possible. Women were not forced to join the war effort and become nurses, but their own desire and determination drove them to it. This not only proved to have a massive impact on the success of the armies but it also was somewhat able to change societies views on the capabilities of women. It can be said that history exaggerates the impact that women really had on the success of both armies. However, it is hard to visualize the success of either army without the help of women that took on leadership positions at home, made weapons and ammunition to be sent to the troops, and the women that were on the battlefield healing the sick and injured.	2,278	ENGLISH	1
The math story this second grader solves is a change unknown story. There was a full carton of a dozen eggs but when the interviewer goes to make her breakfast there are only three eggs left. She wants to know how many were eaten before she got to the eggs. First he answers one egg. She retells him the story with more details to connect to prior knowledge about egg cartons. He seems to understand the story better. The next time he counts up from the number he knows using his fingers as tools to arrive at the correct answer. Focus on the Child videos are taken from one-on-one interviews with individual children. The interviews are designed to elicit evidence of children’s mathematical thinking. They are not teaching episodes or formal assessments.	<urn:uuid:283a87d9-7497-450e-91bc-c60ff64828b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://earlymath.erikson.edu/egg-carton-story-change-unknown-word-problem/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00314.warc.gz	en	0.98502	155	3.515625	4	[ -0.2336662858724594, -0.25036221742630005, -0.13367003202438354, -0.16960225999355316, -0.16197125613689423, 0.5055710077285767, 0.09401087462902069, 0.18793751299381256, 0.07179687172174454, -0.00736799743026495, -0.23429621756076813, -0.16325552761554718, 0.1319265365600586, 0.0440285466...	7	The math story this second grader solves is a change unknown story. There was a full carton of a dozen eggs but when the interviewer goes to make her breakfast there are only three eggs left. She wants to know how many were eaten before she got to the eggs. First he answers one egg. She retells him the story with more details to connect to prior knowledge about egg cartons. He seems to understand the story better. The next time he counts up from the number he knows using his fingers as tools to arrive at the correct answer. Focus on the Child videos are taken from one-on-one interviews with individual children. The interviews are designed to elicit evidence of children’s mathematical thinking. They are not teaching episodes or formal assessments.	150	ENGLISH	1
Yesterday at North Regional Library, the students did two things: a leadership discussion about Leadership at Schools, and an activity called A Leader Is… These students are always so attentive, talented, and filled with interesting ideas. During our discussion, students talked about ways that leadership could be better incorporated into their school. The students had incredibly interesting ideas. Their main idea was to have more opportunities for students to lead in the classroom. For example, they mentioned that there could be an assigned leader for the day, and that person would take roll for the teacher, make sure that all of the students are focused, help read things out loud for the class, take the lunch pass to the office, and more. They noted that this would be a great way for students to have the opportunity to act as a leader, while also doing important tasks in the classroom and allowing students to feel like they were really making a difference in class. Students also mentioned that they would like to see more opportunities for academic clubs at school, which they thought would encourage students to address ideas such as leadership and school in more detail after school hours. They also mentioned the idea of a debate team, pointing out that having the opportunity to sit and debate/discuss different topics with their friends after school could make some of the more timid students feel more comfortable coming out of their shell and speaking up around their peers. All of these ideas had a common theme of involving students and giving them more opportunities to participate and serve as leaders in the classroom. They also mentioned that it could be important/useful to have more opportunities to learn about students’ cultures at school, and that this could also help students to feel more comfortable expressing themselves in the classroom. Opportunities to explore culture through student organizations, food, and more were all suggestions mentioned by these students. I was very impressed to see how well in depth the students had thought about leadership and ways for everyone to feel more comfortable speaking in the classroom. Since both of these students are naturally louder/feel comfortable expressing their ideas at school, I was also happy to see that they had thought about their other friends who are more quiet too. Then, students conducted the A Leader Is… activity, where they came up with a short poem about what it means to be a leader. They did a great job of taking turns and thinking about characteristics of leadership that are not very obvious, but that are very important to make sure that someone not only is respected, but that the person respects and cares for others with humility and kindness. Their full poem can be found below: What it means to be a leader Is like counting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Here are the steps to Becoming a leader Step 1: Build self-confidence Step 2: Give respect/gain respect Step 3: You gotta rise above Step 4: Gotta be the bigger person Step 5: Do fun activities Step 6: Don’t become possessive, be FUN!! Two weeks ago at North Regional Library, the students participated in two Leaders UNITE activities. In the first half of our session, the students conducted the A New End to a Movie activity, where they had to think about a movie ending that was unfair or unjust, and act our a new way to end the movie. The students selected a horror movie, and chose to make the antagonist talk out his problems with the protagonist, as opposed to becoming bitter and turning against the family. The students did a wonderful job of selecting a movie together and acting it out. The students bounced ideas off of one another well. The second activity that students conducted was It’s Dance Time!, where they had to come up with a dance/choreography to 1 minute and 30 seconds of a famous song. I let the students select the song. Since a few of the students were all skilled dancers, they had to work together to think about how they could combine their interests in dancing and their different dance moves into one dance. There was another student who was not a dancer, but he still had some great opinions about the type of dancing that he wanted to include in the dance, and I was happy that the students also incorporated that type of dancing into their choreography. Their dance was very sharp, and I was happy to see all of the students work together. All of these students are natural performers, and seemed to derive more confidence and energy from one another’s presence. This week at North Regional Library, students did the new activity Marketing a New (Old) Product, where they had to create a new consumer product based on an object in the room that I selected for them. But there was a catch– their product’s function could not be the actual function of the object! In other words, if I gave the group a pencil as their object, the function of the consumer product could not be to write. Therefore, students had to get very creative with their objects, in order to create a brand new function for them! In our group, the students who participated worked very well together. They did a wonderful job of bouncing ideas off of one another and using their time very effectively. They were also natural public speakers– they did not even need to rehearse or write down their commercial, and they were even able to improvise new, func aspects of the commercials by themselves. They were completely in sync as well, improvising and adding features of their commercial together. Here’s an insight into how these students tackled the activity: The students were given three different objects one at a time, and the third time around, there was a little twist on their instructions. Their first object was a styrofoam cup. The students created a product that could be decorated and customized. Their product was one where you could carry cereal around, and use with heated water as a foot bath (how creative!). The students came up with a commercial that highlighted all the important features of this object, including that it won’t break when you drop it, and that it is environmentally friendly and reusable. It was nice to see them comparing this function to other things, in order to emphasize why their product was unique/better (such as saying it won’t break when you drop it.) The students’ second object was a pair of children’s fairy wings in the classroom (probably for Halloween). The students stuck with a theme of decoration, highlighting that these wings could be things children use to decorate. However, this was only an addition to the function of their product, which was to actually make children fly! They made their product include moving sensors to make the wings move along with a person’s hand motions, and included a metal portion of the wings to be heavy enough to lift a child up. It was very interesting to see their take on this product, since they were able to take the actual function to a new level by making this a product that could make children actually fly. I also didn’t even know about the motion sensor thing, so it was very interesting to see the students pull from other objects they had seen about on tv. The third object for the students was a hairbrush. The students were getting very good at this activity, so now it was time to add the twist. This time, only one of the students could talk/write, and the other student could not use their words or write. The students were very good at communicating with each other, so I wanted to see how this would play out if students were not able to communicate in conventional ways. I made the person who was originally writing down the ideas unable to write or verbally communicate, and she had to result to acting things out and using hand gestures to get her ideas across. I could automatically see a difference in communication when this came into play. At first, the students found it hard to get on the same page, with them both expressing different ideas. But then, the person who was able to talk began guessing instead of just assuming what the non-verbal communicator was saying, and this create a much more positive dialogue, with both of the students making sure they were on the same page with their ideas. The non-verbal communicator did a great job of acting out sequences to think of the product ideas, and also pointing to me to emphasize other features of the product. Interestingly enough, the non-verbal communicator was the one who came up with the overall idea, and the student who could talk was confirming these ideas through her use of words. I think this had to do with the fact that the student who was talking had to spend extra time to make sure she was correctly understanding the non-verbal communicator’s actions, and this took up extra time and effort. But once I asked them to review what they had so far, the student who could talk began adding important features as well. Once it was time for the presentation (where both students could talk again), it was clear that they were indeed on the same page about their idea. Their hairbrush would shoot moisturizing agent out to help with dry or brittle hair, or would also be in a hair store to provide wigs for people. Although we did not have time for the reflection period, I was very impressed with the communication I saw in the group. Both of these students are very talented and creative. Of course, the twist in the third situation made things more difficult and maybe even shifted the dynamic a bit about how the students were coming up with the ideas, but the students were quickly able to adapt to this and find ways to constructively work together to get on the same page. If we had more time in our session, it would have been interesting to do one more product, but this time switching who was talking and who was not, so that we could see how the dynamic shifted again. I often enjoy adding this twist to activities, so that students can practice the idea of working with different types of people, or people who have different methods of communication. Especially in this situation, where the two students were already friends and knew they worked well together before we even started our session. Therefore, it was very interesting to see how this played out in this week’s session! I am excited to continue working with these students, and seeing how their participation and reflections continue to impress me throughout the school year! Last week, we conducted our second session at North Regional Library in Durham. We were very excited to see students show up enthusiastically for our second session. As I walked into the building, I even heard one of the students say, “Oooh! Leaders UNITE!” Even though we had skipped a week because of the hurricane, and I had only told the students the name of the club once, I was so happy to hear them excited to participate! Even the boy who began participating at the end of our previous session was actively participating for our whole session today. It was very exciting to see! The students also seemed much more comfortable with me. Today, we did the Hand Signs activity, and the students loved it! In this activity, one person is the assigned leader, and sees a description of a scenario/scene, which I have typed out for them. They must describe the scene to the other students, who all work together to guess and draw the scene correctly! However, there is one catch: the person describing the scene is not allowed to speak! In a way, this is like charades. It was very fun and interesting to see how students chose to portray key words in their scenarios. I was very happy to see all of the students immediately and enthusiastically volunteering to be the leader for the activity, and even working together without hesitation with people they did not usually work together with. We did three new scenarios (the students worked together with me to craft fun, exciting scenarios!), and students rotated out who was the leader for the activity. The three scenarios were as follows: - Draw a forest with a bird on a tree, a lake on the left side, and a dog on the right side. - Draw a school with a school bus on the left side, a kid playing basketball on the right side, and JayZ in the middle. - Draw me at home eating dinner with a rabbit, while my brother is talking on his cellphone. Here are some notes about how our activity went, which stood out to me as main ideas from each scenario. - In the first scenario, directions were hard at first. It was hard to think about left and right in a context where students were speaking about more tangible words, such as forest or lake. - Although I thought the second scenario would be the easiest, since all of the students go to school together, it was not as easy as I thought. Since the students had different things in common aside from school, and were not anticipating talking about school, it took a while to get school and school bus. - In the third scenario, there were two difficult parts. First was eating dinner with a rabbit, specifically the idea that the rabbit is eating dinner with the students. While the rabbit part was easier to distinguish, the dinner was a bit harder, since it involved both food and a relative time of day. From there, the idea of “with” when saying the rabbit is eating “with” the person was difficult to portray and guess. Another hard one was brother. Again, since students had other things in common, “brother” was often mistaken for ethnicity, friend, partner, and more. After working together, continuing to persevere, and thinking of new out-of-the-box ideas while guessing and portraying the scene, our group was able to get the right answer! It was exciting to see these students take on such an active role as leaders in our activity, and we are excited to continue giving them opportunities to practice their teamwork and leadership throughout the school year! Two wonderful things happened during Leaders UNITE’s first day of the 2019-2020 school year volunteering at North Regional Library. Today’s group had 9 students. Two of the students were arguing during the first twenty minutes of the club. I ended up assigning them to be in the same group for the group activity, and both girls were very upset by this, and continued to argue. They were doing The Newest App Activity. Although they began by arguing, I noticed that once the girls realized they had similar ideas for an app and created a name, the two started working extremely well together. They shared their paper, divided up the presentation, and continued to brainstorm together. When I pointed out how well they worked together after the activity, they high-fived and talked about what good partners they made. I even saw them talking after leaving the classroom. It was so rewarding to see what a thirty-minute club activity could do to make these students feel more comfortable and less hostile towards one another. I could also see how working and brainstorming together helped the students see that they were actually more similar than they previously thought. Another student did not participate much in the beginning of the activity. However, once I asked that group a question about their app and he responded with a very thoughtful answer, he continued to become more involved in the process. I could see how he was able to draw on his style of thinking through the process of working out kinks in the group’s app, and the encouragement helped him continue to brainstorming and contributing to his group. During the beginning of the club meeting, the students were unsure about the club, and some were only participating because of the free snacks afterwards. However, as the activity began and they became more involved in it, I saw them enjoy themselves. Afterwards, they told me that the club was surprisingly fun, and were happy when I said I was returning next week. The librarian even told me that they left the classroom talking about how surprisingly fun the club was. This made me feel so happy, since one of the goals of Leaders UNITE is to make classroom leadership more fun. I am excited to continue working with these students for the 2019-2020 school year and can’t wait to see how these students continue stepping up as leaders during club activities! The 2019-2020 school year of Leaders UNITE began at North Regional library today! We are excited to partner with North Regional Library for a second year in a row, and we were excited to meet many new faces at the library today. This is one of our locations that we will blog about this school year, so stay tuned for reflections and news from this location!	<urn:uuid:0b5cbc56-22d0-4b0d-a59c-7b027ab958a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://leadersuniteclub.com/category/north-library/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00158.warc.gz	en	0.9904	3,404	3.28125	3	[ -0.07461223751306534, -0.10938167572021484, 0.2335069328546524, -0.5051008462905884, -0.35157346725463867, -0.2823464870452881, 0.19837640225887299, 0.11643850058317184, -0.18764542043209076, -0.1693686842918396, 0.0013942881487309933, 0.37142860889434814, 0.25476863980293274, 0.0255391933...	10	Yesterday at North Regional Library, the students did two things: a leadership discussion about Leadership at Schools, and an activity called A Leader Is… These students are always so attentive, talented, and filled with interesting ideas. During our discussion, students talked about ways that leadership could be better incorporated into their school. The students had incredibly interesting ideas. Their main idea was to have more opportunities for students to lead in the classroom. For example, they mentioned that there could be an assigned leader for the day, and that person would take roll for the teacher, make sure that all of the students are focused, help read things out loud for the class, take the lunch pass to the office, and more. They noted that this would be a great way for students to have the opportunity to act as a leader, while also doing important tasks in the classroom and allowing students to feel like they were really making a difference in class. Students also mentioned that they would like to see more opportunities for academic clubs at school, which they thought would encourage students to address ideas such as leadership and school in more detail after school hours. They also mentioned the idea of a debate team, pointing out that having the opportunity to sit and debate/discuss different topics with their friends after school could make some of the more timid students feel more comfortable coming out of their shell and speaking up around their peers. All of these ideas had a common theme of involving students and giving them more opportunities to participate and serve as leaders in the classroom. They also mentioned that it could be important/useful to have more opportunities to learn about students’ cultures at school, and that this could also help students to feel more comfortable expressing themselves in the classroom. Opportunities to explore culture through student organizations, food, and more were all suggestions mentioned by these students. I was very impressed to see how well in depth the students had thought about leadership and ways for everyone to feel more comfortable speaking in the classroom. Since both of these students are naturally louder/feel comfortable expressing their ideas at school, I was also happy to see that they had thought about their other friends who are more quiet too. Then, students conducted the A Leader Is… activity, where they came up with a short poem about what it means to be a leader. They did a great job of taking turns and thinking about characteristics of leadership that are not very obvious, but that are very important to make sure that someone not only is respected, but that the person respects and cares for others with humility and kindness. Their full poem can be found below: What it means to be a leader Is like counting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Here are the steps to Becoming a leader Step 1: Build self-confidence Step 2: Give respect/gain respect Step 3: You gotta rise above Step 4: Gotta be the bigger person Step 5: Do fun activities Step 6: Don’t become possessive, be FUN!! Two weeks ago at North Regional Library, the students participated in two Leaders UNITE activities. In the first half of our session, the students conducted the A New End to a Movie activity, where they had to think about a movie ending that was unfair or unjust, and act our a new way to end the movie. The students selected a horror movie, and chose to make the antagonist talk out his problems with the protagonist, as opposed to becoming bitter and turning against the family. The students did a wonderful job of selecting a movie together and acting it out. The students bounced ideas off of one another well. The second activity that students conducted was It’s Dance Time!, where they had to come up with a dance/choreography to 1 minute and 30 seconds of a famous song. I let the students select the song. Since a few of the students were all skilled dancers, they had to work together to think about how they could combine their interests in dancing and their different dance moves into one dance. There was another student who was not a dancer, but he still had some great opinions about the type of dancing that he wanted to include in the dance, and I was happy that the students also incorporated that type of dancing into their choreography. Their dance was very sharp, and I was happy to see all of the students work together. All of these students are natural performers, and seemed to derive more confidence and energy from one another’s presence. This week at North Regional Library, students did the new activity Marketing a New (Old) Product, where they had to create a new consumer product based on an object in the room that I selected for them. But there was a catch– their product’s function could not be the actual function of the object! In other words, if I gave the group a pencil as their object, the function of the consumer product could not be to write. Therefore, students had to get very creative with their objects, in order to create a brand new function for them! In our group, the students who participated worked very well together. They did a wonderful job of bouncing ideas off of one another and using their time very effectively. They were also natural public speakers– they did not even need to rehearse or write down their commercial, and they were even able to improvise new, func aspects of the commercials by themselves. They were completely in sync as well, improvising and adding features of their commercial together. Here’s an insight into how these students tackled the activity: The students were given three different objects one at a time, and the third time around, there was a little twist on their instructions. Their first object was a styrofoam cup. The students created a product that could be decorated and customized. Their product was one where you could carry cereal around, and use with heated water as a foot bath (how creative!). The students came up with a commercial that highlighted all the important features of this object, including that it won’t break when you drop it, and that it is environmentally friendly and reusable. It was nice to see them comparing this function to other things, in order to emphasize why their product was unique/better (such as saying it won’t break when you drop it.) The students’ second object was a pair of children’s fairy wings in the classroom (probably for Halloween). The students stuck with a theme of decoration, highlighting that these wings could be things children use to decorate. However, this was only an addition to the function of their product, which was to actually make children fly! They made their product include moving sensors to make the wings move along with a person’s hand motions, and included a metal portion of the wings to be heavy enough to lift a child up. It was very interesting to see their take on this product, since they were able to take the actual function to a new level by making this a product that could make children actually fly. I also didn’t even know about the motion sensor thing, so it was very interesting to see the students pull from other objects they had seen about on tv. The third object for the students was a hairbrush. The students were getting very good at this activity, so now it was time to add the twist. This time, only one of the students could talk/write, and the other student could not use their words or write. The students were very good at communicating with each other, so I wanted to see how this would play out if students were not able to communicate in conventional ways. I made the person who was originally writing down the ideas unable to write or verbally communicate, and she had to result to acting things out and using hand gestures to get her ideas across. I could automatically see a difference in communication when this came into play. At first, the students found it hard to get on the same page, with them both expressing different ideas. But then, the person who was able to talk began guessing instead of just assuming what the non-verbal communicator was saying, and this create a much more positive dialogue, with both of the students making sure they were on the same page with their ideas. The non-verbal communicator did a great job of acting out sequences to think of the product ideas, and also pointing to me to emphasize other features of the product. Interestingly enough, the non-verbal communicator was the one who came up with the overall idea, and the student who could talk was confirming these ideas through her use of words. I think this had to do with the fact that the student who was talking had to spend extra time to make sure she was correctly understanding the non-verbal communicator’s actions, and this took up extra time and effort. But once I asked them to review what they had so far, the student who could talk began adding important features as well. Once it was time for the presentation (where both students could talk again), it was clear that they were indeed on the same page about their idea. Their hairbrush would shoot moisturizing agent out to help with dry or brittle hair, or would also be in a hair store to provide wigs for people. Although we did not have time for the reflection period, I was very impressed with the communication I saw in the group. Both of these students are very talented and creative. Of course, the twist in the third situation made things more difficult and maybe even shifted the dynamic a bit about how the students were coming up with the ideas, but the students were quickly able to adapt to this and find ways to constructively work together to get on the same page. If we had more time in our session, it would have been interesting to do one more product, but this time switching who was talking and who was not, so that we could see how the dynamic shifted again. I often enjoy adding this twist to activities, so that students can practice the idea of working with different types of people, or people who have different methods of communication. Especially in this situation, where the two students were already friends and knew they worked well together before we even started our session. Therefore, it was very interesting to see how this played out in this week’s session! I am excited to continue working with these students, and seeing how their participation and reflections continue to impress me throughout the school year! Last week, we conducted our second session at North Regional Library in Durham. We were very excited to see students show up enthusiastically for our second session. As I walked into the building, I even heard one of the students say, “Oooh! Leaders UNITE!” Even though we had skipped a week because of the hurricane, and I had only told the students the name of the club once, I was so happy to hear them excited to participate! Even the boy who began participating at the end of our previous session was actively participating for our whole session today. It was very exciting to see! The students also seemed much more comfortable with me. Today, we did the Hand Signs activity, and the students loved it! In this activity, one person is the assigned leader, and sees a description of a scenario/scene, which I have typed out for them. They must describe the scene to the other students, who all work together to guess and draw the scene correctly! However, there is one catch: the person describing the scene is not allowed to speak! In a way, this is like charades. It was very fun and interesting to see how students chose to portray key words in their scenarios. I was very happy to see all of the students immediately and enthusiastically volunteering to be the leader for the activity, and even working together without hesitation with people they did not usually work together with. We did three new scenarios (the students worked together with me to craft fun, exciting scenarios!), and students rotated out who was the leader for the activity. The three scenarios were as follows: - Draw a forest with a bird on a tree, a lake on the left side, and a dog on the right side. - Draw a school with a school bus on the left side, a kid playing basketball on the right side, and JayZ in the middle. - Draw me at home eating dinner with a rabbit, while my brother is talking on his cellphone. Here are some notes about how our activity went, which stood out to me as main ideas from each scenario. - In the first scenario, directions were hard at first. It was hard to think about left and right in a context where students were speaking about more tangible words, such as forest or lake. - Although I thought the second scenario would be the easiest, since all of the students go to school together, it was not as easy as I thought. Since the students had different things in common aside from school, and were not anticipating talking about school, it took a while to get school and school bus. - In the third scenario, there were two difficult parts. First was eating dinner with a rabbit, specifically the idea that the rabbit is eating dinner with the students. While the rabbit part was easier to distinguish, the dinner was a bit harder, since it involved both food and a relative time of day. From there, the idea of “with” when saying the rabbit is eating “with” the person was difficult to portray and guess. Another hard one was brother. Again, since students had other things in common, “brother” was often mistaken for ethnicity, friend, partner, and more. After working together, continuing to persevere, and thinking of new out-of-the-box ideas while guessing and portraying the scene, our group was able to get the right answer! It was exciting to see these students take on such an active role as leaders in our activity, and we are excited to continue giving them opportunities to practice their teamwork and leadership throughout the school year! Two wonderful things happened during Leaders UNITE’s first day of the 2019-2020 school year volunteering at North Regional Library. Today’s group had 9 students. Two of the students were arguing during the first twenty minutes of the club. I ended up assigning them to be in the same group for the group activity, and both girls were very upset by this, and continued to argue. They were doing The Newest App Activity. Although they began by arguing, I noticed that once the girls realized they had similar ideas for an app and created a name, the two started working extremely well together. They shared their paper, divided up the presentation, and continued to brainstorm together. When I pointed out how well they worked together after the activity, they high-fived and talked about what good partners they made. I even saw them talking after leaving the classroom. It was so rewarding to see what a thirty-minute club activity could do to make these students feel more comfortable and less hostile towards one another. I could also see how working and brainstorming together helped the students see that they were actually more similar than they previously thought. Another student did not participate much in the beginning of the activity. However, once I asked that group a question about their app and he responded with a very thoughtful answer, he continued to become more involved in the process. I could see how he was able to draw on his style of thinking through the process of working out kinks in the group’s app, and the encouragement helped him continue to brainstorming and contributing to his group. During the beginning of the club meeting, the students were unsure about the club, and some were only participating because of the free snacks afterwards. However, as the activity began and they became more involved in it, I saw them enjoy themselves. Afterwards, they told me that the club was surprisingly fun, and were happy when I said I was returning next week. The librarian even told me that they left the classroom talking about how surprisingly fun the club was. This made me feel so happy, since one of the goals of Leaders UNITE is to make classroom leadership more fun. I am excited to continue working with these students for the 2019-2020 school year and can’t wait to see how these students continue stepping up as leaders during club activities! The 2019-2020 school year of Leaders UNITE began at North Regional library today! We are excited to partner with North Regional Library for a second year in a row, and we were excited to meet many new faces at the library today. This is one of our locations that we will blog about this school year, so stay tuned for reflections and news from this location!	3,352	ENGLISH	1
Of the Great Giants According to British medieval legend and myth, the island now known as Britain was once named Albion after an exiled queen named Albina. She was the eldest of a family of sisters who had been exiled from their homeland in Greece, though some versions of the story say Syria. How this came to be is an outlandish and in many ways disturbing story, found in the 14th century poem, Des Grantz Geanz (“Of the Great Giants”) which was popular in its time and probably best read as an allegorical work. British traditions of the Middle Ages were heavily influenced by the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book Historia regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain) written about 1136 that tells that when Brutus of Troy arrived on the island that been revealed to him in the Prophecy of Diana, he found it was just as she had described, being a green and fertile land populated by only a few giants. Brutus and his Trojans fought the giants until at last the biggest and strongest of them was left the only one left alive. His name was Gogmagog and Brutus had deliberately saved him to fight his own champion Corineus who thrilled at such challenges. Geoffrey of Monmouth never said where the giants had come from or why the island was called Albion. This perplexed medieval scholars and a story evolved that attempted to explain this discrepancy. According to medieval tradition, before the fight began Brutus was said to have asked Gogmagog who he was and of the origin of his people. Gogmagog was said to have given the Trojan a fantastic tale revealing the origin of the giants and how the island had been named, “Albion”. Presented next is a retelling of the story Gogmagog allegedly told Brutus and has been sourced from several medieval and Anglo-Norman accounts and more recent works. Albina and her Sisters According to Gogmagog the story of the origin of the giants of Albion began 3,970 years after the world began. In a country now called Greece there ruled a very powerful king. This king was very noble and very righteous and the head of a strict patriarchal state and society. His queen was a very beautiful woman and they had a very happy marriage and were blessed with thirty beautiful daughters who were said to be very tall in some accounts. The giant confessed he did not know all their names but knew the eldest, tallest and most influential of these was named Albina. He told Brutus, that in accordance with the custom of the time and of their society the king decided that their daughters had come of sufficient age to marry. He then decided without consulting his daughters which daughter would marry which of the many kings, princes and rulers that would be a good political match for his realm. All thirty of the daughters were then married to their allotted husbands with much ceremony and fanfare. However, his daughters were said to be very proud and strong-willed women who wanted their own wellbeing and desires met. They were fiercely independent and hated the idea of being married to men who were not of their own choosing and did not love. To them it was an indignity and an insult to have to be subjugated in any way to any man regardless of how rich and powerful he was or whatever benefits it might bring for their father’s kingdom. A Murderous Plot They vowed they would be no man’s possession and instead would be the rulers of all men regardless of their status. To further these vows they plotted together in secret and hatched a most extreme plan. At the same time and on the same night they would murder their husbands as they lay in bed next to them asleep and unaware. Gogmagog told Brutus that the plan was agreed by all except for the very youngest who loved her husband, but out of fear kept her opposition secret. She did not want him hurt but she was terrified of her sisters especially Albina, believing that if she did not take part in the plan or betrayed it to anyone they would kill her. Nevertheless, she could not bring herself to hurt the man she loved. She said nothing about her feelings to her sisters but fell into a black depression not knowing what to do. The company of sisters having made their plan and with the date and time agreed vowed to carry it out and returned to their husbands. When the youngest sister returned to her husband she became ill with worry and fear. She became so upset that her husband, who loved her as much as she loved him, asked her why she appeared so distressed and asked directly if it was something he had done, or not done, that had so upset her. She broke down in his arms and told him all about the murderous plan. In tears she confessed that she was meant to kill him but could not because she loved him so much. She revealed how her sisters had all sworn to carry out the plan in secret and had made her swear the same and told him how terrified she was of them. Her husband loved her dearly and he knew she loved him and would never do anything to hurt him. He told her not to say a word to anyone and he would deal with it himself. The very next day he took her to see her father and told her to tell him what she had told him. Tearfully, she told her father everything confessing all the horrific details of the plot. Her father was shocked and ashamed that his daughters could think of such a thing and he was very, very, angry. Once he understood the full evil of it he summoned his other daughters and their husbands to him immediately. He then revealed the plot to the shock and horror of their husbands and the anger and dismay of his other daughters. Naturally, their husbands could not believe their wives could have hatched such a murderous plan. Their wives were now afraid of what their father and their husbands would do next, but had no feelings of guilt, only dismay that their plot had been discovered. However, because of their pride they did not fully see the consequences their plan would bring. Their biggest fear was that they would lose their lavish privileges but they were to lose much more than that. The Real Danger of the Plot To make sure he knew exactly what they planned and that they knew his own opinion of the matter their father interviewed them separately. He told them their behaviour was unacceptable and subverted the very fabric of the state and the society of his realm. He left them in no doubt that he thought they had brought shame on him and shame on themselves. None of his daughters showed any remorse or shame and it seemed to him they attempted to find spurious reasons for their behaviour in a vain attempt to defend and justify it. He saw them as a danger to his realm and a threat to the long established patriarchal society and family that was the bedrock of his state and would have condemned them to death. However, as head of that state and society he saw himself as a man of justice and law and he summoned his judges and a date was set to put them on trial. He exonerated his youngest daughter and sent her back to live happily with her husband. The day of the trial came and the twenty-nine women were brought before the judges who heard their case impassively and fairly as the laws of their society required. When all evidence had been given they came to the judgement that the twenty-nine should be sent into exile without reprieve. For this purpose a ship was made ready and the women forced on board. They wailed and cried out for mercy but none was given. The ship was not provided with food or water or any piece of equipment or article that would have helped them or given them comfort. There was neither mast, sails or oars to drive the ship, or rudder to steer it. The ship was towed out into the sea with the women on board to be taken by the wind and the water currents to wherever fate decreed. So it was that these twenty nine women who could have been great queens instead found themselves cast adrift in the vastness of the sea with no food or water, powerless, helpless and bereft of all society but their own. All they could do was put themselves in the hands of the gods and accept whatever fate would bring them. Their thirst and hunger grew with each day and the seas began to churn. Waves rocked the boat lapping over the sides as the wind drove it further and further from their homeland. The women soon fell sick and lay in the bottom of the ship wailing and groaning. All the time they were in fear that the ship would be overcome by the waves as a terrible storm caught them and bore them with amazing speed many, many miles across the sea. Carried by the wings of the storm the ship at last ran aground upon an unknown shore that had no name. The sisters though shocked and emaciated by hunger and thirst were unhurt and debated what should be done. At last Albina as the senior stepped off the ship and became the first human to set foot on the land and claimed it for herself. Tentatively the other sisters followed her lead for they really had little choice as they were famished and near to death. On the shore they quickly found cool, clear spring water in abundance and wild fruits, nuts and plants that satisfied their hunger, but the sisters yearned for meat. The Island of Albion The sisters at this time did not know the land was uninhabited by humans. They assumed because of its fertility and the abundance of fruit, nuts and plants that there must be humans somewhere that ruled over it. Roaming inland they found no other people and rightly believed themselves to be the only humans, but their arrival and presence had been observed. No matter where they roamed they found no sign of human habitation which surprised them greatly. They explored the woods and valleys and climbed the hills and mountains but no trace could they find of other humans. From what they saw they believed the land could have supported many great civilisations but none could they find. Nevertheless, although they could see no sign of human life they were being secretly watched. There came a time when Albina called her sisters to her and told them that despite the abundance of the land they had found no other humans. She told them how lucky they were that the storm had brought their ship to this land where at least they could live out their days without starving. She reminded them that they could never return to their homeland and that she proposed they face their destiny and make this land their own. Then she proposed that as the eldest and the first of them to set foot on the land that it be named Albion after herself and that she should be their leader and their chief. She then asked if any of them had objections to this. No objections were brought and she was accepted as their leader and chief among them and the land was named Albion. The Women of Albion So they reconciled themselves to their new homeland and fate. They ate the fruits, the nuts and the plants and drank from the cool clear spring waters that abounded. With the passing of time they discovered the best ways to harvest the good store of the land and they learnt the seasons that were best for different purposes. Although they did not go hungry they began to see the movement of the birds, animals and fish that were most plentiful throughout the land and they began to yearn for the taste of meat. When they had been queens they had gone hunting as was the custom and had gained considerable knowledge and skill in the chase. In their homeland they had servants, dogs, hawks and horses and they had weapons to kill with. In Albion they had none of these things and to begin with were at a loss as to what to do. As the lust for meat grew stronger with each passing day, being intelligent and resourceful women, they began to make their own weapons from what was available. They discovered how to shape flints into knives and arrowheads and invented traps to catch the unwary beasts and soon they were feeding on the blood and meat of the creatures of Albion. They used their flint knives to dress and slice meat and cut the skin from their victims using the hides to make clothes and other items. From the flints they learnt how to make fire and cook their meat and they drank from the clear bubbling springs of Albion. They grew strong and they could feel vitality running again through their veins and they began to experience a longing for male companions, but there were none, but they were being watched. The Incubi of Albion The sisters had left the world they had known and entered into a completely unknown world beyond their experience and knowledge. With no one else to help them they made the best of what they could, but they did not realize they were not alone. There were beings in Albion they knew nothing of and had no understanding of. These beings were called incubi and were not human but were spirits of darkness. They sensed the feelings of the sisters and fed off their passions and emotions drawing strength from them and grew strong, enjoying their torment and always seeking to increase it. Invisible to the women they waited patiently biding their time but always watching. When the women were asleep at night they would visit them. They appeared as the handsome men in their dreams, but these were no men they were spirits of the darkness and allied to Satan. They came to them in the night and lay with them. Each one of the sisters had their own demon lover but they were only aware of them in their dreams and in their feelings. In this way the sisters spawned a race of male giants who were the demon seed of the incubi. The giants spread and dominated Albion for long ages before the arrival of Brutus and the Trojans. Gogmagog told Brutus he was now the last of this race of giants that were the children and descendants of Albina and her sisters. The Giants of Albion He told Brutus that his people made the caves and holes in the wild places of the island their homes and built the great buildings seen ravaged by the wind and rain of countless centuries. He told him that some of his people took to the mountains thinking they may find security and they prospered and multiplied and were the lords of Albion and had no peers and no rivals. Their pride and arrogance grew and they wished to dominate all living things and the earth itself, for they were strong and powerful and nothing could withstand them in those days. Then he said in sadness, to their shame and ruin they could not agree between themselves and factions formed among them and they fought against one another. Murder prevailed and the island of Britain ran red with giant’s blood and still they fought among themselves until only twenty-four giants remained. Gogmagog then told Brutus that with his arrival with his Trojans followers they could not match the weapons used against them and had no answer to their numbers. He reflected that with all of his kind dead he had been captured and given the choice of being killed there and then, or face Corineus in single combat to the death and he chose the latter. He then informed Brutus that what he had just told him was the origin of the giants of Albion and how the island had been named and with the story of Albina and her sisters revealed all of his questions had been answered. Then he urged him to let the fight with Corineus begin, having no doubt that he would be killed whoever won and ended his narrative. Brutus renamed the island Britain after himself and with no giants left on the island the Trojans flourished and multiplied and built a proud civilisation based upon their values. Their descendants ruled for many centuries but like the giants with their success they grew in pride and strength. Then came bitter infighting and bloodshed and they were severely weakened. From over the seas came successive waves of enemies who would eventually succeed in taking the rule of the island from them as the Trojans had taken it from the giants. Is there Relevance Today? Was the story of Albina and her sisters just a curious story invented to tell how an uninhabited island was named and became populated by giants or is there more to it than there seems? The real meaning may be found within in the mind of each reader through their own experience of the world living in their own time and comparing the world of Albina and her sisters, Gogmagog and Brutus with that of their own. Can a legend or myth from medieval society have any relevance in modern society or is it just another curious story? To read all the articles in this series, visit the British Legends Series page or select from the list below: - British Legends: The Quest for the Holy Grail - British Legends: The Founding of Britain: Brutus of Troy and the Prophecy of Diana - British Legends: The Mabinogion – The Dream of Macsen Wledig - British Legends: Gogmagog and the Giants of Albion - British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena: The Rule of Vortigern - British Legends: The Origin of Albion and the Bloodlust of Albina and Her Sisters - British Legends: The Lust of Uther Pendragon, Merlin’s Prophecy and the Making of a King - British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons - British Legends: Elen of the Hosts – Saint, Warrior Queen, Goddess of Sovereignty - British Legends: Beowulf and the Great Flame Dragon - British Legends: The Divine Tragedy of Guinevere - British Legends: The Tragic Romance of Tristan and Isolde - British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch? - British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 1) - British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 2) - British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen - Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of All Creatures - British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness - British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld - British Legends: The Outlaws of Inglewood and the Feminine Influence Recommended Books from #FolkloreThursday Sources & Further Reading Fouke le Fitz Waryn: Introduction \| Robbins Library Digital Projects Fouke le Fitz Waryn \| Robbins Library Digital Projects Hardyng’s Chronicle, Book 1 \| Robbins Library Digital Projects Hardyng’s Chronicle, Book 2 \| Robbins Library Digital Projects In the Middle: Albina Myth: Standard Reading Giants and Enemies of God revised \| Lynn Forest-Hill – Academia.edu [PDF]20 35 47 Des Grantz Geanz De origine gigantum Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all) - Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019 - The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd and the Oldest Animals in the World - November 28, 2019 - Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019	<urn:uuid:e14d031a-cfe0-45e4-aba0-318d2ee00ab5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://folklorethursday.com/legends/british-legends-origin-albion-bloodlust-albina-sisters/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00364.warc.gz	en	0.990865	3,960	3.671875	4	[ 0.054888784885406494, 0.1647874414920807, 0.2888592481613159, -0.08094702661037445, -0.022590432316064835, -0.3846600651741028, 0.08645273745059967, 0.12627342343330383, 0.015478640794754028, 0.10024043917655945, -0.4427848756313324, -0.37337949872016907, 0.10289499163627625, 0.30930867791...	1	Of the Great Giants According to British medieval legend and myth, the island now known as Britain was once named Albion after an exiled queen named Albina. She was the eldest of a family of sisters who had been exiled from their homeland in Greece, though some versions of the story say Syria. How this came to be is an outlandish and in many ways disturbing story, found in the 14th century poem, Des Grantz Geanz (“Of the Great Giants”) which was popular in its time and probably best read as an allegorical work. British traditions of the Middle Ages were heavily influenced by the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book Historia regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain) written about 1136 that tells that when Brutus of Troy arrived on the island that been revealed to him in the Prophecy of Diana, he found it was just as she had described, being a green and fertile land populated by only a few giants. Brutus and his Trojans fought the giants until at last the biggest and strongest of them was left the only one left alive. His name was Gogmagog and Brutus had deliberately saved him to fight his own champion Corineus who thrilled at such challenges. Geoffrey of Monmouth never said where the giants had come from or why the island was called Albion. This perplexed medieval scholars and a story evolved that attempted to explain this discrepancy. According to medieval tradition, before the fight began Brutus was said to have asked Gogmagog who he was and of the origin of his people. Gogmagog was said to have given the Trojan a fantastic tale revealing the origin of the giants and how the island had been named, “Albion”. Presented next is a retelling of the story Gogmagog allegedly told Brutus and has been sourced from several medieval and Anglo-Norman accounts and more recent works. Albina and her Sisters According to Gogmagog the story of the origin of the giants of Albion began 3,970 years after the world began. In a country now called Greece there ruled a very powerful king. This king was very noble and very righteous and the head of a strict patriarchal state and society. His queen was a very beautiful woman and they had a very happy marriage and were blessed with thirty beautiful daughters who were said to be very tall in some accounts. The giant confessed he did not know all their names but knew the eldest, tallest and most influential of these was named Albina. He told Brutus, that in accordance with the custom of the time and of their society the king decided that their daughters had come of sufficient age to marry. He then decided without consulting his daughters which daughter would marry which of the many kings, princes and rulers that would be a good political match for his realm. All thirty of the daughters were then married to their allotted husbands with much ceremony and fanfare. However, his daughters were said to be very proud and strong-willed women who wanted their own wellbeing and desires met. They were fiercely independent and hated the idea of being married to men who were not of their own choosing and did not love. To them it was an indignity and an insult to have to be subjugated in any way to any man regardless of how rich and powerful he was or whatever benefits it might bring for their father’s kingdom. A Murderous Plot They vowed they would be no man’s possession and instead would be the rulers of all men regardless of their status. To further these vows they plotted together in secret and hatched a most extreme plan. At the same time and on the same night they would murder their husbands as they lay in bed next to them asleep and unaware. Gogmagog told Brutus that the plan was agreed by all except for the very youngest who loved her husband, but out of fear kept her opposition secret. She did not want him hurt but she was terrified of her sisters especially Albina, believing that if she did not take part in the plan or betrayed it to anyone they would kill her. Nevertheless, she could not bring herself to hurt the man she loved. She said nothing about her feelings to her sisters but fell into a black depression not knowing what to do. The company of sisters having made their plan and with the date and time agreed vowed to carry it out and returned to their husbands. When the youngest sister returned to her husband she became ill with worry and fear. She became so upset that her husband, who loved her as much as she loved him, asked her why she appeared so distressed and asked directly if it was something he had done, or not done, that had so upset her. She broke down in his arms and told him all about the murderous plan. In tears she confessed that she was meant to kill him but could not because she loved him so much. She revealed how her sisters had all sworn to carry out the plan in secret and had made her swear the same and told him how terrified she was of them. Her husband loved her dearly and he knew she loved him and would never do anything to hurt him. He told her not to say a word to anyone and he would deal with it himself. The very next day he took her to see her father and told her to tell him what she had told him. Tearfully, she told her father everything confessing all the horrific details of the plot. Her father was shocked and ashamed that his daughters could think of such a thing and he was very, very, angry. Once he understood the full evil of it he summoned his other daughters and their husbands to him immediately. He then revealed the plot to the shock and horror of their husbands and the anger and dismay of his other daughters. Naturally, their husbands could not believe their wives could have hatched such a murderous plan. Their wives were now afraid of what their father and their husbands would do next, but had no feelings of guilt, only dismay that their plot had been discovered. However, because of their pride they did not fully see the consequences their plan would bring. Their biggest fear was that they would lose their lavish privileges but they were to lose much more than that. The Real Danger of the Plot To make sure he knew exactly what they planned and that they knew his own opinion of the matter their father interviewed them separately. He told them their behaviour was unacceptable and subverted the very fabric of the state and the society of his realm. He left them in no doubt that he thought they had brought shame on him and shame on themselves. None of his daughters showed any remorse or shame and it seemed to him they attempted to find spurious reasons for their behaviour in a vain attempt to defend and justify it. He saw them as a danger to his realm and a threat to the long established patriarchal society and family that was the bedrock of his state and would have condemned them to death. However, as head of that state and society he saw himself as a man of justice and law and he summoned his judges and a date was set to put them on trial. He exonerated his youngest daughter and sent her back to live happily with her husband. The day of the trial came and the twenty-nine women were brought before the judges who heard their case impassively and fairly as the laws of their society required. When all evidence had been given they came to the judgement that the twenty-nine should be sent into exile without reprieve. For this purpose a ship was made ready and the women forced on board. They wailed and cried out for mercy but none was given. The ship was not provided with food or water or any piece of equipment or article that would have helped them or given them comfort. There was neither mast, sails or oars to drive the ship, or rudder to steer it. The ship was towed out into the sea with the women on board to be taken by the wind and the water currents to wherever fate decreed. So it was that these twenty nine women who could have been great queens instead found themselves cast adrift in the vastness of the sea with no food or water, powerless, helpless and bereft of all society but their own. All they could do was put themselves in the hands of the gods and accept whatever fate would bring them. Their thirst and hunger grew with each day and the seas began to churn. Waves rocked the boat lapping over the sides as the wind drove it further and further from their homeland. The women soon fell sick and lay in the bottom of the ship wailing and groaning. All the time they were in fear that the ship would be overcome by the waves as a terrible storm caught them and bore them with amazing speed many, many miles across the sea. Carried by the wings of the storm the ship at last ran aground upon an unknown shore that had no name. The sisters though shocked and emaciated by hunger and thirst were unhurt and debated what should be done. At last Albina as the senior stepped off the ship and became the first human to set foot on the land and claimed it for herself. Tentatively the other sisters followed her lead for they really had little choice as they were famished and near to death. On the shore they quickly found cool, clear spring water in abundance and wild fruits, nuts and plants that satisfied their hunger, but the sisters yearned for meat. The Island of Albion The sisters at this time did not know the land was uninhabited by humans. They assumed because of its fertility and the abundance of fruit, nuts and plants that there must be humans somewhere that ruled over it. Roaming inland they found no other people and rightly believed themselves to be the only humans, but their arrival and presence had been observed. No matter where they roamed they found no sign of human habitation which surprised them greatly. They explored the woods and valleys and climbed the hills and mountains but no trace could they find of other humans. From what they saw they believed the land could have supported many great civilisations but none could they find. Nevertheless, although they could see no sign of human life they were being secretly watched. There came a time when Albina called her sisters to her and told them that despite the abundance of the land they had found no other humans. She told them how lucky they were that the storm had brought their ship to this land where at least they could live out their days without starving. She reminded them that they could never return to their homeland and that she proposed they face their destiny and make this land their own. Then she proposed that as the eldest and the first of them to set foot on the land that it be named Albion after herself and that she should be their leader and their chief. She then asked if any of them had objections to this. No objections were brought and she was accepted as their leader and chief among them and the land was named Albion. The Women of Albion So they reconciled themselves to their new homeland and fate. They ate the fruits, the nuts and the plants and drank from the cool clear spring waters that abounded. With the passing of time they discovered the best ways to harvest the good store of the land and they learnt the seasons that were best for different purposes. Although they did not go hungry they began to see the movement of the birds, animals and fish that were most plentiful throughout the land and they began to yearn for the taste of meat. When they had been queens they had gone hunting as was the custom and had gained considerable knowledge and skill in the chase. In their homeland they had servants, dogs, hawks and horses and they had weapons to kill with. In Albion they had none of these things and to begin with were at a loss as to what to do. As the lust for meat grew stronger with each passing day, being intelligent and resourceful women, they began to make their own weapons from what was available. They discovered how to shape flints into knives and arrowheads and invented traps to catch the unwary beasts and soon they were feeding on the blood and meat of the creatures of Albion. They used their flint knives to dress and slice meat and cut the skin from their victims using the hides to make clothes and other items. From the flints they learnt how to make fire and cook their meat and they drank from the clear bubbling springs of Albion. They grew strong and they could feel vitality running again through their veins and they began to experience a longing for male companions, but there were none, but they were being watched. The Incubi of Albion The sisters had left the world they had known and entered into a completely unknown world beyond their experience and knowledge. With no one else to help them they made the best of what they could, but they did not realize they were not alone. There were beings in Albion they knew nothing of and had no understanding of. These beings were called incubi and were not human but were spirits of darkness. They sensed the feelings of the sisters and fed off their passions and emotions drawing strength from them and grew strong, enjoying their torment and always seeking to increase it. Invisible to the women they waited patiently biding their time but always watching. When the women were asleep at night they would visit them. They appeared as the handsome men in their dreams, but these were no men they were spirits of the darkness and allied to Satan. They came to them in the night and lay with them. Each one of the sisters had their own demon lover but they were only aware of them in their dreams and in their feelings. In this way the sisters spawned a race of male giants who were the demon seed of the incubi. The giants spread and dominated Albion for long ages before the arrival of Brutus and the Trojans. Gogmagog told Brutus he was now the last of this race of giants that were the children and descendants of Albina and her sisters. The Giants of Albion He told Brutus that his people made the caves and holes in the wild places of the island their homes and built the great buildings seen ravaged by the wind and rain of countless centuries. He told him that some of his people took to the mountains thinking they may find security and they prospered and multiplied and were the lords of Albion and had no peers and no rivals. Their pride and arrogance grew and they wished to dominate all living things and the earth itself, for they were strong and powerful and nothing could withstand them in those days. Then he said in sadness, to their shame and ruin they could not agree between themselves and factions formed among them and they fought against one another. Murder prevailed and the island of Britain ran red with giant’s blood and still they fought among themselves until only twenty-four giants remained. Gogmagog then told Brutus that with his arrival with his Trojans followers they could not match the weapons used against them and had no answer to their numbers. He reflected that with all of his kind dead he had been captured and given the choice of being killed there and then, or face Corineus in single combat to the death and he chose the latter. He then informed Brutus that what he had just told him was the origin of the giants of Albion and how the island had been named and with the story of Albina and her sisters revealed all of his questions had been answered. Then he urged him to let the fight with Corineus begin, having no doubt that he would be killed whoever won and ended his narrative. Brutus renamed the island Britain after himself and with no giants left on the island the Trojans flourished and multiplied and built a proud civilisation based upon their values. Their descendants ruled for many centuries but like the giants with their success they grew in pride and strength. Then came bitter infighting and bloodshed and they were severely weakened. From over the seas came successive waves of enemies who would eventually succeed in taking the rule of the island from them as the Trojans had taken it from the giants. Is there Relevance Today? Was the story of Albina and her sisters just a curious story invented to tell how an uninhabited island was named and became populated by giants or is there more to it than there seems? The real meaning may be found within in the mind of each reader through their own experience of the world living in their own time and comparing the world of Albina and her sisters, Gogmagog and Brutus with that of their own. Can a legend or myth from medieval society have any relevance in modern society or is it just another curious story? To read all the articles in this series, visit the British Legends Series page or select from the list below: - British Legends: The Quest for the Holy Grail - British Legends: The Founding of Britain: Brutus of Troy and the Prophecy of Diana - British Legends: The Mabinogion – The Dream of Macsen Wledig - British Legends: Gogmagog and the Giants of Albion - British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena: The Rule of Vortigern - British Legends: The Origin of Albion and the Bloodlust of Albina and Her Sisters - British Legends: The Lust of Uther Pendragon, Merlin’s Prophecy and the Making of a King - British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons - British Legends: Elen of the Hosts – Saint, Warrior Queen, Goddess of Sovereignty - British Legends: Beowulf and the Great Flame Dragon - British Legends: The Divine Tragedy of Guinevere - British Legends: The Tragic Romance of Tristan and Isolde - British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch? - British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 1) - British Legends: The Madness of Merlin (Part 2) - British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen - Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of All Creatures - British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness - British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld - British Legends: The Outlaws of Inglewood and the Feminine Influence Recommended Books from #FolkloreThursday Sources & Further Reading Fouke le Fitz Waryn: Introduction \| Robbins Library Digital Projects Fouke le Fitz Waryn \| Robbins Library Digital Projects Hardyng’s Chronicle, Book 1 \| Robbins Library Digital Projects Hardyng’s Chronicle, Book 2 \| Robbins Library Digital Projects In the Middle: Albina Myth: Standard Reading Giants and Enemies of God revised \| Lynn Forest-Hill – Academia.edu [PDF]20 35 47 Des Grantz Geanz De origine gigantum Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all) - Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019 - The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd and the Oldest Animals in the World - November 28, 2019 - Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019	3,972	ENGLISH	1
