Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Florence Nightingale was an inspirational English nurse. She was born on May 12, 1820 in Florence, Italy. Nightingale was named after her birthplace. She was brought up in Derbyshire and Hampshire. She improved the sanitary conditions at a British base hospital during the Crimean War along with her team of other nurses. She was known for her night rounds to aid the wounded. Her efforts helped to reduce the death count. She also wrote books about how to be a good nurse. Florence Nightingale is considered the founder of modern day nursing. She set up the Nightingale Training School at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London in 1860. Fast Facts: – - She went to a nursing school in Germany. - She was nicknamed as ‘The Lady with the Lamp’ during the Crimean War. - Her family didn’t want her to become a nurse but they eventually said yes after they saw her interest. - She received the Royal Red Cross by Queen Victoria in 1883 for all her hard work as a military nurse. - Her birthday May 12 is known as International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome awareness day. - Her father taught her a variety of subjects ranging from science and mathematics to history, philosophy and different languages. - She turned down multiple marriage proposals and refused to marry. - Florence Nightingale also wrote letters home on behalf of the dead or dying soldiers. - She also worked with the British Government to enact far reaching sanitation laws. - Florence was a true linguistic as she was fluent in English, French, German and Italian. - She was the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit.	<urn:uuid:a04549d7-5313-47fa-9a6c-553a29b9387e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/florence-nightingale/?print=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00498.warc.gz	en	0.988524	346	3.5	4	[ -0.43243280053138733, 0.18700158596038818, 0.4937841594219208, 0.20182020962238312, -0.24388474225997925, 0.25278857350349426, 0.23621146380901337, 0.21385519206523895, -0.05180305242538452, 0.05710000917315483, -0.1872565597295761, -0.3863378167152405, -0.09873869270086288, 0.173098042607...	2	Florence Nightingale was an inspirational English nurse. She was born on May 12, 1820 in Florence, Italy. Nightingale was named after her birthplace. She was brought up in Derbyshire and Hampshire. She improved the sanitary conditions at a British base hospital during the Crimean War along with her team of other nurses. She was known for her night rounds to aid the wounded. Her efforts helped to reduce the death count. She also wrote books about how to be a good nurse. Florence Nightingale is considered the founder of modern day nursing. She set up the Nightingale Training School at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London in 1860. Fast Facts: – - She went to a nursing school in Germany. - She was nicknamed as ‘The Lady with the Lamp’ during the Crimean War. - Her family didn’t want her to become a nurse but they eventually said yes after they saw her interest. - She received the Royal Red Cross by Queen Victoria in 1883 for all her hard work as a military nurse. - Her birthday May 12 is known as International Chronic Fatigue Syndrome awareness day. - Her father taught her a variety of subjects ranging from science and mathematics to history, philosophy and different languages. - She turned down multiple marriage proposals and refused to marry. - Florence Nightingale also wrote letters home on behalf of the dead or dying soldiers. - She also worked with the British Government to enact far reaching sanitation laws. - Florence was a true linguistic as she was fluent in English, French, German and Italian. - She was the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit.	343	ENGLISH	1
Peasants in the middle ages were mainly agricultural farmers who worked in lands that were owned by a lord. The lord would rent out his land to the peasants in exchange for economic labor. Peasants were tied to the land and were not allowed to move away from the land or change their profession unless they became freemen. To become a freeman a peasant would have to buy a plot of land or pay dues to the lord. In addition to the labor that they provided the lords, peasants in the middle ages also contributed some of their agricultural produce to their masters as a form of payment. Approximately nine out of ten people in the middle ages were peasants and only a few of them were not bound to the land. Nevertheless, the freemen also paid some form of rent for living and working in the lord’s manor. Large majorities of peasants were villeins and serfs; in theory, the villeins had more rights when compared to the serfs and fewer obligations to the lords. However, in reality there was almost no difference between them. Within the feudal structure, peasants would generally be grouped into farmers and craftspeople. The farmers spend their time working in the fields. After paying their dues to the lord, they would keep the rest of the produce to be used by the family or to sell. Peasant craftspeople were trained in their profession by their parents who were also undertaking the same craft. Alternatively, they would learn the skills from other crafts people as apprentices. The goods that they produced were mainly for sale; they would use the proceeds to cater for costs such as taxation imposed by the lords who owned the land in which the craftsmen lived with their families. They also used these proceeds to purchase food from the peasant farmers. In addition to developing goods such as pottery, leather and ironwork, they also helped in repair work around the villages and in the towns. Peasants had very few possessions. These included domestic furniture such as wooden bowls, spoons, pot, cups, stools, benches and their tools of trade. It was not common to own a bed and most of the time the peasants slept on the floor on mattresses made from straws. They also had little in the way of clothes and usually slept in their work apparels and covered themselves using animal skins. The lady of the house would assist in the craftwork or she would tend to the children and the small garden behind their home. Although most peasants lived in the village, some lived in the towns and commuted to the farms they had rented, daily. Peasants in the middle ages lived in small and dark homes that were close to each other within the walls of the village. The house windows were built with security in mind; they were small with shatters made from wood. They lived in close proximity to each other for security given the numerous barbaric wars and conflicts that characterized the Middle Ages. When not working, they would spend time within their small quarters. They rarely ventured out to other villages and most peasants would be born, married and die within the same village. Peasant males usually clad in tunics and stockings while the females donned lengthy gowns with tunic and covered their hair. The women were generally in charge of mending clothes for the entire family and they would spend endless hours producing fiber for mending these clothes. The peasants were not used to cleaning their outer clothes but regularly cleaned the inner wears. Although peasants worked hard in the farms or with their craft, they enjoyed several holidays. In total, peasants worked for 260 days, and the other days were spent in religious and non-religios festivities. They hosted festivals during the planting and