Alcatraz was the supermax federal prison of its own time. It is famously known for its forbidding structure and its nickname of ‘the Rock’. Over the years, it housed approximately 1,545 of America’s most ruthless criminals. Alcatraz Island is located in the heart of San Francisco Bay. For thousands of years, it was a lonely island. How did it get this name? The word Alcatraz means ‘strange birds’ or pelicans. This island was named ‘de los alcatraces’ by a Spanish explorer Lt. Juan Manuel de Ayala in 1775. He was the first person to map the San Francisco Bay. Early History: – It has not always been a military prison. Initially, it was a fort. President Millard Fillmore declared it as a military reservation in 1850. In 1907, it became an official United States military prison and remained till 1933. In 1933, it became a part of the Bureau of Prisons. How big were the cells were in the prison? The cells in that prison were of the size 5 feet by 9 feet. They had a toilet, a sink and a sleeping cot. Alcatraz Island appearing in popular movies: – Alcatraz has been appeared in many movies depicting its former status as a prison. The most popular films include ‘Birdman of Alcatraz’ and ‘Murder in the First’. June 1962 Alcatraz Escape Attempt: – On June 11, 1962, three men Frank Morris, John Anglin and Clarence Anglin who were imprisoned in Alcatraz prison successfully escaped their cells and the island too with the help of a makeshift inflatable raft and life vests. Their fate after entering the bay still remains unknown. Another prisoner Allen Wets had also been the part of their escape plan but he was left behind. At the time of investigation, he helped the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Quick Facts: – - There were no confirmed prisoner escapes from this prison. Total 36 inmates tried, of those 23 were captured, 6 were shot dead and 2 drowned. - It was also home to the first ever lighthouse of the Pacific Coast. - The largest group of Native Americans imprisoned here was 19 Hopi ‘hostiles’. They refused to farm the way government wanted them to. - These protesters also opposed forced education of their children in government boarding schools. - Every prisoner had his own 5 feet by 9 feet cell. Each cell had a toilet and a small sink. - It was the only federal prison at the time which offered hot water shower. - Al Capone got creative during is stay here. He was credited with setting up the prison band. - This island was home to the Pacific Coast’s first lighthouse. This lighthouse was activated in 1854. - It was the first light house of its kind to be built on the West Coast of the United States. - The Alcatraz prison not necessarily housed the criminals who had committed the most heinous crimes. - The most incorrigible and disobedient inmates in the federal penal system were shifted to this prison. - The guards and officers of the prison also lived on the island with their families. Questions & Answers: – Ques. What was the average number of prisoners in the Alcatraz? Ans. The average number was 260. Ques. When did it become the military outpost? Ans. In 1850s Ques. What was the initial name of this island and what does that mean? Ans. It was initially named Isla de Alcatraces, which means Island of the Pelicans. Ques. Who was the original owner of the island? Ans. Julian Workman originally owned the island. It was given by the Mexican governor to him in 1846. Ques. For how many years did it operated as a federal prison? Ans. This prison operated for 29 years, from 1934 to 1963. Ques. In its duration as a prison, how many escape attempts were made? Ans. There were 14 escape attempts by 36 prisoners. 6 of them were shot dead, 2 drowned, 5 went missing and 23 were caught. Ques. What was the daily cost to house a prisoner on this island prison? Ans. $10 was the daily cost. Ques. For how many years was the prison dormant? Ans. For six long years Ques. Name some of the famous prisoners of Alcatraz prison? Ans. Al Capone, George Kelly, and Robert Stroud Ques. How much time did Al Capone spend in this prison? Ans. He spent 4.5 years there in the 1930s. Ques. Who was known as the Birdman of Alcatraz? Ans. Robert Stroud Ques. When did the island become part of the newly created Golden Gate National Recreation Area? Ans. In 1972 Ques. What was the name given to Alcatraz by the prisoners? Ans. Prisoners gave it a name ‘the Rock’. Ques. When was the Escape from Alcatraz Marathon created? Ans. It was created in 1980. It is held every year to show that it is possible to escape from Alcatraz and live. Ques. Which inmate managed to swam to the shore? Ans. In 1962, John Paul Scott squeezed himself through a window and swam to shore. Later, he was found by the police at the foot of the Golden Gate Bridge.	<urn:uuid:b15b70ba-415f-4e4c-a5fb-1d29ccb4ae0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/alcatraz-facts/?print=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00127.warc.gz	en	0.984568	1,185	3.375	3	[ 0.0397789292037487, -0.14416426420211792, -0.1661454141139984, 0.040266286581754684, 0.047903843224048615, 0.022920209914445877, 0.2637615203857422, -0.0569109246134758, 0.0007204818539321423, 0.018185757100582123, 0.27435535192489624, 0.06366506218910217, -0.15883377194404602, 0.703918993...	4	Alcatraz was the supermax federal prison of its own time. It is famously known for its forbidding structure and its nickname of ‘the Rock’. Over the years, it housed approximately 1,545 of America’s most ruthless criminals. Alcatraz Island is located in the heart of San Francisco Bay. For thousands of years, it was a lonely island. How did it get this name? The word Alcatraz means ‘strange birds’ or pelicans. This island was named ‘de los alcatraces’ by a Spanish explorer Lt. Juan Manuel de Ayala in 1775. He was the first person to map the San Francisco Bay. Early History: – It has not always been a military prison. Initially, it was a fort. President Millard Fillmore declared it as a military reservation in 1850. In 1907, it became an official United States military prison and remained till 1933. In 1933, it became a part of the Bureau of Prisons. How big were the cells were in the prison? The cells in that prison were of the size 5 feet by 9 feet. They had a toilet, a sink and a sleeping cot. Alcatraz Island appearing in popular movies: – Alcatraz has been appeared in many movies depicting its former status as a prison. The most popular films include ‘Birdman of Alcatraz’ and ‘Murder in the First’. June 1962 Alcatraz Escape Attempt: – On June 11, 1962, three men Frank Morris, John Anglin and Clarence Anglin who were imprisoned in Alcatraz prison successfully escaped their cells and the island too with the help of a makeshift inflatable raft and life vests. Their fate after entering the bay still remains unknown. Another prisoner Allen Wets had also been the part of their escape plan but he was left behind. At the time of investigation, he helped the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Quick Facts: – - There were no confirmed prisoner escapes from this prison. Total 36 inmates tried, of those 23 were captured, 6 were shot dead and 2 drowned. - It was also home to the first ever lighthouse of the Pacific Coast. - The largest group of Native Americans imprisoned here was 19 Hopi ‘hostiles’. They refused to farm the way government wanted them to. - These protesters also opposed forced education of their children in government boarding schools. - Every prisoner had his own 5 feet by 9 feet cell. Each cell had a toilet and a small sink. - It was the only federal prison at the time which offered hot water shower. - Al Capone got creative during is stay here. He was credited with setting up the prison band. - This island was home to the Pacific Coast’s first lighthouse. This lighthouse was activated in 1854. - It was the first light house of its kind to be built on the West Coast of the United States. - The Alcatraz prison not necessarily housed the criminals who had committed the most heinous crimes. - The most incorrigible and disobedient inmates in the federal penal system were shifted to this prison. - The guards and officers of the prison also lived on the island with their families. Questions & Answers: – Ques. What was the average number of prisoners in the Alcatraz? Ans. The average number was 260. Ques. When did it become the military outpost? Ans. In 1850s Ques. What was the initial name of this island and what does that mean? Ans. It was initially named Isla de Alcatraces, which means Island of the Pelicans. Ques. Who was the original owner of the island? Ans. Julian Workman originally owned the island. It was given by the Mexican governor to him in 1846. Ques. For how many years did it operated as a federal prison? Ans. This prison operated for 29 years, from 1934 to 1963. Ques. In its duration as a prison, how many escape attempts were made? Ans. There were 14 escape attempts by 36 prisoners. 6 of them were shot dead, 2 drowned, 5 went missing and 23 were caught. Ques. What was the daily cost to house a prisoner on this island prison? Ans. $10 was the daily cost. Ques. For how many years was the prison dormant? Ans. For six long years Ques. Name some of the famous prisoners of Alcatraz prison? Ans. Al Capone, George Kelly, and Robert Stroud Ques. How much time did Al Capone spend in this prison? Ans. He spent 4.5 years there in the 1930s. Ques. Who was known as the Birdman of Alcatraz? Ans. Robert Stroud Ques. When did the island become part of the newly created Golden Gate National Recreation Area? Ans. In 1972 Ques. What was the name given to Alcatraz by the prisoners? Ans. Prisoners gave it a name ‘the Rock’. Ques. When was the Escape from Alcatraz Marathon created? Ans. It was created in 1980. It is held every year to show that it is possible to escape from Alcatraz and live. Ques. Which inmate managed to swam to the shore? Ans. In 1962, John Paul Scott squeezed himself through a window and swam to shore. Later, he was found by the police at the foot of the Golden Gate Bridge.	1,201	ENGLISH	1
Commodus was a vile person. He wanted to gain power but the things he did was really cruel. He killed a lot of people just for fun and by their looks. For example, “he put a starling on the head of one man who, as he noticed, had a few white hairs, resembling worms, among the black, and caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak – the bird, of course, imagining that it was pursuing worms.” He would also cut open a corpulent person down the middle of their belly so the intestines would be gushing out and murdered someone that looked noble and handsome. Commodus was evil and selfish, he wanted to show his power to everyone but he used his power in the wrong way because of all the people he killed. The bust of Commodus as Hercules portrait shows lion skin wrapped on his head and chest. It shows him holding a weapon in one hand and fruits in the other. The lion is a symbolism of power. According to the reading it says, “He engaged in gladiatorial combats, it is said that he engaged in gladiatorial bouts seven hundred and thirty-five times.” The weapon may represent his gladiatorial combats. The picture of this sculpture is a bust of Roman Emperor Commodus, styled as if he were similar to Hercules. Lucius Aurelius Commodus, born 161 A.D was a Roman emperor who ruled along with his father Marcus Aurelius and after the death of his father in 177 A.D. Based on the reading in Life of Commodus in Lampridius’s biography, at his young age Commodus is portrayed first just as a typical spoiled dishonorable, and cruel and lewd individual. In his biography, he portrayed the first act of his cruelty when his bath was drawn too cool, he ordered the bathkeeper to be cast into the furnace. Following this, there are many examples that prove that Commodus was indeed an evil and unbelievably wicked emperor. According to Historia Augusta, Commodus pretended that he was going to Africa, so that he could get funds for the journey, then spent them on banquets and gaming instead. “He allowed statues of himself to be erected with the accoutrements of Hercules and sacrifices were performed to him as to a god”. He disgraced every class of men in his company and was disgraced in turn by them. For fun, he would do despicable things such as placing a starling bird on a head of one man who had a few white hairs, resembling worms, and caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak. He would murder many people, just because of the fact that they were handsome, pluck out the eye or cut off the foot of many others. It is also claimed that he often mixed human excrement with the most expensive foods, and he did not refrain others from tasting them. Commodus was a Roman emperor, and just along his bust (“The Bust of Commodus”), it was designed to be sculpted to give off the appearance of masculinity and dominance, as he wanted to be seen as Hercules. The sculpture has Commodus holding fruits with his left hand, while a club in his right hand, resting on his shoulder (Which the club representing gladiator matches he would partake in, or the other killings he has done. While the fruits could mean the “giving” he thought he had done as being a Roman emperor). Along with wearing a headpiece that resembles a lion (which also represents power and/or strength). I viewed it as Commodus abusing the power he had and getting the respect he thought he deserved and becoming egoistic. However, with the brutal pain he brought when he was an emperor, as based on the Lampridius’s biography “Historia Augusta”, Commodus was sinister and conceited and in the biography stated that for his amusement he would have cut open someone who was obese, down the middle of his belly; This is so that his intestines would fall out and Commodus put a starling on the head of a man who had a few white hairs which resembled worms and it caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak. Commodus would slaughter thousands just for his own entertainment. Killing thousands of innocent civilian lives to show that he was superior and almighty to his empire. In the final analysis, the view of the bust is different than I first thought of it to be, Commodus led his life to be violent and destructive to the whoever went against him or questioned his authority. Commodus is an interesting figure to say the least. Not because of anything great he did but because of the constant insanities he took part in. From the biography it is made apparent that he is nothing short of a sociopath who delights in the humiliation of others and takes pride in himself. Such can be seen as he binds men who can hardly walk and has them slither as it makes him feel tall to which he would kill them. His torturing of others wouldn’t end there as he would kill and maim people for fun; either playing surgeon or because he didn’t like them. Curiously part of the evils he did involved defiling other religious practices or killing followers of other gods. Additionally he had people see him as great and above everyone. Relating the text to the statue of him it would seem that his ego was on full display as he would make a habit of putting his name amongst great figures while switching it with heroes like Hercules. From what can be inferred by his past habits, he believed himself divine wanting to be the only one worshipped as such and resorted to making a mockery of other followings. Commodus was a truly evil man and I am lead to believe that the statues he had built of himself were to have you think him grand and heroic otherwise. Commodus’ obsession with Hercules, reveals his thirst for power and obsession with authority. In many pieces of art the lion is shown as regal, powerful and a creature that demands respect and the fact that Commodus’ bust has the skin of a lion draped over it shows that he has conquered power and respect. The club he wields in his hand demonstrates the brutality with which he will wield his power as told in the Life of Commodus, “In his passion for cruelty he actually ordered the votaries of Bellona to cut off one of their arms, and as for the devotees of Isis, he forced them to beat their breasts with pine-cones even to the point of death.”(289). His thirst for blood was also fueled by his brutality by participating in some 700 gladiatorial bouts. Apart from his brutality, Commodus also believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules, as shown by the golden apples in his hand. Commodus renamed months after himself, Hercules and those that “flattered” him. In respect to the awful and barbaric things Commodus has done under his reign, it’s surprising that any works with his face still exist, the stories told about his reign would surely have made people want to erase his mark from history. Commodus Antoninus, he is a very horrible person he did many unspeakable things. Which I believe is way past borderline torture, it is full on torture and for no good reasons. All the bad things that Commodus did had no real purpose. I believe that he did it because he just felt like it and because he was in a position to do so. He abused his power and used it as an excuse to do things that were not right. I think that he might be a psychopath. One of the examples of Commodus’s evil act is when he put a starling on the head of a man who he noticed had a few white hairs, resembling worms and caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak. I thought was horrible because what did he have against this man? What was the reason for this?. I found Commodus, who murdered some people because they were noble and handsome than him was something really childish. In one part of the reading it said that Commodus often mixed human excrement with the most expensive foods and he tasted them. I found that to really disgusting and weird. I do not think that Commodus was a well man he might have been mentally ill. In my opinion, he was a really selfish, childish, weird and cruel person.	<urn:uuid:5e6523e8-c488-4985-96e2-34cc8e6de6a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/arth1103d413f2019/tag/hw1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00167.warc.gz	en	0.992137	1,776	3.328125	3	[ -0.4532943665981293, 0.5184425711631775, 0.31301748752593994, 0.07028856873512268, -0.189351424574852, -0.001191251678392291, 0.5147422552108765, 0.19183655083179474, -0.13035261631011963, -0.24563148617744446, 0.009382018819451332, -0.4741062819957733, 0.037320826202631, 0.209785446524620...	9	Commodus was a vile person. He wanted to gain power but the things he did was really cruel. He killed a lot of people just for fun and by their looks. For example, “he put a starling on the head of one man who, as he noticed, had a few white hairs, resembling worms, among the black, and caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak – the bird, of course, imagining that it was pursuing worms.” He would also cut open a corpulent person down the middle of their belly so the intestines would be gushing out and murdered someone that looked noble and handsome. Commodus was evil and selfish, he wanted to show his power to everyone but he used his power in the wrong way because of all the people he killed. The bust of Commodus as Hercules portrait shows lion skin wrapped on his head and chest. It shows him holding a weapon in one hand and fruits in the other. The lion is a symbolism of power. According to the reading it says, “He engaged in gladiatorial combats, it is said that he engaged in gladiatorial bouts seven hundred and thirty-five times.” The weapon may represent his gladiatorial combats. The picture of this sculpture is a bust of Roman Emperor Commodus, styled as if he were similar to Hercules. Lucius Aurelius Commodus, born 161 A.D was a Roman emperor who ruled along with his father Marcus Aurelius and after the death of his father in 177 A.D. Based on the reading in Life of Commodus in Lampridius’s biography, at his young age Commodus is portrayed first just as a typical spoiled dishonorable, and cruel and lewd individual. In his biography, he portrayed the first act of his cruelty when his bath was drawn too cool, he ordered the bathkeeper to be cast into the furnace. Following this, there are many examples that prove that Commodus was indeed an evil and unbelievably wicked emperor. According to Historia Augusta, Commodus pretended that he was going to Africa, so that he could get funds for the journey, then spent them on banquets and gaming instead. “He allowed statues of himself to be erected with the accoutrements of Hercules and sacrifices were performed to him as to a god”. He disgraced every class of men in his company and was disgraced in turn by them. For fun, he would do despicable things such as placing a starling bird on a head of one man who had a few white hairs, resembling worms, and caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak. He would murder many people, just because of the fact that they were handsome, pluck out the eye or cut off the foot of many others. It is also claimed that he often mixed human excrement with the most expensive foods, and he did not refrain others from tasting them. Commodus was a Roman emperor, and just along his bust (“The Bust of Commodus”), it was designed to be sculpted to give off the appearance of masculinity and dominance, as he wanted to be seen as Hercules. The sculpture has Commodus holding fruits with his left hand, while a club in his right hand, resting on his shoulder (Which the club representing gladiator matches he would partake in, or the other killings he has done. While the fruits could mean the “giving” he thought he had done as being a Roman emperor). Along with wearing a headpiece that resembles a lion (which also represents power and/or strength). I viewed it as Commodus abusing the power he had and getting the respect he thought he deserved and becoming egoistic. However, with the brutal pain he brought when he was an emperor, as based on the Lampridius’s biography “Historia Augusta”, Commodus was sinister and conceited and in the biography stated that for his amusement he would have cut open someone who was obese, down the middle of his belly; This is so that his intestines would fall out and Commodus put a starling on the head of a man who had a few white hairs which resembled worms and it caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak. Commodus would slaughter thousands just for his own entertainment. Killing thousands of innocent civilian lives to show that he was superior and almighty to his empire. In the final analysis, the view of the bust is different than I first thought of it to be, Commodus led his life to be violent and destructive to the whoever went against him or questioned his authority. Commodus is an interesting figure to say the least. Not because of anything great he did but because of the constant insanities he took part in. From the biography it is made apparent that he is nothing short of a sociopath who delights in the humiliation of others and takes pride in himself. Such can be seen as he binds men who can hardly walk and has them slither as it makes him feel tall to which he would kill them. His torturing of others wouldn’t end there as he would kill and maim people for fun; either playing surgeon or because he didn’t like them. Curiously part of the evils he did involved defiling other religious practices or killing followers of other gods. Additionally he had people see him as great and above everyone. Relating the text to the statue of him it would seem that his ego was on full display as he would make a habit of putting his name amongst great figures while switching it with heroes like Hercules. From what can be inferred by his past habits, he believed himself divine wanting to be the only one worshipped as such and resorted to making a mockery of other followings. Commodus was a truly evil man and I am lead to believe that the statues he had built of himself were to have you think him grand and heroic otherwise. Commodus’ obsession with Hercules, reveals his thirst for power and obsession with authority. In many pieces of art the lion is shown as regal, powerful and a creature that demands respect and the fact that Commodus’ bust has the skin of a lion draped over it shows that he has conquered power and respect. The club he wields in his hand demonstrates the brutality with which he will wield his power as told in the Life of Commodus, “In his passion for cruelty he actually ordered the votaries of Bellona to cut off one of their arms, and as for the devotees of Isis, he forced them to beat their breasts with pine-cones even to the point of death.”(289). His thirst for blood was also fueled by his brutality by participating in some 700 gladiatorial bouts. Apart from his brutality, Commodus also believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules, as shown by the golden apples in his hand. Commodus renamed months after himself, Hercules and those that “flattered” him. In respect to the awful and barbaric things Commodus has done under his reign, it’s surprising that any works with his face still exist, the stories told about his reign would surely have made people want to erase his mark from history. Commodus Antoninus, he is a very horrible person he did many unspeakable things. Which I believe is way past borderline torture, it is full on torture and for no good reasons. All the bad things that Commodus did had no real purpose. I believe that he did it because he just felt like it and because he was in a position to do so. He abused his power and used it as an excuse to do things that were not right. I think that he might be a psychopath. One of the examples of Commodus’s evil act is when he put a starling on the head of a man who he noticed had a few white hairs, resembling worms and caused his head to fester through the continual pecking of the bird’s beak. I thought was horrible because what did he have against this man? What was the reason for this?. I found Commodus, who murdered some people because they were noble and handsome than him was something really childish. In one part of the reading it said that Commodus often mixed human excrement with the most expensive foods and he tasted them. I found that to really disgusting and weird. I do not think that Commodus was a well man he might have been mentally ill. In my opinion, he was a really selfish, childish, weird and cruel person.	1,745	ENGLISH	1
Is Mrs.Mallard a round or flat character? In Kate Chopin’s short story “The Story of an Hour,” Mrs. Mallard is a round character. A round character is one who is developed or goes through a change throughout the story. Mrs. Mallard develops over the course of the short story. As the story opens, Mrs. Mallard learns that her husband has died in a train accident. The news sets her on a journey of self-discovery. Her initial reaction is not what the reader may expect. She cried in her sister’s arms and then went to her room to be alone. There, she sinks into her chair, “pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body” until she is able to move on and look out the window. As she absorbs the natural imagery outside, the freedom of the birds, the sky clearing up after a rainstorm, she has the realization that her life is about to be her own. Instead of living for her husband and his needs, she’ll be able to live for herself and make her own decisions. Her journey ends when she learns that her husband is in fact not dead. The shock leads to her death. The doctor diagnosed it as “the joy that kills”; however, it is more likely that this is her character’s final development as she cannot accept the thought that she will have to return to a subservient life. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:d142bcea-3d5a-48d8-b163-cae53adc4896>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/is-mrs-mallard-a-round-or-flat-character-2008574	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00477.warc.gz	en	0.980422	313	3.359375	3	[ -0.43830373883247375, 0.19610857963562012, 0.5963606834411621, 0.08988890051841736, -0.29867640137672424, 0.058982882648706436, 0.5405830144882202, 0.20850709080696106, 0.38303038477897644, -0.2407905012369156, 0.13417427241802216, -0.28306901454925537, -0.05166211724281311, -0.15815676748...	1	Is Mrs.Mallard a round or flat character? In Kate Chopin’s short story “The Story of an Hour,” Mrs. Mallard is a round character. A round character is one who is developed or goes through a change throughout the story. Mrs. Mallard develops over the course of the short story. As the story opens, Mrs. Mallard learns that her husband has died in a train accident. The news sets her on a journey of self-discovery. Her initial reaction is not what the reader may expect. She cried in her sister’s arms and then went to her room to be alone. There, she sinks into her chair, “pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body” until she is able to move on and look out the window. As she absorbs the natural imagery outside, the freedom of the birds, the sky clearing up after a rainstorm, she has the realization that her life is about to be her own. Instead of living for her husband and his needs, she’ll be able to live for herself and make her own decisions. Her journey ends when she learns that her husband is in fact not dead. The shock leads to her death. The doctor diagnosed it as “the joy that kills”; however, it is more likely that this is her character’s final development as she cannot accept the thought that she will have to return to a subservient life. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	290	ENGLISH	1
The battle of Badr holds a great significance in Islamic history. It was the Battle that proved that the numerical strength of the army and numbers of weapons are useless if you do not have the support of Allah. Here we present some facts about the battle of Badr. The date of Battle of Badr Very few of us are aware of this fact that the battle of Badr took place in the month of Ramadan. The battle was fought on 17th of Ramadan i.e. March 17, 624 CE. The battle took place two years after the Prophet PBUH migrated from Makkah to Madina. The first battle fought by the Muslims The battle of Badr was the first major battle fought by the Muslims against the enemies of Islam during the Prophet’s PBUH life. However, many Muslims don’t know this fact that there were 8 other raids conducted by the Muslims before the Batter of Badr. In 4 of the raids conducted before the Batter of Badr, Prophet Muhammad S.A.W participated himself. Badr is the name of an area It is a generally known fact that Badr is the area where the battle was fought; the reason why it is called the battle of Badr. Badr is located at the south-west of Madina. It was used as a meeting point by those coming from Madina road and by the caravans approaching Makkah from Syria. Badr is a place rich in date palms and water wells, it is naturally bordered by hills and mountains. Most of the present residents at Badr belong to a tribe named Harb. Badr, at the time of Prophet PBUH, was used as a station. Caravans used to stop there so that their camels could drink water. A market used to be organized at Badr on an annual basis. Muslims raided Quraish returning from Syria Many Muslims don’t know the fact that the real cause of the battle of Badr was the raid of Muslims on Quraish caravans. The Quraish were returning from Syria. They were to reach Makkah. The Prophet PBUH asked his two companions to fetch news of the Quraish caravan. The two companions followed the instructions and reached a location named Alhawra. When they saw that the caravan had arrived under the leadership of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, they rushed back to Madina to inform the Prophet PBUH with the news. When Prophet Muhammad PBUH was to leave for the Battle of Badr, he stayed for a while in Masjid Suqya and offered his prayers after performing Wudu from Suqya well. Recommended: 6 facts about the Masjid Suqya and Suqya well Muslims had a small army Prophet Muhammad S.A.W asked his followers to get to the caravan. An army of 300 men (estimated figures lie between 313 and 317). It is a fact worth noting that in the battle of Badr, Muslims had only 2 horses and 70 camels with them. The army had men belonging to the Muhajirs (the immigrants) and the Ansars. The Immigrants were 86 in number while the rest were supporters belonging to the tribes named Awas and Khazraj. Muslims were not ready for a battle It is also a lesser known fact about the battle of Badr that Muslims were not ready for a battle. They were going to raid trading caravans of Quraish which did not require a great army. The Muslim army was divided into two by Prophet Muhammad S.A.W. The first group was of Muhajirin who were led by Hazrat Ali ibn Abi Talib and the second group was the supporters who were led by Saad ibn Muadh. The two groups departed from Madina and reached Safra. Holy Prophet PBUH sent two of his companions to fetch reports about the enemy. Abu Sufyan, however, reached Makkah safely with his caravan. He had changed the route and had given a rescue call in Makkah. The Quraish, on the call of Abu Sufyan, prepared an army of 1300 men, 100 horses and a significant number of camels. Abu Jahl led the army. Abu Jahl forced this battle upon Quraish Another lesser known fact about the battle of Badr is that even Quraish didn’t want to fight it. Abu Sufyan had sent the message of his safe return, yet Abu Jahl did not return. The arrogant leader did not allow his army to return. The Bani Zahrah tribe refused to obey him and the 300 men from the very tribe departed. The rest, 1000 men, was motivated for a war. Banu Hashim tribe wanted to return as they did not want to be the part of the unnecessary war, yet they were not granted the permission by Abu Jahl and they marched along with the army. The army reached the Upper Adwa’ hillock. This hillock borders the Valley of Badr. Ansar stood by the side of Prophet Muhammad S.A.W Prophet Muhammad S.A.W was informed of the whole situation, he asked the Ansar for their advice. The Ansar who were under the leadership of Saad ibn Muadh confirmed that they would stand by the Holy Prophet PBUH in the war. Allah revealed the news of victory to Prophet Muhammad S.A.W The Muslims thereby marched Badr and rushed to the wells. Many Muslims don’t know the fact that Allah SWT revealed to the Prophet that Muslims shall emerge victoriously in the battle of Badr. This gave strength to the small number of the Muslim army. Whereupon Prophet Muhammad S.A.W broke the news that Allah had promised victory for them. When the Quraish arrived with a huge army, Allah assured the Holy Prophet PBUH that the hearts of disbelievers would be filled with fear and Allah would help the Muslims by sending down an army of angels. Quraish lost the sword contest The war heated up when the Quraish lost the sword contest. The three of Quraish noblemen named Utbah ibn Rabiah, Shaibah, and Al¬ Walid ibn Utbah lost the sword contest at the hands of Hamza, Ali, and Ubaydah ibn Al-Harith. This heated them up and they went for an attack. Muslims won the battle of Badr The army of 1000 could not stand a chance against the faithful army of 300.This was all because of Allah’s help. The army of angels, strong faith and years of hardship paved way for victory. 70 of the best Quraish warriors including Abu Jahl, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, Al-As ibn Al¬Mughira and Abu Albahtari ibn Hisham were killed in the war. Another 70 people were taken by Muslims as war prisoners. 14 of the Muslim men lost their lives in the war. The Muslims emerged victorious in a war which is indeed a miracle. Allah promised them of victory and granted them one. The war was a turning point in Islamic history as after the war Muslims emerged as a strong nation. The Prophet and his men stayed in Badr for three days. When he was about to begin his journey back to Madinah, he stood over the well and called out to each chieftain by name: “O son of so and so! Do you wish you had obeyed Allah and His Messenger? I have found that what my Lord promised me is true. Did you find your Lord’s promise true?” “O Prophet ,” Umar asked, “How can you talk to bodies which have no soul?” “They hear me just as you do, but they cannot answer,” the Prophet explained.	<urn:uuid:1737b2ea-cf84-4375-b758-e418973be941>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sunniconnect.com/m3/articles/kb/remembering-the-anniversary-of-the-battle-of-badr/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00310.warc.gz	en	0.981557	1,663	3.3125	3	[ -0.07856763899326324, 0.5364964008331299, -0.26821911334991455, 0.1579054892063141, -0.22912682592868805, -0.35402560234069824, 0.21319244801998138, -0.119685597717762, 0.02354177087545395, -0.09841573983430862, -0.052089788019657135, -0.4086430072784424, 0.08880934864282608, 0.08288578689...	2	The battle of Badr holds a great significance in Islamic history. It was the Battle that proved that the numerical strength of the army and numbers of weapons are useless if you do not have the support of Allah. Here we present some facts about the battle of Badr. The date of Battle of Badr Very few of us are aware of this fact that the battle of Badr took place in the month of Ramadan. The battle was fought on 17th of Ramadan i.e. March 17, 624 CE. The battle took place two years after the Prophet PBUH migrated from Makkah to Madina. The first battle fought by the Muslims The battle of Badr was the first major battle fought by the Muslims against the enemies of Islam during the Prophet’s PBUH life. However, many Muslims don’t know this fact that there were 8 other raids conducted by the Muslims before the Batter of Badr. In 4 of the raids conducted before the Batter of Badr, Prophet Muhammad S.A.W participated himself. Badr is the name of an area It is a generally known fact that Badr is the area where the battle was fought; the reason why it is called the battle of Badr. Badr is located at the south-west of Madina. It was used as a meeting point by those coming from Madina road and by the caravans approaching Makkah from Syria. Badr is a place rich in date palms and water wells, it is naturally bordered by hills and mountains. Most of the present residents at Badr belong to a tribe named Harb. Badr, at the time of Prophet PBUH, was used as a station. Caravans used to stop there so that their camels could drink water. A market used to be organized at Badr on an annual basis. Muslims raided Quraish returning from Syria Many Muslims don’t know the fact that the real cause of the battle of Badr was the raid of Muslims on Quraish caravans. The Quraish were returning from Syria. They were to reach Makkah. The Prophet PBUH asked his two companions to fetch news of the Quraish caravan. The two companions followed the instructions and reached a location named Alhawra. When they saw that the caravan had arrived under the leadership of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, they rushed back to Madina to inform the Prophet PBUH with the news. When Prophet Muhammad PBUH was to leave for the Battle of Badr, he stayed for a while in Masjid Suqya and offered his prayers after performing Wudu from Suqya well. Recommended: 6 facts about the Masjid Suqya and Suqya well Muslims had a small army Prophet Muhammad S.A.W asked his followers to get to the caravan. An army of 300 men (estimated figures lie between 313 and 317). It is a fact worth noting that in the battle of Badr, Muslims had only 2 horses and 70 camels with them. The army had men belonging to the Muhajirs (the immigrants) and the Ansars. The Immigrants were 86 in number while the rest were supporters belonging to the tribes named Awas and Khazraj. Muslims were not ready for a battle It is also a lesser known fact about the battle of Badr that Muslims were not ready for a battle. They were going to raid trading caravans of Quraish which did not require a great army. The Muslim army was divided into two by Prophet Muhammad S.A.W. The first group was of Muhajirin who were led by Hazrat Ali ibn Abi Talib and the second group was the supporters who were led by Saad ibn Muadh. The two groups departed from Madina and reached Safra. Holy Prophet PBUH sent two of his companions to fetch reports about the enemy. Abu Sufyan, however, reached Makkah safely with his caravan. He had changed the route and had given a rescue call in Makkah. The Quraish, on the call of Abu Sufyan, prepared an army of 1300 men, 100 horses and a significant number of camels. Abu Jahl led the army. Abu Jahl forced this battle upon Quraish Another lesser known fact about the battle of Badr is that even Quraish didn’t want to fight it. Abu Sufyan had sent the message of his safe return, yet Abu Jahl did not return. The arrogant leader did not allow his army to return. The Bani Zahrah tribe refused to obey him and the 300 men from the very tribe departed. The rest, 1000 men, was motivated for a war. Banu Hashim tribe wanted to return as they did not want to be the part of the unnecessary war, yet they were not granted the permission by Abu Jahl and they marched along with the army. The army reached the Upper Adwa’ hillock. This hillock borders the Valley of Badr. Ansar stood by the side of Prophet Muhammad S.A.W Prophet Muhammad S.A.W was informed of the whole situation, he asked the Ansar for their advice. The Ansar who were under the leadership of Saad ibn Muadh confirmed that they would stand by the Holy Prophet PBUH in the war. Allah revealed the news of victory to Prophet Muhammad S.A.W The Muslims thereby marched Badr and rushed to the wells. Many Muslims don’t know the fact that Allah SWT revealed to the Prophet that Muslims shall emerge victoriously in the battle of Badr. This gave strength to the small number of the Muslim army. Whereupon Prophet Muhammad S.A.W broke the news that Allah had promised victory for them. When the Quraish arrived with a huge army, Allah assured the Holy Prophet PBUH that the hearts of disbelievers would be filled with fear and Allah would help the Muslims by sending down an army of angels. Quraish lost the sword contest The war heated up when the Quraish lost the sword contest. The three of Quraish noblemen named Utbah ibn Rabiah, Shaibah, and Al¬ Walid ibn Utbah lost the sword contest at the hands of Hamza, Ali, and Ubaydah ibn Al-Harith. This heated them up and they went for an attack. Muslims won the battle of Badr The army of 1000 could not stand a chance against the faithful army of 300.This was all because of Allah’s help. The army of angels, strong faith and years of hardship paved way for victory. 70 of the best Quraish warriors including Abu Jahl, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, Al-As ibn Al¬Mughira and Abu Albahtari ibn Hisham were killed in the war. Another 70 people were taken by Muslims as war prisoners. 14 of the Muslim men lost their lives in the war. The Muslims emerged victorious in a war which is indeed a miracle. Allah promised them of victory and granted them one. The war was a turning point in Islamic history as after the war Muslims emerged as a strong nation. The Prophet and his men stayed in Badr for three days. When he was about to begin his journey back to Madinah, he stood over the well and called out to each chieftain by name: “O son of so and so! Do you wish you had obeyed Allah and His Messenger? I have found that what my Lord promised me is true. Did you find your Lord’s promise true?” “O Prophet ,” Umar asked, “How can you talk to bodies which have no soul?” “They hear me just as you do, but they cannot answer,” the Prophet explained.	1,651	ENGLISH	1
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart This paper discusses Mozart's life, his compositions and his importance to the world and the world of music. It explains how Mozart's music is still some of the most popular classical music played today and his life is still studied because his music is so well known and liked. An Austrian composer and performer who showed astonishing precocity as a child and was an adult virtuoso, musical genius Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria Pertl in Salzburg, Austria on January 27, 1756. Leopold Mozart was a successful composer and violinist and served as assistant concertmaster at the Salzburg court. Mozart and his older sister Maria Anna "Nannerl" were the couple's only surviving children and their musical education began at a very young age. The archbishop of the Salzburg court, Sigismund von Schrattenbach was very supportive of the Mozart children's remarkable activities. By the time Mozart was five years old, he began composing minuets. The next year, he and his sister were taken to Munich and Vienna to play a series of concert tours. Both children played the harpsichord, but Mozart had also mastered the violin. In 1763, when Mozart was seven years old, his father took leave of his position at the Salzburg court to take the family on an extended concert tour of western Europe. Mozart and his sister performed in the major musical centers, including Stuttgart, Mannheim, Mainz, Frankfurt, Brussels, Paris, London, and Amsterdam. They did not return to Salzburg until 1766. During this time, Mozart continued to compose, completing his first symphony at age nine and publishing his first sonatas the same year. Leopold soon realized that he could make a substantial income by showcasing his son as a Wunderkind in the courts of Europe. Maria Anna was a talented pianist, and Mozart wrote a number of piano pieces, in particular duets and pieces for two pianos, to play with her. On one occasion when Mozart became ill, Leopold expressed more concern over the loss of income than over Mozart himself. The cold weather and constant travel may have contributed to his later illness. After spending less than a year in Salzburg, the family again departed for Vienna, where Mozart completed his first opera La finta semplice in 1768. Much to Leopold's frustration, the opera was not performed until the following year in Salzburg. Shortly thereafter, Mozart was appointed honorary Konzertmeister at the Salzburg court. In 1769, father and son traveled to Italy and toured for more than a year in Rome, Milan, Florence, Naples, and Bologna. While in Italy, Mozart completed another opera, Mitridate, re di Ponto, received a papal audience, passed admission tests to the Accademia Filarmonica, and performed many concerts. Mozart then returned to Salzburg, but traveled to Italy for two shorter journeys in October 1771 and October 1772 through March 1773. During this time he completed...	<urn:uuid:c26e7ca0-4b36-4b8e-b94c-ce06c2aa4262>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/mozart-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00444.warc.gz	en	0.981982	669	3.546875	4	[ 0.3281105160713196, 0.11465996503829956, 0.09834136068820953, -0.7433499693870544, -0.7660421133041382, 0.2123085856437683, 0.19745996594429016, 0.06701765209436417, 0.1539335548877716, -0.4360121190547943, 0.11924298107624054, -0.20551921427249908, 0.3201609253883362, 0.2452666014432907, ...	1	Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart This paper discusses Mozart's life, his compositions and his importance to the world and the world of music. It explains how Mozart's music is still some of the most popular classical music played today and his life is still studied because his music is so well known and liked. An Austrian composer and performer who showed astonishing precocity as a child and was an adult virtuoso, musical genius Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria Pertl in Salzburg, Austria on January 27, 1756. Leopold Mozart was a successful composer and violinist and served as assistant concertmaster at the Salzburg court. Mozart and his older sister Maria Anna "Nannerl" were the couple's only surviving children and their musical education began at a very young age. The archbishop of the Salzburg court, Sigismund von Schrattenbach was very supportive of the Mozart children's remarkable activities. By the time Mozart was five years old, he began composing minuets. The next year, he and his sister were taken to Munich and Vienna to play a series of concert tours. Both children played the harpsichord, but Mozart had also mastered the violin. In 1763, when Mozart was seven years old, his father took leave of his position at the Salzburg court to take the family on an extended concert tour of western Europe. Mozart and his sister performed in the major musical centers, including Stuttgart, Mannheim, Mainz, Frankfurt, Brussels, Paris, London, and Amsterdam. They did not return to Salzburg until 1766. During this time, Mozart continued to compose, completing his first symphony at age nine and publishing his first sonatas the same year. Leopold soon realized that he could make a substantial income by showcasing his son as a Wunderkind in the courts of Europe. Maria Anna was a talented pianist, and Mozart wrote a number of piano pieces, in particular duets and pieces for two pianos, to play with her. On one occasion when Mozart became ill, Leopold expressed more concern over the loss of income than over Mozart himself. The cold weather and constant travel may have contributed to his later illness. After spending less than a year in Salzburg, the family again departed for Vienna, where Mozart completed his first opera La finta semplice in 1768. Much to Leopold's frustration, the opera was not performed until the following year in Salzburg. Shortly thereafter, Mozart was appointed honorary Konzertmeister at the Salzburg court. In 1769, father and son traveled to Italy and toured for more than a year in Rome, Milan, Florence, Naples, and Bologna. While in Italy, Mozart completed another opera, Mitridate, re di Ponto, received a papal audience, passed admission tests to the Accademia Filarmonica, and performed many concerts. Mozart then returned to Salzburg, but traveled to Italy for two shorter journeys in October 1771 and October 1772 through March 1773. During this time he completed...	656	ENGLISH	1
The Red Wheelbarrow Why is this poetic work subject to so much praise and scrutiny? Williams was not only a poet, but a physician and 'The Red Wheelbarrow' was directly inspired while caring for a young patient in New Jersey whom he did not expect to recover. As he sat at her bedside contemplating her youth and possible passing, he gazed out an open window upon the classic scene which he described in the poem. It is important to understand the context and the time in which the poem was written in order to appreciate why the poem is considered so relevant, a fact that is difficult to appreciate in the present day and age, simply because imagery itself is so incorporated into modern day poetry. In 1923, poetry was quite different as an art form than it is today. Few poets diverged much from classical forms of traditional poetry. As a standard, the first lines of verses were always capitalized and poems were expected to employ some form of rhyme and meter. Williams eschewed these traditional expectations in favor of the imagist philosophy, 'No ideas but in things'. Philosophically, the piece is important in relation to both the context of the writing and the contrast of what was being written at the time. This is much the truth for many poems that we take for granted in our day and age - prior to this poems publication, poetry tended towards the florid, European verse that is noted in more classical forms. 'The Red Wheelbarrow' diverged from the lengthy, structured verse common at the time to produce a piece that was closer to haiku than anything that Americans or Europeans were producing as poetry. Relevant Points of Interest The poem in its original published form was titled simply " XXII". Critics have since denounced both the treatment of the poem as an individual work and the subsequent renaming of it as adding a meaning to the piece that Williams did not intend. Visually, the poem employs long lines at the beginning of each stanza subsequently followed by a shorter one which additionally renders a wheelbarrow-like silhouette to the poem, further expounding on the its subject. So. Is it good? It is. Even by contemporary standards, the poem stands alone for the beauty of its simplicity without the aid of simile, metaphor or symbol and for its ability to effectively paint an idea into the mind of the reader through its use of imagery. However, what is relevant is the poems importance. 'The Red Wheelbarrow' was one of many poems that helped to establish the imagist movement which changed the way that poetry was received as an art form, and which influences poetry to this day. Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Lisbeth Cheever-Gessaman. All rights reserved. This content was written by Lisbeth Cheever-Gessaman. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Karena Andrusyshyn for details.	<urn:uuid:549e8c85-8075-4c94-a083-c8c60ee9dbbb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art55836.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00311.warc.gz	en	0.980461	614	3.484375	3	[ -0.010861607268452644, -0.2407023161649704, 0.2696315050125122, 0.39300400018692017, -0.33360016345977783, -0.003372615436092019, 0.17471149563789368, 0.5655911564826965, -0.27698421478271484, -0.1837189793586731, -0.027166694402694702, 0.24369218945503235, -0.08538376539945602, 0.29081284...	1	The Red Wheelbarrow Why is this poetic work subject to so much praise and scrutiny? Williams was not only a poet, but a physician and 'The Red Wheelbarrow' was directly inspired while caring for a young patient in New Jersey whom he did not expect to recover. As he sat at her bedside contemplating her youth and possible passing, he gazed out an open window upon the classic scene which he described in the poem. It is important to understand the context and the time in which the poem was written in order to appreciate why the poem is considered so relevant, a fact that is difficult to appreciate in the present day and age, simply because imagery itself is so incorporated into modern day poetry. In 1923, poetry was quite different as an art form than it is today. Few poets diverged much from classical forms of traditional poetry. As a standard, the first lines of verses were always capitalized and poems were expected to employ some form of rhyme and meter. Williams eschewed these traditional expectations in favor of the imagist philosophy, 'No ideas but in things'. Philosophically, the piece is important in relation to both the context of the writing and the contrast of what was being written at the time. This is much the truth for many poems that we take for granted in our day and age - prior to this poems publication, poetry tended towards the florid, European verse that is noted in more classical forms. 'The Red Wheelbarrow' diverged from the lengthy, structured verse common at the time to produce a piece that was closer to haiku than anything that Americans or Europeans were producing as poetry. Relevant Points of Interest The poem in its original published form was titled simply " XXII". Critics have since denounced both the treatment of the poem as an individual work and the subsequent renaming of it as adding a meaning to the piece that Williams did not intend. Visually, the poem employs long lines at the beginning of each stanza subsequently followed by a shorter one which additionally renders a wheelbarrow-like silhouette to the poem, further expounding on the its subject. So. Is it good? It is. Even by contemporary standards, the poem stands alone for the beauty of its simplicity without the aid of simile, metaphor or symbol and for its ability to effectively paint an idea into the mind of the reader through its use of imagery. However, what is relevant is the poems importance. 'The Red Wheelbarrow' was one of many poems that helped to establish the imagist movement which changed the way that poetry was received as an art form, and which influences poetry to this day. Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Lisbeth Cheever-Gessaman. All rights reserved. This content was written by Lisbeth Cheever-Gessaman. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Karena Andrusyshyn for details.	602	ENGLISH	1
Kilkenny and The Spanish Civil War Seán Dowling, from Castlecomer, left Dublin on the Liverpool boat in February 1937. He wasn’t travelling to Britain for a job. He was going to war. He would be numbered among 320 Irish volunteers who fought in defence of the Spanish Republic during the 1936-39 Civil War. In this venture he was joined by three other Kilkenny men: - Michael Brennan, also from the Castlecomer area, and brothers, George and Michael Brown, Inistioge born – Manchester reared. What made these men give up their work, leave friends and family, and move to a war situation where their lives were endangered and for many death beckoned. They were committed to support the lawfully elected Spanish Government in its campaign against fascism and military aggression. In this the 320 volunteers – both resident in Ireland or members of the ‘Irish Diaspora’ from the far-flung corners of the globe - were part of a 45,000 strong army of private individuals from all walks of life resolved to stem the rise of fascism. The majority of these volunteers served with the International Brigades, others were involved with various militias, and still more were engaged in medical and other support services. Over 55 different nationalities were represented. What moulded the attitudes of these Irish volunteers? Ireland in the 1920s-30s had just gone through the War of Independence, Partition and its own Civil War. Coupled with the political scars these events had left on the people, there was widespread economic hardship and deprivation, leading to massive emigration to Britain, North America and further abroad. In the 1920s, 220,591 people left Ireland for America alone.The early decades of the nineteenth century were also marked by political, social and economic upheaval worldwide. By the 1930s much of Europe was still attempting to come to terms with the impact of World War I, the Russian Revolution, and, more recently, the economic collapse after 1929. Across the continent there were a number of contrasting political beliefs finding expression in a strong labour movement and rising reactionary-fascist forces. Widespread unemployment and Hitler’s rise to power were depressing factors for anyone on the Left. However, victories of left of centre governments in France and Spain in 1936 gave hope that working people could advance again. Almost as soon as it had arisen, this hope was dashed with the military attack on the Spanish Government by army elements. This development shocked millions of working people around the world and prompted many to pledge their support to the Spanish people in the most practical way possible at the time, by standing shoulder to shoulder with the Spanish working class and the nationalists of the Basque and Catalonian regions in face of the combined might of the Franco-led Spaniards aided by Hitler and Mussolini. Of the 320 Irish volunteers, 82 paid the ultimate price – one in four – a statistic which held true for the Kilkenny volunteers as George Brown was killed in action on July 7th 1937. Who were these four men connected to Kilkenny? Michael Brennan from the Castlecomer area was just 15 when he went to Spain and was sent back home after a few months because he was too young. [The youngest Irishman to die was Tommy Wood of Dublin, who was just 17 when he enlisted, having lied about his age.] Seán (Jack) Dowling, from Ardra, Castlecomer, was 26 when he arrived in Spain in early February 1937. He had been an active member locally of the Republican Congress before moving to Dublin. Seán was in Spain until the very end of the service of the International Brigades in December 1938. The records in Spain are confused and fragmentary but they seem to indicate that he spent quite a lot of time working in the medical staff at several hospitals. This was usually the sort of job given to men who were themselves recovering from wounds. While Michael Brown was among the first group of British-based volunteers, arriving before the International Brigades were set up. He joined the No. 1 Coy. XIV Battalion at Lopera in late December 1936, a battle where the newly arrived volunteers were brutally attacked by the fascist troops. Having gone through this battle, Michael returned to Britain, where he was interviewed by the Daily Worker about his experiences in Spain. While Michael Brennan represented the young and enthusiastic volunteers, George Brown was a well-established leader of the workers’ movement in Manchester. He is on record as being the most senior member of the Communist Party of Great Britain to be killed in action in Spain. He was a full-time worker for the Party and a member of its national leadership, the Central Committee. George Brown arrived in Spain in late January 1937 and was already in battle and wounded by February 11th. In Spain he was appointed a Political Commissar because, as one author says, he ‘had a mastery of the well-turned phrase and sharp retort, but also had what every successful working class leader required, the ability to put in simple everyday terms the principal issues of the day’. Despite, or possibly because of his leadership position as a Commissar, Brown refused a safe position when it came to the fighting in Brunete. In fact before this he had a post in the office of the International Brigade in Madrid and asked to be allowed to go up to the front to join the troops. George left the safety of this behind the lines post to go into battle in May 1937. Early July found him engaged in the battle at the village of Villanueva de la Canada. Mick O’Riordan gave this version of his death. He states that George was wounded at Brunete and that he was summarily shot by retreating Fascists as he lay disabled on the road side. Irish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War played a vital role in the defence of democracy and represented workers’ solidarity in action. These men and women had said that they were taking part in the struggle against fascism, and that should Franco win, the world would go to war. Five months to the day from Franco’s declaration of victory, Hitler plunged the world into war. In World War II young Michael Brennan took up the struggle against fascism again, this time on the front-line in North Africa. Seán Dowling also served with the RAF in WW2, and after it took part in an international solidarity delegation to offer support to the new Left government in Yugoslavia, headed, as it turns out, by another Spanish Civil War veteran, Tito. Was the sacrifice worth it? The International Brigades have rightly been credited with preventing the easy victory expected by the fascists. Wars, though, should not be looked at through rosy glasses. The Irish soldiers in Spain were volunteers, they put their lives on the line, and a quarter paid the ultimate sacrifice, with dozens others being badly wounded, physically and mentally. It was the last time a truly international volunteer army went to war. For their commitment and courage these volunteers deserve our deepest thanks, and the very least we can do is insure that their contribution to the struggle for a better world will never be forgotten.	<urn:uuid:d89128f8-ca22-4c1d-ab86-a7901198817d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.g-brown-brigadista.com/kilkenny-and-the-spanish-civil-war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00135.warc.gz	en	0.985837	1,460	3.421875	3	[ -0.2707896828651428, 0.21213185787200928, 0.2302316576242447, -0.21862313151359558, 0.0628044456243515, 0.11629346013069153, 0.02698368951678276, -0.23619797825813293, -0.15124529600143433, -0.3748980760574341, 0.008664031513035297, -0.04839959740638733, -0.09716123342514038, 0.56544744968...	6	Kilkenny and The Spanish Civil War Seán Dowling, from Castlecomer, left Dublin on the Liverpool boat in February 1937. He wasn’t travelling to Britain for a job. He was going to war. He would be numbered among 320 Irish volunteers who fought in defence of the Spanish Republic during the 1936-39 Civil War. In this venture he was joined by three other Kilkenny men: - Michael Brennan, also from the Castlecomer area, and brothers, George and Michael Brown, Inistioge born – Manchester reared. What made these men give up their work, leave friends and family, and move to a war situation where their lives were endangered and for many death beckoned. They were committed to support the lawfully elected Spanish Government in its campaign against fascism and military aggression. In this the 320 volunteers – both resident in Ireland or members of the ‘Irish Diaspora’ from the far-flung corners of the globe - were part of a 45,000 strong army of private individuals from all walks of life resolved to stem the rise of fascism. The majority of these volunteers served with the International Brigades, others were involved with various militias, and still more were engaged in medical and other support services. Over 55 different nationalities were represented. What moulded the attitudes of these Irish volunteers? Ireland in the 1920s-30s had just gone through the War of Independence, Partition and its own Civil War. Coupled with the political scars these events had left on the people, there was widespread economic hardship and deprivation, leading to massive emigration to Britain, North America and further abroad. In the 1920s, 220,591 people left Ireland for America alone.The early decades of the nineteenth century were also marked by political, social and economic upheaval worldwide. By the 1930s much of Europe was still attempting to come to terms with the impact of World War I, the Russian Revolution, and, more recently, the economic collapse after 1929. Across the continent there were a number of contrasting political beliefs finding expression in a strong labour movement and rising reactionary-fascist forces. Widespread unemployment and Hitler’s rise to power were depressing factors for anyone on the Left. However, victories of left of centre governments in France and Spain in 1936 gave hope that working people could advance again. Almost as soon as it had arisen, this hope was dashed with the military attack on the Spanish Government by army elements. This development shocked millions of working people around the world and prompted many to pledge their support to the Spanish people in the most practical way possible at the time, by standing shoulder to shoulder with the Spanish working class and the nationalists of the Basque and Catalonian regions in face of the combined might of the Franco-led Spaniards aided by Hitler and Mussolini. Of the 320 Irish volunteers, 82 paid the ultimate price – one in four – a statistic which held true for the Kilkenny volunteers as George Brown was killed in action on July 7th 1937. Who were these four men connected to Kilkenny? Michael Brennan from the Castlecomer area was just 15 when he went to Spain and was sent back home after a few months because he was too young. [The youngest Irishman to die was Tommy Wood of Dublin, who was just 17 when he enlisted, having lied about his age.] Seán (Jack) Dowling, from Ardra, Castlecomer, was 26 when he arrived in Spain in early February 1937. He had been an active member locally of the Republican Congress before moving to Dublin. Seán was in Spain until the very end of the service of the International Brigades in December 1938. The records in Spain are confused and fragmentary but they seem to indicate that he spent quite a lot of time working in the medical staff at several hospitals. This was usually the sort of job given to men who were themselves recovering from wounds. While Michael Brown was among the first group of British-based volunteers, arriving before the International Brigades were set up. He joined the No. 1 Coy. XIV Battalion at Lopera in late December 1936, a battle where the newly arrived volunteers were brutally attacked by the fascist troops. Having gone through this battle, Michael returned to Britain, where he was interviewed by the Daily Worker about his experiences in Spain. While Michael Brennan represented the young and enthusiastic volunteers, George Brown was a well-established leader of the workers’ movement in Manchester. He is on record as being the most senior member of the Communist Party of Great Britain to be killed in action in Spain. He was a full-time worker for the Party and a member of its national leadership, the Central Committee. George Brown arrived in Spain in late January 1937 and was already in battle and wounded by February 11th. In Spain he was appointed a Political Commissar because, as one author says, he ‘had a mastery of the well-turned phrase and sharp retort, but also had what every successful working class leader required, the ability to put in simple everyday terms the principal issues of the day’. Despite, or possibly because of his leadership position as a Commissar, Brown refused a safe position when it came to the fighting in Brunete. In fact before this he had a post in the office of the International Brigade in Madrid and asked to be allowed to go up to the front to join the troops. George left the safety of this behind the lines post to go into battle in May 1937. Early July found him engaged in the battle at the village of Villanueva de la Canada. Mick O’Riordan gave this version of his death. He states that George was wounded at Brunete and that he was summarily shot by retreating Fascists as he lay disabled on the road side. Irish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War played a vital role in the defence of democracy and represented workers’ solidarity in action. These men and women had said that they were taking part in the struggle against fascism, and that should Franco win, the world would go to war. Five months to the day from Franco’s declaration of victory, Hitler plunged the world into war. In World War II young Michael Brennan took up the struggle against fascism again, this time on the front-line in North Africa. Seán Dowling also served with the RAF in WW2, and after it took part in an international solidarity delegation to offer support to the new Left government in Yugoslavia, headed, as it turns out, by another Spanish Civil War veteran, Tito. Was the sacrifice worth it? The International Brigades have rightly been credited with preventing the easy victory expected by the fascists. Wars, though, should not be looked at through rosy glasses. The Irish soldiers in Spain were volunteers, they put their lives on the line, and a quarter paid the ultimate sacrifice, with dozens others being badly wounded, physically and mentally. It was the last time a truly international volunteer army went to war. For their commitment and courage these volunteers deserve our deepest thanks, and the very least we can do is insure that their contribution to the struggle for a better world will never be forgotten.	1,520	ENGLISH	1
The Siege of Grave was a siege that took place between 18 July to 20 September 1602 as part of the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish held city of Grave was besieged by a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange and Francis Vere respectively.After a siege of nearly two months the city surrendered when a Spanish relief army under Francisco de Mendoza was defeated just outside the city by the besiegers. The defeat was severe enough to cause a major mutiny in the Spanish army. Prince Maurice of Orange had been actively campaigning against the Spanish armies in the Southern Netherlands and had successfully made sure that Ostend then under siege by the Albert of Austria would be a key distraction while he took the rest of the Spanish garrisons that were still in the Republic.Maurice in his first objective successfully besieged and took Rheinberg an important stronghold on the Rhine from the Spanish in July 1601. Meanwhile, Francis Vere had successfully defeated a massive Spanish assault in Ostend in January the same year.The veteran Englishman with his troops stuck in Ostend proved an issue - the states general demanded that Vere would be better served in the field with Maurice. After this had been agreed the garrison of Ostend was replaced by fresh troops along with a new governor - Frederick van Dorp. Vere left in March and was back in the field with a large portion of English troops (many newly recruited) numbering 8,000 men and many of them veterans from the siege at Ostend. On arriving at the Hague, Vere at once joined the army of Maurice and as soon as both forces had assembled which then numbered nearly 20,000 men, they crossed the Waal at Nijmegen, and the Maas at Mook, advanced thence into the heart of Brabant.Maurice found his progress towards Tienen opposed by Francisco López de Mendoza, who was strongly entrenched - he refused to be tempted out while Maurice refused to engage or pass while leaving a large force in his rear. Maurice then turned back to the north with the intention of besieging Grave or Venlo; the former was chosen. Grave was an important town on the Maas and had been captured in 1586 by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma and from then was under Spanish control.Grave's defences were steadily improved and was completely surrounded with field fortifications making any frontal assault out of the question. By mid July the Dutch and English forces had marched towards the city of Grave; the right wing composed of the English foot commanded by Sir Francis Vere, the centre corps by the Count William Louis and the left by Count Ernest of Nassau.The Commentaries of Vere showed that the army moved in three columns on as many contiguous lines of march. The defenders of the city numbered over 1,500 Spanish and Italian soldiers under the command of Don Antonio Gonzalez and were hoping to hold out for more than two months before a relief column could arrive. At the same time a detached number of Spanish forces led by Mendoza and Ambrosio Spinola pursued Maurice but undeterred the besiegers pressed on towards Grave. On 18 July the Anglo-Dutch force had arrived, surrounded Grave and soon dug in around the city - laying and constructing a trench system.The now besieged tried to bring in as many reinforcements as possible but this was in vain when it was cut off. The Dutch and English siege positions were large in scale with every redoubt having its own wet ditch and drawbridge, and of which took nearly five hours to complete a circuit. The Spanish garrison in the city were in the hope that there would be relief relied on from nearby Venlo under Francisco Mendoza who had arrived with a force in late July.Mendoza went out with the aim of relieving Grave but soon discovered the significant size of the Dutch and English besieging force when the leading part of the Spanish column ran into strong positions and were repelled with loss. The city garrison on hearing the news of Mendoza close by at the same time made several unsuccessful sallies on the besieging army wasting men and supplies. This abruptly stopped when they heard news that the Mendoza's troops were forced to turn back to Venlo in late August; mutinies also played their part in the Spanish retreat. During the relief attempt Vere was inspecting the English trenches when heavy fighting broke out as a sally was launched on the position. The Spanish were repelled but Vere was severely injured when a bullet went through his head beneath his eye and became embedded in his skull.For Vere it would be the end of the war but the bullet was removed as he took up rest in Ryswick and was not able to take to the field again by the end of the year. As a consequence of Vere's wound the young Frederick Henry who was only eighteen years old took over Vere's command, while Horace Vere (brother to Francis) took over the English troops in the field. The Earl of Leicester arrived at the siege in late August in case Francis' wound was mortal and needed to fill in his command but this was denied by Queen Elizabeth I. At the beginning of September the besiegers were running into trouble as the water levels from the Mass caused by heavy rains began to rise rapidly.Before long it had risen so quickly that Maurice even considered raising the whole siege altogether and pondered to make a hasty retreat - he and made calls for the garrison to surrender. Luckily for Maurice the Grave garrison was on it knees and on 20 September Gonzalez accepted Maurice's terms and surrendered. Breakout of diseases, rising waters, a severe lack of food and news that the relief force had been turned back which as a result initiated a large mutiny meant that the Spanish had no choice. After a total of sixty days and with the siege over, the Spanish army were allowed to leave with arms and colours and the Dutch and English entered Grave triumphantly the following day. On 28 September Maurice was inaugurated as count of the country in Grave in a building of its suburbs that in 1559 was given to his father, William of Orange. With the failure of the break up of the siege, a mutiny broke out amongst the Spanish troops because of arrears of pay and about 1,200 soldiers deserted in Venlo.As a force they captured Hamont and then fled to Hoogstraten with the rest of the Spanish troops on their heels before making a deal with Maurice. In the terms given to the mutineers by Maurice Grave was to be garrisoned by them and kept in their hands before being returned to Dutch control by the end of 1603. While Grave surrendered Maurice heard the news that Albert's troops were making no progress in the siege at Ostend. The following year was one of indecision by both Maurice and the states general.In addition the death of Elizabeth and the crowning of King James I of England put operations on hold whilst Grand pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt made talks with the English court and parliament. The talks however got nowhere and the campaign resumed in 1603 with Ostend still under siege. Maurice managed to retake Wachtendonk in March 1603 and Sluis in the Southern Netherlands in August 1604, but the Spanish forces despite suffering heavy losses did not raise the siege of Ostend and it capitulated in September 1604. Grave would stay in Dutch hands for the rest of the war ad was garrisoned largely by English troops until 1648. The Siege of Ostend was a three-year siege of the city of Ostend during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. A Spanish force under Archduke Albrecht besieged the fortress being held initially by a Dutch force which was reinforced by English troops under Francis Vere who became the town's governor. It was said "the Spanish assailed the unassailable; the Dutch defended the indefensible." The commitment of both sides in the dispute over the only Dutch ruled area in the province of Flanders, made the campaign continue for more than any other during the war. This resulted in one of the longest and bloodiest sieges in world history: more than 100,000 people were killed, wounded or succumbed to disease during the siege. The Siege of Zutphen was an eleven-day siege of the city of Zutphen by Dutch and English troops led by Maurice of Nassau, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The siege began on 19 May 1591 after a clever ruse by the besiegers. The city was then besieged for eleven days, after which the Spanish garrison surrendered. The Siege of Lingen took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange. Frederik van den Bergh defended Lingen for Philip II of Spain which was besieged from 25 October 1597. After a siege of more than two weeks, Van den Bergh surrendered on 12 November 1597. The siege was part of Maurice's successful 1597 campaign against the Spaniards. The Capture of Enschede took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War on 18 and 19 October 1597. A Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange took the city after a very short siege and threatening that they would destroy the city. The siege was part of Maurice's campaign of 1597, a successful offensive against the Spaniards during what the Dutch call the Ten Glory Years. The Siege of Meurs took place between 29 August to 3 September 1597 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish occupied city of Moers under Governor Andrés de Miranda was besieged by Dutch and English troops under the command of Prince Maurice of Orange. The siege ended with the capitulation and the withdrawal of the Spanish garrison. The siege was part of Maurice's campaign of 1597 known as the Ten Glory Years, his highly successful offensive against the Spaniards. The Capture of Ootmarsum in 1597 was a short siege, that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English army led by Count Van Duivenvoorde while Maurice of Nassau was besieging Oldenzaal. The siege lasted from 19 to 21 October, where the Spanish garrison of Ootmarsum under the governor, Otto Van Den Sande surrendered and was then occupied by the besiegers. The siege was part of Maurice's successful offensive against the Spaniards during the same year. The Mutiny of Hoogstraten was the longest mutiny by soldiers of the Army of Flanders during the Eighty Years' War. Frederick Van den Berg's attempt to end the mutiny by force, with a siege to recapture the town, ended in defeat at the hands of an Anglo-Dutch army under of Maurice of Nassau. After a period of nearly three years the mutineers were able either to join Maurice's army or rejoin the Spanish army after a pardon had been ratified. The Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch of 1601(Sitio de Bolduque de 1601 in Spanish) was an unsuccessful Dutch attempt led by Prince Maurice of Nassau and William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg to capture the city of 's-Hertogenbosch, North Brabant, Spanish Netherlands, garrisoned by about 1,500–2,000 Spanish soldiers led by Governor Anthonie Schetz, Baron of Grobbendonck, between 1 and 27 November 1601, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), in the context of the long and bloodiest Siege of Ostend. The Siege of Sluis (1604) also known as the Sluis Campaign or the Battle of the Oostburg Line was a series of military actions that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War from 19 May to 19 August 1604. A States and English army under Prince Maurice of Orange and Horace Vere respectively crossed the Scheldt estuary and advanced on land taking Cadzand, Aardenburg and IJzendijke in the Spanish Netherlands. This soon led to the culmination of the siege of the Spanish held inland port of Sluis. The Siege of Hulst of 1596 was a Spanish victory led by Archduke Albert that took place between mid-July and August 18, 1596, at the city of Hulst, Province of Zeeland, Low Countries, during the Eighty Years' War, the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). After a short siege, during which Maurice of Orange launched a failed attempt to relieve the city – the garrison of Dutch and English troops fell into Spanish hands on August 18, 1596. The Siege of Steenwijk was a siege that took place between 30 May - 5 July 1592 as part of the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English force under Maurice of Orange. By taking Steenwijk the Republic's army would take out one of the two main transport routes overland to the Drenthe capital of Groningen, the other lay at Coevorden. After a failed bombardment an assault was made in conjunction with the detonation of mines under important bastions and with two out of three successfully assaulted; the Spanish troops surrendered on 5 July 1592 and handed over the city to the Dutch and English army. This siege was one of the first in history to make use of pioneers as a separate military unit although they were still at the time regarded as soldiers. The Siege of Knodsenburg, Relief of Knodzenburg or also known as Battle of the Betuwe was a military action that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War at a sconce known as Knodsenburg in the district of Nijmegen. A siege by a Spanish army under the command of the Duke of Parma took place from 15th to the 25th July 1591. The fort was defended by the Dutch Republic's commander Gerrit de Jong and his company which was then subsequently relieved through the intervention of a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange and Francis Vere respectively on July 25. As a result, the Spanish army was defeated and Parma managed to retreat by getting his army across the River Waal. The Siege of Hulst was a siege of the city of Hulst that took place between 20–24 September 1591 by a Dutch and English army under the leadership of Maurice of Orange during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The siege was part of Maurice's famous campaign of 1591. The Siege of Coevorden was a siege that took place between 26 July and 2 September 1592 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War at the city of Coevorden by a Dutch and English force under overall command of Maurice of Nassau. The city was defended by Frederik van den Bergh who had been commissioned for the defence by King Philip II of Spain. The Siege of Rheinberg also known as the Rhine campaign of 1601 was the siege of the towns of Rheinberg and Meurs from 12 June to 2 August 1601 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. Maurice of Orange with an Anglo-Dutch army besieged the Spanish held cities in part to distract them before their impending siege at Ostend. Rheinberg, an important city, eventually capitulated on 28 July after a Spanish relief force under Herman van den Bergh failed to relieve the city. The towns of Meurs surrendered soon after. The Siege of Geertruidenberg was a siege of the city of Geertruidenberg that took place between 27 March and 24 June 1593 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. Anglo-Dutch troops under the commands of Maurice of Nassau and Francis Vere laid siege to the Spanish garrisoned city. The siege was unique in that the besiegers used a hundred ships, forming a semicircle in a chain on the Mass river to form a blockade. A Spanish relief force under the command of the Count of Mansfeld was attempted in May but this was defeated and he was later forced to withdraw. Three Governors of the city were killed - after the last fatality and as a result of the failed relief, the Spanish surrendered the city on 24 June 1593. The victory earned Maurice much fame and had thus become a steadfast strategist in the art of war. The Siege of Nijmegen was a military engagement during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War which took place from 17 to 21 October 1591. The Spanish garrison in Nijmegen was besieged by a Dutch and English force under Maurice of Nassau and Francis Vere respectively, which soon surrendered. The Siege of Zaltbommel was a campaign that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War from May 15 to July 22, 1599. The Spanish led by Francisco López de Mendoza y Mendoza launched an offensive campaign around Bommelerwaard which was defended by an Anglo-Dutch force under the command of Maurice of Orange. A siege on the town of Zaltbommel by Spanish troops was attempted but they had to lift the siege and were defeated in subsequent attempts to regain the initiative. Mendoza retreated and the Spanish army then found itself in chaos: mutinies took effect and as a result further operations were suspended for a number of years. As a result, the Dutch and English followed with a counter-offensive in the Spanish Netherlands. The Siege of Groningen was a two-month siege which commenced on May 19, 1594 took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish held city of Groningen was besieged by a Dutch and English army led by Prince Maurice of Orange. The Spanish surrendered the city on July 22 after a failed relief attempt by the Count of Fuentes. The Siege of San Andreas also known as the Siege of Sint-Andries was a military event that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War from 28 January to 6 march 1600. The Spanish garrison of San Andreas was besieged by an Anglo-Dutch force led by Maurice of Nassau. A Spanish relief force under the command of Luis de Velasco failed to relieve the fort after having been turned back by the besiegers. The fort surrendered after the garrison mutinied and accepted payment from Maurice.	<urn:uuid:74637e6b-90b0-47b1-9097-04d4b80ab8ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Siege_of_Grave_(1602)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00135.warc.gz	en	0.985053	3,869	3.296875	3	[ -0.3423057198524475, 0.5921611785888672, 0.1622048318386078, 0.12819983065128326, -0.19192881882190704, 0.033081553876399994, -0.2774333357810974, 0.17516863346099854, -0.08960586786270142, -0.2754194140434265, -0.15446420013904572, -0.5665932297706604, -0.27809661626815796, 0.614359796047...	1	The Siege of Grave was a siege that took place between 18 July to 20 September 1602 as part of the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish held city of Grave was besieged by a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange and Francis Vere respectively.After a siege of nearly two months the city surrendered when a Spanish relief army under Francisco de Mendoza was defeated just outside the city by the besiegers. The defeat was severe enough to cause a major mutiny in the Spanish army. Prince Maurice of Orange had been actively campaigning against the Spanish armies in the Southern Netherlands and had successfully made sure that Ostend then under siege by the Albert of Austria would be a key distraction while he took the rest of the Spanish garrisons that were still in the Republic.Maurice in his first objective successfully besieged and took Rheinberg an important stronghold on the Rhine from the Spanish in July 1601. Meanwhile, Francis Vere had successfully defeated a massive Spanish assault in Ostend in January the same year.The veteran Englishman with his troops stuck in Ostend proved an issue - the states general demanded that Vere would be better served in the field with Maurice. After this had been agreed the garrison of Ostend was replaced by fresh troops along with a new governor - Frederick van Dorp. Vere left in March and was back in the field with a large portion of English troops (many newly recruited) numbering 8,000 men and many of them veterans from the siege at Ostend. On arriving at the Hague, Vere at once joined the army of Maurice and as soon as both forces had assembled which then numbered nearly 20,000 men, they crossed the Waal at Nijmegen, and the Maas at Mook, advanced thence into the heart of Brabant.Maurice found his progress towards Tienen opposed by Francisco López de Mendoza, who was strongly entrenched - he refused to be tempted out while Maurice refused to engage or pass while leaving a large force in his rear. Maurice then turned back to the north with the intention of besieging Grave or Venlo; the former was chosen. Grave was an important town on the Maas and had been captured in 1586 by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma and from then was under Spanish control.Grave's defences were steadily improved and was completely surrounded with field fortifications making any frontal assault out of the question. By mid July the Dutch and English forces had marched towards the city of Grave; the right wing composed of the English foot commanded by Sir Francis Vere, the centre corps by the Count William Louis and the left by Count Ernest of Nassau.The Commentaries of Vere showed that the army moved in three columns on as many contiguous lines of march. The defenders of the city numbered over 1,500 Spanish and Italian soldiers under the command of Don Antonio Gonzalez and were hoping to hold out for more than two months before a relief column could arrive. At the same time a detached number of Spanish forces led by Mendoza and Ambrosio Spinola pursued Maurice but undeterred the besiegers pressed on towards Grave. On 18 July the Anglo-Dutch force had arrived, surrounded Grave and soon dug in around the city - laying and constructing a trench system.The now besieged tried to bring in as many reinforcements as possible but this was in vain when it was cut off. The Dutch and English siege positions were large in scale with every redoubt having its own wet ditch and drawbridge, and of which took nearly five hours to complete a circuit. The Spanish garrison in the city were in the hope that there would be relief relied on from nearby Venlo under Francisco Mendoza who had arrived with a force in late July.Mendoza went out with the aim of relieving Grave but soon discovered the significant size of the Dutch and English besieging force when the leading part of the Spanish column ran into strong positions and were repelled with loss. The city garrison on hearing the news of Mendoza close by at the same time made several unsuccessful sallies on the besieging army wasting men and supplies. This abruptly stopped when they heard news that the Mendoza's troops were forced to turn back to Venlo in late August; mutinies also played their part in the Spanish retreat. During the relief attempt Vere was inspecting the English trenches when heavy fighting broke out as a sally was launched on the position. The Spanish were repelled but Vere was severely injured when a bullet went through his head beneath his eye and became embedded in his skull.For Vere it would be the end of the war but the bullet was removed as he took up rest in Ryswick and was not able to take to the field again by the end of the year. As a consequence of Vere's wound the young Frederick Henry who was only eighteen years old took over Vere's command, while Horace Vere (brother to Francis) took over the English troops in the field. The Earl of Leicester arrived at the siege in late August in case Francis' wound was mortal and needed to fill in his command but this was denied by Queen Elizabeth I. At the beginning of September the besiegers were running into trouble as the water levels from the Mass caused by heavy rains began to rise rapidly.Before long it had risen so quickly that Maurice even considered raising the whole siege altogether and pondered to make a hasty retreat - he and made calls for the garrison to surrender. Luckily for Maurice the Grave garrison was on it knees and on 20 September Gonzalez accepted Maurice's terms and surrendered. Breakout of diseases, rising waters, a severe lack of food and news that the relief force had been turned back which as a result initiated a large mutiny meant that the Spanish had no choice. After a total of sixty days and with the siege over, the Spanish army were allowed to leave with arms and colours and the Dutch and English entered Grave triumphantly the following day. On 28 September Maurice was inaugurated as count of the country in Grave in a building of its suburbs that in 1559 was given to his father, William of Orange. With the failure of the break up of the siege, a mutiny broke out amongst the Spanish troops because of arrears of pay and about 1,200 soldiers deserted in Venlo.As a force they captured Hamont and then fled to Hoogstraten with the rest of the Spanish troops on their heels before making a deal with Maurice. In the terms given to the mutineers by Maurice Grave was to be garrisoned by them and kept in their hands before being returned to Dutch control by the end of 1603. While Grave surrendered Maurice heard the news that Albert's troops were making no progress in the siege at Ostend. The following year was one of indecision by both Maurice and the states general.In addition the death of Elizabeth and the crowning of King James I of England put operations on hold whilst Grand pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt made talks with the English court and parliament. The talks however got nowhere and the campaign resumed in 1603 with Ostend still under siege. Maurice managed to retake Wachtendonk in March 1603 and Sluis in the Southern Netherlands in August 1604, but the Spanish forces despite suffering heavy losses did not raise the siege of Ostend and it capitulated in September 1604. Grave would stay in Dutch hands for the rest of the war ad was garrisoned largely by English troops until 1648. The Siege of Ostend was a three-year siege of the city of Ostend during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. A Spanish force under Archduke Albrecht besieged the fortress being held initially by a Dutch force which was reinforced by English troops under Francis Vere who became the town's governor. It was said "the Spanish assailed the unassailable; the Dutch defended the indefensible." The commitment of both sides in the dispute over the only Dutch ruled area in the province of Flanders, made the campaign continue for more than any other during the war. This resulted in one of the longest and bloodiest sieges in world history: more than 100,000 people were killed, wounded or succumbed to disease during the siege. The Siege of Zutphen was an eleven-day siege of the city of Zutphen by Dutch and English troops led by Maurice of Nassau, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The siege began on 19 May 1591 after a clever ruse by the besiegers. The city was then besieged for eleven days, after which the Spanish garrison surrendered. The Siege of Lingen took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange. Frederik van den Bergh defended Lingen for Philip II of Spain which was besieged from 25 October 1597. After a siege of more than two weeks, Van den Bergh surrendered on 12 November 1597. The siege was part of Maurice's successful 1597 campaign against the Spaniards. The Capture of Enschede took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War on 18 and 19 October 1597. A Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange took the city after a very short siege and threatening that they would destroy the city. The siege was part of Maurice's campaign of 1597, a successful offensive against the Spaniards during what the Dutch call the Ten Glory Years. The Siege of Meurs took place between 29 August to 3 September 1597 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish occupied city of Moers under Governor Andrés de Miranda was besieged by Dutch and English troops under the command of Prince Maurice of Orange. The siege ended with the capitulation and the withdrawal of the Spanish garrison. The siege was part of Maurice's campaign of 1597 known as the Ten Glory Years, his highly successful offensive against the Spaniards. The Capture of Ootmarsum in 1597 was a short siege, that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English army led by Count Van Duivenvoorde while Maurice of Nassau was besieging Oldenzaal. The siege lasted from 19 to 21 October, where the Spanish garrison of Ootmarsum under the governor, Otto Van Den Sande surrendered and was then occupied by the besiegers. The siege was part of Maurice's successful offensive against the Spaniards during the same year. The Mutiny of Hoogstraten was the longest mutiny by soldiers of the Army of Flanders during the Eighty Years' War. Frederick Van den Berg's attempt to end the mutiny by force, with a siege to recapture the town, ended in defeat at the hands of an Anglo-Dutch army under of Maurice of Nassau. After a period of nearly three years the mutineers were able either to join Maurice's army or rejoin the Spanish army after a pardon had been ratified. The Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch of 1601(Sitio de Bolduque de 1601 in Spanish) was an unsuccessful Dutch attempt led by Prince Maurice of Nassau and William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg to capture the city of 's-Hertogenbosch, North Brabant, Spanish Netherlands, garrisoned by about 1,500–2,000 Spanish soldiers led by Governor Anthonie Schetz, Baron of Grobbendonck, between 1 and 27 November 1601, during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), in the context of the long and bloodiest Siege of Ostend. The Siege of Sluis (1604) also known as the Sluis Campaign or the Battle of the Oostburg Line was a series of military actions that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War from 19 May to 19 August 1604. A States and English army under Prince Maurice of Orange and Horace Vere respectively crossed the Scheldt estuary and advanced on land taking Cadzand, Aardenburg and IJzendijke in the Spanish Netherlands. This soon led to the culmination of the siege of the Spanish held inland port of Sluis. The Siege of Hulst of 1596 was a Spanish victory led by Archduke Albert that took place between mid-July and August 18, 1596, at the city of Hulst, Province of Zeeland, Low Countries, during the Eighty Years' War, the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). After a short siege, during which Maurice of Orange launched a failed attempt to relieve the city – the garrison of Dutch and English troops fell into Spanish hands on August 18, 1596. The Siege of Steenwijk was a siege that took place between 30 May - 5 July 1592 as part of the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War by a Dutch and English force under Maurice of Orange. By taking Steenwijk the Republic's army would take out one of the two main transport routes overland to the Drenthe capital of Groningen, the other lay at Coevorden. After a failed bombardment an assault was made in conjunction with the detonation of mines under important bastions and with two out of three successfully assaulted; the Spanish troops surrendered on 5 July 1592 and handed over the city to the Dutch and English army. This siege was one of the first in history to make use of pioneers as a separate military unit although they were still at the time regarded as soldiers. The Siege of Knodsenburg, Relief of Knodzenburg or also known as Battle of the Betuwe was a military action that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War at a sconce known as Knodsenburg in the district of Nijmegen. A siege by a Spanish army under the command of the Duke of Parma took place from 15th to the 25th July 1591. The fort was defended by the Dutch Republic's commander Gerrit de Jong and his company which was then subsequently relieved through the intervention of a Dutch and English army led by Maurice of Orange and Francis Vere respectively on July 25. As a result, the Spanish army was defeated and Parma managed to retreat by getting his army across the River Waal. The Siege of Hulst was a siege of the city of Hulst that took place between 20–24 September 1591 by a Dutch and English army under the leadership of Maurice of Orange during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The siege was part of Maurice's famous campaign of 1591. The Siege of Coevorden was a siege that took place between 26 July and 2 September 1592 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War at the city of Coevorden by a Dutch and English force under overall command of Maurice of Nassau. The city was defended by Frederik van den Bergh who had been commissioned for the defence by King Philip II of Spain. The Siege of Rheinberg also known as the Rhine campaign of 1601 was the siege of the towns of Rheinberg and Meurs from 12 June to 2 August 1601 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. Maurice of Orange with an Anglo-Dutch army besieged the Spanish held cities in part to distract them before their impending siege at Ostend. Rheinberg, an important city, eventually capitulated on 28 July after a Spanish relief force under Herman van den Bergh failed to relieve the city. The towns of Meurs surrendered soon after. The Siege of Geertruidenberg was a siege of the city of Geertruidenberg that took place between 27 March and 24 June 1593 during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. Anglo-Dutch troops under the commands of Maurice of Nassau and Francis Vere laid siege to the Spanish garrisoned city. The siege was unique in that the besiegers used a hundred ships, forming a semicircle in a chain on the Mass river to form a blockade. A Spanish relief force under the command of the Count of Mansfeld was attempted in May but this was defeated and he was later forced to withdraw. Three Governors of the city were killed - after the last fatality and as a result of the failed relief, the Spanish surrendered the city on 24 June 1593. The victory earned Maurice much fame and had thus become a steadfast strategist in the art of war. The Siege of Nijmegen was a military engagement during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War which took place from 17 to 21 October 1591. The Spanish garrison in Nijmegen was besieged by a Dutch and English force under Maurice of Nassau and Francis Vere respectively, which soon surrendered. The Siege of Zaltbommel was a campaign that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War from May 15 to July 22, 1599. The Spanish led by Francisco López de Mendoza y Mendoza launched an offensive campaign around Bommelerwaard which was defended by an Anglo-Dutch force under the command of Maurice of Orange. A siege on the town of Zaltbommel by Spanish troops was attempted but they had to lift the siege and were defeated in subsequent attempts to regain the initiative. Mendoza retreated and the Spanish army then found itself in chaos: mutinies took effect and as a result further operations were suspended for a number of years. As a result, the Dutch and English followed with a counter-offensive in the Spanish Netherlands. The Siege of Groningen was a two-month siege which commenced on May 19, 1594 took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish held city of Groningen was besieged by a Dutch and English army led by Prince Maurice of Orange. The Spanish surrendered the city on July 22 after a failed relief attempt by the Count of Fuentes. The Siege of San Andreas also known as the Siege of Sint-Andries was a military event that took place during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo–Spanish War from 28 January to 6 march 1600. The Spanish garrison of San Andreas was besieged by an Anglo-Dutch force led by Maurice of Nassau. A Spanish relief force under the command of Luis de Velasco failed to relieve the fort after having been turned back by the besiegers. The fort surrendered after the garrison mutinied and accepted payment from Maurice.	4,035	ENGLISH	1
By August 1944 the sheer weight of men and machines made an Allied victory over Nazi Germany all but inevitable. Freedom loving people across Europe looked forward to the day when the Allied armies would free them from Nazi rule. In Warsaw the Polish Resistance chose not to wait. Tens of thousands of people would rise up to fight the Nazis and attempt to liberate the city. It was the largest uprising the Nazis had ever faced, and they moved to put it down with the utmost brutality. When it was over 200,000 people had been killed and one of Europe’s most famous cities had been almost completely razed to the ground. This list takes a closer look at the bloodiest uprising of World War Two. 10. Stalin wanted the Uprising to Fail The Poles had been secretly planning their uprising in Warsaw for years. If it was to have any chance of success, then timing was crucial. Move too early and the Germans would crush the rebellion. The plan instead was to wait until the Soviet Red Army was almost upon the city. The Poles would then greet the advancing Russians having already liberated their capital city themselves. What the Poles didn’t know was that Joseph Stalin, the cold, calculating Soviet dictator, had no intention of allowing this to happen. Stalin already had his eye on the post-war world, and he wanted Poland under his own direct control. This would be much more politically awkward if the Poles could argue that they had liberated their own capital city. The uprising began on August 1, 1944 with the Soviet Red Army just a few miles from Warsaw. It was here, at the banks of the Vistula River, that the Red Army halted. At the same time Soviet aircraft ceased to fly sorties over the city, clearing the way for Germany’s Luftwaffe to rain down bombs on the inhabitants below. Britain’s Winston Churchill asked Stalin for permission for British bombers to land on Soviet airfields, which would allow them to drop vital supplies for the Poles. Even this request was refused. The British Royal Air Force did succeed in dropping some supplies into the city from aircraft based in Italy, but these were as likely to fall into German hands as reach the intended recipients. To all intents and purposes, the Poles were on their own. 9. The Fighting Lasted for 63 Days The leaders of the Polish Home Army, also known as the AK, expected the uprising to last about a week; they lacked the weapons, ammunition, and supplies for anything much longer than that. None of the leaders of the revolt had expected the Red Army would halt its advance, and none of them knew that Germany’s General Walter Model had launched a successful counterattack to buy the Nazis a little more time in the east. With no help coming and the Nazis determined to crush the uprising, what had been intended as a short shock operation turned into a desperate, drawn-out struggle that dragged on for 63 days. In the early days of the uprising Polish fighters had taken control of much of the city; Polish flags flew openly for the first time in years, and the national anthem blared out from the speaker system installed by the Germans. As it became clear the Germans intended to fight for the city, deploying tanks, siege artillery, and Luftwaffe aircraft against the lightly-armed resistance fighters, the euphoria of these early victories gradually wore off. Eventually it became clear no help was coming. The Poles who had fought to liberate their city now fought on without hope of victory, simply because they had no other choice. 8. The Sewers Became a Lifeline The Nazis cut off Warsaw’s water supply in the early days of the uprising. With hardly a drop of rain falling on the parched city in August 1944, the situation for many of the inhabitants quickly became desperate. However, this did bring one significant advantage for the Poles. As the water levels fell, the city’s sewers became accessible. They hadn’t featured in the Polish Home Army’s plans for the uprising, but they became a vital network linking districts and used to transport soldiers, civilians, ammunition and supplies. Engineers cleared blockages, street names were erected to aid navigation, and timetables were even drawn up to avoid congestion in the narrow tunnels, some of which were only two or three feet wide. Warsaw’s network of sewers were often the only way to travel between districts. When the Old Town fell to the Germans at the end of August, some 4,000 combatants and civilians were evacuated through them to evade capture and continue the struggle elsewhere. Amongst their numbers were some of the leaders of the uprising. The Germans soon realized what was happening, but they were reluctant to descend into the murky underworld to take on the Poles directly. Instead they resorted to throwing grenades down manholes and even used poison gas to flush the Poles out. 7. The Germans Unleashed one of their Wonder Weapons The Warsaw Uprising was by no means an even contest. The Poles had no anti-aircraft weapons, very few anti-tank weapons, and a desperate shortage of ammunition of all types. With this meager arsenal they would take on a professional army employing Tiger and Panther tanks, rail guns, dive bombers, and siege mortars. One of the less well-known weapons deployed by the Germans during the uprising was the Goliath tracked mine. This was effectively a miniature tank, armed with 100 kilograms of high explosives, and capable of being steered towards its target by remote control. The Goliaths could operate as mine clearance devices, or even as anti-tank weapons. However, during the Warsaw Uprising they were deployed in large numbers to target strongpoints defended by Polish fighters. While the Goliaths caused considerable destruction, the Poles discovered some substantial weaknesses to these early robotic weapons. Each machine had to be connected by a cable to its operator, and the Poles learned it was possible, albeit dangerous, to dash out, cut the cable, and disable the weapon. Hitler often spoke of wonder weapons that would turn the tide of the war, but this one was judged a failure and was rarely used after Warsaw. 6. Hitler Ordered the Entire City to be Destroyed In the west the British and Americans were closing in on Paris, German towns and cities lay in ruins, and Hitler himself had almost been killed in an assassination attempt and was in constant pain. The last thing he wanted was a rebellion which would disrupt his lines of supply in the east and perhaps even spread to other cities. Himmler, the brutal chief of the SS, saw things differently. He persuaded Hitler that the uprising was a blessing in disguise; it was a chance to completely destroy the city of Warsaw. With the city wiped from the face of the map it would never trouble future generations of Germans. Hitler had spoken of destroying cities before, but this was the first time he’d attempted it. Artillery and dive bombers pounded the city, killing thousands of civilians and reducing buildings to rubble. Once a region had been cleared of Polish fighters, and anything of value had been looted, demolition teams moved in to flatten anything that remained. More than 80% of Warsaw’s buildings were destroyed, and 30% of these were demolished after the uprising had already been defeated. For the Nazi war effort this was counterproductive. The German Army could have used Warsaw as a strongpoint against the advancing Soviets, instead, and at great effort, the city was all but destroyed before the Red Army arrived. 5. The Germans sent their most Brutal Commanders The crimes committed by the Nazis in their efforts to destroy Warsaw were amongst the worst of the war. In order to ensure that no mercy would be shown, Himmler turned to some of the most sadistic and ruthless commanders in the entire SS. One of the most notorious was a personal friend of Himmler’s named Oskar Dirlewanger. A convicted rapist described in a police report as a violent, mentally unstable alcoholic, his methods were so brutal even some senior Nazis complained about him. The Dirlewanger Brigade he commanded contained large numbers of violent criminals, who had been released from prison on the condition they fight for Germany. Dirlewanger’s men were thugs in uniform rather than a disciplined fighting force, and they were unleashed to rape, murder, and loot their way through the civilian population of Warsaw. Dirlewanger had 40,000 people rounded up and shot in the Wola massacre, burned down hospitals with the patients still inside, and his men even impaled babies on bayonets. For his crimes in Warsaw the Nazis awarded him the Iron Cross, Germany’s highest award for valour. A few months later he went into hiding only to be captured by the victorious Allied powers. His death certificate claims he died of natural causes; other rumours suggest he was beaten to death by his guards. 4. Thousands Survived in the Rubble Towards the end of September, the leaders of the uprising reluctantly concluded they had no choice but to sue for peace. Their soldiers were exhausted, their ammunition spent, most of the city was back in German hands, and the civilian inhabitants of Warsaw were starving to death. That the Germans were willing to negotiate at all indicates a change in thinking amongst some of the leading Nazis. Himmler had planned to murder the survivors, but it had begun to dawn on him that the Allies might just win the war. Bizarrely he thought the Nazi party might survive, with him at its head as Germany’s new leader. He did at least have enough awareness to realize that slaughtering the inhabitants of an entire city would count against him in these ambitions. The Poles were able to extract a promise that the civilians would not be harmed and that Polish fighters would be accorded the rights of prisoners of war. Representatives of the Polish Home Army were even permitted to view the proposed labor camps. On October 2, 1944 the Poles officially surrendered, and 150,000 civilians began to be loaded onto trains bound for labor camps deeper in the Reich. Thousands more, especially the city’s few surviving Jews, didn’t trust the Nazis to keep their promises and chose to remain hidden in the ruins of the city until the Red Army finally arrived in January 1945. 3. Operation Tempest While the French Resistance is probably the most famous of the World War Two resistance movements, the Polish Home Army was Europe’s largest and best-equipped underground force. It was led by the Polish Government in exile, which was based in London and had never surrendered to Nazi Germany. With around 300,000 men and women in its ranks, the Polish Home Army fought an ongoing guerrilla war against the occupying German forces. The Polish Home Army’s attempt to liberate Warsaw was its most ambitious move, but it was just part of a wider series of rebellions planned under the auspices of Operation Tempest. Initially the plan was to coordinate the revolts with Stalin’s Red Army. However, in August 1943 the Polish Government in exile had cut diplomatic ties with Stalin’s government when it emerged that the Soviet Union had massacred 20,000 Poles in 1940. Unfortunately, Operation Tempest had limited success. This was largely due to Stalin’s hostility. As the Red Army advanced it disarmed and even imprisoned Polish soldiers. 2. Himmler Tried to Recruit the Survivors The Poles put up a heroic fight in Warsaw. The Nazis defeated them through superior numbers, weapons, and extreme brutality, but they lost 20,000 men in the process. Even after the death and destruction Himmler had brought upon the city, he believed he might be able to convince the Polish Home Army to join the Nazis in the fight against the Soviets. General Bor, the leader of the uprising, was imprisoned in Colditz castle where Nazi officials attempted to gain his backing for an anti-Soviet alliance. Bor refused. Nazi attempts to recruit survivors from Warsaw were similarly unsuccessful. Almost every nation overrun by the Nazis produced its share of quislings, collaborators, and sympathizers. Even Himmler’s supposedly racially pure SS fielded units from the Soviet Union, France, Belgium, and even India. Partly due to the brutality with which the Poles were treated, there was very little collaboration with the Nazis in Poland. 1. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising The Warsaw Uprising of 1944 was the largest revolt against the Nazis in any occupied city. However, it wasn’t the first time the people of Warsaw had fought back against the Germans. In 1939 Warsaw had the second largest population of Jews of any European city, which was one of the reasons it was hated so much by Hitler and Himmler. Following Poland’s defeat some 460,000 Jews were segregated and sealed off from the rest of the population into the notorious Warsaw Ghetto. Tens of thousands of people died of starvation and disease, but even worse was to follow. In July of 1942 the Nazis began to dissolve the ghetto, transporting the inhabitants to be murdered at the death camp of Treblinka. By April 1943 only around 50,000 Jews remained, but rather than go quietly to their fate they rose up to fight back against the Germans. It was an even more desperate struggle than that of 1944; the rebels lacked training, weapons, ammunition, and had no hope of victory. None the less they fought bravely, and a few managed to escape from the ghetto. Some of these, such as Simcha Rotem, would fight against the Germans again in the 1944 uprising.	<urn:uuid:90c41d6c-5d93-4c5f-9e36-52788f1cb428>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.toptenz.net/brutal-facts-about-the-warsaw-uprising.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00231.warc.gz	en	0.986183	2,811	3.515625	4	[ -0.7953797578811646, 0.5180021524429321, -0.2038698047399521, 0.12782801687717438, -0.008432572707533836, 0.31165507435798645, 0.03449456766247749, 0.20516929030418396, -0.10180678218603134, -0.07178060710430145, -0.036542970687150955, 0.0495738722383976, 0.31925246119499207, 0.33838912844...	3	By August 1944 the sheer weight of men and machines made an Allied victory over Nazi Germany all but inevitable. Freedom loving people across Europe looked forward to the day when the Allied armies would free them from Nazi rule. In Warsaw the Polish Resistance chose not to wait. Tens of thousands of people would rise up to fight the Nazis and attempt to liberate the city. It was the largest uprising the Nazis had ever faced, and they moved to put it down with the utmost brutality. When it was over 200,000 people had been killed and one of Europe’s most famous cities had been almost completely razed to the ground. This list takes a closer look at the bloodiest uprising of World War Two. 10. Stalin wanted the Uprising to Fail The Poles had been secretly planning their uprising in Warsaw for years. If it was to have any chance of success, then timing was crucial. Move too early and the Germans would crush the rebellion. The plan instead was to wait until the Soviet Red Army was almost upon the city. The Poles would then greet the advancing Russians having already liberated their capital city themselves. What the Poles didn’t know was that Joseph Stalin, the cold, calculating Soviet dictator, had no intention of allowing this to happen. Stalin already had his eye on the post-war world, and he wanted Poland under his own direct control. This would be much more politically awkward if the Poles could argue that they had liberated their own capital city. The uprising began on August 1, 1944 with the Soviet Red Army just a few miles from Warsaw. It was here, at the banks of the Vistula River, that the Red Army halted. At the same time Soviet aircraft ceased to fly sorties over the city, clearing the way for Germany’s Luftwaffe to rain down bombs on the inhabitants below. Britain’s Winston Churchill asked Stalin for permission for British bombers to land on Soviet airfields, which would allow them to drop vital supplies for the Poles. Even this request was refused. The British Royal Air Force did succeed in dropping some supplies into the city from aircraft based in Italy, but these were as likely to fall into German hands as reach the intended recipients. To all intents and purposes, the Poles were on their own. 9. The Fighting Lasted for 63 Days The leaders of the Polish Home Army, also known as the AK, expected the uprising to last about a week; they lacked the weapons, ammunition, and supplies for anything much longer than that. None of the leaders of the revolt had expected the Red Army would halt its advance, and none of them knew that Germany’s General Walter Model had launched a successful counterattack to buy the Nazis a little more time in the east. With no help coming and the Nazis determined to crush the uprising, what had been intended as a short shock operation turned into a desperate, drawn-out struggle that dragged on for 63 days. In the early days of the uprising Polish fighters had taken control of much of the city; Polish flags flew openly for the first time in years, and the national anthem blared out from the speaker system installed by the Germans. As it became clear the Germans intended to fight for the city, deploying tanks, siege artillery, and Luftwaffe aircraft against the lightly-armed resistance fighters, the euphoria of these early victories gradually wore off. Eventually it became clear no help was coming. The Poles who had fought to liberate their city now fought on without hope of victory, simply because they had no other choice. 8. The Sewers Became a Lifeline The Nazis cut off Warsaw’s water supply in the early days of the uprising. With hardly a drop of rain falling on the parched city in August 1944, the situation for many of the inhabitants quickly became desperate. However, this did bring one significant advantage for the Poles. As the water levels fell, the city’s sewers became accessible. They hadn’t featured in the Polish Home Army’s plans for the uprising, but they became a vital network linking districts and used to transport soldiers, civilians, ammunition and supplies. Engineers cleared blockages, street names were erected to aid navigation, and timetables were even drawn up to avoid congestion in the narrow tunnels, some of which were only two or three feet wide. Warsaw’s network of sewers were often the only way to travel between districts. When the Old Town fell to the Germans at the end of August, some 4,000 combatants and civilians were evacuated through them to evade capture and continue the struggle elsewhere. Amongst their numbers were some of the leaders of the uprising. The Germans soon realized what was happening, but they were reluctant to descend into the murky underworld to take on the Poles directly. Instead they resorted to throwing grenades down manholes and even used poison gas to flush the Poles out. 7. The Germans Unleashed one of their Wonder Weapons The Warsaw Uprising was by no means an even contest. The Poles had no anti-aircraft weapons, very few anti-tank weapons, and a desperate shortage of ammunition of all types. With this meager arsenal they would take on a professional army employing Tiger and Panther tanks, rail guns, dive bombers, and siege mortars. One of the less well-known weapons deployed by the Germans during the uprising was the Goliath tracked mine. This was effectively a miniature tank, armed with 100 kilograms of high explosives, and capable of being steered towards its target by remote control. The Goliaths could operate as mine clearance devices, or even as anti-tank weapons. However, during the Warsaw Uprising they were deployed in large numbers to target strongpoints defended by Polish fighters. While the Goliaths caused considerable destruction, the Poles discovered some substantial weaknesses to these early robotic weapons. Each machine had to be connected by a cable to its operator, and the Poles learned it was possible, albeit dangerous, to dash out, cut the cable, and disable the weapon. Hitler often spoke of wonder weapons that would turn the tide of the war, but this one was judged a failure and was rarely used after Warsaw. 6. Hitler Ordered the Entire City to be Destroyed In the west the British and Americans were closing in on Paris, German towns and cities lay in ruins, and Hitler himself had almost been killed in an assassination attempt and was in constant pain. The last thing he wanted was a rebellion which would disrupt his lines of supply in the east and perhaps even spread to other cities. Himmler, the brutal chief of the SS, saw things differently. He persuaded Hitler that the uprising was a blessing in disguise; it was a chance to completely destroy the city of Warsaw. With the city wiped from the face of the map it would never trouble future generations of Germans. Hitler had spoken of destroying cities before, but this was the first time he’d attempted it. Artillery and dive bombers pounded the city, killing thousands of civilians and reducing buildings to rubble. Once a region had been cleared of Polish fighters, and anything of value had been looted, demolition teams moved in to flatten anything that remained. More than 80% of Warsaw’s buildings were destroyed, and 30% of these were demolished after the uprising had already been defeated. For the Nazi war effort this was counterproductive. The German Army could have used Warsaw as a strongpoint against the advancing Soviets, instead, and at great effort, the city was all but destroyed before the Red Army arrived. 5. The Germans sent their most Brutal Commanders The crimes committed by the Nazis in their efforts to destroy Warsaw were amongst the worst of the war. In order to ensure that no mercy would be shown, Himmler turned to some of the most sadistic and ruthless commanders in the entire SS. One of the most notorious was a personal friend of Himmler’s named Oskar Dirlewanger. A convicted rapist described in a police report as a violent, mentally unstable alcoholic, his methods were so brutal even some senior Nazis complained about him. The Dirlewanger Brigade he commanded contained large numbers of violent criminals, who had been released from prison on the condition they fight for Germany. Dirlewanger’s men were thugs in uniform rather than a disciplined fighting force, and they were unleashed to rape, murder, and loot their way through the civilian population of Warsaw. Dirlewanger had 40,000 people rounded up and shot in the Wola massacre, burned down hospitals with the patients still inside, and his men even impaled babies on bayonets. For his crimes in Warsaw the Nazis awarded him the Iron Cross, Germany’s highest award for valour. A few months later he went into hiding only to be captured by the victorious Allied powers. His death certificate claims he died of natural causes; other rumours suggest he was beaten to death by his guards. 4. Thousands Survived in the Rubble Towards the end of September, the leaders of the uprising reluctantly concluded they had no choice but to sue for peace. Their soldiers were exhausted, their ammunition spent, most of the city was back in German hands, and the civilian inhabitants of Warsaw were starving to death. That the Germans were willing to negotiate at all indicates a change in thinking amongst some of the leading Nazis. Himmler had planned to murder the survivors, but it had begun to dawn on him that the Allies might just win the war. Bizarrely he thought the Nazi party might survive, with him at its head as Germany’s new leader. He did at least have enough awareness to realize that slaughtering the inhabitants of an entire city would count against him in these ambitions. The Poles were able to extract a promise that the civilians would not be harmed and that Polish fighters would be accorded the rights of prisoners of war. Representatives of the Polish Home Army were even permitted to view the proposed labor camps. On October 2, 1944 the Poles officially surrendered, and 150,000 civilians began to be loaded onto trains bound for labor camps deeper in the Reich. Thousands more, especially the city’s few surviving Jews, didn’t trust the Nazis to keep their promises and chose to remain hidden in the ruins of the city until the Red Army finally arrived in January 1945. 3. Operation Tempest While the French Resistance is probably the most famous of the World War Two resistance movements, the Polish Home Army was Europe’s largest and best-equipped underground force. It was led by the Polish Government in exile, which was based in London and had never surrendered to Nazi Germany. With around 300,000 men and women in its ranks, the Polish Home Army fought an ongoing guerrilla war against the occupying German forces. The Polish Home Army’s attempt to liberate Warsaw was its most ambitious move, but it was just part of a wider series of rebellions planned under the auspices of Operation Tempest. Initially the plan was to coordinate the revolts with Stalin’s Red Army. However, in August 1943 the Polish Government in exile had cut diplomatic ties with Stalin’s government when it emerged that the Soviet Union had massacred 20,000 Poles in 1940. Unfortunately, Operation Tempest had limited success. This was largely due to Stalin’s hostility. As the Red Army advanced it disarmed and even imprisoned Polish soldiers. 2. Himmler Tried to Recruit the Survivors The Poles put up a heroic fight in Warsaw. The Nazis defeated them through superior numbers, weapons, and extreme brutality, but they lost 20,000 men in the process. Even after the death and destruction Himmler had brought upon the city, he believed he might be able to convince the Polish Home Army to join the Nazis in the fight against the Soviets. General Bor, the leader of the uprising, was imprisoned in Colditz castle where Nazi officials attempted to gain his backing for an anti-Soviet alliance. Bor refused. Nazi attempts to recruit survivors from Warsaw were similarly unsuccessful. Almost every nation overrun by the Nazis produced its share of quislings, collaborators, and sympathizers. Even Himmler’s supposedly racially pure SS fielded units from the Soviet Union, France, Belgium, and even India. Partly due to the brutality with which the Poles were treated, there was very little collaboration with the Nazis in Poland. 1. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising The Warsaw Uprising of 1944 was the largest revolt against the Nazis in any occupied city. However, it wasn’t the first time the people of Warsaw had fought back against the Germans. In 1939 Warsaw had the second largest population of Jews of any European city, which was one of the reasons it was hated so much by Hitler and Himmler. Following Poland’s defeat some 460,000 Jews were segregated and sealed off from the rest of the population into the notorious Warsaw Ghetto. Tens of thousands of people died of starvation and disease, but even worse was to follow. In July of 1942 the Nazis began to dissolve the ghetto, transporting the inhabitants to be murdered at the death camp of Treblinka. By April 1943 only around 50,000 Jews remained, but rather than go quietly to their fate they rose up to fight back against the Germans. It was an even more desperate struggle than that of 1944; the rebels lacked training, weapons, ammunition, and had no hope of victory. None the less they fought bravely, and a few managed to escape from the ghetto. Some of these, such as Simcha Rotem, would fight against the Germans again in the 1944 uprising.	2,838	ENGLISH	1
Siege of Delhi \|Siege of Delhi\| \|Part of the Indian rebellion of 1857\| Battle damage to the Cashmeri Gate in Delhi, 1857. \|Commanders and leaders\| Bahadur Shah II \| Mirza Khizr Sultan 2,200 Kashmiri irregulars 42 field guns 60 siege guns approx. 30,000 irregulars, approx. 100 guns \|Casualties and losses\| \|approx. 5,000 killed and wounded\| The Siege of Delhi was one of the decisive conflicts of the Indian rebellion of 1857. The rebellion against the authority of the East India Company was widespread through much of Northern India, but essentially it was sparked by the mass uprising by the sepoys of the units of the Army which the company had itself raised in its Bengal Presidency (which actually covered a vast area from Assam to Peshawar). Seeking a symbol around which to rally, the first sepoys to rebel sought to reinstate the power of the Mughal Empire, which had ruled much of India during the previous centuries. Lacking overall direction, many who subsequently rebelled also flocked to Delhi. This made the siege decisive for two reasons. Firstly, large numbers of rebels were committed to the defence of a single fixed point, perhaps to the detriment of their prospects elsewhere, and their defeat at Delhi was thus a very major military setback. Secondly, the British recapture of Delhi and the refusal of the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II to continue the struggle, deprived the rebellion of much of its national character. Although the rebels still held large areas, there was little co-ordination between them and the British were inevitably able to overcome them separately. Outbreak of the rebellion After several years of increasing tension among the sepoys (Indian soldiers) of the British East India Company's Bengal Army, the sepoys at Meerut, 43 miles (69 km) northeast of Delhi, openly rebelled against their British officers. The flashpoint was the introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle. The cartridges for this were widely believed to be greased with a mixture of cow and pig fat, and to bite them open when loading the rifle (as required by the drill books) would defile both Hindu and Muslim soldiers. Eighty-five men of the 3rd Bengal Cavalry stationed at Meerut refused to accept their cartridges. They were hastily court martialled, and on 9 May 1857 they were sentenced to long periods of imprisonment and were paraded in irons before the British and Bengal regiments in the garrison. On the evening of the following day, soldiers of the Bengal regiments (3rd Light Cavalry, 11th and 20th Infantry) rebelled, releasing the imprisoned troopers and killing their British officers and many British civilians in their cantonment. The senior Company officers at Meerut were taken by surprise. Although they had ample warning of disaffection among the Bengal Army after earlier outbreaks of unrest at Berhampur, Barrackpur and Ambala, they had assumed that at Meerut, where the proportion of European to Indian troops was higher than anywhere else in India, the Bengal units would not risk open revolt. They were fortunate that they did not suffer disaster. The Bengal regiments broke into rebellion on Sunday, when European troops customarily attended evening Church parade without arms. Due to the increasingly hot summer weather, the Church services on 10 May took place half an hour later than on previous weeks, and when the outbreak occurred, the British troops had not yet left their barracks and could quickly be mustered and armed.:82–90 Other than defending their own barracks and armouries, the Company's commanders at Meerut took little action, not even notifying nearby garrisons or stations. (The telegraph had been cut, but dispatch riders could easily have reached Delhi before the sepoys, had they been sent immediately.) When they had rallied the British troops in the cantonment and prepared to disperse the sepoys on 11 May, they found that Meerut was quiet and the sepoys had marched off to Delhi. Capture of Delhi by the rebels Delhi was the capital of the Mughal Empire, which had been reduced to insignificance over the preceding century. The Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, who was eighty-two, had been informed by the East India Company that the title would die with him. At the time, Delhi was not a major centre of Company administration although Company officials controlled the city's finances and courts. They and their families lived in the "Civil Lines" to the north of the city. There were no units of the British Army or "European" units of the East India Company forces at Delhi. Three Bengal Native Infantry regiments (the 38th, 54th and 74th) were stationed in barracks 2 miles (3.2 km) north-west of the city. They provided guards, working parties and other details to a "Main Guard" building just inside the walls near the Kashmiri Gate on the northern circuit of walls, the arsenal in the city and other buildings. By coincidence, when the regiments paraded early in the morning of 11 May, their officers read out to them the General Order announcing the execution of sepoy Mangal Pandey, who had attempted to start a rebellion near Barrackpur earlier in the year, and the disbandment of his regiment (the 34th Bengal Native Infantry). This produced much muttering in the ranks.:96 Later in the morning, the rebels from Meerut arrived quite unexpectedly, crossing the bridge of boats over the Jumna River. The leading sowars (troopers) of the 3rd Light Cavalry halted under the windows of the Palace and called on the Emperor to lead them. Bahadur Shah called for them to go to another palace outside the city, where their case would be heard later. Company officials then tried to close all the city gates but were too late to prevent the sowars gaining entry through the Rajghat Gate to the south. Once inside, the sowars were quickly joined by mobs which began attacking Company officials and looting bazaars.:155–156 Some Company officers and civilians tried to take refuge in the Main Guard, but the sepoys there joined the revolt, and they were slaughtered. Other officers arrived from the barracks, accompanied by two field guns and several companies of sepoys who had not yet joined the rebellion, and recaptured the Main Guard, sending the bodies of the dead officers to the cantonments in a cart.:97–8 In the city meanwhile nine British officers from the Ordnance Corps, led by George Willoughby were conducting the Defence of the Magazine (containing artillery, stocks of firearms and ammunition). They found that their troops and labourers were deserting, using ladders provided from the palace to climb over the walls. The officers opened fire on their own troops and the mobs, to prevent the arsenal falling intact into the rebels' hands. After five hours, they had run out of ammunition and blew up their magazine, killing many rioters and onlookers, and badly damaging nearby buildings. Only three of them escaped and received the Victoria Cross. Shortly after this, the troops at the Main Guard were ordered to withdraw. The sepoys there who had hitherto remained aloof from the revolt turned on their officers, a few of whom escaped after the sepoys left to join the looting.:100–101 About half the European civilians in Delhi and in the cantonments and Civil Lines were able to escape and fled as best they could, first to the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge to the north-west of Delhi where telegraph operators were trying to warn other British stations of the uprising. After it became clear that no help could arrive from Meerut or elsewhere, and the cart carrying the bodies of the officers killed at the Main Guard in the morning arrived at the tower by mistake,:178 most of the Europeans fled to Karnal, several miles west. Some were helped by villagers on the way, others fell prey to plunderers. On 12 May, Bahadur Shah held his first formal audience for several years. It was attended by several excited sepoys who treated him familiarly or even disrespectfully.:212 Although Bahadur Shah was dismayed by the looting and disorder, he gave his public support to the rebellion. On 16 May, sepoys and palace servants killed 52 British who had been held prisoner within the palace or who had been discovered hiding in the city. The killings took place under a peepul tree in front of the palace, despite Bahadur Shah's protests. The avowed aim of the killers was to implicate Bahadur Shah in the killings, making it impossible for him to seek any compromise with the Company.:223–5 The administration of the city and its new occupying army was chaotic, although it continued to function haphazardly. The Emperor nominated his eldest surviving son, Mirza Mughal, to be commander in chief of his forces, but Mirza Mughal had little military experience and was treated with little respect by the sepoys. Nor did the sepoys agree on any overall commander, with each regiment refusing to accept orders from any but their own officers. Although Mirza Mughal made efforts to put the civil administration in order, his writ extended no further than the city. Outside, Gujjar herders began levying their own tolls on traffic, and it became increasingly difficult to feed the city.:145 News of the rebellion at Meerut and the capture of Delhi spread rapidly throughout India. Rumours and envoys from the rebels spread the tidings fast, and precipitated widespread rebellions and uprisings, but the Company learned of the events at Delhi even more quickly, thanks to the telegraph. Where the commanders of stations were energetic and distrustful of their sepoys, they were able to forestall some of the most dangerous revolts. Although there were several Company units available in the cool "hill stations" in the foothills of the Himalayas, it took time before any action could be taken to recapture Delhi. This was partly due to lack of transport and supplies. After the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War, the Bengal Army's transport units had been disbanded as an economy measure, and transport had to be improvised from scratch. Also, many of the senior British officers were widely regarded as dotards, far too senile to act decisively or sensibly. Nevertheless, a Company force was able to move from Ambala to Karnal starting on 17 May. On 7 June, they were joined at Alipur by a force from Meerut, which had fought several skirmishes en route.:475 The Meerut force was led by Brigadier Archdale Wilson, who had conspicuously failed to prevent the rebel sepoys' move to Delhi on 11 May. The British commander-in-chief, General George Anson died of cholera at Karnal on 27 May. Under his successor, Major General Henry Barnard, the combined force advanced on Delhi. On 8 June, they found the mutineers had entrenched themselves outside the city. They drove the large but disorganised rebel force from the field at the Battle of Badli-ki-Serai 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Delhi, and captured Delhi ridge 2 miles (3.2 km) north of the city:475 and the Bengal infantry units' barracks to the west of it. As a gesture of defiance and contempt, they set fire to the barracks. This was a senseless act, as it condemned the besiegers (and all their sick and wounded and noncombatants) to live in tents through the hot weather and monsoon rain seasons. The ridge was of hard rock, about 60 feet (18 m) high, and ran from a point only 1,200 yards (1,100 m) east of the Kabul Gate on the city walls to the Yamuna River 3 miles (4.8 km) north of the city. Fortunately for the besiegers, a canal ran from the Yamuna west of their encampments, protecting the rear of their camp and also providing drinking water. The besiegers occupied various fortified posts along the top of the Ridge. The nearest to the city and the most exposed was known as "Hindu Rao's house", defended by the Gurkhas of the Sirmur Battalion. South of it was a maze of villages and walled gardens, called the Subzi Mundi, in which the rebel forces could gather before launching attacks on the British right. The siege: June through July It was quickly apparent that Delhi was too well-fortified and strongly held to fall to a coup de main. Barnard ordered a dawn assault on 13 June, but the orders were confused and failed to reach most of his subordinates in time. The attack had to be called off, amidst much recrimination. After this, it was accepted that the odds were too great for any assault to be successful until the besiegers were reinforced. Large contingents of rebellious sepoys and volunteers continued to arrive in Delhi. The majority of no less than ten regiments of cavalry and fifteen of infantry of the Bengal army rebelled and made their way to Delhi during June and July, along with large numbers of irregulars, mainly Muslim mujahaddin. As each new contingent arrived, the rebels made attacks on Hindu Rao's house and other outposts on several successive days. A major attack was mounted from three directions on 19 June, and nearly forced the exhausted besiegers to retreat, but the rebels did not know how close they came to success.:174 Another major attack was made on 23 June, the centenary of the Battle of Plassey. (It was believed that British presence in India would end one hundred years after this famous battle). Although all these attacks were beaten off, the besiegers were ground down through exhaustion and disease. Conditions on the ridge and in the encampment were extremely unhealthy and unpleasant.:477 General Barnard died of cholera on 5 July. His successor (Reed) was also stricken with cholera and forced to hand over command to Archdale Wilson, who was promoted to Major General. Although Wilson made efforts to clear the unburied corpses and other refuse from the ridge and encampment and reorganise the outposts and reliefs, he himself was scarcely capable of exercising command, and in every letter he wrote, he complained of his exhaustion and prostration. Brigadier Neville Chamberlain, a much younger officer who might have provided better leadership, was severely wounded repelling a sortie on 14 July. Meanwhile, in Delhi, there had been some loss of morale due to the failures of Mirza Moghul and Bahadur Shah's equally unmilitary grandson, Mirza Abu Bakr. A large party of reinforcements arrived from Bareilly under Bakht Khan, a veteran artillery officer of the Company's army. Pleased with the loot they brought with them, Bahadur Shah made Bakht Khan the new commander in chief. Bakht Khan was able to replenish the city's finances and inspire the rebel soldiers to renewed efforts. Bahadur Shah however, was growing discouraged, and turned away offers of assistance from other rebel leaders.:227 The siege: August to September In one vital area of India, the Punjab (which had been annexed by the East India Company only eight years before), the Bengal Native units were quickly disarmed to prevent them rebelling, or were defeated when they did rebel. Most of the available Company units were stationed there, along with units of the Punjab Irregular Force which were formed from Sikhs and Pakhtuns who had little in common with the high caste Hindus of the Bengal Native Infantry units. As the situation in the Punjab stabilised, units could be dispatched to reinforce the besiegers at Delhi. The first to arrive, the Corps of Guides, made an epic forced march of several hundred miles through the hottest season of the year, which also coincided with the month of Ramadan during which their Muslim soldiers could neither eat nor drink during the day, and yet they went into action almost immediately when they arrived at the Ridge. The major force dispatched from the Punjab to Delhi were a "Flying Column" of 4,200 men under Brigadier John Nicholson and a siege train. The Flying Column arrived on 14 August. The rebels had heard of the imminent arrival of the siege train, and sent a force out of the city to intercept it. On 25 August, Nicholson led a force against their position at the Battle of Najafgarh. Although the monsoon had broken, and the roads and fields were flooded, Nicholson drove his force to make a rapid march and gained an easy victory, raising European morale and lowering that of the rebels. The siege train arrived at the beginning of September, comprising six 24-pounders, eight 18-pounder long guns, six 8 inch howitzers and foour 10 inch mortars, with almost 600 ammunition carts. On 8 September a further 4 guns arrived.:477 With the guns already present, the besiegers had a total of fifteen 24-pounder guns, twenty 18-pounder guns and twenty-five mortars and howitzers. The capture of Delhi Wilson's chief Engineer Officer, Richard Baird Smith, had drawn up a plan to breach the city walls and make an assault. Wilson was unwilling to risk any attack, but was urged by Nicholson to agree to Baird Smith's plan. There were moves among the British officers, in which Nicholson was prominent, to replace Wilson as commander if he failed to agree to make the attack. As a preliminary step, on 6 September the Company forces constructed "Reid's Battery", or the "Sammy House Battery", of two 24-pounder and four 9-pounder guns, near the southern end of the ridge, to silence the guns on the Mori Bastion. Under cover of Reid's Battery, on 7 September the first siege battery proper was established, 700 yards (640 m) from the Mori Bastion. Opening fire on 8 September, four of its guns engaged the artillery on the Kashmir Bastion, while six guns and a heavy mortar silenced the rebels' guns on the Mori Bastion after a long duel. The direction of this attack also deceived the rebels that the storming attempt would be made from the east, rather than the north. A second battery, consisting of nine 24-pounder guns, two 18-pounder guns and seven 8-inch howitzers, was set up near a flamboyantly-designed house known as "Ludlow Castle" in the Civil Lines, and opened fire against the Kashmir Bastion on 10 September.:478 A third battery of six 18-pounder guns and 12 Coehorn mortars was set up near the old Custom House less than 200 yards (180 m) from the city walls, and opened fire against the Water Bastion near the Yamuna next day. A fourth battery of ten heavy mortars was set up in cover near the Khudsia Bagh, opening fire on 11 September. Because the element of surprise had been lost and these batteries were being enfiladed from across the river,:478 the Indian sappers and pioneers who carried out much of the work of constructing the second and third batteries and moving the guns into position suffered over 300 casualties, but the batteries quickly made breaches in the bastions and walls. 50 guns continued to fire day and night and the walls began to crumble away.:478 The opening of this phase of the siege seems to have coincided with the exhaustion of the ammunition the rebels had captured from the magazine, as the rebel fire became suddenly much less effective. By this time also, the rebels had become depressed through lack of supplies and money, and by defeatist rumours which were spread by agents and spies organised by William Hodson. Preparation for the assault The attack was scheduled for 3 a.m. on 14 September. The storming columns moved into position during the night of 13 September. The future Field Marshal Lord Roberts, then a junior staff officer, recorded their composition: - 1st Column – Brigadier General Nicholson - 3rd Column – Colonel Campbell - 4th Column – Major Reid - 5th Column – Brigadier Longfield Detachments (totalling 200) of the 60th Rifles preceded all the columns, as skirmishers. Engineers and sappers were attached to lead each column.:479 There was also a cavalry brigade in reserve, under James Hope Grant, which probably consisted of: The first three columns, under Nicholson's overall command, gathered in and behind a building known as the Khudsia Bagh, a former summer residence of the Mughal Kings, about a quarter of a mile from the north walls. The fourth column was intended to attack only when the Kabul Gate on the west of the city walls was opened from behind by the other columns. The fifth column and the cavalry were in reserve. The attack was supposed to be launched at dawn, but the defenders had repaired some of the breaches overnight with sandbags, and further bombardment was required. Eventually, Nicholson gave the signal and the attackers charged. The first column stormed through the breach in the Kashmir Bastion and the second through that in the Water Bastion, by the Jumna River, but this was not without difficulty as most of the scaling ladders were broken before they could be emplaced.:481 The third column attacked the Kashmiri Gate on the north wall. Two sapper officers, Lieutenants Home and Salkeld (both of whom subsequently won the Victoria Cross), led a suicidal mission, a small party of British and Indian sappers which placed four gunpowder charges and sandbags against the gate, under fire from just 10 feet (3.0 m) away. Several of them were wounded and killed trying to light the fuse. The explosion demolished part of the gate, a bugler with the party signalled success and the third column charged in.:480 Meanwhile, the fourth column encountered a rebel force in the suburb of Kishangunj outside the Kabul Gate before the other columns attacked, and was thrown into disorder. Major Reid, its commander, was seriously injured and the column retired. The rebels followed up, capturing four guns from the Kashmiri troops, and threatened to attack the British camp, which had been emptied of its guards to form the assault force. The artillery batteries at Hindu Rao's House (directed by Chamberlain from a doolie) stopped them until Hope Grant's cavalry and horse artillery could move up to replace Reid's column. The cavalry remained in position under fire from guns on the Kabul Gate and suffered heavy casualties, until relieved by infantry. In spite of this reverse, Nicholson was keen to press on into the city. He led a detachment down a narrow lane to try to capture the Burn Bastion, on the walls north of the Kabul Gate. Rebel soldiers held most of the flat rooftops and walled compounds, and guns mounted on the bastion fired grapeshot down the lanes between the houses. After two rushes were stopped with heavy casualties, Nicholson led a third charge and was mortally wounded. Temporarily repulsed, the British now withdrew to the Church of Saint James, just inside the walls of the Kashmir Bastion. They had suffered 1,170 casualties in the attack. Archdale Wilson moved to the Church, and faced with the setback, he wished to order a withdrawal. When he heard of Wilson's indecision, the dying Nicholson threatened to shoot him. Eventually, Baird Smith, Chamberlain and other officers persuaded Wilson to hold on to the British gains. The capture of the city The British and Company forces were disordered. Many British officers had been killed or wounded, and their units were now in confusion. The British foothold included many of the liquor stores and over the next two days, many British soldiers became drunk and incapacitated on looted spirits. However, the rebel sepoy regiments had become discouraged by their defeats and lack of food, while the irregular mujahhadin defended their fortified compounds with great determination but could not be organised to make a coordinated counter-attack. Wilson eventually ordered all liquor to be destroyed, and discipline was restored. Slowly, the attackers began to clear the rebels from the city. They captured the magazine on 16 September. Another Victoria Cross was earned here, by Lieutenant Thackerey for extinguishing a fire in the magazine, whilst under musket fire. Bahadur Shah and his entourage abandoned the palace on 18 September, and a British force captured the great mosque, the Jama Masjid, and the abandoned palace the next day. They also captured the Selimgarh Fort, attached to the palace and dominating the bridge of boats over the River Yamuna. Most rebels who had not already left the city now did so before the Company forces captured all the gates and trapped them. The city was finally declared to be captured on 21 September. John Nicholson died the next day. The cost to the British, Company, and loyal Indian armies in besieging Delhi from the start of the siege to the capture of the city was 1,254 killed, and 4,493 wounded, of which 992 were killed, 2,795 were wounded and 30 missing in action during the last six days of brutal fighting in the city during the final assault. Of that total of 3,817 casualties during the capture of the city, 1,677 were loyalist Indian soldiers. It is almost impossible to say how many rebels and their supporters were killed during the siege, but the number was far greater. Unofficial sources place the rebel casualties at over 5,000. It is also impossible to estimate how many civilians died during the fighting in Delhi which included those killed by the rebels, those killed by the British, or those killed randomly and accidentally in the cross-fire. After the siege, many civilians were subsequently expelled from the city to makeshift camps in the nearby countryside, as there was no way of feeding them until order was restored to the entire area. The British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers were all fairly callous with regard to life. For four days, after the fall of the city, there was extensive looting, although many British soldiers were more interested in drink than material possessions. Prize agents later moved into the city behind the troops, and organised the search for concealed treasure on a more systematic basis. But the British, eager to avenge the killing of several of their countryfolk in Delhi, Cawnpore, and elsewhere in India, were in no mood to take prisoners. Several hundred rebel prisoners as well as suspected rebels and sympathisers were subsequently hanged without a trial or much legal process. In many cases, the officers of the "Queen's" Army were inclined to be lenient, but East India Company officials such as Theophilus Metcalfe were vengeful. Bahadur Shah and three of his sons had taken refuge at Humayun's Tomb, 6 miles (9.7 km) south of Delhi. Although he was urged to accompany Bakht Khan and rally more troops, the aged King was persuaded that the British were seeking vengeance only against the sepoys they regarded as mutineers, and he would be spared. On 20 September, a party under William Hodson took him into custody on promise of clemency, and brought him back to the city. The next day, Hodson also took prisoner three of Bahadur Shah's sons, but with no guarantee of any sort. On the pretext that a mob was about to release them, Hodson executed the three princes at Khooni Darwaza (Bloody gate).:400 Their heads were later presented to Bahadur Shah. By recapturing the Indian capital city, the British and Company forces dealt the Indian Army mutineers a major military and psychological blow, while releasing troops to assist in the relief of Lucknow, thus contributing to another British victory. A total of 29 Victoria Crosses were awarded to recipients for bravery in the Siege of Delhi. A Delhi clasp was authorised for the Indian Mutiny Medal. - Analysis of the 1857 War of Independence – Defence Journal - Hibbert, Christopher (1980). The Great Mutiny – India 1857. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-004752-2. - Dalrymple, William (2006). The Last Mughal. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-670-99925-3. - John Buckley (soldier), George Forrest (VC), William Raynor - Defence Journal - Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers. - Major A. H. Amin, orbat.com Archived 19 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine. - Amin, A.H. "Pakistan Army Defence Journal". Retrieved 30 July 2009. - The Bengal Fusiliers were "European" infantry, mainly Irish, raised by the Honourable East India Company. They were later absorbed into the British Army - Commanding officer of the 52nd Foot, not to be confused with Sir Colin Campbell, soon to be appointed Commander-in-chief in India - Allen, Charles (2000). Soldier Sahibs. Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11456-0. - Dalrymple, William (2006). The Last Mughal. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-670-99925-3. - Edwardes, Michael (1963). Battles of the Indian Mutiny. Pan. ISBN 0-330-02524-4. - Hibbert, Christopher (1980). The Great Mutiny – India 1857. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-004752-2. - Perkins, Roger (1983). The Kashmir Gate: Lieutenant Home & the Delhi VCs. Picton Publishing Chippenham. ISBN 0902633872. - Perrett, Bryan (1993). "3: The Walls of Delhi, 1857". At All Costs! Stories of Impossible Victories. Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 1-85409-157-3.	<urn:uuid:6fec25aa-0be2-4bcc-9ade-2cedd37e2ea1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://other-wiki.zervice.io/wikipedia_en_all_novid_2018-10/A/Siege_of_Delhi.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00024.warc.gz	en	0.981468	6,219	3.46875	3	[ -0.3912193179130554, 0.3553417921066284, 0.17369583249092102, 0.08795242011547089, -0.523975670337677, 0.04528729245066643, 0.15336664021015167, 0.03519773483276367, -0.020281966775655746, -0.1924366056919098, -0.24525603652000427, -0.47677841782569885, -0.02479037269949913, -0.00300156604...	1	Siege of Delhi \|Siege of Delhi\| \|Part of the Indian rebellion of 1857\| Battle damage to the Cashmeri Gate in Delhi, 1857. \|Commanders and leaders\| Bahadur Shah II \| Mirza Khizr Sultan 2,200 Kashmiri irregulars 42 field guns 60 siege guns approx. 30,000 irregulars, approx. 100 guns \|Casualties and losses\| \|approx. 5,000 killed and wounded\| The Siege of Delhi was one of the decisive conflicts of the Indian rebellion of 1857. The rebellion against the authority of the East India Company was widespread through much of Northern India, but essentially it was sparked by the mass uprising by the sepoys of the units of the Army which the company had itself raised in its Bengal Presidency (which actually covered a vast area from Assam to Peshawar). Seeking a symbol around which to rally, the first sepoys to rebel sought to reinstate the power of the Mughal Empire, which had ruled much of India during the previous centuries. Lacking overall direction, many who subsequently rebelled also flocked to Delhi. This made the siege decisive for two reasons. Firstly, large numbers of rebels were committed to the defence of a single fixed point, perhaps to the detriment of their prospects elsewhere, and their defeat at Delhi was thus a very major military setback. Secondly, the British recapture of Delhi and the refusal of the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II to continue the struggle, deprived the rebellion of much of its national character. Although the rebels still held large areas, there was little co-ordination between them and the British were inevitably able to overcome them separately. Outbreak of the rebellion After several years of increasing tension among the sepoys (Indian soldiers) of the British East India Company's Bengal Army, the sepoys at Meerut, 43 miles (69 km) northeast of Delhi, openly rebelled against their British officers. The flashpoint was the introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle. The cartridges for this were widely believed to be greased with a mixture of cow and pig fat, and to bite them open when loading the rifle (as required by the drill books) would defile both Hindu and Muslim soldiers. Eighty-five men of the 3rd Bengal Cavalry stationed at Meerut refused to accept their cartridges. They were hastily court martialled, and on 9 May 1857 they were sentenced to long periods of imprisonment and were paraded in irons before the British and Bengal regiments in the garrison. On the evening of the following day, soldiers of the Bengal regiments (3rd Light Cavalry, 11th and 20th Infantry) rebelled, releasing the imprisoned troopers and killing their British officers and many British civilians in their cantonment. The senior Company officers at Meerut were taken by surprise. Although they had ample warning of disaffection among the Bengal Army after earlier outbreaks of unrest at Berhampur, Barrackpur and Ambala, they had assumed that at Meerut, where the proportion of European to Indian troops was higher than anywhere else in India, the Bengal units would not risk open revolt. They were fortunate that they did not suffer disaster. The Bengal regiments broke into rebellion on Sunday, when European troops customarily attended evening Church parade without arms. Due to the increasingly hot summer weather, the Church services on 10 May took place half an hour later than on previous weeks, and when the outbreak occurred, the British troops had not yet left their barracks and could quickly be mustered and armed.:82–90 Other than defending their own barracks and armouries, the Company's commanders at Meerut took little action, not even notifying nearby garrisons or stations. (The telegraph had been cut, but dispatch riders could easily have reached Delhi before the sepoys, had they been sent immediately.) When they had rallied the British troops in the cantonment and prepared to disperse the sepoys on 11 May, they found that Meerut was quiet and the sepoys had marched off to Delhi. Capture of Delhi by the rebels Delhi was the capital of the Mughal Empire, which had been reduced to insignificance over the preceding century. The Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, who was eighty-two, had been informed by the East India Company that the title would die with him. At the time, Delhi was not a major centre of Company administration although Company officials controlled the city's finances and courts. They and their families lived in the "Civil Lines" to the north of the city. There were no units of the British Army or "European" units of the East India Company forces at Delhi. Three Bengal Native Infantry regiments (the 38th, 54th and 74th) were stationed in barracks 2 miles (3.2 km) north-west of the city. They provided guards, working parties and other details to a "Main Guard" building just inside the walls near the Kashmiri Gate on the northern circuit of walls, the arsenal in the city and other buildings. By coincidence, when the regiments paraded early in the morning of 11 May, their officers read out to them the General Order announcing the execution of sepoy Mangal Pandey, who had attempted to start a rebellion near Barrackpur earlier in the year, and the disbandment of his regiment (the 34th Bengal Native Infantry). This produced much muttering in the ranks.:96 Later in the morning, the rebels from Meerut arrived quite unexpectedly, crossing the bridge of boats over the Jumna River. The leading sowars (troopers) of the 3rd Light Cavalry halted under the windows of the Palace and called on the Emperor to lead them. Bahadur Shah called for them to go to another palace outside the city, where their case would be heard later. Company officials then tried to close all the city gates but were too late to prevent the sowars gaining entry through the Rajghat Gate to the south. Once inside, the sowars were quickly joined by mobs which began attacking Company officials and looting bazaars.:155–156 Some Company officers and civilians tried to take refuge in the Main Guard, but the sepoys there joined the revolt, and they were slaughtered. Other officers arrived from the barracks, accompanied by two field guns and several companies of sepoys who had not yet joined the rebellion, and recaptured the Main Guard, sending the bodies of the dead officers to the cantonments in a cart.:97–8 In the city meanwhile nine British officers from the Ordnance Corps, led by George Willoughby were conducting the Defence of the Magazine (containing artillery, stocks of firearms and ammunition). They found that their troops and labourers were deserting, using ladders provided from the palace to climb over the walls. The officers opened fire on their own troops and the mobs, to prevent the arsenal falling intact into the rebels' hands. After five hours, they had run out of ammunition and blew up their magazine, killing many rioters and onlookers, and badly damaging nearby buildings. Only three of them escaped and received the Victoria Cross. Shortly after this, the troops at the Main Guard were ordered to withdraw. The sepoys there who had hitherto remained aloof from the revolt turned on their officers, a few of whom escaped after the sepoys left to join the looting.:100–101 About half the European civilians in Delhi and in the cantonments and Civil Lines were able to escape and fled as best they could, first to the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge to the north-west of Delhi where telegraph operators were trying to warn other British stations of the uprising. After it became clear that no help could arrive from Meerut or elsewhere, and the cart carrying the bodies of the officers killed at the Main Guard in the morning arrived at the tower by mistake,:178 most of the Europeans fled to Karnal, several miles west. Some were helped by villagers on the way, others fell prey to plunderers. On 12 May, Bahadur Shah held his first formal audience for several years. It was attended by several excited sepoys who treated him familiarly or even disrespectfully.:212 Although Bahadur Shah was dismayed by the looting and disorder, he gave his public support to the rebellion. On 16 May, sepoys and palace servants killed 52 British who had been held prisoner within the palace or who had been discovered hiding in the city. The killings took place under a peepul tree in front of the palace, despite Bahadur Shah's protests. The avowed aim of the killers was to implicate Bahadur Shah in the killings, making it impossible for him to seek any compromise with the Company.:223–5 The administration of the city and its new occupying army was chaotic, although it continued to function haphazardly. The Emperor nominated his eldest surviving son, Mirza Mughal, to be commander in chief of his forces, but Mirza Mughal had little military experience and was treated with little respect by the sepoys. Nor did the sepoys agree on any overall commander, with each regiment refusing to accept orders from any but their own officers. Although Mirza Mughal made efforts to put the civil administration in order, his writ extended no further than the city. Outside, Gujjar herders began levying their own tolls on traffic, and it became increasingly difficult to feed the city.:145 News of the rebellion at Meerut and the capture of Delhi spread rapidly throughout India. Rumours and envoys from the rebels spread the tidings fast, and precipitated widespread rebellions and uprisings, but the Company learned of the events at Delhi even more quickly, thanks to the telegraph. Where the commanders of stations were energetic and distrustful of their sepoys, they were able to forestall some of the most dangerous revolts. Although there were several Company units available in the cool "hill stations" in the foothills of the Himalayas, it took time before any action could be taken to recapture Delhi. This was partly due to lack of transport and supplies. After the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War, the Bengal Army's transport units had been disbanded as an economy measure, and transport had to be improvised from scratch. Also, many of the senior British officers were widely regarded as dotards, far too senile to act decisively or sensibly. Nevertheless, a Company force was able to move from Ambala to Karnal starting on 17 May. On 7 June, they were joined at Alipur by a force from Meerut, which had fought several skirmishes en route.:475 The Meerut force was led by Brigadier Archdale Wilson, who had conspicuously failed to prevent the rebel sepoys' move to Delhi on 11 May. The British commander-in-chief, General George Anson died of cholera at Karnal on 27 May. Under his successor, Major General Henry Barnard, the combined force advanced on Delhi. On 8 June, they found the mutineers had entrenched themselves outside the city. They drove the large but disorganised rebel force from the field at the Battle of Badli-ki-Serai 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Delhi, and captured Delhi ridge 2 miles (3.2 km) north of the city:475 and the Bengal infantry units' barracks to the west of it. As a gesture of defiance and contempt, they set fire to the barracks. This was a senseless act, as it condemned the besiegers (and all their sick and wounded and noncombatants) to live in tents through the hot weather and monsoon rain seasons. The ridge was of hard rock, about 60 feet (18 m) high, and ran from a point only 1,200 yards (1,100 m) east of the Kabul Gate on the city walls to the Yamuna River 3 miles (4.8 km) north of the city. Fortunately for the besiegers, a canal ran from the Yamuna west of their encampments, protecting the rear of their camp and also providing drinking water. The besiegers occupied various fortified posts along the top of the Ridge. The nearest to the city and the most exposed was known as "Hindu Rao's house", defended by the Gurkhas of the Sirmur Battalion. South of it was a maze of villages and walled gardens, called the Subzi Mundi, in which the rebel forces could gather before launching attacks on the British right. The siege: June through July It was quickly apparent that Delhi was too well-fortified and strongly held to fall to a coup de main. Barnard ordered a dawn assault on 13 June, but the orders were confused and failed to reach most of his subordinates in time. The attack had to be called off, amidst much recrimination. After this, it was accepted that the odds were too great for any assault to be successful until the besiegers were reinforced. Large contingents of rebellious sepoys and volunteers continued to arrive in Delhi. The majority of no less than ten regiments of cavalry and fifteen of infantry of the Bengal army rebelled and made their way to Delhi during June and July, along with large numbers of irregulars, mainly Muslim mujahaddin. As each new contingent arrived, the rebels made attacks on Hindu Rao's house and other outposts on several successive days. A major attack was mounted from three directions on 19 June, and nearly forced the exhausted besiegers to retreat, but the rebels did not know how close they came to success.:174 Another major attack was made on 23 June, the centenary of the Battle of Plassey. (It was believed that British presence in India would end one hundred years after this famous battle). Although all these attacks were beaten off, the besiegers were ground down through exhaustion and disease. Conditions on the ridge and in the encampment were extremely unhealthy and unpleasant.:477 General Barnard died of cholera on 5 July. His successor (Reed) was also stricken with cholera and forced to hand over command to Archdale Wilson, who was promoted to Major General. Although Wilson made efforts to clear the unburied corpses and other refuse from the ridge and encampment and reorganise the outposts and reliefs, he himself was scarcely capable of exercising command, and in every letter he wrote, he complained of his exhaustion and prostration. Brigadier Neville Chamberlain, a much younger officer who might have provided better leadership, was severely wounded repelling a sortie on 14 July. Meanwhile, in Delhi, there had been some loss of morale due to the failures of Mirza Moghul and Bahadur Shah's equally unmilitary grandson, Mirza Abu Bakr. A large party of reinforcements arrived from Bareilly under Bakht Khan, a veteran artillery officer of the Company's army. Pleased with the loot they brought with them, Bahadur Shah made Bakht Khan the new commander in chief. Bakht Khan was able to replenish the city's finances and inspire the rebel soldiers to renewed efforts. Bahadur Shah however, was growing discouraged, and turned away offers of assistance from other rebel leaders.:227 The siege: August to September In one vital area of India, the Punjab (which had been annexed by the East India Company only eight years before), the Bengal Native units were quickly disarmed to prevent them rebelling, or were defeated when they did rebel. Most of the available Company units were stationed there, along with units of the Punjab Irregular Force which were formed from Sikhs and Pakhtuns who had little in common with the high caste Hindus of the Bengal Native Infantry units. As the situation in the Punjab stabilised, units could be dispatched to reinforce the besiegers at Delhi. The first to arrive, the Corps of Guides, made an epic forced march of several hundred miles through the hottest season of the year, which also coincided with the month of Ramadan during which their Muslim soldiers could neither eat nor drink during the day, and yet they went into action almost immediately when they arrived at the Ridge. The major force dispatched from the Punjab to Delhi were a "Flying Column" of 4,200 men under Brigadier John Nicholson and a siege train. The Flying Column arrived on 14 August. The rebels had heard of the imminent arrival of the siege train, and sent a force out of the city to intercept it. On 25 August, Nicholson led a force against their position at the Battle of Najafgarh. Although the monsoon had broken, and the roads and fields were flooded, Nicholson drove his force to make a rapid march and gained an easy victory, raising European morale and lowering that of the rebels. The siege train arrived at the beginning of September, comprising six 24-pounders, eight 18-pounder long guns, six 8 inch howitzers and foour 10 inch mortars, with almost 600 ammunition carts. On 8 September a further 4 guns arrived.:477 With the guns already present, the besiegers had a total of fifteen 24-pounder guns, twenty 18-pounder guns and twenty-five mortars and howitzers. The capture of Delhi Wilson's chief Engineer Officer, Richard Baird Smith, had drawn up a plan to breach the city walls and make an assault. Wilson was unwilling to risk any attack, but was urged by Nicholson to agree to Baird Smith's plan. There were moves among the British officers, in which Nicholson was prominent, to replace Wilson as commander if he failed to agree to make the attack. As a preliminary step, on 6 September the Company forces constructed "Reid's Battery", or the "Sammy House Battery", of two 24-pounder and four 9-pounder guns, near the southern end of the ridge, to silence the guns on the Mori Bastion. Under cover of Reid's Battery, on 7 September the first siege battery proper was established, 700 yards (640 m) from the Mori Bastion. Opening fire on 8 September, four of its guns engaged the artillery on the Kashmir Bastion, while six guns and a heavy mortar silenced the rebels' guns on the Mori Bastion after a long duel. The direction of this attack also deceived the rebels that the storming attempt would be made from the east, rather than the north. A second battery, consisting of nine 24-pounder guns, two 18-pounder guns and seven 8-inch howitzers, was set up near a flamboyantly-designed house known as "Ludlow Castle" in the Civil Lines, and opened fire against the Kashmir Bastion on 10 September.:478 A third battery of six 18-pounder guns and 12 Coehorn mortars was set up near the old Custom House less than 200 yards (180 m) from the city walls, and opened fire against the Water Bastion near the Yamuna next day. A fourth battery of ten heavy mortars was set up in cover near the Khudsia Bagh, opening fire on 11 September. Because the element of surprise had been lost and these batteries were being enfiladed from across the river,:478 the Indian sappers and pioneers who carried out much of the work of constructing the second and third batteries and moving the guns into position suffered over 300 casualties, but the batteries quickly made breaches in the bastions and walls. 50 guns continued to fire day and night and the walls began to crumble away.:478 The opening of this phase of the siege seems to have coincided with the exhaustion of the ammunition the rebels had captured from the magazine, as the rebel fire became suddenly much less effective. By this time also, the rebels had become depressed through lack of supplies and money, and by defeatist rumours which were spread by agents and spies organised by William Hodson. Preparation for the assault The attack was scheduled for 3 a.m. on 14 September. The storming columns moved into position during the night of 13 September. The future Field Marshal Lord Roberts, then a junior staff officer, recorded their composition: - 1st Column – Brigadier General Nicholson - 3rd Column – Colonel Campbell - 4th Column – Major Reid - 5th Column – Brigadier Longfield Detachments (totalling 200) of the 60th Rifles preceded all the columns, as skirmishers. Engineers and sappers were attached to lead each column.:479 There was also a cavalry brigade in reserve, under James Hope Grant, which probably consisted of: The first three columns, under Nicholson's overall command, gathered in and behind a building known as the Khudsia Bagh, a former summer residence of the Mughal Kings, about a quarter of a mile from the north walls. The fourth column was intended to attack only when the Kabul Gate on the west of the city walls was opened from behind by the other columns. The fifth column and the cavalry were in reserve. The attack was supposed to be launched at dawn, but the defenders had repaired some of the breaches overnight with sandbags, and further bombardment was required. Eventually, Nicholson gave the signal and the attackers charged. The first column stormed through the breach in the Kashmir Bastion and the second through that in the Water Bastion, by the Jumna River, but this was not without difficulty as most of the scaling ladders were broken before they could be emplaced.:481 The third column attacked the Kashmiri Gate on the north wall. Two sapper officers, Lieutenants Home and Salkeld (both of whom subsequently won the Victoria Cross), led a suicidal mission, a small party of British and Indian sappers which placed four gunpowder charges and sandbags against the gate, under fire from just 10 feet (3.0 m) away. Several of them were wounded and killed trying to light the fuse. The explosion demolished part of the gate, a bugler with the party signalled success and the third column charged in.:480 Meanwhile, the fourth column encountered a rebel force in the suburb of Kishangunj outside the Kabul Gate before the other columns attacked, and was thrown into disorder. Major Reid, its commander, was seriously injured and the column retired. The rebels followed up, capturing four guns from the Kashmiri troops, and threatened to attack the British camp, which had been emptied of its guards to form the assault force. The artillery batteries at Hindu Rao's House (directed by Chamberlain from a doolie) stopped them until Hope Grant's cavalry and horse artillery could move up to replace Reid's column. The cavalry remained in position under fire from guns on the Kabul Gate and suffered heavy casualties, until relieved by infantry. In spite of this reverse, Nicholson was keen to press on into the city. He led a detachment down a narrow lane to try to capture the Burn Bastion, on the walls north of the Kabul Gate. Rebel soldiers held most of the flat rooftops and walled compounds, and guns mounted on the bastion fired grapeshot down the lanes between the houses. After two rushes were stopped with heavy casualties, Nicholson led a third charge and was mortally wounded. Temporarily repulsed, the British now withdrew to the Church of Saint James, just inside the walls of the Kashmir Bastion. They had suffered 1,170 casualties in the attack. Archdale Wilson moved to the Church, and faced with the setback, he wished to order a withdrawal. When he heard of Wilson's indecision, the dying Nicholson threatened to shoot him. Eventually, Baird Smith, Chamberlain and other officers persuaded Wilson to hold on to the British gains. The capture of the city The British and Company forces were disordered. Many British officers had been killed or wounded, and their units were now in confusion. The British foothold included many of the liquor stores and over the next two days, many British soldiers became drunk and incapacitated on looted spirits. However, the rebel sepoy regiments had become discouraged by their defeats and lack of food, while the irregular mujahhadin defended their fortified compounds with great determination but could not be organised to make a coordinated counter-attack. Wilson eventually ordered all liquor to be destroyed, and discipline was restored. Slowly, the attackers began to clear the rebels from the city. They captured the magazine on 16 September. Another Victoria Cross was earned here, by Lieutenant Thackerey for extinguishing a fire in the magazine, whilst under musket fire. Bahadur Shah and his entourage abandoned the palace on 18 September, and a British force captured the great mosque, the Jama Masjid, and the abandoned palace the next day. They also captured the Selimgarh Fort, attached to the palace and dominating the bridge of boats over the River Yamuna. Most rebels who had not already left the city now did so before the Company forces captured all the gates and trapped them. The city was finally declared to be captured on 21 September. John Nicholson died the next day. The cost to the British, Company, and loyal Indian armies in besieging Delhi from the start of the siege to the capture of the city was 1,254 killed, and 4,493 wounded, of which 992 were killed, 2,795 were wounded and 30 missing in action during the last six days of brutal fighting in the city during the final assault. Of that total of 3,817 casualties during the capture of the city, 1,677 were loyalist Indian soldiers. It is almost impossible to say how many rebels and their supporters were killed during the siege, but the number was far greater. Unofficial sources place the rebel casualties at over 5,000. It is also impossible to estimate how many civilians died during the fighting in Delhi which included those killed by the rebels, those killed by the British, or those killed randomly and accidentally in the cross-fire. After the siege, many civilians were subsequently expelled from the city to makeshift camps in the nearby countryside, as there was no way of feeding them until order was restored to the entire area. The British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers were all fairly callous with regard to life. For four days, after the fall of the city, there was extensive looting, although many British soldiers were more interested in drink than material possessions. Prize agents later moved into the city behind the troops, and organised the search for concealed treasure on a more systematic basis. But the British, eager to avenge the killing of several of their countryfolk in Delhi, Cawnpore, and elsewhere in India, were in no mood to take prisoners. Several hundred rebel prisoners as well as suspected rebels and sympathisers were subsequently hanged without a trial or much legal process. In many cases, the officers of the "Queen's" Army were inclined to be lenient, but East India Company officials such as Theophilus Metcalfe were vengeful. Bahadur Shah and three of his sons had taken refuge at Humayun's Tomb, 6 miles (9.7 km) south of Delhi. Although he was urged to accompany Bakht Khan and rally more troops, the aged King was persuaded that the British were seeking vengeance only against the sepoys they regarded as mutineers, and he would be spared. On 20 September, a party under William Hodson took him into custody on promise of clemency, and brought him back to the city. The next day, Hodson also took prisoner three of Bahadur Shah's sons, but with no guarantee of any sort. On the pretext that a mob was about to release them, Hodson executed the three princes at Khooni Darwaza (Bloody gate).:400 Their heads were later presented to Bahadur Shah. By recapturing the Indian capital city, the British and Company forces dealt the Indian Army mutineers a major military and psychological blow, while releasing troops to assist in the relief of Lucknow, thus contributing to another British victory. A total of 29 Victoria Crosses were awarded to recipients for bravery in the Siege of Delhi. A Delhi clasp was authorised for the Indian Mutiny Medal. - Analysis of the 1857 War of Independence – Defence Journal - Hibbert, Christopher (1980). The Great Mutiny – India 1857. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-004752-2. - Dalrymple, William (2006). The Last Mughal. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-670-99925-3. - John Buckley (soldier), George Forrest (VC), William Raynor - Defence Journal - Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers. - Major A. H. Amin, orbat.com Archived 19 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine. - Amin, A.H. "Pakistan Army Defence Journal". Retrieved 30 July 2009. - The Bengal Fusiliers were "European" infantry, mainly Irish, raised by the Honourable East India Company. They were later absorbed into the British Army - Commanding officer of the 52nd Foot, not to be confused with Sir Colin Campbell, soon to be appointed Commander-in-chief in India - Allen, Charles (2000). Soldier Sahibs. Abacus. ISBN 0-349-11456-0. - Dalrymple, William (2006). The Last Mughal. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-670-99925-3. - Edwardes, Michael (1963). Battles of the Indian Mutiny. Pan. ISBN 0-330-02524-4. - Hibbert, Christopher (1980). The Great Mutiny – India 1857. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-004752-2. - Perkins, Roger (1983). The Kashmir Gate: Lieutenant Home & the Delhi VCs. Picton Publishing Chippenham. ISBN 0902633872. - Perrett, Bryan (1993). "3: The Walls of Delhi, 1857". At All Costs! Stories of Impossible Victories. Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 1-85409-157-3.	6,508	ENGLISH	1
Who Was Stephen Hawking? Stephen Hawking was a British scientist, professor and author who performed groundbreaking work in physics and cosmology, and whose books helped to make science accessible to everyone. At age 21, while studying cosmology at the University of Cambridge, he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Part of his life story was depicted in the 2014 film The Theory of Everything. Hawking was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxford, England. His birthday was also the 300th anniversary of the death of Galileo — long a source of pride for the noted physicist. The eldest of Frank and Isobel Hawking's four children, Hawking was born into a family of thinkers. His Scottish mother earned her way into Oxford University in the 1930s — a time when few women were able to go to college. His father, another Oxford graduate, was a respected medical researcher with a specialty in tropical diseases. Hawking's birth came at an inopportune time for his parents, who didn't have much money. The political climate was also tense, as England was dealing with World War II and the onslaught of German bombs in London, where the couple was living as Frank Hawking undertook research in medicine. In an effort to seek a safer place, Isobel returned to Oxford to have the couple's first child. The Hawkings would go on to have two other children, Mary and Philippa. And their second son, Edward, was adopted in 1956. The Hawkings, as one close family friend described them, were an "eccentric" bunch. Dinner was often eaten in silence, each of the Hawkings intently reading a book. The family car was an old London taxi, and their home in St. Albans was a three-story fixer-upper that never quite got fixed. The Hawkings also housed bees in the basement and produced fireworks in the greenhouse. In 1950, Hawking's father took work to manage the Division of Parasitology at the National Institute of Medical Research, and spent the winter months in Africa doing research. He wanted his eldest child to go into medicine, but at an early age, Hawking showed a passion for science and the sky. That was evident to his mother, who, along with her children, often stretched out in the backyard on summer evenings to stare up at the stars. "Stephen always had a strong sense of wonder," she remembered. "And I could see that the stars would draw him." Hawking was also frequently on the go. With his sister Mary, Hawking, who loved to climb, devised different entry routes into the family home. He loved to dance and also took an interest in rowing, becoming a team coxswain in college. Early in his academic life, Hawking, while recognized as bright, was not an exceptional student. During his first year at St. Albans School, he was third from the bottom of his class. But Hawking focused on pursuits outside of school; he loved board games, and he and a few close friends created new games of their own. During his teens, Hawking, along with several friends, constructed a computer out of recycled parts for solving rudimentary mathematical equations. Hawking entered University College at the University of Oxford at the age of 17. Although he expressed a desire to study mathematics, Oxford didn't offer a degree in that specialty, so Hawking gravitated toward physics and, more specifically, cosmology. By his own account, Hawking didn't put much time into his studies. He would later calculate that he averaged about an hour a day focusing on school. And yet he didn't really have to do much more than that. In 1962, he graduated with honors in natural science and went on to attend Trinity Hall at the University of Cambridge for a Ph.D. in cosmology. In 1968, Hawking became a member of the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge. The next few years were a fruitful time for Hawking and his research. In 1973, he published his first, highly-technical book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, with G.F.R. Ellis. In 1979, Hawking found himself back at the University of Cambridge, where he was named to one of teaching's most renowned posts, dating back to 1663: the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. Wife and Children At a New Year's party in 1963, Hawking met a young languages undergraduate named Jane Wilde. They were married in 1965. The couple gave birth to a son, Robert, in 1967, and a daughter, Lucy, in 1970. A third child, Timothy, arrived in 1979. In 1990, Hawking left his wife Jane for one of his nurses, Elaine Mason. The two were married in 1995. The marriage put a strain on Hawking's relationship with his own children, who claimed Elaine closed off their father from them. In 2003, nurses looking after Hawking reported their suspicions to police that Elaine was physically abusing her husband. Hawking denied the allegations, and the police investigation was called off. In 2006, Hawking and Elaine filed for divorce. In the following years, the physicist reportedly grew closer to his family. He reconciled with Jane, who had remarried. And he published five science-themed novels for children with his daughter, Lucy. Stephen Hawking: Books Over the years, Hawking wrote or co-wrote a total of 15 books. A few of the most noteworthy include: 'A Brief History of Time' In 1988 Hawking catapulted to international prominence with the publication of A Brief History of Time. The short, informative book became an account of cosmology for the masses and offered an overview of space and time, the existence of God and the future. The work was an instant success, spending more than four years atop the London Sunday Times' best-seller list. Since its publication, it has sold millions of copies worldwide and been translated into more than 40 languages. ‘The Universe in a Nutshell’ A Brief History of Time also wasn't as easy to understand as some had hoped. So in 2001, Hawking followed up his book with The Universe in a Nutshell, which offered a more illustrated guide to cosmology's big theories. ‘A Briefer History of Time’ In 2005, Hawking authored the even more accessible A Briefer History of Time, which further simplified the original work's core concepts and touched upon the newest developments in the field like string theory. Together these three books, along with Hawking's own research and papers, articulated the physicist's personal search for science's Holy Grail: a single unifying theory that can combine cosmology (the study of the big) with quantum mechanics (the study of the small) to explain how the universe began. This kind of ambitious thinking allowed Hawking, who claimed he could think in 11 dimensions, to lay out some big possibilities for humankind. He was convinced that time travel is possible, and that humans may indeed colonize other planets in the future. ‘The Grand Design’ In September 2010, Hawking spoke against the idea that God could have created the universe in his book The Grand Design. Hawking previously argued that belief in a creator could be compatible with modern scientific theories. In this work, however, he concluded that the Big Bang was the inevitable consequence of the laws of physics and nothing more. "Because there is a law such as gravity, the universe can and will create itself from nothing," Hawking said. "Spontaneous creation is the reason there is something rather than nothing, why the universe exists, why we exist." The Grand Design was Hawking's first major publication in almost a decade. Within his new work, Hawking set out to challenge Isaac Newton's belief that the universe had to have been designed by God, simply because it could not have been born from chaos. "It is not necessary to invoke God to light the blue touch paper and set the universe going," Hawking said. At the age of 21, Hawking was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease). In a very simple sense, the nerves that controlled his muscles were shutting down. At the time, doctors gave him two and a half years to live. Hawking first began to notice problems with his physical health while he was at Oxford — on occasion he would trip and fall, or slur his speech — but he didn't look into the problem until 1963, during his first year at Cambridge. For the most part, Hawking had kept these symptoms to himself. But when his father took notice of the condition, he took Hawking to see a doctor. For the next two weeks, the 21-year-old college student made his home at a medical clinic, where he underwent a series of tests. "They took a muscle sample from my arm, stuck electrodes into me, and injected some radio-opaque fluid into my spine, and watched it going up and down with X-rays, as they tilted the bed," he once said. "After all that, they didn't tell me what I had, except that it was not multiple sclerosis, and that I was an atypical case." Eventually, however, doctors did diagnose Hawking with the early stages of ALS. It was devastating news for him and his family, but a few events prevented him from becoming completely despondent. The first of these came while Hawking was still in the hospital. There, he shared a room with a boy suffering from leukemia. Relative to what his roommate was going through, Hawking later reflected, his situation seemed more tolerable. Not long after he was released from the hospital, Hawking had a dream that he was going to be executed. He said this dream made him realize that there were still things to do with his life. In a sense, Hawking's disease helped turn him into the noted scientist he became. Before the diagnosis, Hawking hadn't always focused on his studies. "Before my condition was diagnosed, I had been very bored with life," he said. "There had not seemed to be anything worth doing." With the sudden realization that he might not even live long enough to earn his Ph.D., Hawking poured himself into his work and research. As physical control over his body diminished (he'd be forced to use a wheelchair by 1969), the effects of his disease started to slow down. Over time, however, Hawking's ever-expanding career was accompanied by an ever-worsening physical state. How Did Stephen Hawking Talk? By the mid-1970s, the Hawking family had taken in one of Hawking's graduate students to help manage his care and work. He could still feed himself and get out of bed, but virtually everything else required assistance. In addition, his speech had become increasingly slurred, so that only those who knew him well could understand him. In 1985 he lost his voice for good following a tracheotomy. The resulting situation required 24-hour nursing care for the acclaimed physicist. It also put in peril Hawking's ability to do his work. The predicament caught the attention of a California computer programmer, who had developed a speaking program that could be directed by head or eye movement. The invention allowed Hawking to select words on a computer screen that were then passed through a speech synthesizer. At the time of its introduction, Hawking, who still had use of his fingers, selected his words with a handheld clicker. Eventually, with virtually all control of his body gone, Hawking directed the program through a cheek muscle attached to a sensor. Through the program, and the help of assistants, Hawking continued to write at a prolific rate. His work included numerous scientific papers, of course, but also information for the non-scientific community. Hawking's health remained a constant concern—a worry that was heightened in 2009 when he failed to appear at a conference in Arizona because of a chest infection. In April, Hawking, who had already announced he was retiring after 30 years from the post of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, was rushed to the hospital for being what university officials described as "gravely ill," though he later made a full recovery. Research on the Universe and Black Holes In 1974, Hawking's research turned him into a celebrity within the scientific world when he showed that black holes aren't the information vacuums that scientists had thought they were. In simple terms, Hawking demonstrated that matter, in the form of radiation, can escape the gravitational force of a collapsed star. Another young cosmologist, Roger Penrose, had earlier discovered groundbreaking findings about the fate of stars and the creation of black holes, which tapped into Hawking's own fascination with how the universe began. The pair then began working together to expand upon Penrose’s earlier work, setting Hawking on a career course marked by awards, notoriety and distinguished titles that reshaped the way the world thinks about black holes and the universe. When Hawking’s radiation theory was born, the announcement sent shock waves of excitement through the scientific world. Hawking was named a fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 32, and later earned the prestigious Albert Einstein Award, among other honors. He also earned teaching stints at Caltech in Pasadena, California, where he served as visiting professor, and at Gonville and Caius College in Cambridge. In August 2015, Hawking appeared at a conference in Sweden to discuss new theories about black holes and the vexing "information paradox." Addressing the issue of what becomes of an object that enters a black hole, Hawking proposed that information about the physical state of the object is stored in 2D form within an outer boundary known as the "event horizon." Noting that black holes "are not the eternal prisons they were once thought," he left open the possibility that the information could be released into another universe. Beginning of the Universe In a March 2018 interview on Neil deGrasse Tyson's Star Talk, Hawking addressed the topic of "what was around before the Big Bang" by stating there was nothing around. He said by applying a Euclidean approach to quantum gravity, which replaces real time with imaginary time, the history of the universe becomes like a four-dimensional curved surface, with no boundary. He suggested picturing this reality by thinking of imaginary time and real time as beginning at the Earth's South Pole, a point of space-time where the normal laws of physics hold; as there is nothing "south" of the South Pole, there was also nothing before the Big Bang. Hawking and Space Travel In 2007, at the age of 65, Hawking made an important step toward space travel. While visiting the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, he was given the opportunity to experience an environment without gravity. Over the course of two hours over the Atlantic, Hawking, a passenger on a modified Boeing 727, was freed from his wheelchair to experience bursts of weightlessness. Pictures of the freely floating physicist splashed across newspapers around the globe. "The zero-G part was wonderful, and the high-G part was no problem. I could have gone on and on. Space, here I come!" he said. Hawking was scheduled to fly to the edge of space as one of Sir Richard Branson's pioneer space tourists. He said in a 2007 statement, "Life on Earth is at the ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster, such as sudden global warming, nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus or other dangers. I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space. I therefore want to encourage public interest in space." Stephen Hawking Movie and TV Appearances If there is such a thing as a rock-star scientist, Hawking embodied it. His forays into popular culture included guest appearances on The Simpsons, Star Trek: The Next Generation, a comedy spoof with comedian Jim Carrey on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and even a recorded voice-over on the Pink Floyd song "Keep Talking." In 1992, Oscar-winning filmmaker Errol Morris released a documentary about Hawking's life, aptly titled A Brief History of Time. Other TV and movie appearances included: 'The Big Bang Theory' In 2012, Hawking showed off his humorous side on American television, making a guest appearance on The Big Bang Theory. Playing himself on this popular comedy about a group of young, geeky scientists, Hawking brings the theoretical physicist Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons) back to Earth after finding an error in his work. Hawking earned kudos for this light-hearted effort. 'The Theory of Everything' In November of 2014, a film about the life of Hawking and Jane Wilde was released. The Theory of Everything stars Eddie Redmayne as Hawking and encompasses his early life and school days, his courtship and marriage to Wilde, the progression of his crippling disease and his scientific triumphs. In May 2016, Hawking hosted and narrated Genius, a six-part television series which enlists volunteers to tackle scientific questions that have been asked throughout history. In a statement regarding his series, Hawking said Genius is “a project that furthers my lifelong aim to bring science to the public. It’s a fun show that tries to find out if ordinary people are smart enough to think like the greatest minds who ever lived. Being an optimist, I think they will.” In 2011, Hawkings had participated in a trial of a new headband-styled device called the iBrain. The device is designed to "read" the wearer's thoughts by picking up "waves of electrical brain signals," which are then interpreted by a special algorithm, according to an article in The New York Times. This device could be a revolutionary aid to people with ALS. Hawking on AI In 2014, Hawking, among other top scientists, spoke out about the possible dangers of artificial intelligence, or AI, calling for more research to be done on all of possible ramifications of AI. Their comments were inspired by the Johnny Depp film Transcendence, which features a clash between humanity and technology. "Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history," the scientists wrote. "Unfortunately, it might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks." The group warned of a time when this technology would be "outsmarting financial markets, out-inventing human researchers, out-manipulating human leaders, and developing weapons we cannot even understand." Hawking reiterated this stance while speaking at a technology conference in Lisbon, Portugal, in November 2017. Noting how AI could potentially make gains in wiping out poverty and disease, but could also lead to such theoretically destructive actions as the development of autonomous weapons, he said, "We cannot know if we will be infinitely helped by AI, or ignored by it and sidelined, or conceivably destroyed by it." Hawking and Aliens In July 2015, Hawking held a news conference in London to announce the launch of a project called Breakthrough Listen. Funded by Russian entrepreneur Yuri Milner, Breakthrough Listen was created to devote more resources to the discovery of extraterrestrial life. Breaking the Internet In October 2017, Cambridge University posted Hawking's 1965 doctoral thesis, "Properties of Expanding Universes," to its website. An overwhelming demand for access promptly crashed the university server, though the document still fielded a staggering 60,000 views before the end of its first day online. When Did Stephen Hawking Die? On March 14, 2018, Hawking finally died of ALS, the disease that was supposed to have killed him more than 50 years earlier. A family spokesman confirmed that the iconic scientist died at his home in Cambridge, England. The news touched many in his field and beyond. Fellow theoretical physicist and author Lawrence Krauss tweeted: "A star just went out in the cosmos. We have lost an amazing human being. Hawking fought and tamed the cosmos bravely for 76 years and taught us all something important about what it truly means to celebrate about being human." Hawking's children followed with a statement: "We are deeply saddened that our beloved father passed away today. He was a great scientist and an extraordinary man whose work and legacy will live on for many years. His courage and persistence with his brilliance and humor inspired people across the world. He once said, 'It would not be much of a universe if it wasn’t home to the people you love.' We will miss him forever." On May 2, 2018, his final paper, titled "A smooth exit from eternal inflation?" was published in the Journal of High Energy Physics. Submitted 10 days before his death, the new report, co-authored by Belgian physicist Thomas Hertog, disputes the idea that the universe will continue to expand. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	<urn:uuid:31383c79-6801-4df9-8036-22f508caa963>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/scientist/stephen-hawking	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00198.warc.gz	en	0.983424	4,281	3.5625	4	[ 0.060987986624240875, 0.5994411706924438, -0.08353851735591888, -0.08661671727895737, -0.2335987091064453, 0.14974817633628845, 0.41172337532043457, 0.06241893768310547, -0.22046339511871338, -0.18405774235725403, 0.18497714400291443, -0.5961005091667175, -0.06167171150445938, 0.6191505193...	10	Who Was Stephen Hawking? Stephen Hawking was a British scientist, professor and author who performed groundbreaking work in physics and cosmology, and whose books helped to make science accessible to everyone. At age 21, while studying cosmology at the University of Cambridge, he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Part of his life story was depicted in the 2014 film The Theory of Everything. Hawking was born on January 8, 1942, in Oxford, England. His birthday was also the 300th anniversary of the death of Galileo — long a source of pride for the noted physicist. The eldest of Frank and Isobel Hawking's four children, Hawking was born into a family of thinkers. His Scottish mother earned her way into Oxford University in the 1930s — a time when few women were able to go to college. His father, another Oxford graduate, was a respected medical researcher with a specialty in tropical diseases. Hawking's birth came at an inopportune time for his parents, who didn't have much money. The political climate was also tense, as England was dealing with World War II and the onslaught of German bombs in London, where the couple was living as Frank Hawking undertook research in medicine. In an effort to seek a safer place, Isobel returned to Oxford to have the couple's first child. The Hawkings would go on to have two other children, Mary and Philippa. And their second son, Edward, was adopted in 1956. The Hawkings, as one close family friend described them, were an "eccentric" bunch. Dinner was often eaten in silence, each of the Hawkings intently reading a book. The family car was an old London taxi, and their home in St. Albans was a three-story fixer-upper that never quite got fixed. The Hawkings also housed bees in the basement and produced fireworks in the greenhouse. In 1950, Hawking's father took work to manage the Division of Parasitology at the National Institute of Medical Research, and spent the winter months in Africa doing research. He wanted his eldest child to go into medicine, but at an early age, Hawking showed a passion for science and the sky. That was evident to his mother, who, along with her children, often stretched out in the backyard on summer evenings to stare up at the stars. "Stephen always had a strong sense of wonder," she remembered. "And I could see that the stars would draw him." Hawking was also frequently on the go. With his sister Mary, Hawking, who loved to climb, devised different entry routes into the family home. He loved to dance and also took an interest in rowing, becoming a team coxswain in college. Early in his academic life, Hawking, while recognized as bright, was not an exceptional student. During his first year at St. Albans School, he was third from the bottom of his class. But Hawking focused on pursuits outside of school; he loved board games, and he and a few close friends created new games of their own. During his teens, Hawking, along with several friends, constructed a computer out of recycled parts for solving rudimentary mathematical equations. Hawking entered University College at the University of Oxford at the age of 17. Although he expressed a desire to study mathematics, Oxford didn't offer a degree in that specialty, so Hawking gravitated toward physics and, more specifically, cosmology. By his own account, Hawking didn't put much time into his studies. He would later calculate that he averaged about an hour a day focusing on school. And yet he didn't really have to do much more than that. In 1962, he graduated with honors in natural science and went on to attend Trinity Hall at the University of Cambridge for a Ph.D. in cosmology. In 1968, Hawking became a member of the Institute of Astronomy in Cambridge. The next few years were a fruitful time for Hawking and his research. In 1973, he published his first, highly-technical book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, with G.F.R. Ellis. In 1979, Hawking found himself back at the University of Cambridge, where he was named to one of teaching's most renowned posts, dating back to 1663: the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. Wife and Children At a New Year's party in 1963, Hawking met a young languages undergraduate named Jane Wilde. They were married in 1965. The couple gave birth to a son, Robert, in 1967, and a daughter, Lucy, in 1970. A third child, Timothy, arrived in 1979. In 1990, Hawking left his wife Jane for one of his nurses, Elaine Mason. The two were married in 1995. The marriage put a strain on Hawking's relationship with his own children, who claimed Elaine closed off their father from them. In 2003, nurses looking after Hawking reported their suspicions to police that Elaine was physically abusing her husband. Hawking denied the allegations, and the police investigation was called off. In 2006, Hawking and Elaine filed for divorce. In the following years, the physicist reportedly grew closer to his family. He reconciled with Jane, who had remarried. And he published five science-themed novels for children with his daughter, Lucy. Stephen Hawking: Books Over the years, Hawking wrote or co-wrote a total of 15 books. A few of the most noteworthy include: 'A Brief History of Time' In 1988 Hawking catapulted to international prominence with the publication of A Brief History of Time. The short, informative book became an account of cosmology for the masses and offered an overview of space and time, the existence of God and the future. The work was an instant success, spending more than four years atop the London Sunday Times' best-seller list. Since its publication, it has sold millions of copies worldwide and been translated into more than 40 languages. ‘The Universe in a Nutshell’ A Brief History of Time also wasn't as easy to understand as some had hoped. So in 2001, Hawking followed up his book with The Universe in a Nutshell, which offered a more illustrated guide to cosmology's big theories. ‘A Briefer History of Time’ In 2005, Hawking authored the even more accessible A Briefer History of Time, which further simplified the original work's core concepts and touched upon the newest developments in the field like string theory. Together these three books, along with Hawking's own research and papers, articulated the physicist's personal search for science's Holy Grail: a single unifying theory that can combine cosmology (the study of the big) with quantum mechanics (the study of the small) to explain how the universe began. This kind of ambitious thinking allowed Hawking, who claimed he could think in 11 dimensions, to lay out some big possibilities for humankind. He was convinced that time travel is possible, and that humans may indeed colonize other planets in the future. ‘The Grand Design’ In September 2010, Hawking spoke against the idea that God could have created the universe in his book The Grand Design. Hawking previously argued that belief in a creator could be compatible with modern scientific theories. In this work, however, he concluded that the Big Bang was the inevitable consequence of the laws of physics and nothing more. "Because there is a law such as gravity, the universe can and will create itself from nothing," Hawking said. "Spontaneous creation is the reason there is something rather than nothing, why the universe exists, why we exist." The Grand Design was Hawking's first major publication in almost a decade. Within his new work, Hawking set out to challenge Isaac Newton's belief that the universe had to have been designed by God, simply because it could not have been born from chaos. "It is not necessary to invoke God to light the blue touch paper and set the universe going," Hawking said. At the age of 21, Hawking was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease). In a very simple sense, the nerves that controlled his muscles were shutting down. At the time, doctors gave him two and a half years to live. Hawking first began to notice problems with his physical health while he was at Oxford — on occasion he would trip and fall, or slur his speech — but he didn't look into the problem until 1963, during his first year at Cambridge. For the most part, Hawking had kept these symptoms to himself. But when his father took notice of the condition, he took Hawking to see a doctor. For the next two weeks, the 21-year-old college student made his home at a medical clinic, where he underwent a series of tests. "They took a muscle sample from my arm, stuck electrodes into me, and injected some radio-opaque fluid into my spine, and watched it going up and down with X-rays, as they tilted the bed," he once said. "After all that, they didn't tell me what I had, except that it was not multiple sclerosis, and that I was an atypical case." Eventually, however, doctors did diagnose Hawking with the early stages of ALS. It was devastating news for him and his family, but a few events prevented him from becoming completely despondent. The first of these came while Hawking was still in the hospital. There, he shared a room with a boy suffering from leukemia. Relative to what his roommate was going through, Hawking later reflected, his situation seemed more tolerable. Not long after he was released from the hospital, Hawking had a dream that he was going to be executed. He said this dream made him realize that there were still things to do with his life. In a sense, Hawking's disease helped turn him into the noted scientist he became. Before the diagnosis, Hawking hadn't always focused on his studies. "Before my condition was diagnosed, I had been very bored with life," he said. "There had not seemed to be anything worth doing." With the sudden realization that he might not even live long enough to earn his Ph.D., Hawking poured himself into his work and research. As physical control over his body diminished (he'd be forced to use a wheelchair by 1969), the effects of his disease started to slow down. Over time, however, Hawking's ever-expanding career was accompanied by an ever-worsening physical state. How Did Stephen Hawking Talk? By the mid-1970s, the Hawking family had taken in one of Hawking's graduate students to help manage his care and work. He could still feed himself and get out of bed, but virtually everything else required assistance. In addition, his speech had become increasingly slurred, so that only those who knew him well could understand him. In 1985 he lost his voice for good following a tracheotomy. The resulting situation required 24-hour nursing care for the acclaimed physicist. It also put in peril Hawking's ability to do his work. The predicament caught the attention of a California computer programmer, who had developed a speaking program that could be directed by head or eye movement. The invention allowed Hawking to select words on a computer screen that were then passed through a speech synthesizer. At the time of its introduction, Hawking, who still had use of his fingers, selected his words with a handheld clicker. Eventually, with virtually all control of his body gone, Hawking directed the program through a cheek muscle attached to a sensor. Through the program, and the help of assistants, Hawking continued to write at a prolific rate. His work included numerous scientific papers, of course, but also information for the non-scientific community. Hawking's health remained a constant concern—a worry that was heightened in 2009 when he failed to appear at a conference in Arizona because of a chest infection. In April, Hawking, who had already announced he was retiring after 30 years from the post of Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, was rushed to the hospital for being what university officials described as "gravely ill," though he later made a full recovery. Research on the Universe and Black Holes In 1974, Hawking's research turned him into a celebrity within the scientific world when he showed that black holes aren't the information vacuums that scientists had thought they were. In simple terms, Hawking demonstrated that matter, in the form of radiation, can escape the gravitational force of a collapsed star. Another young cosmologist, Roger Penrose, had earlier discovered groundbreaking findings about the fate of stars and the creation of black holes, which tapped into Hawking's own fascination with how the universe began. The pair then began working together to expand upon Penrose’s earlier work, setting Hawking on a career course marked by awards, notoriety and distinguished titles that reshaped the way the world thinks about black holes and the universe. When Hawking’s radiation theory was born, the announcement sent shock waves of excitement through the scientific world. Hawking was named a fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 32, and later earned the prestigious Albert Einstein Award, among other honors. He also earned teaching stints at Caltech in Pasadena, California, where he served as visiting professor, and at Gonville and Caius College in Cambridge. In August 2015, Hawking appeared at a conference in Sweden to discuss new theories about black holes and the vexing "information paradox." Addressing the issue of what becomes of an object that enters a black hole, Hawking proposed that information about the physical state of the object is stored in 2D form within an outer boundary known as the "event horizon." Noting that black holes "are not the eternal prisons they were once thought," he left open the possibility that the information could be released into another universe. Beginning of the Universe In a March 2018 interview on Neil deGrasse Tyson's Star Talk, Hawking addressed the topic of "what was around before the Big Bang" by stating there was nothing around. He said by applying a Euclidean approach to quantum gravity, which replaces real time with imaginary time, the history of the universe becomes like a four-dimensional curved surface, with no boundary. He suggested picturing this reality by thinking of imaginary time and real time as beginning at the Earth's South Pole, a point of space-time where the normal laws of physics hold; as there is nothing "south" of the South Pole, there was also nothing before the Big Bang. Hawking and Space Travel In 2007, at the age of 65, Hawking made an important step toward space travel. While visiting the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, he was given the opportunity to experience an environment without gravity. Over the course of two hours over the Atlantic, Hawking, a passenger on a modified Boeing 727, was freed from his wheelchair to experience bursts of weightlessness. Pictures of the freely floating physicist splashed across newspapers around the globe. "The zero-G part was wonderful, and the high-G part was no problem. I could have gone on and on. Space, here I come!" he said. Hawking was scheduled to fly to the edge of space as one of Sir Richard Branson's pioneer space tourists. He said in a 2007 statement, "Life on Earth is at the ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster, such as sudden global warming, nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus or other dangers. I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space. I therefore want to encourage public interest in space." Stephen Hawking Movie and TV Appearances If there is such a thing as a rock-star scientist, Hawking embodied it. His forays into popular culture included guest appearances on The Simpsons, Star Trek: The Next Generation, a comedy spoof with comedian Jim Carrey on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and even a recorded voice-over on the Pink Floyd song "Keep Talking." In 1992, Oscar-winning filmmaker Errol Morris released a documentary about Hawking's life, aptly titled A Brief History of Time. Other TV and movie appearances included: 'The Big Bang Theory' In 2012, Hawking showed off his humorous side on American television, making a guest appearance on The Big Bang Theory. Playing himself on this popular comedy about a group of young, geeky scientists, Hawking brings the theoretical physicist Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons) back to Earth after finding an error in his work. Hawking earned kudos for this light-hearted effort. 'The Theory of Everything' In November of 2014, a film about the life of Hawking and Jane Wilde was released. The Theory of Everything stars Eddie Redmayne as Hawking and encompasses his early life and school days, his courtship and marriage to Wilde, the progression of his crippling disease and his scientific triumphs. In May 2016, Hawking hosted and narrated Genius, a six-part television series which enlists volunteers to tackle scientific questions that have been asked throughout history. In a statement regarding his series, Hawking said Genius is “a project that furthers my lifelong aim to bring science to the public. It’s a fun show that tries to find out if ordinary people are smart enough to think like the greatest minds who ever lived. Being an optimist, I think they will.” In 2011, Hawkings had participated in a trial of a new headband-styled device called the iBrain. The device is designed to "read" the wearer's thoughts by picking up "waves of electrical brain signals," which are then interpreted by a special algorithm, according to an article in The New York Times. This device could be a revolutionary aid to people with ALS. Hawking on AI In 2014, Hawking, among other top scientists, spoke out about the possible dangers of artificial intelligence, or AI, calling for more research to be done on all of possible ramifications of AI. Their comments were inspired by the Johnny Depp film Transcendence, which features a clash between humanity and technology. "Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history," the scientists wrote. "Unfortunately, it might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks." The group warned of a time when this technology would be "outsmarting financial markets, out-inventing human researchers, out-manipulating human leaders, and developing weapons we cannot even understand." Hawking reiterated this stance while speaking at a technology conference in Lisbon, Portugal, in November 2017. Noting how AI could potentially make gains in wiping out poverty and disease, but could also lead to such theoretically destructive actions as the development of autonomous weapons, he said, "We cannot know if we will be infinitely helped by AI, or ignored by it and sidelined, or conceivably destroyed by it." Hawking and Aliens In July 2015, Hawking held a news conference in London to announce the launch of a project called Breakthrough Listen. Funded by Russian entrepreneur Yuri Milner, Breakthrough Listen was created to devote more resources to the discovery of extraterrestrial life. Breaking the Internet In October 2017, Cambridge University posted Hawking's 1965 doctoral thesis, "Properties of Expanding Universes," to its website. An overwhelming demand for access promptly crashed the university server, though the document still fielded a staggering 60,000 views before the end of its first day online. When Did Stephen Hawking Die? On March 14, 2018, Hawking finally died of ALS, the disease that was supposed to have killed him more than 50 years earlier. A family spokesman confirmed that the iconic scientist died at his home in Cambridge, England. The news touched many in his field and beyond. Fellow theoretical physicist and author Lawrence Krauss tweeted: "A star just went out in the cosmos. We have lost an amazing human being. Hawking fought and tamed the cosmos bravely for 76 years and taught us all something important about what it truly means to celebrate about being human." Hawking's children followed with a statement: "We are deeply saddened that our beloved father passed away today. He was a great scientist and an extraordinary man whose work and legacy will live on for many years. His courage and persistence with his brilliance and humor inspired people across the world. He once said, 'It would not be much of a universe if it wasn’t home to the people you love.' We will miss him forever." On May 2, 2018, his final paper, titled "A smooth exit from eternal inflation?" was published in the Journal of High Energy Physics. Submitted 10 days before his death, the new report, co-authored by Belgian physicist Thomas Hertog, disputes the idea that the universe will continue to expand. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	4,472	ENGLISH	1
Castles, Palaces, And Forts Around the world, there is a large number of castles, palaces, and forts. Many of these structures were built hundreds of years ago and are still standing today, making them historically important. Having withstood the test of time, castles, palaces, and forts have often come to serve as the iconic symbol of a city, region, or sovereign nation. In many places, these unique buildings are open to the public for tours and some are popular tourist attractions. Each types were built with a special purpose. Despite being completely different, however, the terms are frequently used interchangeably. In order to clear up any confusion, this article takes a closer look at the differences between castles, palaces, and forts. What Are Castles? In short, castles are large residences or a group of large buildings that have been constructed with strong walls to protect against attacks. In other words, castles are fortified residences. They were first built by European royalty during the Middle Ages throughout Europe and the Middle East. As part of their defensive strategy, castles were often surrounded by moats in order to hinder attacks. Other common architectural features include openings for shooting arrows in high walls and gatehouses, both useful for defensive measures. Generally speaking, castles are or were inhabited by a lord or noble and were originally used as a base from which to rule the surrounding area. These structures often served as a place of protection, a military hub, an administrative center, and a symbol of wealth and power. What Are Palaces? A palace, in contrast, serves primarily as a residential place, occupied by royalty, heads of state, or heads of a church (such as bishops and archbishops). Unlike castles, palaces are not fortified against attacks, but rather designed for comfort and elegance. These structures are known to be large and to have an ornate architectural style. Their interiors are often finished in luxurious materials such as gold and marble. Additionally, palaces are often surrounded by lavish grounds with landscaped gardens. The first palaces were those located on Palatine Hill in Rome, where they were the imperial centers. Over time, the name of the hill came to mean the name of its elegant homes. Today, many palaces are still in use as museums, houses of Parliament, hotels, or offices. What Are Forts? A fort is different from both castles and palaces in that it is not a residence, but rather a military fortification. These structures have been built specifically with war in mind and are used to defend specific territories. Forts date back over thousands of years, beginning with walled cities, and have been utilized across cultures as a means of defense and protection. These structures are thought to be the predecessor of castles. Additionally, they may be permanent or temporary, such as those erected quickly during times of battle. Although their use has remained the same throughout their existence, their architectural style was forced to change with the advent of cannons and later, explosives. Around the time of World War I, military advances had surpassed the defensive capability of the majority of forts. What is a Castle? In short, castles are large residences or a group of large buildings that have been constructed with strong walls to protect against attacks. In other words, castles are fortified residences. They were first built by European royalty during the Middle Ages throughout Europe and the Middle East. As part of their defensive strategy, castles were often surrounded by moats in order to hinder attacks. About the Author Amber is a freelance writer, English as a foreign language teacher, and Spanish-English translator. She lives with her husband and 3 cats. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:de0deef2-f213-4384-9a1c-78ceee77db3f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-differences-between-a-castle-a-palace-and-a-fort.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00040.warc.gz	en	0.984297	784	3.34375	3	[ 0.08865179121494293, 0.19668957591056824, 0.7954972386360168, 0.030234497040510178, -0.03046698309481144, 0.03786763548851013, 0.5400221347808838, -0.44295233488082886, 0.1260167807340622, -0.21337832510471344, 0.02656816877424717, -0.11894276738166809, -0.13190218806266785, 0.199054956436...	2	Castles, Palaces, And Forts Around the world, there is a large number of castles, palaces, and forts. Many of these structures were built hundreds of years ago and are still standing today, making them historically important. Having withstood the test of time, castles, palaces, and forts have often come to serve as the iconic symbol of a city, region, or sovereign nation. In many places, these unique buildings are open to the public for tours and some are popular tourist attractions. Each types were built with a special purpose. Despite being completely different, however, the terms are frequently used interchangeably. In order to clear up any confusion, this article takes a closer look at the differences between castles, palaces, and forts. What Are Castles? In short, castles are large residences or a group of large buildings that have been constructed with strong walls to protect against attacks. In other words, castles are fortified residences. They were first built by European royalty during the Middle Ages throughout Europe and the Middle East. As part of their defensive strategy, castles were often surrounded by moats in order to hinder attacks. Other common architectural features include openings for shooting arrows in high walls and gatehouses, both useful for defensive measures. Generally speaking, castles are or were inhabited by a lord or noble and were originally used as a base from which to rule the surrounding area. These structures often served as a place of protection, a military hub, an administrative center, and a symbol of wealth and power. What Are Palaces? A palace, in contrast, serves primarily as a residential place, occupied by royalty, heads of state, or heads of a church (such as bishops and archbishops). Unlike castles, palaces are not fortified against attacks, but rather designed for comfort and elegance. These structures are known to be large and to have an ornate architectural style. Their interiors are often finished in luxurious materials such as gold and marble. Additionally, palaces are often surrounded by lavish grounds with landscaped gardens. The first palaces were those located on Palatine Hill in Rome, where they were the imperial centers. Over time, the name of the hill came to mean the name of its elegant homes. Today, many palaces are still in use as museums, houses of Parliament, hotels, or offices. What Are Forts? A fort is different from both castles and palaces in that it is not a residence, but rather a military fortification. These structures have been built specifically with war in mind and are used to defend specific territories. Forts date back over thousands of years, beginning with walled cities, and have been utilized across cultures as a means of defense and protection. These structures are thought to be the predecessor of castles. Additionally, they may be permanent or temporary, such as those erected quickly during times of battle. Although their use has remained the same throughout their existence, their architectural style was forced to change with the advent of cannons and later, explosives. Around the time of World War I, military advances had surpassed the defensive capability of the majority of forts. What is a Castle? In short, castles are large residences or a group of large buildings that have been constructed with strong walls to protect against attacks. In other words, castles are fortified residences. They were first built by European royalty during the Middle Ages throughout Europe and the Middle East. As part of their defensive strategy, castles were often surrounded by moats in order to hinder attacks. About the Author Amber is a freelance writer, English as a foreign language teacher, and Spanish-English translator. She lives with her husband and 3 cats. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	781	ENGLISH	1
When it was built in the 17th century, Nikko Tosho-gu Shrine was a unique and a completely new type of shrine in terms of its lavish buildings and complex ground design. Why and how was it built, and what was the purpose of this shrine? I would like to consider these and other questions in this series. Ieyasu’s secret plan Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate and his political power continued for 260 years, succeeding to his descendants. Ieyasu was born in 1542 in Aichi and died in 1616 in Shizuoka, and he left precise instructions concerning his burial service. According to Honko Kokushi Nikki『本光国師日記』, mysterious to say, he directed that his body be buried at Shizuoka, but that the funeral ceremony be held at Edo, and that a shrine in Nikko be built one year later. Why? Isn’t it strange that he wanted to have three different rituals in three different places take place after his death? It is said that this was actually a secret magical technique that Ieyasu used to assure the continuation of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Based on information gleaned from Edo no Onmyoji 『江戸の陰陽師』by Kenji Miyamoto, I would like to show you some of the details. Magic lines and the path to Polaris In the ancient days, Polaris was believed to be the King of Stars in the Eastern world. All other stars move around Polaris. And Polaris stays in the center. Ieyasu was really well informed of the beliefs of Shintoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Onmyo-do (way of Yin and Yang). Making full use of these religious secrets, he sought to establish his own immortal soul and protect the Shogunate. He used special lines to connect his birthplace, his burial place, Mt. Fuji, the Edo Castle and his place of enshrinement. The line connecting his birthplace and burial place runs perfectly from east to west. It is on the same path of the sun, meaning regeneration. And the line connecting his burial place and Mt. Fuji goes through Nikko. Because Mt. Fuji is a symbol of eternity, his regenerated soul would gain immortal power. At the same time, Nikko’s Tosho-gu is directly north of Edo Castle—the residence of the king (Shogun) of this world. Ieyasu thought therefore that Tosho-gu would be the residence of the king of the afterworld. As a result, he died and was regenerated in Shizuoka, and then his soul was transferred to Nikko to become king of the universe, in reference to Polaris. The path from Edo Castle to Tosho-gu is eventually a path to Polaris. Tosho-gu’s Three Designers For the eventual realization of Ieyasu’s plan, three designers put all the skill they had into constructing Tosho-gu. They were Tenkai (天海) who performed the various secret ceremonies, Kano Tanyu (狩野探幽) who designed and finished off the carvings and sculptures, and Kobori Enshu (小堀遠州) who used the newest landscape techniques to create the total image of Tosho-gu. Tenkai was a high-ranking Buddhist priest with a deep knowledge of Shinto, Taoism, and Onmyo-do. Tenkai worked as a special adviser to Ieyasu in his later life. Tenkai used a secret method to make Ieyasu’s soul a God. In Buddhism, when people die, their souls go to Jodo (heaven) or Jigoku (hell). Everyone hopes to go to Jodo, but Ieyasu didn’t. He gave up his soul for the Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo and later went through a regenerative ceremony instead of going to Jodo. The reason was that once a human soul sublimates into a God, it can attain extraordinary power. Ieyasu desired to become a God so as to protect the Tokugawa Shogunate and develop Edo. Kano Tanyu’s Sculptures Kano Tanyu was the best painter in Japan and had a large group of assistant painters (that were also members of his family) working under him. Not only did he have skill and talent to produce beautiful art, but Kano also had broad knowledge of the hidden meanings in pictures and designs. Kano was convinced that each decoration or ornament had power and when they were connected and organized in a certain space, they would all work together to have an enormous influence on the world. He designed all the carvings and decorations in Tosho-gu and created it in such a way that Tosho-gu would become the supreme power spot in the universe. In the series of Nikko Tosho-gu Shrine's Secret Magic, I would like to introduce the secret meaning of the carvings and sculptures of Tosho-gu.	<urn:uuid:666aa1d3-99df-4370-ae82-4f512ebee0df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.japantravel.com/tochigi/tosho-gu-shrine-s-secret-magic-1/1603	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00203.warc.gz	en	0.981158	1,086	3.3125	3	[ -0.5601615309715271, 0.35620546340942383, 0.05576365813612938, -0.17075452208518982, -0.14885349571704865, 0.29342061281204224, 0.15210717916488647, -0.004661221988499165, -0.23956604301929474, 0.05780734121799469, -0.11884322017431259, -0.264647901058197, 0.13570287823677063, 0.4378388226...	5	When it was built in the 17th century, Nikko Tosho-gu Shrine was a unique and a completely new type of shrine in terms of its lavish buildings and complex ground design. Why and how was it built, and what was the purpose of this shrine? I would like to consider these and other questions in this series. Ieyasu’s secret plan Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate and his political power continued for 260 years, succeeding to his descendants. Ieyasu was born in 1542 in Aichi and died in 1616 in Shizuoka, and he left precise instructions concerning his burial service. According to Honko Kokushi Nikki『本光国師日記』, mysterious to say, he directed that his body be buried at Shizuoka, but that the funeral ceremony be held at Edo, and that a shrine in Nikko be built one year later. Why? Isn’t it strange that he wanted to have three different rituals in three different places take place after his death? It is said that this was actually a secret magical technique that Ieyasu used to assure the continuation of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Based on information gleaned from Edo no Onmyoji 『江戸の陰陽師』by Kenji Miyamoto, I would like to show you some of the details. Magic lines and the path to Polaris In the ancient days, Polaris was believed to be the King of Stars in the Eastern world. All other stars move around Polaris. And Polaris stays in the center. Ieyasu was really well informed of the beliefs of Shintoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Onmyo-do (way of Yin and Yang). Making full use of these religious secrets, he sought to establish his own immortal soul and protect the Shogunate. He used special lines to connect his birthplace, his burial place, Mt. Fuji, the Edo Castle and his place of enshrinement. The line connecting his birthplace and burial place runs perfectly from east to west. It is on the same path of the sun, meaning regeneration. And the line connecting his burial place and Mt. Fuji goes through Nikko. Because Mt. Fuji is a symbol of eternity, his regenerated soul would gain immortal power. At the same time, Nikko’s Tosho-gu is directly north of Edo Castle—the residence of the king (Shogun) of this world. Ieyasu thought therefore that Tosho-gu would be the residence of the king of the afterworld. As a result, he died and was regenerated in Shizuoka, and then his soul was transferred to Nikko to become king of the universe, in reference to Polaris. The path from Edo Castle to Tosho-gu is eventually a path to Polaris. Tosho-gu’s Three Designers For the eventual realization of Ieyasu’s plan, three designers put all the skill they had into constructing Tosho-gu. They were Tenkai (天海) who performed the various secret ceremonies, Kano Tanyu (狩野探幽) who designed and finished off the carvings and sculptures, and Kobori Enshu (小堀遠州) who used the newest landscape techniques to create the total image of Tosho-gu. Tenkai was a high-ranking Buddhist priest with a deep knowledge of Shinto, Taoism, and Onmyo-do. Tenkai worked as a special adviser to Ieyasu in his later life. Tenkai used a secret method to make Ieyasu’s soul a God. In Buddhism, when people die, their souls go to Jodo (heaven) or Jigoku (hell). Everyone hopes to go to Jodo, but Ieyasu didn’t. He gave up his soul for the Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo and later went through a regenerative ceremony instead of going to Jodo. The reason was that once a human soul sublimates into a God, it can attain extraordinary power. Ieyasu desired to become a God so as to protect the Tokugawa Shogunate and develop Edo. Kano Tanyu’s Sculptures Kano Tanyu was the best painter in Japan and had a large group of assistant painters (that were also members of his family) working under him. Not only did he have skill and talent to produce beautiful art, but Kano also had broad knowledge of the hidden meanings in pictures and designs. Kano was convinced that each decoration or ornament had power and when they were connected and organized in a certain space, they would all work together to have an enormous influence on the world. He designed all the carvings and decorations in Tosho-gu and created it in such a way that Tosho-gu would become the supreme power spot in the universe. In the series of Nikko Tosho-gu Shrine's Secret Magic, I would like to introduce the secret meaning of the carvings and sculptures of Tosho-gu.	1,063	ENGLISH	1
Diversity is very important in today’s society and especially when you are working in a healthcare setting. It is recognising and appreciating the variety of characteristics that make people unique in an atmosphere that promotes and celebrates everyone for who they are. This means that people need to accept and embrace diversity. To make diversity positive we need to respond differently to it and make everyone aware of it. It is important that everyone knows and understand the meaning and importance of diversity. In this essay I am going to describe some of the areas that people can be discriminated against for and the benefits of diversity. These areas can be anything from gender, culture, age, race or social status. I am going to choose 8 areas of diversity and explain each of these briefly. Age At work workers are protected from discrimination through policies and laws. This stops any harassment, bullying or unfair treatment on any person because of their age. When a workplace is hiring employees they must not look at them differently because of their age and they must not base an opinion on this. Employers must embrace the age range and the challenges that comes with it. Disabilities The safeguarding vulnerable group’s act 2006 is in place to protect children and people with disabilities from abuse and discrimination. Many workplaces have policies in place to make sure people with disabilities are welcomed into the workplace and the place is suited for them. People should not be discriminated against because they are disabled. They did not choose to be disabled. ... has indicated that it is not concerned about people with disabilities. Mark Haddon’s novel The Curious Incident ... was disabled. The man was right on his place as he was trying to save a boy ... the officer is only looking at Christopher’s age and not paying attention to his predicament. Both ... above that the theme of “sometimes people are born with disabilities, but its communities that handicap them” ... Sexual orientation Sexuality is important in a lot of people’s lives and some people believe that they are born certain sexuality and this cannot be changed. Some people try to hide their sexuality because they are ashamed of what others may think but people should not have to worry about that. They should be proud of their sexuality and they should not be discriminated against because of something they can’t change. Sexuality is defined differently by different cultures and religions but people should still not be treated any differently because of it. Gender Gender has been discriminated against for many years as men believed women were second class citizens and they were only good for having children. This view has changed now for most people as women can now work and may be the main earner in many houses. Many women are working now and having children later in life. There are also a lot of families doing a role reversal and women are going to work while men stay home and look after the children. Some people discriminate against this but it is the family’s choice and they should be able to raise their children the way that they want. Race There are many different races in the world and there is a lot of discrimination against races. There have been many legislations and acts to promote race equality such as the race relations act 1968 and the race relations amendment act 2001. These acts help to promote equality and to try and stop discrimination. People cannot choose their race and so should not be discriminated against because of it. They should also not be stereotyped because of it as we are all individuals and we are all different. Cultural There are many different cultures in the world as well as different races and each culture has different beliefs and different traditions. With so many different cultures and ethnic groups in the UK now, schools, workplaces and public places must be accepting and welcoming to all cultures and customs. We must accept each person’s culture and ethnicity and respect them equally. We cannot treat someone differently because of their background. ... At the same time, these religious cultures express values and attitudes about the people, communities, and society beyond their boundaries ... operating within multiple levels of analysis. The tendency of diversity to be expressed as group self-identification and difference ... and other social scientists to reconsider issues of cultural diversity both within and across national boundaries. Of course, ... Religion When a workplace is hiring staff they must not discriminate against any person for their religion. Some workplaces include a monitoring form with their application so they can make sure they are not discriminating against any gender and religion. The public order will protect people from discrimination on the basis of their religious beliefs. We should not discriminate against people because of their religion as it is their choice and it should not matter to anyone else what religion they are. They should be accepted for who they are. Social Status There are many different social statuses and they are influenced by money, power appearance, etc. A person should not be discriminated against because of their social class as they didn’t choose to be brought up that way. A person’s social status doesn’t influence a person’s personality and so they should be treated equally to everyone else with respect and dignity. Benefits of Diversity There are many benefits to having diversity in society. When we have a diverse society, people from different minorities will be offered opportunities such as jobs and training. This will allow them to get qualifications and contribute to our economy. For example having diverse medical staff can bring new perspectives to the healthcare team as they may have better training or better ways of doing things. In some cases they may have different treatments for some illnesses that work better than others. Diversity can allow schools to change to include other religions and backgrounds. This can allow the teaching staff to expand on their religion lessons and teach the students about different religions instead of just one or two. Diversity also gives us the chance to learn new languages so we can communicate with people from different countries. This is to try to break the language barrier and allow us to communicate with other cultures. This is called cultural enrichment. Diversity in people in society can bring diversity in arts such as music and dance. Seeing other cultures making music or doing their native dance can open our eyes to their way of life and allow us to accept them and respect them for what they do. ... have been many people who have studied religion and through many different methods. While some people share similar findings, each person has his ... harmony with society. If people are not respectful them society will be off balance. Along with respect is Jen, meaning human ... required for their real happiness" (Marx 41). For all people religion provides something different. To some, living by way of ... They also bring a diversity of foods from all over the world which can give us more variety of food to choose from and a wider perspective on people. In some supermarkets there is a section for worldwide foods. This is because of diversity. Equality Equality is when everyone has equal rights and everyone is able to share opportunities. It does not mean that everyone is treated the same but it means we are all treated equally and with respect. To try and tackle equality we are trying to help those in most need first as they are generally being excluded from society. This can be because of their social class, disability, education, age etc. Helping these people to reach equality can be done by giving them extra support workers to help those with a severe disability and free childcare and housing for someone possibly of a low social class. Equality means everyone should get an equal share of society’s resources such as health services and employment. Working in a healthcare setting means you should be professional and treat all staff and patients equally and respect their individuality regardless of their race, religion, age etc. Rights In an aim to achieve equality for everyone a set of rights were devised and passed as law. These rights are put in place to try and ensure everyone has basic rights and responsibilities in society. The human rights act 1998 contained a list of rights that everyone should have. I am going to describe 6 of them for the purpose of this essay. The right to be respected-Everyone has the right to be respected regardless of their differences. This is especially important in healthcare settings. The right to not be discriminated against-No person should be discriminated against for any reason. We should treat everyone equally. The right to be safeguarded from harm-If we are in danger we all have the right to be protected from it as best as possible. The right to privacy- Privacy is a right we all have and need. It enables people to keep their dignity and have their privacy respected. The right to be treated as an individual-Everyone is different and individual and we all have the right to be treated as a unique person. The right to be allowed access to your information-Our information is confidential however as it is about us we have a right to see what is stored about us. ... . For example that does not mean that should not treat all people with respect, but I feel that even that may differ depending ... there be justice for all?' and 'Can the rebe equality for all people?' . The answer to this question is no. Unfortunately we ... would place all people in an equality of conditions, where all are in the same boat. The average person would be faced with ... Empowerment Empowerment is giving someone the ability or power to do or say something. It gives a person authority and allows them to feel stronger and more confident in themselves. It teaches them that they control their life and they can claim their rights when they speak up. Empowerment is important in diversity as it allows people who may have been discriminated against the chance to pick themselves up and get the confidence they need to move on from it. Stereotyping Stereotyping is making a judgement or assumption about a group or ‘type’ of people without knowing anything about them. It is usually based on a lack of knowledge, understanding or experience. Some people are brought up in an environment where there is a lot of stereotyping going on and they will pick up on these ideas and believe them to be true. Stereotyping is similar to labelling as they are both grouping people to be all the same and making assumptions about them creating an oversimplified image. Prejudice and labelling Prejudice is similar to stereotyping as it is a preconceived idea of a person without knowing anything about them. It means you are judging a person on a small part of their life and not giving them a chance to see their personality or way of life. More often than not each prejudice is wrong and is not common in each minority. Labelling is a classifying phrase or name applied to a group of people with a common factor. It is very commonly inaccurate and restricts people’s views on the group and restricts the groups’ opportunities because of it. For example ‘blondes are dumb’. This is wrong because it can make people believe these prejudice and labels and give them a low self-esteem.	<urn:uuid:a1dc6e52-775a-488e-a1b6-a54155a1b1e7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://educheer.com/essays/explain-the-concepts-of-equality-diversity-and-rights-in-relation-to-health-and-social-care/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00543.warc.gz	en	0.980146	2,250	3.296875	3	[ 0.17429493367671967, 0.17495787143707275, 0.15128353238105774, -0.3997979760169983, -0.18955127894878387, 0.7060466408729553, 0.5122368335723877, 0.20954099297523499, 0.08027870953083038, 0.013727229088544846, 0.09386003017425537, 0.052013300359249115, 0.09143543988466263, -0.0292187184095...	1	Diversity is very important in today’s society and especially when you are working in a healthcare setting. It is recognising and appreciating the variety of characteristics that make people unique in an atmosphere that promotes and celebrates everyone for who they are. This means that people need to accept and embrace diversity. To make diversity positive we need to respond differently to it and make everyone aware of it. It is important that everyone knows and understand the meaning and importance of diversity. In this essay I am going to describe some of the areas that people can be discriminated against for and the benefits of diversity. These areas can be anything from gender, culture, age, race or social status. I am going to choose 8 areas of diversity and explain each of these briefly. Age At work workers are protected from discrimination through policies and laws. This stops any harassment, bullying or unfair treatment on any person because of their age. When a workplace is hiring employees they must not look at them differently because of their age and they must not base an opinion on this. Employers must embrace the age range and the challenges that comes with it. Disabilities The safeguarding vulnerable group’s act 2006 is in place to protect children and people with disabilities from abuse and discrimination. Many workplaces have policies in place to make sure people with disabilities are welcomed into the workplace and the place is suited for them. People should not be discriminated against because they are disabled. They did not choose to be disabled. ... has indicated that it is not concerned about people with disabilities. Mark Haddon’s novel The Curious Incident ... was disabled. The man was right on his place as he was trying to save a boy ... the officer is only looking at Christopher’s age and not paying attention to his predicament. Both ... above that the theme of “sometimes people are born with disabilities, but its communities that handicap them” ... Sexual orientation Sexuality is important in a lot of people’s lives and some people believe that they are born certain sexuality and this cannot be changed. Some people try to hide their sexuality because they are ashamed of what others may think but people should not have to worry about that. They should be proud of their sexuality and they should not be discriminated against because of something they can’t change. Sexuality is defined differently by different cultures and religions but people should still not be treated any differently because of it. Gender Gender has been discriminated against for many years as men believed women were second class citizens and they were only good for having children. This view has changed now for most people as women can now work and may be the main earner in many houses. Many women are working now and having children later in life. There are also a lot of families doing a role reversal and women are going to work while men stay home and look after the children. Some people discriminate against this but it is the family’s choice and they should be able to raise their children the way that they want. Race There are many different races in the world and there is a lot of discrimination against races. There have been many legislations and acts to promote race equality such as the race relations act 1968 and the race relations amendment act 2001. These acts help to promote equality and to try and stop discrimination. People cannot choose their race and so should not be discriminated against because of it. They should also not be stereotyped because of it as we are all individuals and we are all different. Cultural There are many different cultures in the world as well as different races and each culture has different beliefs and different traditions. With so many different cultures and ethnic groups in the UK now, schools, workplaces and public places must be accepting and welcoming to all cultures and customs. We must accept each person’s culture and ethnicity and respect them equally. We cannot treat someone differently because of their background. ... At the same time, these religious cultures express values and attitudes about the people, communities, and society beyond their boundaries ... operating within multiple levels of analysis. The tendency of diversity to be expressed as group self-identification and difference ... and other social scientists to reconsider issues of cultural diversity both within and across national boundaries. Of course, ... Religion When a workplace is hiring staff they must not discriminate against any person for their religion. Some workplaces include a monitoring form with their application so they can make sure they are not discriminating against any gender and religion. The public order will protect people from discrimination on the basis of their religious beliefs. We should not discriminate against people because of their religion as it is their choice and it should not matter to anyone else what religion they are. They should be accepted for who they are. Social Status There are many different social statuses and they are influenced by money, power appearance, etc. A person should not be discriminated against because of their social class as they didn’t choose to be brought up that way. A person’s social status doesn’t influence a person’s personality and so they should be treated equally to everyone else with respect and dignity. Benefits of Diversity There are many benefits to having diversity in society. When we have a diverse society, people from different minorities will be offered opportunities such as jobs and training. This will allow them to get qualifications and contribute to our economy. For example having diverse medical staff can bring new perspectives to the healthcare team as they may have better training or better ways of doing things. In some cases they may have different treatments for some illnesses that work better than others. Diversity can allow schools to change to include other religions and backgrounds. This can allow the teaching staff to expand on their religion lessons and teach the students about different religions instead of just one or two. Diversity also gives us the chance to learn new languages so we can communicate with people from different countries. This is to try to break the language barrier and allow us to communicate with other cultures. This is called cultural enrichment. Diversity in people in society can bring diversity in arts such as music and dance. Seeing other cultures making music or doing their native dance can open our eyes to their way of life and allow us to accept them and respect them for what they do. ... have been many people who have studied religion and through many different methods. While some people share similar findings, each person has his ... harmony with society. If people are not respectful them society will be off balance. Along with respect is Jen, meaning human ... required for their real happiness" (Marx 41). For all people religion provides something different. To some, living by way of ... They also bring a diversity of foods from all over the world which can give us more variety of food to choose from and a wider perspective on people. In some supermarkets there is a section for worldwide foods. This is because of diversity. Equality Equality is when everyone has equal rights and everyone is able to share opportunities. It does not mean that everyone is treated the same but it means we are all treated equally and with respect. To try and tackle equality we are trying to help those in most need first as they are generally being excluded from society. This can be because of their social class, disability, education, age etc. Helping these people to reach equality can be done by giving them extra support workers to help those with a severe disability and free childcare and housing for someone possibly of a low social class. Equality means everyone should get an equal share of society’s resources such as health services and employment. Working in a healthcare setting means you should be professional and treat all staff and patients equally and respect their individuality regardless of their race, religion, age etc. Rights In an aim to achieve equality for everyone a set of rights were devised and passed as law. These rights are put in place to try and ensure everyone has basic rights and responsibilities in society. The human rights act 1998 contained a list of rights that everyone should have. I am going to describe 6 of them for the purpose of this essay. The right to be respected-Everyone has the right to be respected regardless of their differences. This is especially important in healthcare settings. The right to not be discriminated against-No person should be discriminated against for any reason. We should treat everyone equally. The right to be safeguarded from harm-If we are in danger we all have the right to be protected from it as best as possible. The right to privacy- Privacy is a right we all have and need. It enables people to keep their dignity and have their privacy respected. The right to be treated as an individual-Everyone is different and individual and we all have the right to be treated as a unique person. The right to be allowed access to your information-Our information is confidential however as it is about us we have a right to see what is stored about us. ... . For example that does not mean that should not treat all people with respect, but I feel that even that may differ depending ... there be justice for all?' and 'Can the rebe equality for all people?' . The answer to this question is no. Unfortunately we ... would place all people in an equality of conditions, where all are in the same boat. The average person would be faced with ... Empowerment Empowerment is giving someone the ability or power to do or say something. It gives a person authority and allows them to feel stronger and more confident in themselves. It teaches them that they control their life and they can claim their rights when they speak up. Empowerment is important in diversity as it allows people who may have been discriminated against the chance to pick themselves up and get the confidence they need to move on from it. Stereotyping Stereotyping is making a judgement or assumption about a group or ‘type’ of people without knowing anything about them. It is usually based on a lack of knowledge, understanding or experience. Some people are brought up in an environment where there is a lot of stereotyping going on and they will pick up on these ideas and believe them to be true. Stereotyping is similar to labelling as they are both grouping people to be all the same and making assumptions about them creating an oversimplified image. Prejudice and labelling Prejudice is similar to stereotyping as it is a preconceived idea of a person without knowing anything about them. It means you are judging a person on a small part of their life and not giving them a chance to see their personality or way of life. More often than not each prejudice is wrong and is not common in each minority. Labelling is a classifying phrase or name applied to a group of people with a common factor. It is very commonly inaccurate and restricts people’s views on the group and restricts the groups’ opportunities because of it. For example ‘blondes are dumb’. This is wrong because it can make people believe these prejudice and labels and give them a low self-esteem.	2,210	ENGLISH	1
Our ancestors were able to tell the time long before clocks were invented. We figured out that there were certain things that were constant in the world; the sun rising and setting, for example, and started measuring time around that. In the very early days of humans living on the planet, we would rise with the sun and go to bed with the moon – or, at least, hide from the predators which came out at night. You could set some particular times – “I’ll meet you by the entrance to the cave when the sun is directly overhead,” or “I want you to be home for lunch when the sun is down as far as that tree in the distance.” That wasn’t very sophisticated, was it? But then we began to evolve and get cleverer. One of our very first ways of measuring time was with a sun dial, after we figured out the speed of the sun. We built different-sized sundials, some small and some huge, with dials around the outside so that everyone agreed on particular times – “I’ll meet by the sun dial in the town square when the shadow touches VII.” The ancient Greeks also used water clocks, which obviously didn’t rely on the sun to tell them what the time was. Apparently, these water clocks were mostly used at night, but possibly in the day as well. Hourglasses were a huge way of measuring a unit of time – they couldn’t tell you what the current time was, but could easily tell you when an hour or a minute has gone past. Nowadays, we use egg timers for pretty much the same thing. Clocks eventually were created, and there was a lot of confusion for a long time; different towns and villages used their own times, and they didn’t necessarily agree with the time of the next village. Imagine walking 20 minutes to the next town and finding that it was actually two hours ahead! Countries eventually started to organise things far better and were far more logical; time zones were eventually created, where different countries were grouped together and had their clocks all set to the same time. Everyone knew who was in that time zone, and who was in the next time zone along, so that we could plan ahead. That makes life so much easier, doesn’t it?	<urn:uuid:8204e96d-0c8c-43aa-8997-c1ea224ea092>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.matthewmunson.co.uk/how-did-they-know-what-time-it-was-before-they-invented-the-first-clock/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00555.warc.gz	en	0.989399	488	3.46875	3	[ -0.39285656809806824, 0.07016772031784058, 0.06907228380441666, 0.18887192010879517, -0.013030222617089748, 0.060537777841091156, 0.21950602531433105, -0.3907543122768402, 0.3996191620826721, -0.1986631155014038, -0.04200543463230133, -0.00032025933614932, 0.005780763924121857, 0.420816987...	2	Our ancestors were able to tell the time long before clocks were invented. We figured out that there were certain things that were constant in the world; the sun rising and setting, for example, and started measuring time around that. In the very early days of humans living on the planet, we would rise with the sun and go to bed with the moon – or, at least, hide from the predators which came out at night. You could set some particular times – “I’ll meet you by the entrance to the cave when the sun is directly overhead,” or “I want you to be home for lunch when the sun is down as far as that tree in the distance.” That wasn’t very sophisticated, was it? But then we began to evolve and get cleverer. One of our very first ways of measuring time was with a sun dial, after we figured out the speed of the sun. We built different-sized sundials, some small and some huge, with dials around the outside so that everyone agreed on particular times – “I’ll meet by the sun dial in the town square when the shadow touches VII.” The ancient Greeks also used water clocks, which obviously didn’t rely on the sun to tell them what the time was. Apparently, these water clocks were mostly used at night, but possibly in the day as well. Hourglasses were a huge way of measuring a unit of time – they couldn’t tell you what the current time was, but could easily tell you when an hour or a minute has gone past. Nowadays, we use egg timers for pretty much the same thing. Clocks eventually were created, and there was a lot of confusion for a long time; different towns and villages used their own times, and they didn’t necessarily agree with the time of the next village. Imagine walking 20 minutes to the next town and finding that it was actually two hours ahead! Countries eventually started to organise things far better and were far more logical; time zones were eventually created, where different countries were grouped together and had their clocks all set to the same time. Everyone knew who was in that time zone, and who was in the next time zone along, so that we could plan ahead. That makes life so much easier, doesn’t it?	456	ENGLISH	1
Martin Luther King Day was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan in 1983 and is commemorated each year on the third Monday in January. We will observe the day on Jan. 20 this year. King was a tireless advocate for the advancement of civil rights for people of color. Later in his life, his advocacy expanded to include the plight of all people who lived in poverty. During a time when laws were in place that limited where people of color could walk, talk, eat and drink, King led a nonviolent movement that led to their repeal. At a time when restrictions were in place that confined the employment, education and medical care of those with dark skin to low-paid positions and inferior institutions, King promoted the activism that exposed and broke down these barriers. His work brought awareness to the hardship that resulted from racism. It was a time of great division. Some hearts were broken while other hearts were hardened. King’s “I have a Dream” speech encapsulated his vision of peace and racial equality. It was a speech that resonated throughout the world. Due to the notoriety of the movement, the nations of Japan, the Netherlands, Canada, and Israel also adopted the observance of Martin Luther King Jr .Day. U.S. Navy Chaplain Arnold Resnicoff conducted the first Israeli MLK Day ceremony in the President’s Residence in Jerusalem. The First Lady of Israel commented that both Israel and King shared the idea of “dreams.” Chaplain Resnicoff continued this theme by quoting a verse from Genesis: “Behold the dreamer comes; let us slay him and throw him into the pit, and see what becomes of his dreams.” He continued his speech by saying, “from time immemorial, there have been those who thought they could kill the dream by slaying the dreamer, but — as the example of King’s life shows — such people are always wrong.” A decade later, President Bill Clinton signed legislation that transformed MLK Day into a National Day of Service. Evil is overcome by doing good. (Romans 12:21). Please consider doing an act of kindness in observance of the day. “Little children, let’s not love with words or speech but with action and truth.” 1 John 3:18 STACY KEELIN may be reached at email@example.com	<urn:uuid:b25a74d7-8297-4aaa-969b-8c0c046677f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailyindependent.com/news/stacy-keelin-living-the-dream/article_d5309722-33b7-11ea-bdeb-533c8cb14c68.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00255.warc.gz	en	0.980139	506	3.5	4	[ -0.5622274875640869, 0.3041549623012543, 0.18997545540332794, -0.17724186182022095, -0.4532378017902374, 0.09034077078104019, 0.05086832493543625, -0.13581004738807678, -0.14076365530490875, 0.597786545753479, 0.1656324565410614, 0.4838551878929138, 0.08538556098937988, -0.0022146401461213...	1	Martin Luther King Day was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan in 1983 and is commemorated each year on the third Monday in January. We will observe the day on Jan. 20 this year. King was a tireless advocate for the advancement of civil rights for people of color. Later in his life, his advocacy expanded to include the plight of all people who lived in poverty. During a time when laws were in place that limited where people of color could walk, talk, eat and drink, King led a nonviolent movement that led to their repeal. At a time when restrictions were in place that confined the employment, education and medical care of those with dark skin to low-paid positions and inferior institutions, King promoted the activism that exposed and broke down these barriers. His work brought awareness to the hardship that resulted from racism. It was a time of great division. Some hearts were broken while other hearts were hardened. King’s “I have a Dream” speech encapsulated his vision of peace and racial equality. It was a speech that resonated throughout the world. Due to the notoriety of the movement, the nations of Japan, the Netherlands, Canada, and Israel also adopted the observance of Martin Luther King Jr .Day. U.S. Navy Chaplain Arnold Resnicoff conducted the first Israeli MLK Day ceremony in the President’s Residence in Jerusalem. The First Lady of Israel commented that both Israel and King shared the idea of “dreams.” Chaplain Resnicoff continued this theme by quoting a verse from Genesis: “Behold the dreamer comes; let us slay him and throw him into the pit, and see what becomes of his dreams.” He continued his speech by saying, “from time immemorial, there have been those who thought they could kill the dream by slaying the dreamer, but — as the example of King’s life shows — such people are always wrong.” A decade later, President Bill Clinton signed legislation that transformed MLK Day into a National Day of Service. Evil is overcome by doing good. (Romans 12:21). Please consider doing an act of kindness in observance of the day. “Little children, let’s not love with words or speech but with action and truth.” 1 John 3:18 STACY KEELIN may be reached at email@example.com	483	ENGLISH	1
The President Theodore Roosevelt “Roosevelt was among the best-liked Presidents and, in many respects, the most interesting” (World Book 149). Theodore Roosevelt did many things, some in which impacted America. Theodore Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858 in New York City, making him the only president born there (Lamb 152). As a child Roosevelt was always very sick and frail, and had bad asthma (Kent 13). Despite this he never got tired of playing with his friends and inventing new games to play. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Since he was always sick, a nanny tutored Roosevelt until he was old enough to attend college (Kent 14). When Roosevelt turned ten, his father had told him, “Theodore, you have the mind but you have not the body. You must make your body. “, and Roosevelt’s response to that was “I’ll make my body. ” (Kent 16). He was so determined to build his body strength that he spent hours at Woods’ Gymnasium near his house until his father installed exercise equipment in a room in his house (Kent 16). At the age of 16, Roosevelt went to Harvard University because his father, Theodore Roosevelt Sr. was a millionaire (Kent 13). While attending Harvard, Roosevelt was a boxer. During his junior year, he made it to the boxing finals of the annual competition (Kent 19-20). Along with boxing Roosevelt did swimming, rowing, hiking, hunting, running, and horseback riding. At Harvard he studied natural history, which involves more information than today (Lamb 153). While he was studying natural history, he met Alice Lee, his future wife. He then changed his major to law so he wouldn’t have to leave her to go to Germany for a natural history course (Lamb 153). Roosevelt and his first wife, Alice Lee, got married on October 27, 1878. Alice got pregnant but never mothered any children. In 1884 she died giving birth to a daughter who was named after her (Lamb 153). In December 1886, Roosevelt married Edith Carow, two years after Alice died (Lamb 153). Edith was a childhood friend whom Roosevelt knew since he was five years old. The couple produced four boys and two girls (The Saturday Evening Post 90). The six kids made the White House a play house; they brought everything into the house including roller-skates, stilts, and even pets (World Book 149). Before Roosevelt was president he did many different things including being a policeman and owning a ranch. In 1885, Roosevelt worked out of grief in the Dakota Territory on a cattle ranch that he bought along the Little Missouri River (World Book 148). While he was at the ranch he learned things like how to heard cattle, organize a roundup, and how to run a ranch (World Book 148). He stopped ranching after three-fourths of his herd died in the winter of 1886-1887 (World Book 148-9). Roosevelt was also a very important policeman before he became president. As a New York City police commissioner in the 1890’s he battled corruption in the department (World Book 149). He would personally patrol the streets at night by checking on police performance and law enforcement (World Book 149). In 1897, William McKinley made him assistant secretary of the navy, and he supported McKinley on almost everything except his attempts to avoid war (World Book 149). After the navy Roosevelt volunteered for the army in 1898 at the beginning of the Spanish-American war (Lamb 154). Roosevelt was very active in this war. His regiment was called “Roosevelt’s Rough Riders” (The Saturday Evening Post 90). The Rough Riders were the only ones that were active in this war, and they did most of the fighting and traveling on foot (Lamb 154). He got out of the army when he was elected governor of New York. Roosevelt also did some political things before he was a president. Roosevelt served in the New York state assembly, and he was a governor of New York. His career in politics began when he was a state assemblyman; this job was extremely important for his career (Lamb 153). Even though he was advanced to minority leader, his job as a state assemblyman made a prominent public figure making him “the most famous politician in New York State” (Lamb 154). He was later elected governor of New York and became known as a “trust buster,” fighting the power of big business (The Saturday Evening Post 90). Along with being very trustworthy, his war record also helped him become the governor of New York (World Book 149). As the presidential elections approached, Roosevelts stay as governor of New York came to a close. Roosevelt, who wasn’t to concerned about who was running for president this early in the election, was nominated for vice-president (Saturday Evening Post 90). The party bosses wanted to get Roosevelt out of the way because he always wanted to do everything, so they nominated him for vice president under McKinley (The Saturday Evening Post 90). When McKinley won the presidency, Roosevelt was the youngest person to have ever hold the office of vice president (Melitzer, 113). Six months into McKinley’s second term as president, he was shot while he was visiting the Pan-American Exhibition in Buffalo. The visit had been open to anyone, and there was a huge line of people (Lamb 154). In the line of people there was a man with a bandage on his hand who wanted to shake his hand. When McKinley lifted his hand to shake the mans hand, the man shot him in the stomach three times (Lamb 154). McKinley died ten days later from the wounds. When the news got to the office, Roosevelt was sworn in to office making him the 26th president of the United States (Lamb, 155). While Roosevelt was in office he did many things to help his country. One of the things he endorsed was the pure food and drug law; many people of the time believed that this would bring down prices while increasing competition (World Book 149-150). The pure food and drug law was put in affect to show people how unsanitary the meat packing in the United States is, and this is how the FDA was formed. In 1903, the United States and Panama signed a treaty for the canal; construction soon followed (Meltzer 157). After the newspaper readers heard about this they gave Roosevelt the phrase ” walk softly and carry a big stick’ which means, in foreign policy, the United States should negotiate, should arbitrate, but always have a big stick in hand in case reasonableness would not be met” (Lamb 155). Roosevelt loved to travel to many places throughout the United States. In 1903, he took a trip to Yellowstone National Park (Meltzer 151). When he got back from his trip to Wyoming, he realized that the United States only had five national parks, Yellowstone, Sequoia, Mount Rainier, Yosemite, and General Grant, so Congress added five more under Roosevelt’s pressure (Meltzer 151). In 1907 Roosevelt announced his plan to send 16 new battleships, all painted white, and 12,000 officers and men on a trip around the world (Whitelaw 146). Roosevelt called in his “Great White Fleet”, and he used this trip as a way to show Japan how powerful the United States really is (Whitelaw 146). All of his battleships made it back from the journey. Roosevelt believed very deeply in exercising, so while he was at the White House he exercised as much as he could. During his presidency he exercised regularly with enthusiasm (World Book 149). He would briskly walk with his members of Congress and members of his Cabinet everyday, even though it was hard for them to keep up with him most of the time (World Book 149). Roosevelt enjoyed fencing, boxing, tossing a medicine ball, and playing tennis (World Book 149). It is important for the presidents to be active to help him relieve a lot of the stress they have. After his presidency, Roosevelt took many trips to different parts of the world. His first trip was on an African expedition (Whitelaw 154). While he was there he studied animals and brought back specimens for the Smithsonian Institution (Whitelaw 154). In 1913 he took his next big trip. Roosevelt and his youngest sons trampled through the Grand Canyon on a camping trip (Kent 150). Within the next year Roosevelt traveled to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on a lecture trip (Whitelaw 171-2). In Brazil he hunted jaguar and tapir, he hacked his way through hip-deep swamps, and he studied many things like birds, fish, animals, plants, and trees (Whitelaw 171-2). In his 60 years Roosevelt wrote 150,000 letters, 40 books, and a lot of magazine articles (Lamb 155). At the age of 23 he wrote a book entitled The Naval War of 1812, and it was a great success for him (Lamb 153). In 1913 Roosevelt wrote his autobiography (Kent 83). Along with writing books he did a lot of reading; he read a new book everyday (Lamb 155). After his presidency, in 1912, he became so frustrated with the current president at the time, Taft, that he decided to run for president against him under a Republican nomination in the Bull Moose party (Lamb 156). While campaigning for presidency he was to give a speech in Milwaukee, WI, on October 14 on his way there he was shot by John Schrank (Lamb 157). Luckily the bullet was stopped by his campaign speech and his glass case, and he wasn’t hurt (Whitelaw 169). When he got to Milwaukee he still gave his speech and he said, “It takes more than that to kill a bull moose! ” (Whitelaw 169). Unfortunately Roosevelt did not win that election. Theodore Roosevelt has impacted America in many ways from being our 26th president to refusing to shoot and bear and giving us the “teddy bear” (The Saturday Evening Post 91). Roosevelt gave the “teddy bear” the name teddy bear because he went to Arkansas on a hunting trip and he shot a mama cub, but when he saw that she had two baby cubs he didn’t shoot them (The Saturday Evening Post 91). Roosevelt was also one of the few presidents to ever win a Nobel Peace Prize. In 1906 he was awarded the prize for his war efforts in putting the Russo-Japanese War to a close in 1905 (World Book 150). When Roosevelt died he was deaf in one ear, blind in one eye, and crippled by attacks of rheumatism (Melitzer, 179). The 60 year old died in his sleep of a blood clot in his coronary artery on January 5, 1919 (Whitelaw, 180). This president will never be forgotten. The many changes that he has made for America has impacted everyone. For example, he is one of the four heads on Mount Rushmore and in the current war the United States is having with Afghanistan has an army ship named the Theodore Roosevelt. Now it is understandable why people believe “Roosevelt was among the best-liked Presidents and, in many respects, the most interesting” (World Book 149).	<urn:uuid:4ff6b572-c40a-402f-9c27-a0e03a80c284>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/the-president-theodore-roosevelt/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00319.warc.gz	en	0.985711	2,388	3.296875	3	[ -0.1513839066028595, 0.38802582025527954, 0.39371389150619507, -0.14404697716236115, 0.278659462928772, 0.2517726421356201, -0.13948789238929749, -0.11782646179199219, -0.04362896457314491, 0.020583247765898705, 0.3056447505950928, 0.18413898348808289, 0.2850591838359833, 0.652146697044372...	1	The President Theodore Roosevelt “Roosevelt was among the best-liked Presidents and, in many respects, the most interesting” (World Book 149). Theodore Roosevelt did many things, some in which impacted America. Theodore Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858 in New York City, making him the only president born there (Lamb 152). As a child Roosevelt was always very sick and frail, and had bad asthma (Kent 13). Despite this he never got tired of playing with his friends and inventing new games to play. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Since he was always sick, a nanny tutored Roosevelt until he was old enough to attend college (Kent 14). When Roosevelt turned ten, his father had told him, “Theodore, you have the mind but you have not the body. You must make your body. “, and Roosevelt’s response to that was “I’ll make my body. ” (Kent 16). He was so determined to build his body strength that he spent hours at Woods’ Gymnasium near his house until his father installed exercise equipment in a room in his house (Kent 16). At the age of 16, Roosevelt went to Harvard University because his father, Theodore Roosevelt Sr. was a millionaire (Kent 13). While attending Harvard, Roosevelt was a boxer. During his junior year, he made it to the boxing finals of the annual competition (Kent 19-20). Along with boxing Roosevelt did swimming, rowing, hiking, hunting, running, and horseback riding. At Harvard he studied natural history, which involves more information than today (Lamb 153). While he was studying natural history, he met Alice Lee, his future wife. He then changed his major to law so he wouldn’t have to leave her to go to Germany for a natural history course (Lamb 153). Roosevelt and his first wife, Alice Lee, got married on October 27, 1878. Alice got pregnant but never mothered any children. In 1884 she died giving birth to a daughter who was named after her (Lamb 153). In December 1886, Roosevelt married Edith Carow, two years after Alice died (Lamb 153). Edith was a childhood friend whom Roosevelt knew since he was five years old. The couple produced four boys and two girls (The Saturday Evening Post 90). The six kids made the White House a play house; they brought everything into the house including roller-skates, stilts, and even pets (World Book 149). Before Roosevelt was president he did many different things including being a policeman and owning a ranch. In 1885, Roosevelt worked out of grief in the Dakota Territory on a cattle ranch that he bought along the Little Missouri River (World Book 148). While he was at the ranch he learned things like how to heard cattle, organize a roundup, and how to run a ranch (World Book 148). He stopped ranching after three-fourths of his herd died in the winter of 1886-1887 (World Book 148-9). Roosevelt was also a very important policeman before he became president. As a New York City police commissioner in the 1890’s he battled corruption in the department (World Book 149). He would personally patrol the streets at night by checking on police performance and law enforcement (World Book 149). In 1897, William McKinley made him assistant secretary of the navy, and he supported McKinley on almost everything except his attempts to avoid war (World Book 149). After the navy Roosevelt volunteered for the army in 1898 at the beginning of the Spanish-American war (Lamb 154). Roosevelt was very active in this war. His regiment was called “Roosevelt’s Rough Riders” (The Saturday Evening Post 90). The Rough Riders were the only ones that were active in this war, and they did most of the fighting and traveling on foot (Lamb 154). He got out of the army when he was elected governor of New York. Roosevelt also did some political things before he was a president. Roosevelt served in the New York state assembly, and he was a governor of New York. His career in politics began when he was a state assemblyman; this job was extremely important for his career (Lamb 153). Even though he was advanced to minority leader, his job as a state assemblyman made a prominent public figure making him “the most famous politician in New York State” (Lamb 154). He was later elected governor of New York and became known as a “trust buster,” fighting the power of big business (The Saturday Evening Post 90). Along with being very trustworthy, his war record also helped him become the governor of New York (World Book 149). As the presidential elections approached, Roosevelts stay as governor of New York came to a close. Roosevelt, who wasn’t to concerned about who was running for president this early in the election, was nominated for vice-president (Saturday Evening Post 90). The party bosses wanted to get Roosevelt out of the way because he always wanted to do everything, so they nominated him for vice president under McKinley (The Saturday Evening Post 90). When McKinley won the presidency, Roosevelt was the youngest person to have ever hold the office of vice president (Melitzer, 113). Six months into McKinley’s second term as president, he was shot while he was visiting the Pan-American Exhibition in Buffalo. The visit had been open to anyone, and there was a huge line of people (Lamb 154). In the line of people there was a man with a bandage on his hand who wanted to shake his hand. When McKinley lifted his hand to shake the mans hand, the man shot him in the stomach three times (Lamb 154). McKinley died ten days later from the wounds. When the news got to the office, Roosevelt was sworn in to office making him the 26th president of the United States (Lamb, 155). While Roosevelt was in office he did many things to help his country. One of the things he endorsed was the pure food and drug law; many people of the time believed that this would bring down prices while increasing competition (World Book 149-150). The pure food and drug law was put in affect to show people how unsanitary the meat packing in the United States is, and this is how the FDA was formed. In 1903, the United States and Panama signed a treaty for the canal; construction soon followed (Meltzer 157). After the newspaper readers heard about this they gave Roosevelt the phrase ” walk softly and carry a big stick’ which means, in foreign policy, the United States should negotiate, should arbitrate, but always have a big stick in hand in case reasonableness would not be met” (Lamb 155). Roosevelt loved to travel to many places throughout the United States. In 1903, he took a trip to Yellowstone National Park (Meltzer 151). When he got back from his trip to Wyoming, he realized that the United States only had five national parks, Yellowstone, Sequoia, Mount Rainier, Yosemite, and General Grant, so Congress added five more under Roosevelt’s pressure (Meltzer 151). In 1907 Roosevelt announced his plan to send 16 new battleships, all painted white, and 12,000 officers and men on a trip around the world (Whitelaw 146). Roosevelt called in his “Great White Fleet”, and he used this trip as a way to show Japan how powerful the United States really is (Whitelaw 146). All of his battleships made it back from the journey. Roosevelt believed very deeply in exercising, so while he was at the White House he exercised as much as he could. During his presidency he exercised regularly with enthusiasm (World Book 149). He would briskly walk with his members of Congress and members of his Cabinet everyday, even though it was hard for them to keep up with him most of the time (World Book 149). Roosevelt enjoyed fencing, boxing, tossing a medicine ball, and playing tennis (World Book 149). It is important for the presidents to be active to help him relieve a lot of the stress they have. After his presidency, Roosevelt took many trips to different parts of the world. His first trip was on an African expedition (Whitelaw 154). While he was there he studied animals and brought back specimens for the Smithsonian Institution (Whitelaw 154). In 1913 he took his next big trip. Roosevelt and his youngest sons trampled through the Grand Canyon on a camping trip (Kent 150). Within the next year Roosevelt traveled to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on a lecture trip (Whitelaw 171-2). In Brazil he hunted jaguar and tapir, he hacked his way through hip-deep swamps, and he studied many things like birds, fish, animals, plants, and trees (Whitelaw 171-2). In his 60 years Roosevelt wrote 150,000 letters, 40 books, and a lot of magazine articles (Lamb 155). At the age of 23 he wrote a book entitled The Naval War of 1812, and it was a great success for him (Lamb 153). In 1913 Roosevelt wrote his autobiography (Kent 83). Along with writing books he did a lot of reading; he read a new book everyday (Lamb 155). After his presidency, in 1912, he became so frustrated with the current president at the time, Taft, that he decided to run for president against him under a Republican nomination in the Bull Moose party (Lamb 156). While campaigning for presidency he was to give a speech in Milwaukee, WI, on October 14 on his way there he was shot by John Schrank (Lamb 157). Luckily the bullet was stopped by his campaign speech and his glass case, and he wasn’t hurt (Whitelaw 169). When he got to Milwaukee he still gave his speech and he said, “It takes more than that to kill a bull moose! ” (Whitelaw 169). Unfortunately Roosevelt did not win that election. Theodore Roosevelt has impacted America in many ways from being our 26th president to refusing to shoot and bear and giving us the “teddy bear” (The Saturday Evening Post 91). Roosevelt gave the “teddy bear” the name teddy bear because he went to Arkansas on a hunting trip and he shot a mama cub, but when he saw that she had two baby cubs he didn’t shoot them (The Saturday Evening Post 91). Roosevelt was also one of the few presidents to ever win a Nobel Peace Prize. In 1906 he was awarded the prize for his war efforts in putting the Russo-Japanese War to a close in 1905 (World Book 150). When Roosevelt died he was deaf in one ear, blind in one eye, and crippled by attacks of rheumatism (Melitzer, 179). The 60 year old died in his sleep of a blood clot in his coronary artery on January 5, 1919 (Whitelaw, 180). This president will never be forgotten. The many changes that he has made for America has impacted everyone. For example, he is one of the four heads on Mount Rushmore and in the current war the United States is having with Afghanistan has an army ship named the Theodore Roosevelt. Now it is understandable why people believe “Roosevelt was among the best-liked Presidents and, in many respects, the most interesting” (World Book 149).	2,589	ENGLISH	1
Question: Many Europeans criticizes northern and southern generals for the way in which they fought the Civil War. Evaluate the military leadership, strategies, and tactics of either the North or the South. The civil war took place from 1861 to 1865. It was a bloody war between the North and the South. Even though the south didn’t win, they had good military leadership, strategies, and tactics. The South had good military leadership. They had good generals such as Robert E. Lee, Thomas “Stonewallâ€” Jackson, and Jeb Stuart. They had better skills in forming battle tactics, military knowledge, and good decision making under pressure, Lee and Jackson had graduated fromWest Point Academy, and had fought in the Mexican War. This fact that they had experience gave them an advantage over the North. In terms of strategies, the South’s main one was “offensive-defensive.”” It was one of defending all resources, stockpiling supplies and taking the offensive when the supply went down or the opportunity was provided by the enemy. The South ended up fighting a mainly defensive war. They just had to defend their capital of Richmond, Virginia from the North, while the North had to go down there to fight. They also used “interior linesâ€” to move forces from quiet fronts through the interior to threatened fronts more quickly than the enemy could move around the military border. In tactics, infantry was mainly used. Corp commanders handled”grand tacticsâ€”,the art of maneuvering large forces just outside of the battlefield and bringing them onto that field. Calvary also played a role in tactics. In the civil war, the south had good military leadership, strategies and tactics. Through generals like Lee and Jackson, and defensive strategies and tactics, they put up a good fight, although it still wasn’t good enough to win the war.	<urn:uuid:e9c35431-20de-4ada-ab61-ce21a44c35f3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/civil-war-tactics-and-strategies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00382.warc.gz	en	0.981435	397	3.625	4	[ -0.26245445013046265, 0.31902533769607544, 0.2200043648481369, -0.21606336534023285, 0.02250668592751026, 0.09088945388793945, 0.05033562332391739, 0.13233855366706848, -0.21470119059085846, 0.07257675379514694, -0.14799539744853973, 0.08754576742649078, 0.20958605408668518, 0.244495123624...	1	Question: Many Europeans criticizes northern and southern generals for the way in which they fought the Civil War. Evaluate the military leadership, strategies, and tactics of either the North or the South. The civil war took place from 1861 to 1865. It was a bloody war between the North and the South. Even though the south didn’t win, they had good military leadership, strategies, and tactics. The South had good military leadership. They had good generals such as Robert E. Lee, Thomas “Stonewallâ€” Jackson, and Jeb Stuart. They had better skills in forming battle tactics, military knowledge, and good decision making under pressure, Lee and Jackson had graduated fromWest Point Academy, and had fought in the Mexican War. This fact that they had experience gave them an advantage over the North. In terms of strategies, the South’s main one was “offensive-defensive.”” It was one of defending all resources, stockpiling supplies and taking the offensive when the supply went down or the opportunity was provided by the enemy. The South ended up fighting a mainly defensive war. They just had to defend their capital of Richmond, Virginia from the North, while the North had to go down there to fight. They also used “interior linesâ€” to move forces from quiet fronts through the interior to threatened fronts more quickly than the enemy could move around the military border. In tactics, infantry was mainly used. Corp commanders handled”grand tacticsâ€”,the art of maneuvering large forces just outside of the battlefield and bringing them onto that field. Calvary also played a role in tactics. In the civil war, the south had good military leadership, strategies and tactics. Through generals like Lee and Jackson, and defensive strategies and tactics, they put up a good fight, although it still wasn’t good enough to win the war.	382	ENGLISH	1
Rangel, Mark 1/26/18 Ms.Fink Benito Mussolini and Fascism Benito Mussolini was an Italian dictator who stood in power for the duration of WWII. He was born on July 29, 1883 in Predappio, Italy to Rosa Maltoni and Alessandro Mussolini. Benito had 2 siblings, Edvinge and Arnaldo Mussolini, who are both younger than him. He was a smart young man as a child, but he was untamed and ill-behaved, partly due to his father, who taught him socialistic ideology and a disrespect for those with more authority. In 1902, Benito traveled to Switzerland to spread the idea of socialism. He was later caught by the Swiss police and thrown out of the country. In 1904, Mussolini came home to Italy but he didn’t stop praising socialism. He got caught up with the law once again and was put in jail. After he was let out, he became the editor of a newspaper, which he would use to spread his ideas. One of those ideas was about World War I, which he did not support originally. He later changed his mind claiming that it could turn Italy into a stronger nation than before. Wanting that stronger nation, he enlisted and rose to the rank of corporal, but after being injured by a mortar, he was discharged and sent home. Because of all this, he was kicked out of the socialist organization. On March 23, 1919 Benito Mussolini founded the fascist political party of Italy, calling it the Fasci di Combattimento. Fascism is the extreme and strict nationalism of a nation that can, and often does, include eliminating other political parties and dictatorship. This party supported Italian nationalism, the idea that Italians are successors to the great Romans. Mussolini himself believed in this idea very much and wanted to see the nation grow into the glory of Ancient Rome. Exploiting the public anger from World War I, Mussolini used his paramilitary forces, the “Black Shirts”, to harass and assault his opponents and to help empower the fascist party. After bringing the country into chaos, he stated that he was the man to fix it. He was deemed worthy enough and given the title of prime minister in 1922. With his power, he eventually removed every democratic custom in the nation. In 1925 he rose higher in power and made himself the dictator of Italy. Benito however, was actually pretty popular with the people because he decreased unemployment. Mussolini wanted to exercise Italy’s military dominance so he ordered that Ethiopia be invaded. Like he commanded, Ethiopia was invaded due to the Italian’s superior weaponry and vehicles. After the invasion, he adopted Ethiopia as a part of his empire. All of Benito’s military achievements caught the eye of Germany’s Adolf Hitler, who wanted to make a diplomatic relationship between the two men and possibly their nations. In 1939 Mussolini lent aid to fascists in the Spanish Civil War just as Hitler did. On May 22 of that same year, a military alliance referred to as the “Pact of Steel” was signed by Italy and Germany. Just like Germany, Italy adopted laws discriminating Jews in Italy. In 1940, Italy decided to attack Greece, this plan had decent success at first but turned out to be a tougher fight than expected. Hitler even blamed his failed assault on Russia onto Italy’s “Idiotic campaign in Greece.” In 1942, Mussolini pleaded with Hitler to make a treaty with Russia and to focus on the Western Allies. Due to his denial and the Allies landing in Sicily, the king and the high command decided to overthrow Mussolini in 1943. Hitler rescued Mussolini with German troops and put him in command of northern Italy. After the 1945 German surrender in Italy, Benito tried to flee with his mistress, Clara Petacci, but was captured but insurgents who then shot them both. Mussolini’s death on April 28, 1945 is accepted to be a large role for Hitler’s suicide just two days later.	<urn:uuid:59836bcb-c6e1-43be-979d-bebdfce26cbd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://michiganboergoat.org/rangel-of-the-socialist-organization-on-march-23-1919/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00205.warc.gz	en	0.986043	831	3.3125	3	[ -0.4842812716960907, 0.5030921697616577, 0.2065722793340683, -0.3106359839439392, -0.39921867847442627, 0.09416230767965317, 0.4191994071006775, 0.18661320209503174, -0.014461817219853401, -0.2147056758403778, 0.4116736650466919, 0.021083485335111618, 0.5200345516204834, 0.5056983232498169...	1	Rangel, Mark 1/26/18 Ms.Fink Benito Mussolini and Fascism Benito Mussolini was an Italian dictator who stood in power for the duration of WWII. He was born on July 29, 1883 in Predappio, Italy to Rosa Maltoni and Alessandro Mussolini. Benito had 2 siblings, Edvinge and Arnaldo Mussolini, who are both younger than him. He was a smart young man as a child, but he was untamed and ill-behaved, partly due to his father, who taught him socialistic ideology and a disrespect for those with more authority. In 1902, Benito traveled to Switzerland to spread the idea of socialism. He was later caught by the Swiss police and thrown out of the country. In 1904, Mussolini came home to Italy but he didn’t stop praising socialism. He got caught up with the law once again and was put in jail. After he was let out, he became the editor of a newspaper, which he would use to spread his ideas. One of those ideas was about World War I, which he did not support originally. He later changed his mind claiming that it could turn Italy into a stronger nation than before. Wanting that stronger nation, he enlisted and rose to the rank of corporal, but after being injured by a mortar, he was discharged and sent home. Because of all this, he was kicked out of the socialist organization. On March 23, 1919 Benito Mussolini founded the fascist political party of Italy, calling it the Fasci di Combattimento. Fascism is the extreme and strict nationalism of a nation that can, and often does, include eliminating other political parties and dictatorship. This party supported Italian nationalism, the idea that Italians are successors to the great Romans. Mussolini himself believed in this idea very much and wanted to see the nation grow into the glory of Ancient Rome. Exploiting the public anger from World War I, Mussolini used his paramilitary forces, the “Black Shirts”, to harass and assault his opponents and to help empower the fascist party. After bringing the country into chaos, he stated that he was the man to fix it. He was deemed worthy enough and given the title of prime minister in 1922. With his power, he eventually removed every democratic custom in the nation. In 1925 he rose higher in power and made himself the dictator of Italy. Benito however, was actually pretty popular with the people because he decreased unemployment. Mussolini wanted to exercise Italy’s military dominance so he ordered that Ethiopia be invaded. Like he commanded, Ethiopia was invaded due to the Italian’s superior weaponry and vehicles. After the invasion, he adopted Ethiopia as a part of his empire. All of Benito’s military achievements caught the eye of Germany’s Adolf Hitler, who wanted to make a diplomatic relationship between the two men and possibly their nations. In 1939 Mussolini lent aid to fascists in the Spanish Civil War just as Hitler did. On May 22 of that same year, a military alliance referred to as the “Pact of Steel” was signed by Italy and Germany. Just like Germany, Italy adopted laws discriminating Jews in Italy. In 1940, Italy decided to attack Greece, this plan had decent success at first but turned out to be a tougher fight than expected. Hitler even blamed his failed assault on Russia onto Italy’s “Idiotic campaign in Greece.” In 1942, Mussolini pleaded with Hitler to make a treaty with Russia and to focus on the Western Allies. Due to his denial and the Allies landing in Sicily, the king and the high command decided to overthrow Mussolini in 1943. Hitler rescued Mussolini with German troops and put him in command of northern Italy. After the 1945 German surrender in Italy, Benito tried to flee with his mistress, Clara Petacci, but was captured but insurgents who then shot them both. Mussolini’s death on April 28, 1945 is accepted to be a large role for Hitler’s suicide just two days later.	868	ENGLISH	1
During the Renaissance era, many things changed around the people. New advancement in art and education gave life to new knowledge and more scholars. More wealth was brought in, which caused one of the most surprising changes in the Renaissance. The lines between the social classes of the time began to blur. And this was most prevalent in Italy, which was where the Renaissance began. At the top of the social classes were the nobility. These were the people who held noble titles, which were passed down through generations. They mostly served as either politicians and military commanders. Also, they owned most of the land on which the city was built. Next were the merchants. At the time, Europe’s nobility were very much used to controlling the money on social power. What wasn’t expected was the flood of wealth coming into Europe. This was so due to the increasingly wealthy merchants who controlled much of the international trade. This ended up with the growth of technology, the arts, abd thriving Renaissance culture. Merchants became extremely rich and powerful, and the nobility were very much against this. Underneath merchants were peasants and workers. These people were unfree farmers who were under the control of nobles and kings, and had to work for their land. Even the middle class could be considered peasants simply because they were below the higher listed classes.They actually had no distinction that would separate them from this class. Workers, also called serfs, were the lowest people in the kingdoms. These people include blacksmiths and craftsmen, who were dpendent on their workers. Workers had no protection over their role, so they can be fired or have their payment held from them if rules given by the employer weren’t followed. The only land this class owned was the land earned from higher classes. This was the main reason why they had no power over anything. This is so because at the time, money equaled power.	<urn:uuid:d23b48a6-4301-4809-a081-2a07a3da6121>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://johnnyfavourit.com/during-below-the-higher-listed-classes-they-actually-had/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00196.warc.gz	en	0.995012	386	4.03125	4	[ -0.2906303107738495, 0.4108702540397644, 0.24835288524627686, -0.19243581593036652, -0.09428217262029648, -0.10003455728292465, 0.054004911333322525, 0.19232581555843353, -0.02562866359949112, 0.09439943730831146, 0.36800289154052734, 0.05316361412405968, 0.12556785345077515, -0.0739850848...	4	During the Renaissance era, many things changed around the people. New advancement in art and education gave life to new knowledge and more scholars. More wealth was brought in, which caused one of the most surprising changes in the Renaissance. The lines between the social classes of the time began to blur. And this was most prevalent in Italy, which was where the Renaissance began. At the top of the social classes were the nobility. These were the people who held noble titles, which were passed down through generations. They mostly served as either politicians and military commanders. Also, they owned most of the land on which the city was built. Next were the merchants. At the time, Europe’s nobility were very much used to controlling the money on social power. What wasn’t expected was the flood of wealth coming into Europe. This was so due to the increasingly wealthy merchants who controlled much of the international trade. This ended up with the growth of technology, the arts, abd thriving Renaissance culture. Merchants became extremely rich and powerful, and the nobility were very much against this. Underneath merchants were peasants and workers. These people were unfree farmers who were under the control of nobles and kings, and had to work for their land. Even the middle class could be considered peasants simply because they were below the higher listed classes.They actually had no distinction that would separate them from this class. Workers, also called serfs, were the lowest people in the kingdoms. These people include blacksmiths and craftsmen, who were dpendent on their workers. Workers had no protection over their role, so they can be fired or have their payment held from them if rules given by the employer weren’t followed. The only land this class owned was the land earned from higher classes. This was the main reason why they had no power over anything. This is so because at the time, money equaled power.	384	ENGLISH	1
propelled[ pruh-pel ]SEE DEFINITION OF propelled EXAMPLES FROM THE WEB FOR PROPELLED It was making straight for the island, propelled by vigorous arms. Juve propelled him towards a gangway: a minute later both were on the boat. With a show of exasperation, Arnold propelled him through the door. While she was propelled, many other wheels were turning and turning fast. Stacy shot up into the air as if he had been propelled from a bow gun. It was propelled by a native just like an ordinary wheelbarrow. Very confidently she propelled his trunk against his chin and added, "Come in." The first deep-water vessel thus to be propelled was the Savannah. This river-craft was a double-decker, propelled by oars from the lower deck. They propelled them along the drains by a long pole, called a “poy.”	<urn:uuid:6d2ae953-82e4-4c46-9810-72b8d1ef1111>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thesaurus.com/browse/propelled	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00245.warc.gz	en	0.986541	200	3.390625	3	[ -0.16113559901714325, -0.21724095940589905, 0.3229389488697052, -0.39438915252685547, -0.3957962095737457, -0.17896880209445953, 0.4393797218799591, 0.2915962338447571, -0.09822838753461838, 0.2753351628780365, 0.14077100157737732, -0.3399941921234131, -0.4274963438510895, -0.0387057065963...	1	propelled[ pruh-pel ]SEE DEFINITION OF propelled EXAMPLES FROM THE WEB FOR PROPELLED It was making straight for the island, propelled by vigorous arms. Juve propelled him towards a gangway: a minute later both were on the boat. With a show of exasperation, Arnold propelled him through the door. While she was propelled, many other wheels were turning and turning fast. Stacy shot up into the air as if he had been propelled from a bow gun. It was propelled by a native just like an ordinary wheelbarrow. Very confidently she propelled his trunk against his chin and added, "Come in." The first deep-water vessel thus to be propelled was the Savannah. This river-craft was a double-decker, propelled by oars from the lower deck. They propelled them along the drains by a long pole, called a “poy.”	182	ENGLISH	1
Origamic architecture is a form of kirigami that involves the three-dimensional reproduction of architecture and monuments, on various scales, using cut-out and folded paper, usually thin paperboard. Visually, these creations are comparable to intricate ‘pop-ups’, indeed, some works are deliberately engineered to possess ‘pop-up’-like properties. However, origamic architecture tends to be cut out of a single sheet of paper, whereas most pop-ups involve two or more. To create the three-dimensional image out of the two-dimensional surface requires skill akin to that of an architect The development of Origamic architecture began with Professor Masahiro Chatani’s (then a newly appointed professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology) experiments with designing original and unique greeting cards. Japanese culture encourages the giving and receiving of cards for various special occasions and holidays, particularly Japanese New Year, and according to his own account, Professor Chatani personally felt that greeting cards were a significant form of connection and communication between people. He worried that in today’s fast-paced modern world, the emotional connections called up and created by the exchange of greeting cards would become scarce. In the early 1980s, Professor Chatani began to experiment with cutting and folding paper to make unique and interesting pop-up cards. He used techniques of origami (Japanese paper folding) and kirigami (Japanese papercutting), as well as his experience in architectural design, to create intricate patterns which played with light and shadow. Many of his creations are made of stark white paper which emphasizes the shadowing effects of the cuts and folds. In the preface to one of his books, he called the shadows of the three-dimensional cutouts created a “dreamy scene” that invited the viewer into a “fantasy world.” At first, Professor Chatani simply gave the cards to his friends and family. Over the next nearly thirty years, however, he published over fifty books on origamic architecture, many directed at children. He came to believe that origamic architecture could be a good way to teach architectural design and appreciation of architecture, as well as to inspire interest in mathematics, art, and design in young children. Professor Chatani also spent a good deal of time, even after his retirement, traveling to exhibit his work. He frequently collaborated on books and exhibits with Keiko Nakazawa and Takaaki Kihara Masahiro Chatani was a Japanese architect (certified, first class) and professor considered to be the creator of origamic architecture. From its development until his death in 2008, he was widely acknowledged to be the world’s foremost origamic architect. Masahiro Chatani was born in Hiroshima, Japan in 1934. He grew up in Tokyo, and graduated from the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1956. He became an assistant professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1969 and an associated assistant professor at Washington University in 1977, and was promoted to full professorship at the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1980. It was around this time that he created what is now known as “origamic architecture.” He became a professor emeritus fifteen years later, and continued to lecture at a number of institutions, including the Japan Architectural College, Hosei University, and the Shizuoka University of Art and Architecture. After his retirement from active professorship, he continued to travel around the world, giving exhibits, demonstrations, and seminars on architectural design and origamic architecture. Professor Chatani died on November 19, 2008, at the age of 74, from complications from larynx cancer	<urn:uuid:74da57cc-dfdc-405a-aced-f3cbc4231808>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ninrio.com/origamic-architecture/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00461.warc.gz	en	0.981085	746	3.484375	3	[ -0.5136288404464722, 0.1953008770942688, 0.21338891983032227, 0.3938475549221039, -0.18437790870666504, -0.00790084432810545, -0.34610694646835327, 0.3311190605163574, 0.06681504845619202, 0.006053742486983538, -0.2914072275161743, -0.07309377193450928, 0.30720236897468567, 0.3346634209156...	8	Origamic architecture is a form of kirigami that involves the three-dimensional reproduction of architecture and monuments, on various scales, using cut-out and folded paper, usually thin paperboard. Visually, these creations are comparable to intricate ‘pop-ups’, indeed, some works are deliberately engineered to possess ‘pop-up’-like properties. However, origamic architecture tends to be cut out of a single sheet of paper, whereas most pop-ups involve two or more. To create the three-dimensional image out of the two-dimensional surface requires skill akin to that of an architect The development of Origamic architecture began with Professor Masahiro Chatani’s (then a newly appointed professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology) experiments with designing original and unique greeting cards. Japanese culture encourages the giving and receiving of cards for various special occasions and holidays, particularly Japanese New Year, and according to his own account, Professor Chatani personally felt that greeting cards were a significant form of connection and communication between people. He worried that in today’s fast-paced modern world, the emotional connections called up and created by the exchange of greeting cards would become scarce. In the early 1980s, Professor Chatani began to experiment with cutting and folding paper to make unique and interesting pop-up cards. He used techniques of origami (Japanese paper folding) and kirigami (Japanese papercutting), as well as his experience in architectural design, to create intricate patterns which played with light and shadow. Many of his creations are made of stark white paper which emphasizes the shadowing effects of the cuts and folds. In the preface to one of his books, he called the shadows of the three-dimensional cutouts created a “dreamy scene” that invited the viewer into a “fantasy world.” At first, Professor Chatani simply gave the cards to his friends and family. Over the next nearly thirty years, however, he published over fifty books on origamic architecture, many directed at children. He came to believe that origamic architecture could be a good way to teach architectural design and appreciation of architecture, as well as to inspire interest in mathematics, art, and design in young children. Professor Chatani also spent a good deal of time, even after his retirement, traveling to exhibit his work. He frequently collaborated on books and exhibits with Keiko Nakazawa and Takaaki Kihara Masahiro Chatani was a Japanese architect (certified, first class) and professor considered to be the creator of origamic architecture. From its development until his death in 2008, he was widely acknowledged to be the world’s foremost origamic architect. Masahiro Chatani was born in Hiroshima, Japan in 1934. He grew up in Tokyo, and graduated from the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1956. He became an assistant professor at the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1969 and an associated assistant professor at Washington University in 1977, and was promoted to full professorship at the Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1980. It was around this time that he created what is now known as “origamic architecture.” He became a professor emeritus fifteen years later, and continued to lecture at a number of institutions, including the Japan Architectural College, Hosei University, and the Shizuoka University of Art and Architecture. After his retirement from active professorship, he continued to travel around the world, giving exhibits, demonstrations, and seminars on architectural design and origamic architecture. Professor Chatani died on November 19, 2008, at the age of 74, from complications from larynx cancer	749	ENGLISH	1
The Earth had some visitors not too long ago in the form of two asteroids. The asteroids are officially known as 2018 NW and 2018 NX, according to a report from CNet, and they were said to be about the size of a school bus, with both estimated to have a diameter of 33 feet. At their closest points, scientists noted that they got within 72,000 miles of Earth, meaning they were significantly closer to the planet than the moon. 2018 NW was observed to be the faster of the two, with a recorded velocity of 47,647 mph. Asteroids moving close to and eventually past the Earth happens relatively often, with the report noting that something like that takes place every few weeks or so. As for why the two aforementioned asteroids and others are only noticed when they have already approached or even traveled past the Earth, that is due to the sizes of the cosmic rocks themselves. The size of an asteroid is a factor in how easy or difficult it is to see, so some may be seen early on, while others may move by without anyone noticing. It was just last month when a small asteroid made contact with Earth. The asteroid was detected on the morning of June 2 and it was set to make impact just a few hours after it was first noticed. However, because the asteroid was quite small — an estimate suggests it had a diameter of six feet — it harmlessly burned up in the atmosphere. The disintegration of the asteroid was observed by some people in Botswana. The process resulted in a fireball lighting up the sky. Asteroids can be found all over space, but the majority of them can be seen orbiting around the sun, Mars and Jupiter, and many also hang around the aptly named asteroid belt, according to NASA. These asteroids are the leftover debris that came about from the formation of the planets long ago. According to the most recent count of near-Earth asteroids provided by NASA in June 2013, over 10,000 of them have flown close to the planet. Of the over 10,000 asteroids that have approached Earth, 1,409 were designated as "potentially hazardous."	<urn:uuid:bef98d14-4d3c-4659-8e1e-4262eb8b5425>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.christianpost.com/news/2-sizable-asteroids-were-spotted-zooming-past-earth-225958/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00319.warc.gz	en	0.987204	437	3.953125	4	[ 0.023738741874694824, -0.2554759085178375, 0.11843924969434738, -0.31932106614112854, 0.06303774565458298, 0.08030427992343903, -0.0461295023560524, 0.17176476120948792, 0.2369239628314972, 0.1616014689207077, 0.24050122499465942, -0.046687617897987366, 0.2234615981578827, 0.14952921867370...	5	The Earth had some visitors not too long ago in the form of two asteroids. The asteroids are officially known as 2018 NW and 2018 NX, according to a report from CNet, and they were said to be about the size of a school bus, with both estimated to have a diameter of 33 feet. At their closest points, scientists noted that they got within 72,000 miles of Earth, meaning they were significantly closer to the planet than the moon. 2018 NW was observed to be the faster of the two, with a recorded velocity of 47,647 mph. Asteroids moving close to and eventually past the Earth happens relatively often, with the report noting that something like that takes place every few weeks or so. As for why the two aforementioned asteroids and others are only noticed when they have already approached or even traveled past the Earth, that is due to the sizes of the cosmic rocks themselves. The size of an asteroid is a factor in how easy or difficult it is to see, so some may be seen early on, while others may move by without anyone noticing. It was just last month when a small asteroid made contact with Earth. The asteroid was detected on the morning of June 2 and it was set to make impact just a few hours after it was first noticed. However, because the asteroid was quite small — an estimate suggests it had a diameter of six feet — it harmlessly burned up in the atmosphere. The disintegration of the asteroid was observed by some people in Botswana. The process resulted in a fireball lighting up the sky. Asteroids can be found all over space, but the majority of them can be seen orbiting around the sun, Mars and Jupiter, and many also hang around the aptly named asteroid belt, according to NASA. These asteroids are the leftover debris that came about from the formation of the planets long ago. According to the most recent count of near-Earth asteroids provided by NASA in June 2013, over 10,000 of them have flown close to the planet. Of the over 10,000 asteroids that have approached Earth, 1,409 were designated as "potentially hazardous."	465	ENGLISH	1
On this day in 1901, the American oil industry is born as a gusher named Spindle Top blows; the United States would never be the same. The geyser near Beaumont, Texas was discovered at a depth of over 1,000 feet, flowed at an initial rate of 100,000 or so barrels per day and took nine full days to cap. Gulf Oil and Texaco, now part of Chevron Corporation, were quickly formed to develop production at Spindle Top, and soon enough, the entire region bristled with a forest of oil derricks. Following the discovery, petroleum, which until that time had been used in the US primarily as a lubricant and in kerosene for lamps, would become the main fuel source for new inventions such as cars and airplanes; coal-powered forms of transportation including ships and trains would also convert to the liquid new fuel. The prospecting and discovery itself were the brain-child of the Mellon family, known for its banking interests in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Following the discovery, Thomas Mellon built the Gulf refinery in Port Arthur, Texas. The firm continued to develop oil fields in Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana, as well as in Mexico and Venezuela; by 1923 the Port Arthur refinery was the largest in the world. Gulf was the first oil company to enter the consumer gasoline market when it opened a drive-in filling station in Pittsburgh in 1913. It invested in forms of energy other than oil and had secondary interests in chemicals, minerals, and nuclear power. The frenzy of oil exploration and the economic development it generated in the state became known as the Texas oil boom. The United States soon stood as the world’s leading oil producer; an entire way of life, for good or ill, was created and the discovery directly produced not less than two US Presidents. And here the slippery story endeth.	<urn:uuid:6be654b5-49e7-4369-920c-4ff0d1a35100>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://theblueroute.org/the-day-big-oil-was-born/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00211.warc.gz	en	0.982649	378	3.71875	4	[ -0.17555546760559082, 0.3356502056121826, 0.029340164735913277, -0.008710978552699089, 0.030847175046801567, 0.17575544118881226, -0.20007053017616272, -0.04029811918735504, -0.4358341693878174, -0.13103435933589935, 0.1615881323814392, -0.25748226046562195, -0.04426306486129761, -0.170246...	4	On this day in 1901, the American oil industry is born as a gusher named Spindle Top blows; the United States would never be the same. The geyser near Beaumont, Texas was discovered at a depth of over 1,000 feet, flowed at an initial rate of 100,000 or so barrels per day and took nine full days to cap. Gulf Oil and Texaco, now part of Chevron Corporation, were quickly formed to develop production at Spindle Top, and soon enough, the entire region bristled with a forest of oil derricks. Following the discovery, petroleum, which until that time had been used in the US primarily as a lubricant and in kerosene for lamps, would become the main fuel source for new inventions such as cars and airplanes; coal-powered forms of transportation including ships and trains would also convert to the liquid new fuel. The prospecting and discovery itself were the brain-child of the Mellon family, known for its banking interests in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Following the discovery, Thomas Mellon built the Gulf refinery in Port Arthur, Texas. The firm continued to develop oil fields in Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana, as well as in Mexico and Venezuela; by 1923 the Port Arthur refinery was the largest in the world. Gulf was the first oil company to enter the consumer gasoline market when it opened a drive-in filling station in Pittsburgh in 1913. It invested in forms of energy other than oil and had secondary interests in chemicals, minerals, and nuclear power. The frenzy of oil exploration and the economic development it generated in the state became known as the Texas oil boom. The United States soon stood as the world’s leading oil producer; an entire way of life, for good or ill, was created and the discovery directly produced not less than two US Presidents. And here the slippery story endeth.	390	ENGLISH	1
During the music video presented by the undergraduate class “The Nineteenth Century City”, many different historical buildings located in Tuscaloosa. Unfortunately, during the 1800s, while the Civil War was still under way, the Union army set fire to and burned several of these timeless buildings. One building lost in the fire was the rotunda for the University of Alabama. Only one photograph of the rotunda found in an old book give us an idea of what the building looked like. It was located where Gorgas Library currently is, and drew inspiration from two notable sources. Both the Parthenon inspired it and the rotunda found in the University of Virginia. Through modern technology, we have been able to take the existing photograph and create a 3-D model of the rotunda. Another building that Dr. Mellown discussed was the former state capitol building that was located in Tuscaloosa. Tuscaloosa was actually the capital of Alabama for twenty years in the 1820-40s, with the capitol building lost to the fire. Several artifacts were recovered from ten feet under the buildings ground, and efforts were made to use the recovered building fragments to create a monument in Capitol Park. Several fragments and sections of columns were found in the backyards of Tuscaloosa resident’s homes. Tuscaloosa lost the title of state capitol due to the lack of roads in Alabama and the only way to navigate to Tuscaloosa on a commercial level was by using the Warrior River, which was only possible six months out of the year. One of the bigger exhibits in the interpretive center/museum in Moundville is seen as soon as you walk in the front door of the museum. The exhibit is called “The Procession: Splendor at Ancient Moundville.” This is an exhibit of a young elite woman being carried around by four noble warriors with the help of a greeter and a flute player. These young elite women who were carried around were almost always the daughter of a ruler in the community, because in the Southeastern Native American way of life, descent was very important. Around the elite women being carried around there would be gifts including copper, bowls, exotic feathers, squash, woven goods, among others. These elite brides were generally being carried to see their husband, who is generally the heir of a ruler in Moundville. Another exhibit from the museum that was very interesting was the pottery made in Moundville that was on display. The exhibit explained the history of pottery and how it was made in that time period. Pottery was first introduced over 4,000 years ago in North America in parts of the Southeast. Pottery was originally created as plain bowls with thick walls. As people became more familiar with pottery, it became more complex and advanced. In Moundville, pottery was created from clay, with the addition of mussel shell. The pottery in Moundville was more sophisticated and included different shaped pottery bowls with increasingly more difficult designs. Pottery was also included on the exhibit with the elite woman being carried around. Among the gifts that were on the chair with the woman were bowls of pottery. This portrait of Sarah Erving Waldo done during the period of British colonization. The artist's intention was to use naturalism and realism as an inspiration to portray and represent gentility and luxury, which is seen on Sarah's dress as well as the style of her hair and her pale skin. The style and color(it is apparent that it is white) of her gown suggests her family comes from a wealthy lifestyle and high class of social structure. Social structure is also seen through the objects in the picture such as satin and lace along with pearls. It is also appropriate to make this assumption because she is sitting at a tea table, a luxurious way of living in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In class, we have discussed this specific time period which included British colonization and many laws which were failed to be carried out such as the Stamp Act and the other many attepts made by Parliament. This painting was done by a Pueblo artist in which includes landscape and little naturalism. This can correlate to our class discussion over the Pueblo Revolt in 1680 in which the Pueblo Indians began an uprising against the Spanish who were taking control and beginning colonization in their province. This was one of the most successful rebellions in North American history and it took several years for Spain to reconquer the area that the rebellion took place in. In the painting the Indians seem to be celebrating in front of a cemetery or church of some sort. This might be a possible indication that it was a tradition to come together and dance and also sing which was certainly apart of their culture. The Jemison Mansion, which is located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, was constructed over the years of 1859 to 1862 by Senator Robert Jemison Jr. Jemison was said to be a shrewd man when spending money on his home so it explains why the house was constructed by the work of slaves and materials from his many slave plantations. Jemison was a very wealthy business man and owned many sawmills and coal mines. The Jemison household was very advanced for its time having a plumbing system, indoor lighting, a relatively modern refrigerator, a gas stove, and indoor lighting. Jemison owned six plantation homes and over 500 slaves and started becoming involved in Alabama politics in the 1830s. Although the Jemison mansion was created pre-civil war, Jemison worked with the Confederate army as a defendant of the south. Jemison was a large advocate for the building of an institution for the mentally insane (Bryce Hospital) in the city of Tuscaloosa. The architectural firm Sloan & Stewart was brought from Philadelphia to build both the original hospital and the Jemison home. Although the house looks to be finished, while it was in the hands of Jemison and his family the house was never completed, partly due to the timing of the eruption of the Civil War. A notable fact is that after the end of the Civil War, Jemison was a large part in the rebuilding of the University of Alabama due to the fires on campus and destruction. After Jemison's death in 1871 and post-Civil War, the Jemison house changed hands many times to a distant relative Jemison-Van de Graaf who has restored the house to its relative state. The house was previously used for a public library until the late 1970s, to now being a space for tours and large celebrations. At my visit to Moundville and the Moundville museum, I learned a lot more about the ancient native civilization that was mentioned over the course of the class. The inhabitants of Moundville were part of the Mississipian culture located in the southern Mississippi River Valley over the years of 900-1350. During this time the Mississippian culture had a patchwork of chiefdom, towns around central plazas and temples, and a labor system, governmental structure and a highly advanced trading network. When visiting Moundville, I was able to examine all of these characteristics while learning about the Moundville society in the museum. In the Moundville museum I was able to learn about the different roles individuals played in society such as those who fished, made goods for the tribe and to trade in the trade network, those who held high positions and what separated people within the hierarchy. One aspect of the museum that stood out was how the inhabitants handled burials and how they are supposed to have believed in a life after death. In one of the parts of the museum, it showed how a burial of a member was held and how close relatives gathered as the dead was lowered into a grave and buried with food and goods for the afterlife. What I enjoyed most about Moundville was seeing how advanced of a society Moundville was with its collection of goods such as bowls and intricate celebrations, highlighting the different roles individuals played in their culture. Professor Kim Nielsen’s lecture on the history of disabilities was very eye-opening. Some of the themes that emerged throughout the lecture have also been present in class. The most apparent was how definitions and statuses can change over time. Another noticeable topic was racism and how it was related to disabilities. Through history an argument about disabilities was also tailored to back up sexism. The role of the impaired and the definition of disability had great impact on history. The common belief about disabilities today is that they are a medical problem that can be fixed or compensated for. This definition, however, has not always been the dominant view. The public opinion about disability during the industrialization of the eighteenth century was that the disabled lived in poverty and were uneducated, according to Nielsen. This definition, and the reality of it at the time, limited handicapped people’s access to power and jobs. Nielsen explained that these limits resulted in a social structure with impaired individuals near the bottom. Society did not offer any help to those who were disabled. One example of this is the slave ship Le Rodeur. This ship sailed in the early nineteenth century and carried a disease that caused blindness. Nielsen stated that almost forty slaves and a dozen sailors went blind or experienced reduced eyesight. Rather than attempting to aid the inflicted, the slaves were thrown overboard and the sailors were offered no help. These acts not only showed society’s unwillingness to help the handicapped, but also the deep rooted racism that has been so prevalent throughout class. Nielsen mentioned southern physician Samuel Cartwright, and explained that he believed that African Americans were natural slaves and those who did not accept it were disabled. The doctor believed that any slave that did not work hard or attempted to escape was mentally impaired. Nielsen said that, like slavery, submission of women’s rights and education was backed by theoretical disabilities. A man named Edward Clarke actually believed that women who wanted better education were disabled. He called their minds “feeble” and held the notion that a college education would injure them. This restriction placed on women is something that occurs often throughout history and has appeared in class many times. Handicaps even affected who was admitted into the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Nielson said that even Charles Steinmetz who was a well-renowned mathematician was initially rejected entry because of his hunchback. By the definition at the time, he was a disabled man. America was attempting to keep out those who were weak and dependent, which was correlated with disabilities at the time. The ideal citizen was strong, independent and capable, and the country was trying to keep those who could not fit that profile from entering. Nielson also argued that the government did not comply with the disabled during wartime. Some handicapped people needed to drive their cars to work, but would require more gas than their rations would give them in order to drive every day. They needed the gas to get to work and keep their jobs. People that reached out to the government for more rations were told that they needed to sacrifice. The government would not spare any more rations in gas, even though some of its citizens needed them to stay employed. During the presentation Nielson’s central argument was that disabilities have had an impact on history more than we know. It was argued many times that women and African Americans were disabled. These arguments were used to justify things like sexism, racism, and slavery. What determined that someone was disabled has changed greatly over time. Today we also give the disabled more compensation due to their limits. Overall the lecture was intriguing; I had never learned about the history and influence of disabilities before. Response to a lecture by Dr. Kim Nielsen In the days of the slave trade in the United States, a slave was most useful if he or she was in pristine condition. The slave was borderline useless with a disability such as blindness. A slave ship in 1819 named La Rodeur carried hundreds of slaves to the United States. While on their journey across the Atlantic Ocean, 39 slaves lost their eyesight. These slaves were rendered useless as a slave trader was quoted, “even those blind of one eye would sell for a mere trifle.” Since it was assumed that these slaves could not perform manual labor, they were thrown overboard. The slave holding ships were followed by sharks, so these slaves were all but dead the moment they reached the water. Samuel A. Cartwright was an American doctor in the nineteenth century. He was the inventor of the disease named Drapetomania, which was said to be a disease that caused the enslaved to attempt an escape. The African American body was considered to be inferior to that of a white American. Another disease that was said to be synonymous with an African American was Hebetude which cause laziness and the damaging of property. Living with a disability would be very difficult in this day and age; however, hundreds of years ago it would have been even more difficult. Prior to the industrialization of the United States, women with disabilities could work from their home; however during industrialization, as factories began to open, those with disabilities had a much more difficult time getting around, and it was difficult to even get to the factory. The lecture "Disability and the American Story," given by Professor Kim E. Nielsen, focused on how disability is rooted at the center of American history. Some specific examples she touched on related to class themes such as the dehumanization of African Americans and views of women as inferior. On a French slave trading ship named La Rodeur, many African Americans became disabled due to contracting diseases such as drapetomania and hebetude. Thirty-nine went blind and twenty-six had diminished eyesight. Because they were disabled, the crew members viewed them as worthless, tied a block to their feet, and threw them into the sea. The owner of the ship actually filed an insurance claim for damaged cargo. In the case of African Americans, disability led to the maltreatment and dehumanization of them because disability was viewed as dependency, dependency was viewed as weakness, and weakness of the African Americans heightened the superiority of whites. As far as women were concerned in the 18th and 19th centuries, they were viewed as inferior to men. Even though education slowly became available to women as time went on, some men considered women who were getting an education as disabled. They believed that if a woman was pursuing an education, then she was mad or insane. Madness or insanity was viewed as being disabled, especially by James Otis Jr. who said that the only people who should have their rights taken away were idiots or madmen; ironically, he was eventually declared insane and stripped of his independence and property. So women were not only inferior, they were also insane if they pursued an education, which would lead to the loss of independence, by perhaps being assigned a guardian, or loss of property, if they owned any. Professor Kim Nielson’s lecture on disability through out American history gave an interesting insight on an often-overlooked aspect in American society. Everyone always hears about the travesties that slaves, African-Americans, women, and Native Americans went through, but rarely do we hear about the disabled. Helen Keller, for example, refused to publicly endorse a candidate for Presidency because she was afraid no one would pay attention to anything but her disabilities. Slaves were thrown overboard if they were considered disabled. This all ties into the themes we’ve been learning in class because it yet another section in society that was prejudiced against. Industrialization brought about lots of change in the American society, but what most people don’t realize is that it struck the disabled the hardest. People who could work just fine in their own homes could not get jobs in the factories. The factories themselves caused many to get disabled, whether they went blind or even lost a limb. America is the melting pot, where tons of immigrants mingle and create a unique society. Back in the early 1800s, immigrants were turned down admission into the United States if the had “poor physique.” Since the definition of ‘disabled’ is very vague, this covered anyone with a “frail frame, flat chest.” It also covered undersized people and homosexuals. The struggles of the disabled in America are often overlooked. These people are stigmatized as not being able to contribute to society, though this is often not the case, such as the deal with Helen Keller.	<urn:uuid:7c1ad7f0-93cd-44d5-b48a-7124b8002f96>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://earlyamericanhist.as.ua.edu/category/semester/fall-2014/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00259.warc.gz	en	0.990074	3,388	3.328125	3	[ -0.1693536788225174, 0.348995566368103, 0.5418304800987244, 0.05362991988658905, 0.058724187314510345, 0.15118804574012756, -0.2592052221298218, 0.09436997771263123, -0.8109630942344666, -0.21314680576324463, 0.04560302197933197, -0.2244805097579956, 0.18861252069473267, 0.2511430084705353...	4	During the music video presented by the undergraduate class “The Nineteenth Century City”, many different historical buildings located in Tuscaloosa. Unfortunately, during the 1800s, while the Civil War was still under way, the Union army set fire to and burned several of these timeless buildings. One building lost in the fire was the rotunda for the University of Alabama. Only one photograph of the rotunda found in an old book give us an idea of what the building looked like. It was located where Gorgas Library currently is, and drew inspiration from two notable sources. Both the Parthenon inspired it and the rotunda found in the University of Virginia. Through modern technology, we have been able to take the existing photograph and create a 3-D model of the rotunda. Another building that Dr. Mellown discussed was the former state capitol building that was located in Tuscaloosa. Tuscaloosa was actually the capital of Alabama for twenty years in the 1820-40s, with the capitol building lost to the fire. Several artifacts were recovered from ten feet under the buildings ground, and efforts were made to use the recovered building fragments to create a monument in Capitol Park. Several fragments and sections of columns were found in the backyards of Tuscaloosa resident’s homes. Tuscaloosa lost the title of state capitol due to the lack of roads in Alabama and the only way to navigate to Tuscaloosa on a commercial level was by using the Warrior River, which was only possible six months out of the year. One of the bigger exhibits in the interpretive center/museum in Moundville is seen as soon as you walk in the front door of the museum. The exhibit is called “The Procession: Splendor at Ancient Moundville.” This is an exhibit of a young elite woman being carried around by four noble warriors with the help of a greeter and a flute player. These young elite women who were carried around were almost always the daughter of a ruler in the community, because in the Southeastern Native American way of life, descent was very important. Around the elite women being carried around there would be gifts including copper, bowls, exotic feathers, squash, woven goods, among others. These elite brides were generally being carried to see their husband, who is generally the heir of a ruler in Moundville. Another exhibit from the museum that was very interesting was the pottery made in Moundville that was on display. The exhibit explained the history of pottery and how it was made in that time period. Pottery was first introduced over 4,000 years ago in North America in parts of the Southeast. Pottery was originally created as plain bowls with thick walls. As people became more familiar with pottery, it became more complex and advanced. In Moundville, pottery was created from clay, with the addition of mussel shell. The pottery in Moundville was more sophisticated and included different shaped pottery bowls with increasingly more difficult designs. Pottery was also included on the exhibit with the elite woman being carried around. Among the gifts that were on the chair with the woman were bowls of pottery. This portrait of Sarah Erving Waldo done during the period of British colonization. The artist's intention was to use naturalism and realism as an inspiration to portray and represent gentility and luxury, which is seen on Sarah's dress as well as the style of her hair and her pale skin. The style and color(it is apparent that it is white) of her gown suggests her family comes from a wealthy lifestyle and high class of social structure. Social structure is also seen through the objects in the picture such as satin and lace along with pearls. It is also appropriate to make this assumption because she is sitting at a tea table, a luxurious way of living in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In class, we have discussed this specific time period which included British colonization and many laws which were failed to be carried out such as the Stamp Act and the other many attepts made by Parliament. This painting was done by a Pueblo artist in which includes landscape and little naturalism. This can correlate to our class discussion over the Pueblo Revolt in 1680 in which the Pueblo Indians began an uprising against the Spanish who were taking control and beginning colonization in their province. This was one of the most successful rebellions in North American history and it took several years for Spain to reconquer the area that the rebellion took place in. In the painting the Indians seem to be celebrating in front of a cemetery or church of some sort. This might be a possible indication that it was a tradition to come together and dance and also sing which was certainly apart of their culture. The Jemison Mansion, which is located in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, was constructed over the years of 1859 to 1862 by Senator Robert Jemison Jr. Jemison was said to be a shrewd man when spending money on his home so it explains why the house was constructed by the work of slaves and materials from his many slave plantations. Jemison was a very wealthy business man and owned many sawmills and coal mines. The Jemison household was very advanced for its time having a plumbing system, indoor lighting, a relatively modern refrigerator, a gas stove, and indoor lighting. Jemison owned six plantation homes and over 500 slaves and started becoming involved in Alabama politics in the 1830s. Although the Jemison mansion was created pre-civil war, Jemison worked with the Confederate army as a defendant of the south. Jemison was a large advocate for the building of an institution for the mentally insane (Bryce Hospital) in the city of Tuscaloosa. The architectural firm Sloan & Stewart was brought from Philadelphia to build both the original hospital and the Jemison home. Although the house looks to be finished, while it was in the hands of Jemison and his family the house was never completed, partly due to the timing of the eruption of the Civil War. A notable fact is that after the end of the Civil War, Jemison was a large part in the rebuilding of the University of Alabama due to the fires on campus and destruction. After Jemison's death in 1871 and post-Civil War, the Jemison house changed hands many times to a distant relative Jemison-Van de Graaf who has restored the house to its relative state. The house was previously used for a public library until the late 1970s, to now being a space for tours and large celebrations. At my visit to Moundville and the Moundville museum, I learned a lot more about the ancient native civilization that was mentioned over the course of the class. The inhabitants of Moundville were part of the Mississipian culture located in the southern Mississippi River Valley over the years of 900-1350. During this time the Mississippian culture had a patchwork of chiefdom, towns around central plazas and temples, and a labor system, governmental structure and a highly advanced trading network. When visiting Moundville, I was able to examine all of these characteristics while learning about the Moundville society in the museum. In the Moundville museum I was able to learn about the different roles individuals played in society such as those who fished, made goods for the tribe and to trade in the trade network, those who held high positions and what separated people within the hierarchy. One aspect of the museum that stood out was how the inhabitants handled burials and how they are supposed to have believed in a life after death. In one of the parts of the museum, it showed how a burial of a member was held and how close relatives gathered as the dead was lowered into a grave and buried with food and goods for the afterlife. What I enjoyed most about Moundville was seeing how advanced of a society Moundville was with its collection of goods such as bowls and intricate celebrations, highlighting the different roles individuals played in their culture. Professor Kim Nielsen’s lecture on the history of disabilities was very eye-opening. Some of the themes that emerged throughout the lecture have also been present in class. The most apparent was how definitions and statuses can change over time. Another noticeable topic was racism and how it was related to disabilities. Through history an argument about disabilities was also tailored to back up sexism. The role of the impaired and the definition of disability had great impact on history. The common belief about disabilities today is that they are a medical problem that can be fixed or compensated for. This definition, however, has not always been the dominant view. The public opinion about disability during the industrialization of the eighteenth century was that the disabled lived in poverty and were uneducated, according to Nielsen. This definition, and the reality of it at the time, limited handicapped people’s access to power and jobs. Nielsen explained that these limits resulted in a social structure with impaired individuals near the bottom. Society did not offer any help to those who were disabled. One example of this is the slave ship Le Rodeur. This ship sailed in the early nineteenth century and carried a disease that caused blindness. Nielsen stated that almost forty slaves and a dozen sailors went blind or experienced reduced eyesight. Rather than attempting to aid the inflicted, the slaves were thrown overboard and the sailors were offered no help. These acts not only showed society’s unwillingness to help the handicapped, but also the deep rooted racism that has been so prevalent throughout class. Nielsen mentioned southern physician Samuel Cartwright, and explained that he believed that African Americans were natural slaves and those who did not accept it were disabled. The doctor believed that any slave that did not work hard or attempted to escape was mentally impaired. Nielsen said that, like slavery, submission of women’s rights and education was backed by theoretical disabilities. A man named Edward Clarke actually believed that women who wanted better education were disabled. He called their minds “feeble” and held the notion that a college education would injure them. This restriction placed on women is something that occurs often throughout history and has appeared in class many times. Handicaps even affected who was admitted into the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Nielson said that even Charles Steinmetz who was a well-renowned mathematician was initially rejected entry because of his hunchback. By the definition at the time, he was a disabled man. America was attempting to keep out those who were weak and dependent, which was correlated with disabilities at the time. The ideal citizen was strong, independent and capable, and the country was trying to keep those who could not fit that profile from entering. Nielson also argued that the government did not comply with the disabled during wartime. Some handicapped people needed to drive their cars to work, but would require more gas than their rations would give them in order to drive every day. They needed the gas to get to work and keep their jobs. People that reached out to the government for more rations were told that they needed to sacrifice. The government would not spare any more rations in gas, even though some of its citizens needed them to stay employed. During the presentation Nielson’s central argument was that disabilities have had an impact on history more than we know. It was argued many times that women and African Americans were disabled. These arguments were used to justify things like sexism, racism, and slavery. What determined that someone was disabled has changed greatly over time. Today we also give the disabled more compensation due to their limits. Overall the lecture was intriguing; I had never learned about the history and influence of disabilities before. Response to a lecture by Dr. Kim Nielsen In the days of the slave trade in the United States, a slave was most useful if he or she was in pristine condition. The slave was borderline useless with a disability such as blindness. A slave ship in 1819 named La Rodeur carried hundreds of slaves to the United States. While on their journey across the Atlantic Ocean, 39 slaves lost their eyesight. These slaves were rendered useless as a slave trader was quoted, “even those blind of one eye would sell for a mere trifle.” Since it was assumed that these slaves could not perform manual labor, they were thrown overboard. The slave holding ships were followed by sharks, so these slaves were all but dead the moment they reached the water. Samuel A. Cartwright was an American doctor in the nineteenth century. He was the inventor of the disease named Drapetomania, which was said to be a disease that caused the enslaved to attempt an escape. The African American body was considered to be inferior to that of a white American. Another disease that was said to be synonymous with an African American was Hebetude which cause laziness and the damaging of property. Living with a disability would be very difficult in this day and age; however, hundreds of years ago it would have been even more difficult. Prior to the industrialization of the United States, women with disabilities could work from their home; however during industrialization, as factories began to open, those with disabilities had a much more difficult time getting around, and it was difficult to even get to the factory. The lecture "Disability and the American Story," given by Professor Kim E. Nielsen, focused on how disability is rooted at the center of American history. Some specific examples she touched on related to class themes such as the dehumanization of African Americans and views of women as inferior. On a French slave trading ship named La Rodeur, many African Americans became disabled due to contracting diseases such as drapetomania and hebetude. Thirty-nine went blind and twenty-six had diminished eyesight. Because they were disabled, the crew members viewed them as worthless, tied a block to their feet, and threw them into the sea. The owner of the ship actually filed an insurance claim for damaged cargo. In the case of African Americans, disability led to the maltreatment and dehumanization of them because disability was viewed as dependency, dependency was viewed as weakness, and weakness of the African Americans heightened the superiority of whites. As far as women were concerned in the 18th and 19th centuries, they were viewed as inferior to men. Even though education slowly became available to women as time went on, some men considered women who were getting an education as disabled. They believed that if a woman was pursuing an education, then she was mad or insane. Madness or insanity was viewed as being disabled, especially by James Otis Jr. who said that the only people who should have their rights taken away were idiots or madmen; ironically, he was eventually declared insane and stripped of his independence and property. So women were not only inferior, they were also insane if they pursued an education, which would lead to the loss of independence, by perhaps being assigned a guardian, or loss of property, if they owned any. Professor Kim Nielson’s lecture on disability through out American history gave an interesting insight on an often-overlooked aspect in American society. Everyone always hears about the travesties that slaves, African-Americans, women, and Native Americans went through, but rarely do we hear about the disabled. Helen Keller, for example, refused to publicly endorse a candidate for Presidency because she was afraid no one would pay attention to anything but her disabilities. Slaves were thrown overboard if they were considered disabled. This all ties into the themes we’ve been learning in class because it yet another section in society that was prejudiced against. Industrialization brought about lots of change in the American society, but what most people don’t realize is that it struck the disabled the hardest. People who could work just fine in their own homes could not get jobs in the factories. The factories themselves caused many to get disabled, whether they went blind or even lost a limb. America is the melting pot, where tons of immigrants mingle and create a unique society. Back in the early 1800s, immigrants were turned down admission into the United States if the had “poor physique.” Since the definition of ‘disabled’ is very vague, this covered anyone with a “frail frame, flat chest.” It also covered undersized people and homosexuals. The struggles of the disabled in America are often overlooked. These people are stigmatized as not being able to contribute to society, though this is often not the case, such as the deal with Helen Keller.	3,396	ENGLISH	1
What happened next? The Normans brought widespread coinage and tried to bring a centralised system of justice with local and royal courts. The Brehon laws continued to be used across the majority of the country, particularly because the Irish were excluded from the benefits of Norman law. As such, the Normans then had to decide to either be swallowed by the culture of the Irish or keep them completely at arms length. Those that got involved with the Irish locals became nearly indistinguishable from them. This was a serious problem for the Normans, not helped by Henry II who seemed completely disinterested. When Henry II left Ireland, he didn’t leave any plans with the people he put in charge. He set up his man, Hugh de Lacy, as a counter weight to Strongbow in the East. Henry still didn’t like Strongbow and there was a feeling that he could throw his lot in with the Irish if it suited him to. So Hugh de Lacy was appointed first governer and guardian of Dublin and, despite the fact that the Irish didn’t follow feudal law (again, Brehon law was the system used here), he began to expect tribute from the kings that had submitted to him. This led to war almost immediately after Henry left. Ruaidhrí continued to be a thorn in Henry’s side, not submitting to the Normans in Ireland. In 1175 negotiations were held, run largely by Bishop Laurence O’ Toole (the same guy that mediated between Ruaidhrí and Diarmuid MacMurchadha), in an attempt to come to terms. Both parties came away from it thinking they owned Ireland so it was pointless. Two years later, Henry granted large new territories in Leinster and Munster to Norman barons and knights. The problem was, still, that these Normans were being assimilated into Irish culture and lifestyles. As each new wave of Normans came in, they were shocked and angered by the level of integration that had gone on by the previous Normans. Irish language, culture, dress and Brehon laws had been adopted. It came to a stale-mate when Henry’s son, Prince John, visited Ireland in 1185 to deliver charters and to drive a further wedge between the English and the Irish. It worked. He ridiculed Irish kings that had come to pay homage to him and drove that wedge deep. And if he didn’t like the Irish, he didn’t like the Normans that had invaded either. To him, they were just as bad now. He went home with a view to introduce new blood to the invasion when he became King. Why were the subsequent manoeuvres carried out by the Normans in Ireland unsuccessful in bringing Norman rule to the island? One thing the later generations of the Norman invaders didn’t have was the huge stockpile of Norman settlers to take with them from their homeland when they invaded new territories. Their fathers had taken farmers, craft workers, priests and labourers from their homeland in Britain. It allowed them to set up a little England and not rely so heavily on the local population. But the second section of the invasion, whereby they pushed out of their strongholds from the East and into the West, was undertaken by the sons of these first settlers. Men who had grown up in Ireland. Now, these men didn’t have the same access to the number of Norman settlers their fathers had. Why exactly they didn’t, we’re not sure. Maybe Ireland wasn’t the desired destination it used to be. Maybe the extent to which the families had cut ties with England meant they could no longer press-gang tenants into coming to Ireland. We’re not totally sure on this point but, no matter what the cause, the result was that the subsequent invasions didn’t carry the same transforming power as the first invasion and was only superficial. The same level of colonization was not taking place and this meant it wasn’t going to work. But surely the Normans were superior in warfare, couldn’t they deal with the local armies? Of course they could. That was their strong point. But the problem for the Norman invasion is that when the next generation came of age and wanted to go out and carve land for themselves, the lands of Irish kings weren’t always the best choice. For example! John de Courcy took Ulster in 1177 and he was actually well liked by the Irish because he had ties in Cumbria – an area with close links to the North-East of Ireland. He ruled for 27 years before he was toppled in 1204. But he was not toppled by an Irishman. Hugh de Lacy, whom Henry II had put in power as a counter-weight to Strongbow, had children. When Hugh de Lacy II, his younger son, came of age, his prospects weren’t very good. His older brother, Walter, was going to ascend to his father’s titles. So Hugh had to make his own name. A generation ago he would have been able to pick a crumbling Irish kingdom and take the land, but all the weaker kingdoms had already been overrun. Any other such kingdoms were either too strong or weren’t worth the trouble as the lands in the West weren’t as worthy of the effort. And so, his eyes came to rest on the dwindling strength of the Norman in the north – John de Courcy. And so there was the first clash of Norman steel against Norman steel in Ireland. John de Courcy appealed to King John over the attack but the king sided with de Lacy II and granted him the title Earl of Ulster (King John later revoked the title he had bestowed and took Ulster for himself). This gave the go ahead for other nobles to do the same. And it continued. Jostling began to take place between the descendants of the original invaders. They became their own worst enemies and ultimately led themselves to their own downfall as they gave breathing space to the Irish kings, and the Irish used it to stage a recovery. So the Irish came back at them after this? Yes, that’s what I said. Hugh de Lacy II wasn’t happy when King John took Ulster off him so when King John died, de Lacy II went to take it back in 1223-4. And he did this with a very important person by his side. Enter Áed Méith Ua Néill. The Ua Néills (cousins of the Meic Lochlainn family which had ruled Ulster in the 11th and 12th centuries) were about to become and remain for the rest of the middle ages, the most powerful kings in Ireland. Ua Néill and de Lacy II waged a war against the Ulster Normans that forced them to give Hugh back his earldom. Now, things were not perfect for the Ua Néills once de Lacy was in power, for he had a close ally in Maurice FitzGerald, the baron of Offaly. FitzGerald used his powers as justiciar of Ireland (an administrator of justice) to the max and from 1232 to 1245 he advanced the territorial interests of the Norman barons of Ireland. He pushed into Galway and Mayo and de Lacy granted him a large chunk of modern day Co. Sligo. Then he gave him a huge section of Tír Conaill – pretty much modern day Co. Donegal. Now, for the majority of the cases of these lands being taken it was from the enemies of the Ua Néills, so they didn’t raise any objections. But the fact of the matter was, they were being surrounded and eventually, they would fall prey to the same expansionism. And sure enough, when Áed Méith Ua Néill died in 1230, de Lacy and Maurice encouraged a succession dispute among the Ua Néill family and the Meic Lochlainns, to try and weaken their hold on the land. Their encouragement climaxed when they decided to just go ahead and invade Tír Eógain and installed a candidate of their own choice – Brian Ua Néill. Well. Unfortunately for the Normans, Brian wasn’t a puppet and launched a lengthy campaign against the settlers in the North. He allied himself with Máel Sechnaill Ua Domnaill of Tír Conaill and they did wreck together. As such, expansion slackened. Máel Sechnaill was eventually killed in battle against Maurice FitzGerald and, interestingly, a body was found that is believed to be belonging to a member of Clan Donald of Scotland. This makes it one of the earliest instances of help being brought in from the Hebridean mercenaries in post invasion Ireland. After Maurice died in 1257, Ua Domnaill’s descendant, Gofraid, destroyed Sligo and Maurice’s castle at Beleek. This ended the Norman expansion into the North West. Was that it? Expansion into the North stopped everything? No, of course not. So much more happened and the Ua Néills were just getting started. Remember Ruaidhrí King of Connacht and former High King? Well he had kids too and one of them decided to try and use the special status his family held with the Norman government to secure the throne of Connacht for his son. His name was Cathal Crobderg and his son’s name was Áed. Cathal secured a charter for the lands in Connacht but the charter did as much bad as it did good. It didn’t specify Áed specifically, rather the vague terms that the lands would pass to Cathal’s “heir”. This secured nothing – and now he was paying rent on land his family owned by right. Also, the charter stated that he would hold the lands for as long as he remained “loyal”. This is ambiguous as hell because according to which standards is he checked to be still loyal? Unsurprisingly, when he died, there was a succession dispute. When Cathal died the land went into arrears and Áed didn’t entertain the Norman’s written claim to his land. A new charter was issued to Richard de Burgh, granting Connacht to him. Áed responded by burning the royal castle at Athlone. Richard de Burgh and the Dublin government went about carving up Connacht then. It was eventually Feidlim, another of Cathal’s sons, that ascended to the throne. To placate him, Dublin leased out the five cantreds (large sections of land) which the king had retained of Connacht (part of Co. Roscommon). But Connacht, as a whole, belonged to Richard de Burgh. Feidlim spent most of his career trying to show his good faith to the Norman crown but throughout his life, more and more land slipped through his fingers. This treatment was not lost on his son, also named Áed. The annals describe Áed as ‘a king who inflicted great defeats on the foreigners, and pulled down their palaces and castles.’ He was inspiration for others as rebellions started forming around the country, from Connacht to Munster. The sons of kings showed great unrest and sought to rid themselves of the newcomers and take back their lands. In 1255, Áed formed an official alliance with Brian Ua Néill of Tír Eógain. The two cleared Bréifne with ease and Brian wanted to annex the former kingdom of Ulster and he had Áed’s backing. A meeting took place between the two of them and Tadc Ua Briain, king of Thomand. Tadc and Áed were willing to abandon their own ancestral claims in order for Brian to take High Kingship and revive it after 75 years in absence. The plan never came off as Tadc died prematurely in 1259 and the following year when Áed and Brian attacked Downpatrick, Brian lost his life. A testament to how important he was was the fact that his head was cut from his body and sent to the King of England after the battle.	<urn:uuid:a78c1002-b0b1-4096-92d4-88db788fa91e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://seanchasbeag.com/what-happened-to-the-normans-1185-1260/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00453.warc.gz	en	0.986089	2,562	3.4375	3	[ -0.589205265045166, 0.17470133304595947, -0.09721574187278748, -0.3094407916069031, 0.17231236398220062, -0.32831722497940063, 0.10477814078330994, -0.36757469177246094, 0.14814436435699463, -0.13685627281665802, -0.17516928911209106, 0.019728854298591614, 0.009508316405117512, -0.08734853...	3	What happened next? The Normans brought widespread coinage and tried to bring a centralised system of justice with local and royal courts. The Brehon laws continued to be used across the majority of the country, particularly because the Irish were excluded from the benefits of Norman law. As such, the Normans then had to decide to either be swallowed by the culture of the Irish or keep them completely at arms length. Those that got involved with the Irish locals became nearly indistinguishable from them. This was a serious problem for the Normans, not helped by Henry II who seemed completely disinterested. When Henry II left Ireland, he didn’t leave any plans with the people he put in charge. He set up his man, Hugh de Lacy, as a counter weight to Strongbow in the East. Henry still didn’t like Strongbow and there was a feeling that he could throw his lot in with the Irish if it suited him to. So Hugh de Lacy was appointed first governer and guardian of Dublin and, despite the fact that the Irish didn’t follow feudal law (again, Brehon law was the system used here), he began to expect tribute from the kings that had submitted to him. This led to war almost immediately after Henry left. Ruaidhrí continued to be a thorn in Henry’s side, not submitting to the Normans in Ireland. In 1175 negotiations were held, run largely by Bishop Laurence O’ Toole (the same guy that mediated between Ruaidhrí and Diarmuid MacMurchadha), in an attempt to come to terms. Both parties came away from it thinking they owned Ireland so it was pointless. Two years later, Henry granted large new territories in Leinster and Munster to Norman barons and knights. The problem was, still, that these Normans were being assimilated into Irish culture and lifestyles. As each new wave of Normans came in, they were shocked and angered by the level of integration that had gone on by the previous Normans. Irish language, culture, dress and Brehon laws had been adopted. It came to a stale-mate when Henry’s son, Prince John, visited Ireland in 1185 to deliver charters and to drive a further wedge between the English and the Irish. It worked. He ridiculed Irish kings that had come to pay homage to him and drove that wedge deep. And if he didn’t like the Irish, he didn’t like the Normans that had invaded either. To him, they were just as bad now. He went home with a view to introduce new blood to the invasion when he became King. Why were the subsequent manoeuvres carried out by the Normans in Ireland unsuccessful in bringing Norman rule to the island? One thing the later generations of the Norman invaders didn’t have was the huge stockpile of Norman settlers to take with them from their homeland when they invaded new territories. Their fathers had taken farmers, craft workers, priests and labourers from their homeland in Britain. It allowed them to set up a little England and not rely so heavily on the local population. But the second section of the invasion, whereby they pushed out of their strongholds from the East and into the West, was undertaken by the sons of these first settlers. Men who had grown up in Ireland. Now, these men didn’t have the same access to the number of Norman settlers their fathers had. Why exactly they didn’t, we’re not sure. Maybe Ireland wasn’t the desired destination it used to be. Maybe the extent to which the families had cut ties with England meant they could no longer press-gang tenants into coming to Ireland. We’re not totally sure on this point but, no matter what the cause, the result was that the subsequent invasions didn’t carry the same transforming power as the first invasion and was only superficial. The same level of colonization was not taking place and this meant it wasn’t going to work. But surely the Normans were superior in warfare, couldn’t they deal with the local armies? Of course they could. That was their strong point. But the problem for the Norman invasion is that when the next generation came of age and wanted to go out and carve land for themselves, the lands of Irish kings weren’t always the best choice. For example! John de Courcy took Ulster in 1177 and he was actually well liked by the Irish because he had ties in Cumbria – an area with close links to the North-East of Ireland. He ruled for 27 years before he was toppled in 1204. But he was not toppled by an Irishman. Hugh de Lacy, whom Henry II had put in power as a counter-weight to Strongbow, had children. When Hugh de Lacy II, his younger son, came of age, his prospects weren’t very good. His older brother, Walter, was going to ascend to his father’s titles. So Hugh had to make his own name. A generation ago he would have been able to pick a crumbling Irish kingdom and take the land, but all the weaker kingdoms had already been overrun. Any other such kingdoms were either too strong or weren’t worth the trouble as the lands in the West weren’t as worthy of the effort. And so, his eyes came to rest on the dwindling strength of the Norman in the north – John de Courcy. And so there was the first clash of Norman steel against Norman steel in Ireland. John de Courcy appealed to King John over the attack but the king sided with de Lacy II and granted him the title Earl of Ulster (King John later revoked the title he had bestowed and took Ulster for himself). This gave the go ahead for other nobles to do the same. And it continued. Jostling began to take place between the descendants of the original invaders. They became their own worst enemies and ultimately led themselves to their own downfall as they gave breathing space to the Irish kings, and the Irish used it to stage a recovery. So the Irish came back at them after this? Yes, that’s what I said. Hugh de Lacy II wasn’t happy when King John took Ulster off him so when King John died, de Lacy II went to take it back in 1223-4. And he did this with a very important person by his side. Enter Áed Méith Ua Néill. The Ua Néills (cousins of the Meic Lochlainn family which had ruled Ulster in the 11th and 12th centuries) were about to become and remain for the rest of the middle ages, the most powerful kings in Ireland. Ua Néill and de Lacy II waged a war against the Ulster Normans that forced them to give Hugh back his earldom. Now, things were not perfect for the Ua Néills once de Lacy was in power, for he had a close ally in Maurice FitzGerald, the baron of Offaly. FitzGerald used his powers as justiciar of Ireland (an administrator of justice) to the max and from 1232 to 1245 he advanced the territorial interests of the Norman barons of Ireland. He pushed into Galway and Mayo and de Lacy granted him a large chunk of modern day Co. Sligo. Then he gave him a huge section of Tír Conaill – pretty much modern day Co. Donegal. Now, for the majority of the cases of these lands being taken it was from the enemies of the Ua Néills, so they didn’t raise any objections. But the fact of the matter was, they were being surrounded and eventually, they would fall prey to the same expansionism. And sure enough, when Áed Méith Ua Néill died in 1230, de Lacy and Maurice encouraged a succession dispute among the Ua Néill family and the Meic Lochlainns, to try and weaken their hold on the land. Their encouragement climaxed when they decided to just go ahead and invade Tír Eógain and installed a candidate of their own choice – Brian Ua Néill. Well. Unfortunately for the Normans, Brian wasn’t a puppet and launched a lengthy campaign against the settlers in the North. He allied himself with Máel Sechnaill Ua Domnaill of Tír Conaill and they did wreck together. As such, expansion slackened. Máel Sechnaill was eventually killed in battle against Maurice FitzGerald and, interestingly, a body was found that is believed to be belonging to a member of Clan Donald of Scotland. This makes it one of the earliest instances of help being brought in from the Hebridean mercenaries in post invasion Ireland. After Maurice died in 1257, Ua Domnaill’s descendant, Gofraid, destroyed Sligo and Maurice’s castle at Beleek. This ended the Norman expansion into the North West. Was that it? Expansion into the North stopped everything? No, of course not. So much more happened and the Ua Néills were just getting started. Remember Ruaidhrí King of Connacht and former High King? Well he had kids too and one of them decided to try and use the special status his family held with the Norman government to secure the throne of Connacht for his son. His name was Cathal Crobderg and his son’s name was Áed. Cathal secured a charter for the lands in Connacht but the charter did as much bad as it did good. It didn’t specify Áed specifically, rather the vague terms that the lands would pass to Cathal’s “heir”. This secured nothing – and now he was paying rent on land his family owned by right. Also, the charter stated that he would hold the lands for as long as he remained “loyal”. This is ambiguous as hell because according to which standards is he checked to be still loyal? Unsurprisingly, when he died, there was a succession dispute. When Cathal died the land went into arrears and Áed didn’t entertain the Norman’s written claim to his land. A new charter was issued to Richard de Burgh, granting Connacht to him. Áed responded by burning the royal castle at Athlone. Richard de Burgh and the Dublin government went about carving up Connacht then. It was eventually Feidlim, another of Cathal’s sons, that ascended to the throne. To placate him, Dublin leased out the five cantreds (large sections of land) which the king had retained of Connacht (part of Co. Roscommon). But Connacht, as a whole, belonged to Richard de Burgh. Feidlim spent most of his career trying to show his good faith to the Norman crown but throughout his life, more and more land slipped through his fingers. This treatment was not lost on his son, also named Áed. The annals describe Áed as ‘a king who inflicted great defeats on the foreigners, and pulled down their palaces and castles.’ He was inspiration for others as rebellions started forming around the country, from Connacht to Munster. The sons of kings showed great unrest and sought to rid themselves of the newcomers and take back their lands. In 1255, Áed formed an official alliance with Brian Ua Néill of Tír Eógain. The two cleared Bréifne with ease and Brian wanted to annex the former kingdom of Ulster and he had Áed’s backing. A meeting took place between the two of them and Tadc Ua Briain, king of Thomand. Tadc and Áed were willing to abandon their own ancestral claims in order for Brian to take High Kingship and revive it after 75 years in absence. The plan never came off as Tadc died prematurely in 1259 and the following year when Áed and Brian attacked Downpatrick, Brian lost his life. A testament to how important he was was the fact that his head was cut from his body and sent to the King of England after the battle.	2,508	ENGLISH	1
Arthur’s seat is a extinct volcano which is the main peak of the group of hills in Edinburgh. How it became known as ‘Arthur’s seat’ still lays a mystery today. Some say that it was the site for the legendary Camelot, the home of King Arthur and his noble Knights. Another comes from William Maitland, who suggested that the name was from the Scots Gallic, Àrd-na-Said, meaning height of arrows. The Sleeping Dragon legend! According to the legend, the land surrounding Edinburgh was once plagued by a huge ferocious dragon. It would circle the skies, terrifying locals, breathing fire, stealing precious livestock and generally getting up to the dragon-ly mischief. The people of Scotland didn’t know what to do. They were petrified of the beast and could see no way to satisfy its greed. Eventually however, this greed would become the reason for the dragon’s downfall. Over weeks and months and years, the dragon ate and ate and ate, taking whatever supplies and animals it wanted from the people of Scotland without second thought. The beast became so greedy that it grew fat and slow. No longer the fierce monster it had once been, the dragon’s constant fullness had made it increasingly lazy. One day, it rested on top of a peak just outside the city for a sleep. Unfortunately for the dragon, it never woke up. Instead, it became the hill we now know as Arthur’s Seat. Brings back youth! Arthur’s Seat was also a hotspot for women seeking beauty and youth back in the day. Thousands of women would gather at Arthur’s Seat before sunrise on May 1st to wash their with the May Dew. Stemming from pagan rituals, the dew was regarded as holy water of the druids which would bring health and beauty. Specifically, women believed the dew would whiten lines and beautify their faces making them appear younger. Hill of the Dead Whinny Hill, which just sits at the side Arthurs seat as over the years gained the name the ‘Hill of the Dead’ as over the years it has seen its fair share of murderous events. In 1769 Mungo campbell murdered a officer, after which he killed himself and demanded to be buried below Sailsbury craggs and In 1677 several civilans was shot dead by the kings troops. In 1863, Nestled on its cliffside, two boys discovered 17 coffins filled with fully clothed wooden figurines. While no one knows for sure, but there is many legends attached to why they was buried here. One legend has it the coffins were symbolic burials of Burke and Hare‘s 17 medical murder victims. The tiny coffins were arranged under slates in three tiers: two tiers of eight and one solitary coffin on the top. Each coffin, only 95mm in length, contained a little wooden figure, expertly carved and dressed in custom-made clothes that had been stitched and glued around them. Some believe these was used for witchery and for summoning evil, such things may have been made to resemble a person in which they wanted to destroy with a ritual being done on them to cast such a thing. Others believe they was placed here as a ancient custom which prevailed in Saxony, of burying in effigy departed friends who had died in a distant land. Some believe that they could have been made by sailors and given to their wifes so if they never returned they could ensure that something remebled them to have a christain burial. While some believe sailors used them as a lucky charm before setting off to sea. An interesting tale of this comes from a publisher named the Scotsman’s, he goes into details in one of his articles how A ‘lady residing in Edinburgh’ had told the paper that her father (‘Mr B.’) had sometimes been visited at his business premises by a ‘daft man’. On one occasion, the man had drawn on a piece of paper a picture of three small coffins, with the dates 1837, 1838 and 1840 written underneath. ‘In the autumn of 1837,’ The Scotsman explains, ‘a near relative of Mr B’s died; in the following year a cousin died and in 1840 his own brother died. After the funeral, the daft deaf mute appeared again, walked into Mr B’s office and “glowering” at him vanished never to return.’ A fine twist to the tale of these mystery finds and one that we will probably will never know! Charlene Lowe Kemp	<urn:uuid:6122a925-9eca-4d78-b10b-e83076130c1d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paranormalhauntings.blog/2020/01/03/the-arthurs-seat-mysteries-and-miniture-coffins-edinbrough/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00023.warc.gz	en	0.985069	979	3.421875	3	[ -0.29509198665618896, 0.015945754945278168, 0.23057450354099274, 0.4227205812931061, -0.15867969393730164, 0.29141470789909363, 0.42063674330711365, 0.31369802355766296, 0.005202156957238913, 0.17690202593803406, -0.1127515584230423, -0.4342831075191498, 0.20575860142707825, 0.016806915402...	11	Arthur’s seat is a extinct volcano which is the main peak of the group of hills in Edinburgh. How it became known as ‘Arthur’s seat’ still lays a mystery today. Some say that it was the site for the legendary Camelot, the home of King Arthur and his noble Knights. Another comes from William Maitland, who suggested that the name was from the Scots Gallic, Àrd-na-Said, meaning height of arrows. The Sleeping Dragon legend! According to the legend, the land surrounding Edinburgh was once plagued by a huge ferocious dragon. It would circle the skies, terrifying locals, breathing fire, stealing precious livestock and generally getting up to the dragon-ly mischief. The people of Scotland didn’t know what to do. They were petrified of the beast and could see no way to satisfy its greed. Eventually however, this greed would become the reason for the dragon’s downfall. Over weeks and months and years, the dragon ate and ate and ate, taking whatever supplies and animals it wanted from the people of Scotland without second thought. The beast became so greedy that it grew fat and slow. No longer the fierce monster it had once been, the dragon’s constant fullness had made it increasingly lazy. One day, it rested on top of a peak just outside the city for a sleep. Unfortunately for the dragon, it never woke up. Instead, it became the hill we now know as Arthur’s Seat. Brings back youth! Arthur’s Seat was also a hotspot for women seeking beauty and youth back in the day. Thousands of women would gather at Arthur’s Seat before sunrise on May 1st to wash their with the May Dew. Stemming from pagan rituals, the dew was regarded as holy water of the druids which would bring health and beauty. Specifically, women believed the dew would whiten lines and beautify their faces making them appear younger. Hill of the Dead Whinny Hill, which just sits at the side Arthurs seat as over the years gained the name the ‘Hill of the Dead’ as over the years it has seen its fair share of murderous events. In 1769 Mungo campbell murdered a officer, after which he killed himself and demanded to be buried below Sailsbury craggs and In 1677 several civilans was shot dead by the kings troops. In 1863, Nestled on its cliffside, two boys discovered 17 coffins filled with fully clothed wooden figurines. While no one knows for sure, but there is many legends attached to why they was buried here. One legend has it the coffins were symbolic burials of Burke and Hare‘s 17 medical murder victims. The tiny coffins were arranged under slates in three tiers: two tiers of eight and one solitary coffin on the top. Each coffin, only 95mm in length, contained a little wooden figure, expertly carved and dressed in custom-made clothes that had been stitched and glued around them. Some believe these was used for witchery and for summoning evil, such things may have been made to resemble a person in which they wanted to destroy with a ritual being done on them to cast such a thing. Others believe they was placed here as a ancient custom which prevailed in Saxony, of burying in effigy departed friends who had died in a distant land. Some believe that they could have been made by sailors and given to their wifes so if they never returned they could ensure that something remebled them to have a christain burial. While some believe sailors used them as a lucky charm before setting off to sea. An interesting tale of this comes from a publisher named the Scotsman’s, he goes into details in one of his articles how A ‘lady residing in Edinburgh’ had told the paper that her father (‘Mr B.’) had sometimes been visited at his business premises by a ‘daft man’. On one occasion, the man had drawn on a piece of paper a picture of three small coffins, with the dates 1837, 1838 and 1840 written underneath. ‘In the autumn of 1837,’ The Scotsman explains, ‘a near relative of Mr B’s died; in the following year a cousin died and in 1840 his own brother died. After the funeral, the daft deaf mute appeared again, walked into Mr B’s office and “glowering” at him vanished never to return.’ A fine twist to the tale of these mystery finds and one that we will probably will never know! Charlene Lowe Kemp	950	ENGLISH	1
The history of Jews in Ecuador dates back to the colonial period, with the first Sephardic Jews probably arriving in what is now Southern Ecuador escaping the inquisition in the Viceroyalty of Lima between the late 16th and early 17th centuries. This presence of Sephardic Jews remained hidden for years in Ecuador and Judaism was only practiced secretly at home. In the centuries that followed, Jewish immigration was virtually non-existent in Ecuador. Some Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants did arrive in Ecuador in the late 1920s, but it was not until the rise of the Nazis that substantial numbers of permanent Jewish settlers arrived in the country. Among them were professionals, intellectuals and artists, some of whom were professors and writers. The majority settled in Quito. Many of the Jewish immigrants who arrived before and during World War II were admitted entry into Ecuador on the understanding that they would work in agricultural endeavors, but by the end of the war, many had branched out to other professions. Ecuadorian Jews brought technology, science and arts to Ecuador and were generally quite successful economically. Although a law was passed in the late 30´s that required foreigners to show that they were engaged in the stipulated occupation approved in their entry visas, no Jewish immigrants were actually ever expelled from Ecuador for not complying with this law. After the Second World War many Ecuadorian Jews emigrated to the United States, Europe and Israel causing a decline of the larger collective of Jews in Ecuador. There was a wave of immigration from Argentina and Chile in the 1970s, but emigration still continued over the years. Today, the Ecuadorian Jewish community is quite small, but relatively homogenous and well-organized as a community.	<urn:uuid:ef468fe3-bfb8-4645-a380-fc6804f42417>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/EC	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00426.warc.gz	en	0.982325	344	3.421875	3	[ -0.10168665647506714, -0.04437723755836487, 0.46845802664756775, -0.22091619670391083, -0.0891478955745697, 0.0036842378322035074, -0.16627861559391022, -0.020483197644352913, -0.09982389211654663, -0.09872232377529144, 0.02187047339975834, 0.1717699021100998, -0.2939395606517792, 0.058679...	2	The history of Jews in Ecuador dates back to the colonial period, with the first Sephardic Jews probably arriving in what is now Southern Ecuador escaping the inquisition in the Viceroyalty of Lima between the late 16th and early 17th centuries. This presence of Sephardic Jews remained hidden for years in Ecuador and Judaism was only practiced secretly at home. In the centuries that followed, Jewish immigration was virtually non-existent in Ecuador. Some Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants did arrive in Ecuador in the late 1920s, but it was not until the rise of the Nazis that substantial numbers of permanent Jewish settlers arrived in the country. Among them were professionals, intellectuals and artists, some of whom were professors and writers. The majority settled in Quito. Many of the Jewish immigrants who arrived before and during World War II were admitted entry into Ecuador on the understanding that they would work in agricultural endeavors, but by the end of the war, many had branched out to other professions. Ecuadorian Jews brought technology, science and arts to Ecuador and were generally quite successful economically. Although a law was passed in the late 30´s that required foreigners to show that they were engaged in the stipulated occupation approved in their entry visas, no Jewish immigrants were actually ever expelled from Ecuador for not complying with this law. After the Second World War many Ecuadorian Jews emigrated to the United States, Europe and Israel causing a decline of the larger collective of Jews in Ecuador. There was a wave of immigration from Argentina and Chile in the 1970s, but emigration still continued over the years. Today, the Ecuadorian Jewish community is quite small, but relatively homogenous and well-organized as a community.	352	ENGLISH	1
Genocide was officially recognised as a crime under international law in 1946. The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was subsequently adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948. This Convention has been ratified by 149 States (as of January 2018), though the principles enshrined in it’s doctrine are also part of general international law, which binds all countries. The word ‘genocide’ is associated, in the minds of most, with the atrocities committed by the Nazi Regime during World War II, as part of their “Final Solution.” Few are aware of the equally heinous and more recent genocide campaign led by Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia. The rise of the Khmer Rouge began during the early 1970’s when the secret bombing campaign by US troops during the Vietnam War led to widespread devastation and civil war in neighbouring Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge officially won the ensuing Civil War in 1975 and immediately began their communist re-education campaign. The aim of the Khmer Rouge was to socially engineer a classless communist society. In order to achieve this aim, the leaders of the regime believed that those of the ‘new age’ must be executed, leaving only working-class Cambodians behind to fulfil the communist manifesto. In order to achieve this, people were rounded up and sent to concentration camps where they were sorted into groups. Cities were emptied, and anyone who represented modern ideals were sent to labour fields, in what later became known as the killing fields. Here, individuals were forced to work for no money, suffering physical abuse and starvation. Those targeted included, amongst others: Academics and intellectuals; those with a good education; those who spoke a foreign language; professionals such as doctors, nurses, teachers, etc.; ‘modern’ Cambodians, i.e. those who resided in cities; ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese and Thai; wealthy Cambodians; and religious leaders and their followers. The Genocide has become known by historians as one of the most barbaric and murderous in recent history. A total of 2 million people died, ¼ of the overall population of Cambodia. People died of malnutrition, exhaustion, disease and hundreds of thousands were executed. The most famous of these execution sites was Tuol Sleng Centre, one of 96 such ‘prisons.’ The Khmer Rouge lacked the technological advancement available to the Nazi regime and their concentration camps. For this reason, most executions were carried out using blunt everyday instruments, including hammers and pickaxes. This resulted in excruciatingly slow deaths. Perhaps the most horrific of all is the reported practice of executing small children by bludgeoning their bodies against that of a tree. The killing was widespread and indiscriminate. Little regard was given to the deceased, as the common use of mass graves clearly shows. It is frightening to think that such a horrific genocide could occur only 35 years ago and only 30 years after that of the Nazi Regime. Tuol Sleng Centre now operates as a historical site- frequented by tourists and locals alike. This killing field allows the visitor to take a harrowing step into the not-so-distant past. Audio testimony of the handful of people who escaped tell stories of loud propaganda music on constant loop to drown out the screams of those who were being executed. They speak of families ripped apart at the seams and people targeted for reasons as trivial as possessing a pair of glasses. They speak of the death of humanity and the corruption of power, all the while sending a powerful message of warning to leaders of the future. In the aftermath of the Khmer Rouge’s reign, some of its remaining leaders were put on trial in a UN-backed Cambodian Court, resulting in the conviction of three officials. While this is a decisive win for the legal system, there is no doubt that genocide is a crime which no amount of justice can negate. Photo courtesy of Unsplash	<urn:uuid:f7ef4c7f-0407-4fd4-9401-462bacabd875>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stand.ie/cambodian-genocide/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00406.warc.gz	en	0.980093	802	3.765625	4	[ -0.3360069990158081, 0.33178073167800903, 0.3137923777103424, -0.028249671682715416, 0.2585158348083496, 0.20073151588439941, 0.2749403119087219, 0.1957245171070099, -0.09073194861412048, 0.41990551352500916, 0.39572542905807495, -0.20144839584827423, -0.21212711930274963, 0.72547119855880...	2	Genocide was officially recognised as a crime under international law in 1946. The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was subsequently adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948. This Convention has been ratified by 149 States (as of January 2018), though the principles enshrined in it’s doctrine are also part of general international law, which binds all countries. The word ‘genocide’ is associated, in the minds of most, with the atrocities committed by the Nazi Regime during World War II, as part of their “Final Solution.” Few are aware of the equally heinous and more recent genocide campaign led by Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia. The rise of the Khmer Rouge began during the early 1970’s when the secret bombing campaign by US troops during the Vietnam War led to widespread devastation and civil war in neighbouring Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge officially won the ensuing Civil War in 1975 and immediately began their communist re-education campaign. The aim of the Khmer Rouge was to socially engineer a classless communist society. In order to achieve this aim, the leaders of the regime believed that those of the ‘new age’ must be executed, leaving only working-class Cambodians behind to fulfil the communist manifesto. In order to achieve this, people were rounded up and sent to concentration camps where they were sorted into groups. Cities were emptied, and anyone who represented modern ideals were sent to labour fields, in what later became known as the killing fields. Here, individuals were forced to work for no money, suffering physical abuse and starvation. Those targeted included, amongst others: Academics and intellectuals; those with a good education; those who spoke a foreign language; professionals such as doctors, nurses, teachers, etc.; ‘modern’ Cambodians, i.e. those who resided in cities; ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese and Thai; wealthy Cambodians; and religious leaders and their followers. The Genocide has become known by historians as one of the most barbaric and murderous in recent history. A total of 2 million people died, ¼ of the overall population of Cambodia. People died of malnutrition, exhaustion, disease and hundreds of thousands were executed. The most famous of these execution sites was Tuol Sleng Centre, one of 96 such ‘prisons.’ The Khmer Rouge lacked the technological advancement available to the Nazi regime and their concentration camps. For this reason, most executions were carried out using blunt everyday instruments, including hammers and pickaxes. This resulted in excruciatingly slow deaths. Perhaps the most horrific of all is the reported practice of executing small children by bludgeoning their bodies against that of a tree. The killing was widespread and indiscriminate. Little regard was given to the deceased, as the common use of mass graves clearly shows. It is frightening to think that such a horrific genocide could occur only 35 years ago and only 30 years after that of the Nazi Regime. Tuol Sleng Centre now operates as a historical site- frequented by tourists and locals alike. This killing field allows the visitor to take a harrowing step into the not-so-distant past. Audio testimony of the handful of people who escaped tell stories of loud propaganda music on constant loop to drown out the screams of those who were being executed. They speak of families ripped apart at the seams and people targeted for reasons as trivial as possessing a pair of glasses. They speak of the death of humanity and the corruption of power, all the while sending a powerful message of warning to leaders of the future. In the aftermath of the Khmer Rouge’s reign, some of its remaining leaders were put on trial in a UN-backed Cambodian Court, resulting in the conviction of three officials. While this is a decisive win for the legal system, there is no doubt that genocide is a crime which no amount of justice can negate. Photo courtesy of Unsplash	814	ENGLISH	1
The Search Institute (search-institute.org) talks about the importance of kids knowing how to make and keep friends. Do your kids have that skill? Are they good at forming positive relationships? What types of friends are they naturally drawn? I encourage parents and grandparents to ask themselves these questions regarding the young people in their lives. As a stepfather, I helped my wife raise two boys. When I cam on the scene, neither of them was particularly good at choosing friends that formed a positive relationship. I worked with both of them; however, because they were a bit older when I came on the scene (10 & 12 yrs.), it was a bit more complicated because habits were formed. I accepted the challenge and was successful with the younger one. His older brother was a challenge because the relationships he formed tended to be negative ones with kids who had habits that could get him into trouble. Forming positive relationships with others can tell you quite a bit about your child. Perhaps they are good at picking great friends, kids who are a very positive influence. But what do you do if that is not the case? Here are a few ideas that may help. - Model the importance of great friends by including your kids in your friendships. When you get together with your friends, have your kids see that interaction between you and others positively. Even if it is just for a short while, start a conversation with your child and include your friends and allow them to participate in the discussion. - If your kids are having difficulty forming friendships, find out why. Do they need help approaching people they don’t know? Do they need help initiating a conversation? You can role-play these things with your child at home, helping them to practice meeting others. Help them start conversations and encourage them to meet others in situations where you can stand-off in the distance, such as a sporting event, concert, or school assembly. Coach them from what you can see and encourage them to keep trying. - Some kids prefer older kids or even adults. They may have difficulty fitting in with kids their age. It might be that they are emotionally immature for their age or that they are more mature in their thinking than their friends. This happens as kids grow and develop, and often, they grow out of it in a few years. - Help your kids with diversity in friendships. Talk with them about diversity and model it for them in your relationships. Help them to understand the importance of including everyone in a positive way into their life. Diversity can consist of different age groups, cultural groups, ethnic origins, and faiths. - Encourage your kids to invite their friends over to your home. Have an inviting area where they can call their own in your home and provide some snacks for them. Make your home their hang-out place for their friends. It will help you as a parent to learn more about their friends and to feel more comfortable when they leave to do other things outside the home. - Help your kids to think of things to do that are fun. Make a list for them and help them gather the items needed for various activities. This is a natural and most helpful approach to help the young people in your life build some social, communication, and self-confidence/self-esteem skills. The best is to have parents role-model appropriate fun with their friends with their young people around. If you take some time to work at this with your young people, you will notice it take off and become a real asset for them for their future. Yours for Better Parenting,	<urn:uuid:a0fcf724-dc81-46e1-80f1-c5d31cfc5ac1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pattersonphd.com/friendship-making-skills/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00017.warc.gz	en	0.981597	729	3.265625	3	[ -0.2085677981376648, -0.1247461587190628, -0.07970225811004639, -0.5845436453819275, -0.4539065361022949, 0.11290844529867172, 0.21772971749305725, -0.08470019698143005, -0.10606926679611206, -0.07285268604755402, 0.30139267444610596, -0.04611741006374359, 0.4843963384628296, 0.34251350164...	3	The Search Institute (search-institute.org) talks about the importance of kids knowing how to make and keep friends. Do your kids have that skill? Are they good at forming positive relationships? What types of friends are they naturally drawn? I encourage parents and grandparents to ask themselves these questions regarding the young people in their lives. As a stepfather, I helped my wife raise two boys. When I cam on the scene, neither of them was particularly good at choosing friends that formed a positive relationship. I worked with both of them; however, because they were a bit older when I came on the scene (10 & 12 yrs.), it was a bit more complicated because habits were formed. I accepted the challenge and was successful with the younger one. His older brother was a challenge because the relationships he formed tended to be negative ones with kids who had habits that could get him into trouble. Forming positive relationships with others can tell you quite a bit about your child. Perhaps they are good at picking great friends, kids who are a very positive influence. But what do you do if that is not the case? Here are a few ideas that may help. - Model the importance of great friends by including your kids in your friendships. When you get together with your friends, have your kids see that interaction between you and others positively. Even if it is just for a short while, start a conversation with your child and include your friends and allow them to participate in the discussion. - If your kids are having difficulty forming friendships, find out why. Do they need help approaching people they don’t know? Do they need help initiating a conversation? You can role-play these things with your child at home, helping them to practice meeting others. Help them start conversations and encourage them to meet others in situations where you can stand-off in the distance, such as a sporting event, concert, or school assembly. Coach them from what you can see and encourage them to keep trying. - Some kids prefer older kids or even adults. They may have difficulty fitting in with kids their age. It might be that they are emotionally immature for their age or that they are more mature in their thinking than their friends. This happens as kids grow and develop, and often, they grow out of it in a few years. - Help your kids with diversity in friendships. Talk with them about diversity and model it for them in your relationships. Help them to understand the importance of including everyone in a positive way into their life. Diversity can consist of different age groups, cultural groups, ethnic origins, and faiths. - Encourage your kids to invite their friends over to your home. Have an inviting area where they can call their own in your home and provide some snacks for them. Make your home their hang-out place for their friends. It will help you as a parent to learn more about their friends and to feel more comfortable when they leave to do other things outside the home. - Help your kids to think of things to do that are fun. Make a list for them and help them gather the items needed for various activities. This is a natural and most helpful approach to help the young people in your life build some social, communication, and self-confidence/self-esteem skills. The best is to have parents role-model appropriate fun with their friends with their young people around. If you take some time to work at this with your young people, you will notice it take off and become a real asset for them for their future. Yours for Better Parenting,	712	ENGLISH	1
The Soviet Union The Soviet Union sparked its first paths of development towards a communist economy through a five-year plan in 1938. The plan called for government controls and government regulation for their workers. This planned also controlled prices and wages for the workers to control the standard of living and to keep the needs of the common man minimal. The government wanted control of all private industries so that they can push for a rapid industrial society. Benefits such as health care and public housing were terminated to help the Soviet government with their plan. The Soviets wanted to combine their work force with their investments in coal, steel and iron to boost their capital and help them create a super nation. After Joseph Stalin's death in 1953 a change began to occur in the Soviet Union. A new set of reforms was set up which were to reestablish welfare programs and public housing. This plan that was coined the destalinization effort, was used to introduce the new market strategies, expanding production and raising the profit margin. However politically this plan was looked upon negatively and was merely disregarded. Over time several attempts towards this model were made as late as 1988. Gorbachev was still trying for economic reforms. Small business enterprises began to branch out and with new laws in place more businesses were in control of themselves without that much government regulations. These businesses folded and inflation became a horrid realization for the soviets. The soviet economic plan was failing and was not showing any signs of revival. It was not until the breaking up of the Soviet Union in the early 90's where the Soviet economy would show signs of hope. Compared to the theories of Marx, the Soviet Union did not begin their economic development in the way, which Marx theorized. He believed that the economy needed to be collectively ran and...	<urn:uuid:830e655a-9597-4fa9-a662-49fdb858ad0e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-soviet-union-5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00433.warc.gz	en	0.988803	359	3.5	4	[ -0.783484160900116, -0.2524798810482025, -0.003957783337682486, 0.40568646788597107, 0.19330357015132904, 0.25807544589042664, -0.08233813941478729, 0.2732935845851898, -0.3722366392612457, 0.07713327556848526, 0.6079185009002686, 0.3067600727081299, 0.3320087492465973, 0.20974695682525635...	1	The Soviet Union The Soviet Union sparked its first paths of development towards a communist economy through a five-year plan in 1938. The plan called for government controls and government regulation for their workers. This planned also controlled prices and wages for the workers to control the standard of living and to keep the needs of the common man minimal. The government wanted control of all private industries so that they can push for a rapid industrial society. Benefits such as health care and public housing were terminated to help the Soviet government with their plan. The Soviets wanted to combine their work force with their investments in coal, steel and iron to boost their capital and help them create a super nation. After Joseph Stalin's death in 1953 a change began to occur in the Soviet Union. A new set of reforms was set up which were to reestablish welfare programs and public housing. This plan that was coined the destalinization effort, was used to introduce the new market strategies, expanding production and raising the profit margin. However politically this plan was looked upon negatively and was merely disregarded. Over time several attempts towards this model were made as late as 1988. Gorbachev was still trying for economic reforms. Small business enterprises began to branch out and with new laws in place more businesses were in control of themselves without that much government regulations. These businesses folded and inflation became a horrid realization for the soviets. The soviet economic plan was failing and was not showing any signs of revival. It was not until the breaking up of the Soviet Union in the early 90's where the Soviet economy would show signs of hope. Compared to the theories of Marx, the Soviet Union did not begin their economic development in the way, which Marx theorized. He believed that the economy needed to be collectively ran and...	372	ENGLISH	1
The Seven Years War, fought between Britain and France and their respective allies, took place between 1756 and 1763 on a global scale. Leading up to that conflict however was a period of hostilities in North America beginning in 1754, as Britain and France vied for supremacy in the New World. Halifax, founded in 1749, had begun to be used extensively by Britain’s Royal Navy as a base of operations. This increased strategic importance necessitated measures to defend the settlement and anchorage from attack by the French. Therefore, in 1755 three gun batteries were constructed along the Halifax shoreline, adjacent to Lower Water Street. They were designed as elongated blunted redans standing 12 feet above the high-water mark, with parapets 7 feet high and 15 feet thick. 24-pounder smooth bore cannons were positioned on wooden platforms and fired through openings or embrasures built of logs and squared timbers. The North Battery actually consisted to two small complementary batteries of five and nine guns respectively, which were located on a small projection of land at the foot of the former Buckingham Street. The site today is where the front of the Marriott Harbourfront Hotel stands, and where earlier the Ordnance Yard was located. The northern part (the “Five-Gun Battery”) faced northeast, while the southern part (the “Nine-Gun Battery”) faced east – both measured 130 feet along the front face. The Middle Battery stood near the foot of George Street, where the Queen’s Marque is now located. It was also knows as the Governor’s Battery, because of its close proximity to the Governor’s residence, now the location of Province House at George and Hollis Streets. It had a 230-foot face with ten guns, and a 60-foot flank at each end with two guns on the south flank and three on the north flank to enfilade the shore. The South Battery, also called the Fourteen-Gun Battery, was built between Salter and Sackville Streets near the site of today’s Waterfront Warehouse restaurant. It was about 280 feet long with two 65-foot flanks, and mounted 10 guns along its front, with two on each flank. The three batteries together mounted forty-three 24-pounder smooth bore cannons, and were intended to support the guns already located on Georges Island to defend the town from a French attack by sea. They fell into disuse after the Seven Years War ended in 1763, and by the 1780s were in ruins. They were dismantled soon afterwards.	<urn:uuid:ea69c902-3521-4504-9f0e-4208760d949c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hmhps.ca/sites/halifax-harbourfront-batteries	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00390.warc.gz	en	0.986767	532	3.671875	4	[ -0.2683923840522766, 0.6693587899208069, 0.4954550564289093, -0.2496606856584549, -0.019431810826063156, 0.0759168416261673, 0.051833659410476685, 0.12357383966445923, -0.11300468444824219, -0.04766096547245979, 0.07658234238624573, -0.384125292301178, 0.12002409994602203, 0.39493405818939...	4	The Seven Years War, fought between Britain and France and their respective allies, took place between 1756 and 1763 on a global scale. Leading up to that conflict however was a period of hostilities in North America beginning in 1754, as Britain and France vied for supremacy in the New World. Halifax, founded in 1749, had begun to be used extensively by Britain’s Royal Navy as a base of operations. This increased strategic importance necessitated measures to defend the settlement and anchorage from attack by the French. Therefore, in 1755 three gun batteries were constructed along the Halifax shoreline, adjacent to Lower Water Street. They were designed as elongated blunted redans standing 12 feet above the high-water mark, with parapets 7 feet high and 15 feet thick. 24-pounder smooth bore cannons were positioned on wooden platforms and fired through openings or embrasures built of logs and squared timbers. The North Battery actually consisted to two small complementary batteries of five and nine guns respectively, which were located on a small projection of land at the foot of the former Buckingham Street. The site today is where the front of the Marriott Harbourfront Hotel stands, and where earlier the Ordnance Yard was located. The northern part (the “Five-Gun Battery”) faced northeast, while the southern part (the “Nine-Gun Battery”) faced east – both measured 130 feet along the front face. The Middle Battery stood near the foot of George Street, where the Queen’s Marque is now located. It was also knows as the Governor’s Battery, because of its close proximity to the Governor’s residence, now the location of Province House at George and Hollis Streets. It had a 230-foot face with ten guns, and a 60-foot flank at each end with two guns on the south flank and three on the north flank to enfilade the shore. The South Battery, also called the Fourteen-Gun Battery, was built between Salter and Sackville Streets near the site of today’s Waterfront Warehouse restaurant. It was about 280 feet long with two 65-foot flanks, and mounted 10 guns along its front, with two on each flank. The three batteries together mounted forty-three 24-pounder smooth bore cannons, and were intended to support the guns already located on Georges Island to defend the town from a French attack by sea. They fell into disuse after the Seven Years War ended in 1763, and by the 1780s were in ruins. They were dismantled soon afterwards.	551	ENGLISH	1
The History Cat Classroom The History Cat Classroom The Story of Jamestown Colony Such a dish as powdered wife I never heard of… In 1607, England became an empire. The Virginia Company of London was granted a charter to much of what would eventually become the southeastern part of the United States. The purpose of this company was simple: make money. Spain had already demonstrated the impact that New World gold and silver could have. England wanted in on the action. The first shipment of 105 colonists to what would become Jamestown landed in May of 1607. They had spent two weeks scouting for the perfect area to establish the colony. Their number one priority was a defensible position. The peninsula the Jamestown colonists chose was off the Chesapeake coast in Virginia, more than fifty miles up the James River. As a defensive position, they couldn’t have picked a better spot. Situated on high ground the English could train their cannons on enemy ships dumb enough to try and navigate the tricky channels of the James River. The site was also far enough inland to provide warning of the approach of a threatening fleet. But when it came to building a permanent settlement, Jamestown’s location was about as smart as electing Kayne West for president. Surrounded by swampland, the only thing the colonists were going to grow was mosquito bites. But England’s first permanent settlement in America wasn’t built as a place to raise a family. Just look at the passenger list: zero females. Nearly all of the colonists from the passenger list were gentlemen with a few carpenters, masons, and soldiers thrown into the mix. The idea was that Jamestown would yield up gold, silver, timber, furs, or just about anything else that could return home with gold in their pockets and a good story to tell their buddies. But the Jamestown colonists had made a fatal mistake that would soon turn their little adventure into a cannibalistic nightmare. Little consideration was given to growing food. English gentlemen and soldiers were no boy scouts and had no expertise nor tools for farming. Instead, they thought that it would be easy to swap a handful of shiny buttons and kettles for a hot meal. But the English got off to a bad start, angering the Indians by setting up camp atop their hunting and fishing grounds.The Powhatan wanted the invaders gone more than they wanted the cheap trinkets that the English had to offer. The Powhatan Wars The Powhatan were hoping to use the English to their advantage. The powerful Indian nation was made up of 100 villages and they had plans to move the English into one of their satellite settlements and have the English make metal tools for them in exchange for full provisions. The English had a different idea. Jamestown was to be the beginning of a vast English empire that would be built on native land and hopefully in time with native slave labor. It was only a matter of time before the two sides clashed. The English not only refused to abandon Jamestown but instead made plans to build two additional forts. When the Powhatan refused their request the English responded by destroying a sacred burial ground. So far, not off to a good start. Fed up with the English invaders, the native people began picking off lone colonists who strayed too far from the fort. One unlucky guy got sniped by an arrow when he snuck outside the fort to pee. After that, the rest of the group wisely chose to spend their entire time inside the palisades. Surrounded by hostile Indians the colonists were trapped like a politician wired to a polygraph. But things kept getting worse....the water in the river had turned brackish and nearly undrinkable as summer arrived and the tides shifted. The supplies dwindled. There was no gold. And even if they had found gold it probably wouldn’t have done much for the whole starvation problem. They could only wait and hope for the early arrival of the promised supply ship. Then Malaria stopped by to kill off a few more colonists. Immediately, arguments broke out and the colony descended into chaos. Captain John Smith, a soldier with a colorful past, had been appointed by the Virginia Company take control of the situation. More importantly, he was one of the only white men who could peacefully negotiate with the Indians for food and supplies. In January of 1608, the "First Supply" ship arrived. One hundred new settlers were greeted by thirty-eight men--the rest had died. With the influx of food and manpower, they quickly added new fortifications and established armed guards who patrolled the area outside of the fort. This allowed a new dictate to come from Captain John Smith. "Work or starve." The colonists were put to work establishing farms to stockpile food for the next winter. It was around this time that a gunpowder accident nearly killed John Smith. Some claim that someone had set fire to the gunpowder store intentionally to get rid of the demanding captain. The homes could be re-built but the broken body of the Captain would need more time. Smith was shipped back home to England. Many were happy to see Smith go as the Captain’s dictates were difficult. After all who could find gold if they were forced to farm for four hours every day. Good riddance to the only tie to friendly native people they had. Without John Smith, there was no trade. John Radcliffe, one of the ships captains, took charge. Radcliffe’s philosophy towards the Indians was similar to a lunchroom bully: ‘your Twinkie is my Twinkie’. When he arrived in a native town to force a better trade agreement things went very badly. In a failed attempt to force the natives to trade, he was tied up as the women of the tribe cut out parts of his flesh with scallop shells... and the poor man was forced to watch as they threw bits of himself into the fire before he expired. Death by crustacean is certainly one of the more imaginative ways of torturing someone. Lord De la Warr was up next to take command. With an openly hostile attitude towards the people he called "savages," he decided that the best solution was to attack and burn native settlements. Hostages were taken including the village chief’s wife and children whom they threw into the river and “shot their braynes out”. The Powhatan were not intimidated. Captain Smith led small groups of armed men out of the fort to try to trade with nearby natives. He believed that establishing diplomatic ties with the native people was the only way his people would survive the coming winter. He did eventually meet with Powhatan the chief of the Confederacy. But it was not in the manner that he intended. Smith had gotten himself separated from his companions and was captured by a man named Opechancanough. (if you can say his name correctly three times fast, we’ll give you bragging rights). Like all captives, Smith had the glorious prospect of a very lengthy torture ordeal to look forward to. But according to legend the twenty-eight-year-old John Smith was saved by the daughter of Powhatan, Pocahontas, who threw herself on him and proclaimed “Father! I love him”. At which point they fell madly in love and lived happily ever after. But this bit of fiction was the creation of Disney who should never be trusted in telling a historically accurate story. But in reality, our brave heroine was most likely about eleven-years-old at the time. But on the bright side Captain John Smith was able to talk his way out of certain death and broker a peace treaty with the Powhatan Confederacy. Limited trade would begin. Now the colony of Jamestown only had to deal with Malaria, polluted water, the Spanish, and a miserable profit margin. The Starving Time In a state of war and with dwindling food supplies the colony began to suffer again. By a stroke bad luck, poor preparation, and more bad luck, Jamestown was about to face a time of horror that would nearly destroy the colony. Apparently, waging war on the only people who could provide you with food was not such a smart idea after all. By late autumn food supplies were nearly exhausted because black rats had gotten into their warehouses. Some English resorted to stealing from the Indians which as you can imagine went over as well as a death metal band in a Baptist church. With Smith gone, the Powhatan decided to get rid of the English trespassers once and for all. The Powhatan refused to trade with the English and put the colony under siege to prevent anyone else from supplying them with food. The winter of 1609-10 was known as the Starving Time. There would be no supplies and no one to force them to farm. When the food finally ran out the people were forced to eat cats, dogs, horses, and rats. The colonists were forced to stay within the fort. "...the natives killed as fast without if our men stirred but beyond the bounds of the blockhouse." They could only sit and hope. Two men were caught raiding the storehouses and were tied to posts and allowed to starve. Archaeologists have disinterred remains of the early colonists and found suspect chopping marks on the bones of one girl who had died at the age of fourteen. The chop marks were similar to those found on butchered animals. One man was found to have killed his own wife in a fit of hunger and then had, "...cut her in pieces, powdered her, and fed upon her." This led John Smith to quip, "Such a dish as powdered wife I never heard of." Smith was back in England by this time and writing down his story for future publication. In a particularly gruesome instance, a few of the colonists decided that Native Americans might have another use and one that had been killed in a skirmish was"...digged by some out of his grave after he had laid buried three days, and [they] wholly devoured him." It seems that the people of Jamestown had resorted to cannibalism. Seriously, not even Wes Craven could not have written a better B grade horror film. Jamestown was not going to recover easily. On June 7, 1610, the surviving colonists were done. They had enough and boarded a ship. Where were they going? Presumably, England, but before they even reached the Ocean, a supply ship intercepted them and turned them back towards Jamestown. By the time the fourth relief ship arrived, only 60 settlers were still alive out of the original 500. Skeleton of a male, 14 to 15 years old, with a small stone arrow point The Tobacco Boom The investors had lost all of their money and the colony was officially bankrupt. By 1624 it was declared a Royal Colony under the direct control of the crown. So what finally saved Jamestown? It became profitable thanks to lung cancer. John Rolfe, a London Businessman, crossbred tobacco seeds that he had illegally obtained from Spanish Trinidad and found a strain that would grow well and turn a handsome profit. Finally, Jamestown was worth saving. Peace with the Powhatan finally came when John Rolfe married Pocahontas cementing an alliance between the two groups. But this peace wouldn’t last. Soldiers were sent to guard new colonists. With the tobacco, boom settlers began pouring into Virginia. The colony went from a few hundred settlers to 1400 by 1622. To encourage further settlement King James offered 50 acres to anyone who would emigrate and additional 50 for each person they brought with them. This incentive was too good to pass up and indentured servants were recruited with promises of free land if they signed a seven-year labor contract. And if you couldn’t find anyone willing to take the offer, unscrupulous colonists resorted to kidnapping orphans or getting people drunk in order to sign indenture contracts. Indentured were little more than slaves with a seven year shelf life. Virginia tobacco plantation Why Jamestown Matters The tobacco boom transformed Jamestown and the Virginia colony created England’s first foothold in North America that would spread in all directions. The colonies of Maryland and North Carolina followed. By 1675, the total tobacco exports to England exceeded 10 million pounds. The taxes collected by this trade brought in 100,000 pounds per year, more than even the sugar colonies in the Caribbean. Virginia tobacco planted the seeds of the southern plantation culture. And with it, African slaves were soon after being imported to work the fields leading to one of the darkest chapters in American history. But the survival of Jamestown set the English on a path to colonization of the entire eastern seaboard. As the population expanded America began to transform into a mini England. From this struggling colony, the seeds of the United States were planted and history changed forever.	<urn:uuid:16da2530-243e-4939-a880-23ab278f0f62>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thehistorycat.com/jamestown?lightbox=dataItem-ilfh6ihx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00425.warc.gz	en	0.985692	2,662	3.40625	3	[ 0.2727971076965332, -0.11532416939735413, 0.6591575145721436, 0.11442604660987854, -0.277862548828125, -0.22099503874778748, 0.19806626439094543, 0.5473915338516235, -0.24494624137878418, 0.016399316489696503, -0.2360696643590927, -0.157908096909523, 0.027151506394147873, 0.713158369064331...	2	The History Cat Classroom The History Cat Classroom The Story of Jamestown Colony Such a dish as powdered wife I never heard of… In 1607, England became an empire. The Virginia Company of London was granted a charter to much of what would eventually become the southeastern part of the United States. The purpose of this company was simple: make money. Spain had already demonstrated the impact that New World gold and silver could have. England wanted in on the action. The first shipment of 105 colonists to what would become Jamestown landed in May of 1607. They had spent two weeks scouting for the perfect area to establish the colony. Their number one priority was a defensible position. The peninsula the Jamestown colonists chose was off the Chesapeake coast in Virginia, more than fifty miles up the James River. As a defensive position, they couldn’t have picked a better spot. Situated on high ground the English could train their cannons on enemy ships dumb enough to try and navigate the tricky channels of the James River. The site was also far enough inland to provide warning of the approach of a threatening fleet. But when it came to building a permanent settlement, Jamestown’s location was about as smart as electing Kayne West for president. Surrounded by swampland, the only thing the colonists were going to grow was mosquito bites. But England’s first permanent settlement in America wasn’t built as a place to raise a family. Just look at the passenger list: zero females. Nearly all of the colonists from the passenger list were gentlemen with a few carpenters, masons, and soldiers thrown into the mix. The idea was that Jamestown would yield up gold, silver, timber, furs, or just about anything else that could return home with gold in their pockets and a good story to tell their buddies. But the Jamestown colonists had made a fatal mistake that would soon turn their little adventure into a cannibalistic nightmare. Little consideration was given to growing food. English gentlemen and soldiers were no boy scouts and had no expertise nor tools for farming. Instead, they thought that it would be easy to swap a handful of shiny buttons and kettles for a hot meal. But the English got off to a bad start, angering the Indians by setting up camp atop their hunting and fishing grounds.The Powhatan wanted the invaders gone more than they wanted the cheap trinkets that the English had to offer. The Powhatan Wars The Powhatan were hoping to use the English to their advantage. The powerful Indian nation was made up of 100 villages and they had plans to move the English into one of their satellite settlements and have the English make metal tools for them in exchange for full provisions. The English had a different idea. Jamestown was to be the beginning of a vast English empire that would be built on native land and hopefully in time with native slave labor. It was only a matter of time before the two sides clashed. The English not only refused to abandon Jamestown but instead made plans to build two additional forts. When the Powhatan refused their request the English responded by destroying a sacred burial ground. So far, not off to a good start. Fed up with the English invaders, the native people began picking off lone colonists who strayed too far from the fort. One unlucky guy got sniped by an arrow when he snuck outside the fort to pee. After that, the rest of the group wisely chose to spend their entire time inside the palisades. Surrounded by hostile Indians the colonists were trapped like a politician wired to a polygraph. But things kept getting worse....the water in the river had turned brackish and nearly undrinkable as summer arrived and the tides shifted. The supplies dwindled. There was no gold. And even if they had found gold it probably wouldn’t have done much for the whole starvation problem. They could only wait and hope for the early arrival of the promised supply ship. Then Malaria stopped by to kill off a few more colonists. Immediately, arguments broke out and the colony descended into chaos. Captain John Smith, a soldier with a colorful past, had been appointed by the Virginia Company take control of the situation. More importantly, he was one of the only white men who could peacefully negotiate with the Indians for food and supplies. In January of 1608, the "First Supply" ship arrived. One hundred new settlers were greeted by thirty-eight men--the rest had died. With the influx of food and manpower, they quickly added new fortifications and established armed guards who patrolled the area outside of the fort. This allowed a new dictate to come from Captain John Smith. "Work or starve." The colonists were put to work establishing farms to stockpile food for the next winter. It was around this time that a gunpowder accident nearly killed John Smith. Some claim that someone had set fire to the gunpowder store intentionally to get rid of the demanding captain. The homes could be re-built but the broken body of the Captain would need more time. Smith was shipped back home to England. Many were happy to see Smith go as the Captain’s dictates were difficult. After all who could find gold if they were forced to farm for four hours every day. Good riddance to the only tie to friendly native people they had. Without John Smith, there was no trade. John Radcliffe, one of the ships captains, took charge. Radcliffe’s philosophy towards the Indians was similar to a lunchroom bully: ‘your Twinkie is my Twinkie’. When he arrived in a native town to force a better trade agreement things went very badly. In a failed attempt to force the natives to trade, he was tied up as the women of the tribe cut out parts of his flesh with scallop shells... and the poor man was forced to watch as they threw bits of himself into the fire before he expired. Death by crustacean is certainly one of the more imaginative ways of torturing someone. Lord De la Warr was up next to take command. With an openly hostile attitude towards the people he called "savages," he decided that the best solution was to attack and burn native settlements. Hostages were taken including the village chief’s wife and children whom they threw into the river and “shot their braynes out”. The Powhatan were not intimidated. Captain Smith led small groups of armed men out of the fort to try to trade with nearby natives. He believed that establishing diplomatic ties with the native people was the only way his people would survive the coming winter. He did eventually meet with Powhatan the chief of the Confederacy. But it was not in the manner that he intended. Smith had gotten himself separated from his companions and was captured by a man named Opechancanough. (if you can say his name correctly three times fast, we’ll give you bragging rights). Like all captives, Smith had the glorious prospect of a very lengthy torture ordeal to look forward to. But according to legend the twenty-eight-year-old John Smith was saved by the daughter of Powhatan, Pocahontas, who threw herself on him and proclaimed “Father! I love him”. At which point they fell madly in love and lived happily ever after. But this bit of fiction was the creation of Disney who should never be trusted in telling a historically accurate story. But in reality, our brave heroine was most likely about eleven-years-old at the time. But on the bright side Captain John Smith was able to talk his way out of certain death and broker a peace treaty with the Powhatan Confederacy. Limited trade would begin. Now the colony of Jamestown only had to deal with Malaria, polluted water, the Spanish, and a miserable profit margin. The Starving Time In a state of war and with dwindling food supplies the colony began to suffer again. By a stroke bad luck, poor preparation, and more bad luck, Jamestown was about to face a time of horror that would nearly destroy the colony. Apparently, waging war on the only people who could provide you with food was not such a smart idea after all. By late autumn food supplies were nearly exhausted because black rats had gotten into their warehouses. Some English resorted to stealing from the Indians which as you can imagine went over as well as a death metal band in a Baptist church. With Smith gone, the Powhatan decided to get rid of the English trespassers once and for all. The Powhatan refused to trade with the English and put the colony under siege to prevent anyone else from supplying them with food. The winter of 1609-10 was known as the Starving Time. There would be no supplies and no one to force them to farm. When the food finally ran out the people were forced to eat cats, dogs, horses, and rats. The colonists were forced to stay within the fort. "...the natives killed as fast without if our men stirred but beyond the bounds of the blockhouse." They could only sit and hope. Two men were caught raiding the storehouses and were tied to posts and allowed to starve. Archaeologists have disinterred remains of the early colonists and found suspect chopping marks on the bones of one girl who had died at the age of fourteen. The chop marks were similar to those found on butchered animals. One man was found to have killed his own wife in a fit of hunger and then had, "...cut her in pieces, powdered her, and fed upon her." This led John Smith to quip, "Such a dish as powdered wife I never heard of." Smith was back in England by this time and writing down his story for future publication. In a particularly gruesome instance, a few of the colonists decided that Native Americans might have another use and one that had been killed in a skirmish was"...digged by some out of his grave after he had laid buried three days, and [they] wholly devoured him." It seems that the people of Jamestown had resorted to cannibalism. Seriously, not even Wes Craven could not have written a better B grade horror film. Jamestown was not going to recover easily. On June 7, 1610, the surviving colonists were done. They had enough and boarded a ship. Where were they going? Presumably, England, but before they even reached the Ocean, a supply ship intercepted them and turned them back towards Jamestown. By the time the fourth relief ship arrived, only 60 settlers were still alive out of the original 500. Skeleton of a male, 14 to 15 years old, with a small stone arrow point The Tobacco Boom The investors had lost all of their money and the colony was officially bankrupt. By 1624 it was declared a Royal Colony under the direct control of the crown. So what finally saved Jamestown? It became profitable thanks to lung cancer. John Rolfe, a London Businessman, crossbred tobacco seeds that he had illegally obtained from Spanish Trinidad and found a strain that would grow well and turn a handsome profit. Finally, Jamestown was worth saving. Peace with the Powhatan finally came when John Rolfe married Pocahontas cementing an alliance between the two groups. But this peace wouldn’t last. Soldiers were sent to guard new colonists. With the tobacco, boom settlers began pouring into Virginia. The colony went from a few hundred settlers to 1400 by 1622. To encourage further settlement King James offered 50 acres to anyone who would emigrate and additional 50 for each person they brought with them. This incentive was too good to pass up and indentured servants were recruited with promises of free land if they signed a seven-year labor contract. And if you couldn’t find anyone willing to take the offer, unscrupulous colonists resorted to kidnapping orphans or getting people drunk in order to sign indenture contracts. Indentured were little more than slaves with a seven year shelf life. Virginia tobacco plantation Why Jamestown Matters The tobacco boom transformed Jamestown and the Virginia colony created England’s first foothold in North America that would spread in all directions. The colonies of Maryland and North Carolina followed. By 1675, the total tobacco exports to England exceeded 10 million pounds. The taxes collected by this trade brought in 100,000 pounds per year, more than even the sugar colonies in the Caribbean. Virginia tobacco planted the seeds of the southern plantation culture. And with it, African slaves were soon after being imported to work the fields leading to one of the darkest chapters in American history. But the survival of Jamestown set the English on a path to colonization of the entire eastern seaboard. As the population expanded America began to transform into a mini England. From this struggling colony, the seeds of the United States were planted and history changed forever.	2,672	ENGLISH	1
Dorothea Dix, Mental Health Advocate Dorothea Dix was a self-educated woman who had several successful careers, but she is best known for laying the foundation for humane and therapeutic care of the mentally ill. Her efforts still shape the care given in mental institutions today. Biography of Dorothea Dix Dorothea Lynde Dix was born in 1802, the eldest of three children. Growing up in Maine, she felt neglected and was very unhappy. Her father was a book dealer and lay minister who moved the family often. Dorothea resented the moves and the fact that he expected her to help prepare religious tracts that promoted hellfire and God’s wrath. Her mother, a very self-absorbed woman, provided little support for the young girl. At the age of 12, Dix ran away to live with her grandmother in Boston and later with an aunt in Massachusetts. Although she received very little formal education, she was always intellectually curious and studied many subjects in-depth, attended lectures and surrounded herself with knowledgeable people. These traits served her well in later years. For many years, Dix struggled with her feelings about religion. She agreed with the moral principles but could find no spiritual satisfaction. Finally, in the 1820s, she found her home with the Unitarians. She responded positively to their teachings of the goodness of God, which was in complete contrast to her earlier experiences. Her correspondence of many years with Anne Heath, a fellow Unitarian, gives an insight into Dix’s love of learning as well as her insecurities and loneliness. Although Dorothea Dix was successful in bringing about great changes for the mentally ill, at the end of her life she was depressed because more progress had not been made. She died in 1887 at the age of 85 and is buried in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Dix’s career as a teacher began when she was 14. In spite of her lack of formal schooling, her self-education and maturity prompted her to open a successful private school in Worcester, Massachusetts, where she lived with her aunt. When she moved to Boston in 1821 to be with her grandmother, she opened a school for young girls there. Her concern for the poor led her to open a free evening school for underprivileged children, one of the first in the United States. During this time she also wrote a number of children’s books including Conversations On Common Things: Or Guide to Knowledge, Moral Tales for Young Persons and Meditations for Private Hours. In 1836, ill health most likely caused by long hours and lack of sleep prompted her to take an extended leave from teaching. After some time in England with friends, she returned to the United States but was still not well enough to return to teaching. She supported herself with funds from her grandmother’s estate and royalties from her books. It was in 1841 that a seemingly random event occurred that would change Dix’s life and the lives of so many others. A ministerial student who was unsuccessful in teaching a Bible class to women in jail asked Dix for advice. She decided to teach the class herself, but once she saw the conditions in the jail, she knew that changes had to be made. Not only was the jail unheated, but criminals, the mentally ill and feeble-minded children were housed in the same space. Never one to shirk what she thought was her duty, she started a campaign for reform. After obtaining a court order for heating the jail, Dix thoroughly researched the subjects of mental illness and treatments of the day. She soon knew as much as anyone in the field. To expand her knowledge further, she visited many jails and homes for the poor throughout Massachusetts. She found conditions worse than she had expected and took meticulous notes to document her findings. When her research was complete, she had a well-known doctor present her findings to the Massachusetts legislature asking for funds for a state mental hospital. This effort was successful and it emboldened Dix to take the reform to other states. For over ten years, Dorothea Dix traveled from state to state, collecting information and asking well-known political figures to present her findings to state legislatures. Many hospitals were built and improvements made to existing ones. Dix’s mission was to provide quality mental health nursing while providing a therapeutic atmosphere for the curable insane and comfortable housing for the incurable. Disappointed over refusal of her plan for federal funding for the mentally ill, Dorothea decided to take a trip to Europe to rest. However, once she was there, she saw the inequities between their public and private mental institutions and worked for reform there as well. Returning to the United States in 1856, Dix continued her mental health reform work, but, by then, the slavery issue divided the country. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Dix felt the call of duty and volunteered to serve. She was appointed to be the Superintendent of United States Army Nurses, a position that earned her the right to be listed as one of the most famous nurses in history. Even though she was not trained as a nurse, her extraordinary intellect, research skills and past experiences prepared her to do the job well. She was in charge of setting up first aid stations, hiring nurses, buying supplies and organizing training facilities and field hospitals. Her biggest obstacles were her lack of social skills and difficulty in working with a bureaucracy. Many of the nurses and doctors thought her autocratic, but she persevered and ensured that the wounded received excellent care and worked on their behalf even after the war ended. Following the war, Dix again took up the cause of the mentally ill, but money was in short supply and she never regained her earlier success. Discouraged, she retired in 1881 at the age of 79 and would not talk about her work. Dorothea Dix's Nursing Legacy Even though Dorothea Dix became very discouraged about mental health reform near the end of her life, she set the standard for the proper care of the mentally ill. She was the voice of the poor and indigent who could not speak for themselves. Even though not all of her reforms stayed in place after the Civil War, her work still provided a light to show the way. She was ahead of her time by recommending a holistic approach to the care and treatment of the mentally ill rather than custodialism. Unpublished Works by Dorothea Dix Nursing Resources and More Information About Dorothea Dix - Francis Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix - Helen E. Marshall, Dorothea Dix: Forgotten Samaritan - David Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix - Thomas J. Brown, Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer (Harvard Historical Studies) - David J. Rothman, Ed., On Behalf of the Insane Poor - M. Snyder, The Lady and the President: The Letters of Dorothea Dix and Millard Fillmore	<urn:uuid:fc2aefdf-3206-4fde-bc8a-93397fc03163>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nursing-theory.org/famous-nurses/Dorothea-Dix.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00016.warc.gz	en	0.984989	1,470	3.3125	3	[ 0.09514913707971573, 0.13050508499145508, 0.39969244599342346, -0.23037703335285187, -0.2393103539943695, 0.33229193091392517, -0.13051091134548187, 0.41368427872657776, -0.3469141721725464, -0.5870130062103271, 0.2688254117965698, -0.40250033140182495, 0.2853867709636688, 0.06660166382789...	13	Dorothea Dix, Mental Health Advocate Dorothea Dix was a self-educated woman who had several successful careers, but she is best known for laying the foundation for humane and therapeutic care of the mentally ill. Her efforts still shape the care given in mental institutions today. Biography of Dorothea Dix Dorothea Lynde Dix was born in 1802, the eldest of three children. Growing up in Maine, she felt neglected and was very unhappy. Her father was a book dealer and lay minister who moved the family often. Dorothea resented the moves and the fact that he expected her to help prepare religious tracts that promoted hellfire and God’s wrath. Her mother, a very self-absorbed woman, provided little support for the young girl. At the age of 12, Dix ran away to live with her grandmother in Boston and later with an aunt in Massachusetts. Although she received very little formal education, she was always intellectually curious and studied many subjects in-depth, attended lectures and surrounded herself with knowledgeable people. These traits served her well in later years. For many years, Dix struggled with her feelings about religion. She agreed with the moral principles but could find no spiritual satisfaction. Finally, in the 1820s, she found her home with the Unitarians. She responded positively to their teachings of the goodness of God, which was in complete contrast to her earlier experiences. Her correspondence of many years with Anne Heath, a fellow Unitarian, gives an insight into Dix’s love of learning as well as her insecurities and loneliness. Although Dorothea Dix was successful in bringing about great changes for the mentally ill, at the end of her life she was depressed because more progress had not been made. She died in 1887 at the age of 85 and is buried in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Dix’s career as a teacher began when she was 14. In spite of her lack of formal schooling, her self-education and maturity prompted her to open a successful private school in Worcester, Massachusetts, where she lived with her aunt. When she moved to Boston in 1821 to be with her grandmother, she opened a school for young girls there. Her concern for the poor led her to open a free evening school for underprivileged children, one of the first in the United States. During this time she also wrote a number of children’s books including Conversations On Common Things: Or Guide to Knowledge, Moral Tales for Young Persons and Meditations for Private Hours. In 1836, ill health most likely caused by long hours and lack of sleep prompted her to take an extended leave from teaching. After some time in England with friends, she returned to the United States but was still not well enough to return to teaching. She supported herself with funds from her grandmother’s estate and royalties from her books. It was in 1841 that a seemingly random event occurred that would change Dix’s life and the lives of so many others. A ministerial student who was unsuccessful in teaching a Bible class to women in jail asked Dix for advice. She decided to teach the class herself, but once she saw the conditions in the jail, she knew that changes had to be made. Not only was the jail unheated, but criminals, the mentally ill and feeble-minded children were housed in the same space. Never one to shirk what she thought was her duty, she started a campaign for reform. After obtaining a court order for heating the jail, Dix thoroughly researched the subjects of mental illness and treatments of the day. She soon knew as much as anyone in the field. To expand her knowledge further, she visited many jails and homes for the poor throughout Massachusetts. She found conditions worse than she had expected and took meticulous notes to document her findings. When her research was complete, she had a well-known doctor present her findings to the Massachusetts legislature asking for funds for a state mental hospital. This effort was successful and it emboldened Dix to take the reform to other states. For over ten years, Dorothea Dix traveled from state to state, collecting information and asking well-known political figures to present her findings to state legislatures. Many hospitals were built and improvements made to existing ones. Dix’s mission was to provide quality mental health nursing while providing a therapeutic atmosphere for the curable insane and comfortable housing for the incurable. Disappointed over refusal of her plan for federal funding for the mentally ill, Dorothea decided to take a trip to Europe to rest. However, once she was there, she saw the inequities between their public and private mental institutions and worked for reform there as well. Returning to the United States in 1856, Dix continued her mental health reform work, but, by then, the slavery issue divided the country. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Dix felt the call of duty and volunteered to serve. She was appointed to be the Superintendent of United States Army Nurses, a position that earned her the right to be listed as one of the most famous nurses in history. Even though she was not trained as a nurse, her extraordinary intellect, research skills and past experiences prepared her to do the job well. She was in charge of setting up first aid stations, hiring nurses, buying supplies and organizing training facilities and field hospitals. Her biggest obstacles were her lack of social skills and difficulty in working with a bureaucracy. Many of the nurses and doctors thought her autocratic, but she persevered and ensured that the wounded received excellent care and worked on their behalf even after the war ended. Following the war, Dix again took up the cause of the mentally ill, but money was in short supply and she never regained her earlier success. Discouraged, she retired in 1881 at the age of 79 and would not talk about her work. Dorothea Dix's Nursing Legacy Even though Dorothea Dix became very discouraged about mental health reform near the end of her life, she set the standard for the proper care of the mentally ill. She was the voice of the poor and indigent who could not speak for themselves. Even though not all of her reforms stayed in place after the Civil War, her work still provided a light to show the way. She was ahead of her time by recommending a holistic approach to the care and treatment of the mentally ill rather than custodialism. Unpublished Works by Dorothea Dix Nursing Resources and More Information About Dorothea Dix - Francis Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix - Helen E. Marshall, Dorothea Dix: Forgotten Samaritan - David Gollaher, Voice for the Mad: The Life of Dorothea Dix - Thomas J. Brown, Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer (Harvard Historical Studies) - David J. Rothman, Ed., On Behalf of the Insane Poor - M. Snyder, The Lady and the President: The Letters of Dorothea Dix and Millard Fillmore	1,460	ENGLISH	1
Describe a time you needed to use imagination. You should say: - what the situation was; - why you needed to use imagination; - what the difficulties were; and explain how you felt about it. I would like to talk about an extracurricular activity class that my father made me join during the summer holidays of class X. It was the first time I had to get out of my comfort zone and think beyond marks. We were a bunch of forty children and every day we used to have a different kind of activity. One such day, our teacher announced that we will be having a storytelling the class. In it, we were challenged to come on stage and make a story out of three words, she provided. I was the last person to go for my story and my words were ball, pen, and books. We were supposed to speak for five minutes and I clearly remember standing one minute in absolute silence figuring out how to connect the three words and make a story. My story started off with a girl who was a cricket player and she is a bowler, her family did not support her much. So, when her parents asked her study, she would sit down and write stories about cricket or read books of renowned cricketers and then connected the ball, pen, and books in her life. For that particular story session, I was standing there with my eyes closed and saying whatever came to my mind. Initially, the connection between the three was difficult for me to gras[. So, I picked up a word and carried on with the story. Once my turn was over, I opened my eyes and saw people cheering for me. I loved it. It was the first time someone told me that I must go on reading and be a storyteller some day. I was deliriously happy and extraordinarily excited. I would like to talk about a time when I had to step out of my comfort zone to join a table topics contest which made me think out of the box and work flat to win it. Toastmasters is an international organization and I had just joined when someone told me about a table topic contest. As part of it, each speaker had to come on stage and speak for 2 minutes on the topic provided by the contest chair. Each year the contest draws people from across all the clubs and it was really competitive and challenging for me. Therefore, when I was awarded the winner, I was deliriously happy. The goal of the challenge was to speak for two minutes and potray the speech in a well-structured way. It is a competition, there were many other experienced people present and I was obviously terrified. What made me think too much about it was that it was spontaneous. So, the only thing that mattered was that moment and how well you can use it and explain your story. I woke up that day for the entire night and practiced around 100 table topics and by the end of 90th, I was broken down. Although many congratulated me for the victory, I still believe that the moment I decided to go for practicing the 100 table topics, I had already won. The victory was just a cherry on the cake.	<urn:uuid:ebe4380d-e85d-4b39-ab79-413116e9bc49>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ieltsband7.com/author/anmol/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00141.warc.gz	en	0.993386	654	3.453125	3	[ -0.115323506295681, 0.26834213733673096, 0.35233235359191895, -0.4632728099822998, -0.43798625469207764, 0.4387902617454529, 0.5755749344825745, 0.13667941093444824, 0.09103068709373474, -0.20728334784507751, -0.08626098930835724, -0.002700492274016142, 0.15228092670440674, 0.2982420325279...	1	Describe a time you needed to use imagination. You should say: - what the situation was; - why you needed to use imagination; - what the difficulties were; and explain how you felt about it. I would like to talk about an extracurricular activity class that my father made me join during the summer holidays of class X. It was the first time I had to get out of my comfort zone and think beyond marks. We were a bunch of forty children and every day we used to have a different kind of activity. One such day, our teacher announced that we will be having a storytelling the class. In it, we were challenged to come on stage and make a story out of three words, she provided. I was the last person to go for my story and my words were ball, pen, and books. We were supposed to speak for five minutes and I clearly remember standing one minute in absolute silence figuring out how to connect the three words and make a story. My story started off with a girl who was a cricket player and she is a bowler, her family did not support her much. So, when her parents asked her study, she would sit down and write stories about cricket or read books of renowned cricketers and then connected the ball, pen, and books in her life. For that particular story session, I was standing there with my eyes closed and saying whatever came to my mind. Initially, the connection between the three was difficult for me to gras[. So, I picked up a word and carried on with the story. Once my turn was over, I opened my eyes and saw people cheering for me. I loved it. It was the first time someone told me that I must go on reading and be a storyteller some day. I was deliriously happy and extraordinarily excited. I would like to talk about a time when I had to step out of my comfort zone to join a table topics contest which made me think out of the box and work flat to win it. Toastmasters is an international organization and I had just joined when someone told me about a table topic contest. As part of it, each speaker had to come on stage and speak for 2 minutes on the topic provided by the contest chair. Each year the contest draws people from across all the clubs and it was really competitive and challenging for me. Therefore, when I was awarded the winner, I was deliriously happy. The goal of the challenge was to speak for two minutes and potray the speech in a well-structured way. It is a competition, there were many other experienced people present and I was obviously terrified. What made me think too much about it was that it was spontaneous. So, the only thing that mattered was that moment and how well you can use it and explain your story. I woke up that day for the entire night and practiced around 100 table topics and by the end of 90th, I was broken down. Although many congratulated me for the victory, I still believe that the moment I decided to go for practicing the 100 table topics, I had already won. The victory was just a cherry on the cake.	647	ENGLISH	1
A painting discovered in Vienna can change the way art historians have looked at the life and career of Northern Renaissance artist Dürer. The news, which was first published in Art newspaper, pertains to a certain painting found buried beneath dirt and time in St. Stephen’s Cathedral of Vienna. Early investigations revealed that the painting was made in 1505. What’s more interesting, however, was the underdrawing – which revealed the creator to be none other than Albrecht Dürer. Why is this revelation important? Most historians have believed that the famed face of Northern Renaissance lived most of his life in Germany. Any visit to Vienna was certainly not recorded. Not just that, but art historians have only found one wall painting made by Dürer – the work in Nuremberg town hall. However, that work (created in 1521) was destroyed in WWII bombings. The work was first discovered months ago, though a lack of early conclusions suppressed the news. In November, a meeting of experts was convened to carry detailed investigation. It was soon concluded that the painting was definitely made by someone from Dürer’s circle. The dating brought it somewhere in the 1510s. Another important conclusion was that even though Dürer might have begun the work, it was finished later on by his assistants. This was made apparent from the change in style and drop in quality, as the assistants weren’t able to match Dürer’s genius. The work is in the form of a triptych, portraying three saints. St. Catherin and St. Margaret are on either side of the work. At the centre stands St. Leopold III, who also happens to be a patron saint of Austria. The results of the thorough investigation would be published in the form of a paper later this year. However, according to Erwin Pokorny (one of the experts on the team), the question that remains now is just when exactly Dürer visited Vienna.	<urn:uuid:32780243-acce-4107-aedb-2c38ea668aab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.art-insider.com/painting-in-vienna-sheds-new-light-on-the-life-of-durer/1427	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00558.warc.gz	en	0.986682	413	3.6875	4	[ 0.0744292214512825, 0.21950383484363556, -0.12489645183086395, 0.14948071539402008, 0.1276010125875473, 0.13395436108112335, 0.032679975032806396, 0.08909035474061966, 0.020300287753343582, 0.2717355489730835, 0.18471436202526093, -0.4738579988479614, -0.2116386592388153, 0.211882323026657...	6	A painting discovered in Vienna can change the way art historians have looked at the life and career of Northern Renaissance artist Dürer. The news, which was first published in Art newspaper, pertains to a certain painting found buried beneath dirt and time in St. Stephen’s Cathedral of Vienna. Early investigations revealed that the painting was made in 1505. What’s more interesting, however, was the underdrawing – which revealed the creator to be none other than Albrecht Dürer. Why is this revelation important? Most historians have believed that the famed face of Northern Renaissance lived most of his life in Germany. Any visit to Vienna was certainly not recorded. Not just that, but art historians have only found one wall painting made by Dürer – the work in Nuremberg town hall. However, that work (created in 1521) was destroyed in WWII bombings. The work was first discovered months ago, though a lack of early conclusions suppressed the news. In November, a meeting of experts was convened to carry detailed investigation. It was soon concluded that the painting was definitely made by someone from Dürer’s circle. The dating brought it somewhere in the 1510s. Another important conclusion was that even though Dürer might have begun the work, it was finished later on by his assistants. This was made apparent from the change in style and drop in quality, as the assistants weren’t able to match Dürer’s genius. The work is in the form of a triptych, portraying three saints. St. Catherin and St. Margaret are on either side of the work. At the centre stands St. Leopold III, who also happens to be a patron saint of Austria. The results of the thorough investigation would be published in the form of a paper later this year. However, according to Erwin Pokorny (one of the experts on the team), the question that remains now is just when exactly Dürer visited Vienna.	407	ENGLISH	1

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