harvest times and offered burnt sacrifices during the frequent famines that would destroy their crop. Religion played a significant role in the life of the peasant. Before the 10th century that saw the dawn of tyrannical governments and kings, the Church was the predominant source of authority. The Church established stringent laws and the peasants were keen to uphold these laws. However as the role of the church grew and sometime became overbearing the peasants began to resent the clergy. They would indeed look up to the church to provide them with solace and also basic necessities such as food and housing, especially for the poorest peasants. They also looked up to the church as a source of knowledge and often sent their children to the church school to study religion or Latin. Most peasants religiously observed occasions such as Mass, Holy Communion and baptisms. The peasants’ revolt served to emancipate the peasant from the hardship that he was facing working in the lord’s manor. Following this plague, there were very few peasants to work on the lord’s manors and the lords were desperate to keep the ones that they had working for them. Peasants in the middle ages saw this as an opportunity to ask for better working conditions and wages. Peasants began to move from one manor to another looking for a lord who was willing to pay higher wages. This movement threatened the foundation of the feudal system, which required the farmers be bound to the land that they toiled. Interestingly it was the lords who were encouraging farmers to move from one land to another as each promised to pay higher wages than the next lord. The government in England moved in to stop this movement and to maintain the feudal system by imposing the 1351 Statute of Laborers. This legislation prohibited lords from paying peasants more than the normal wages and prohibited peasants from moving from their villages. The government in England also imposed the Poll Tax for a third time, causing the lords to raise taxes paid by the peasants. The earlier statute and this poll tax aggravated the peasants who under the leadership of Jack Straw, Wat Tyler and John Ball began a revolt in 1381. The peasants who congregated in London demanded that King Richard I abolish serfdom, laws that prohibited the hunting of games and the use of forest, and tithes. In the end, only the poll tax was abolished and the peasants’ leaders were barbarically executed.	<urn:uuid:c3ef43e1-13d3-4f16-9754-50529157dd22>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/peasants-in-the-middle-ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00142.warc.gz	en	0.98995	1,246	4.25	4	[ -0.19337695837020874, 0.27918216586112976, 0.21764396131038666, -0.07783891260623932, 0.560211181640625, -0.4990949034690857, -0.08982890844345093, -0.15927140414714813, -0.35661590099334717, 0.2350095510482788, -0.12397591769695282, -0.13443554937839508, 0.11833164095878601, 0.08144052326...	14	Peasants in the middle ages were mainly agricultural farmers who worked in lands that were owned by a lord. The lord would rent out his land to the peasants in exchange for economic labor. Peasants were tied to the land and were not allowed to move away from the land or change their profession unless they became freemen. To become a freeman a peasant would have to buy a plot of land or pay dues to the lord. In addition to the labor that they provided the lords, peasants in the middle ages also contributed some of their agricultural produce to their masters as a form of payment. Approximately nine out of ten people in the middle ages were peasants and only a few of them were not bound to the land. Nevertheless, the freemen also paid some form of rent for living and working in the lord’s manor. Large majorities of peasants were villeins and serfs; in theory, the villeins had more rights when compared to the serfs and fewer obligations to the lords. However, in reality there was almost no difference between them. Within the feudal structure, peasants would generally be grouped into farmers and craftspeople. The farmers spend their time working in the fields. After paying their dues to the lord, they would keep the rest of the produce to be used by the family or to sell. Peasant craftspeople were trained in their profession by their parents who were also undertaking the same craft. Alternatively, they would learn the skills from other crafts people as apprentices. The goods that they produced were mainly for sale; they would use the proceeds to cater for costs such as taxation imposed by the lords who owned the land in which the craftsmen lived with their families. They also used these proceeds to purchase food from the peasant farmers. In addition to developing goods such as pottery, leather and ironwork, they also helped in repair work around the villages and in the towns. Peasants had very few possessions. These included domestic furniture such as wooden bowls, spoons, pot, cups, stools, benches and their tools of trade. It was not common to own a bed and most of the time the peasants slept on the floor on mattresses made from straws. They also had little in the way of clothes and usually slept in their work apparels and covered themselves using animal skins. The lady of the house would assist in the craftwork or she would tend to the children and the small garden behind their home. Although most peasants lived in the village, some lived in the towns and commuted to the farms they had rented, daily. Peasants in the middle ages lived in small and dark homes that were close to each other within the walls of the village. The house windows were built with security in mind; they were small with shatters made from wood. They lived in close proximity to each other for security given the numerous barbaric wars and conflicts that characterized the Middle Ages. When not working, they would spend time within their small quarters. They rarely ventured out to other villages and most peasants would be born, married and die within the same village. Peasant males usually clad in tunics and stockings while the females donned lengthy gowns with tunic and covered their hair. The women were generally in charge of mending clothes for the entire family and they would spend endless hours producing fiber for mending these clothes. The peasants were not used to cleaning their outer clothes but regularly cleaned the inner wears. Although peasants worked hard in the farms or with their craft, they enjoyed several holidays. In total, peasants worked for 260 days, and the other days were spent in religious and non-religios festivities. They hosted festivals during the planting and harvest times and offered burnt sacrifices during the frequent famines that would destroy their crop. Religion played a significant role in the life of the peasant. Before the 10th century that saw the dawn of tyrannical governments and kings, the Church was the predominant source of authority. The Church established stringent laws and the peasants were keen to uphold these laws. However as the role of the church grew and sometime became overbearing the peasants began to resent the clergy. They would indeed look up to the church to provide them with solace and also basic necessities such as food and housing, especially for the poorest peasants. They also looked up to the church as a source of knowledge and often sent their children to the church school to study religion or Latin. Most peasants religiously observed occasions such as Mass, Holy Communion and baptisms. The peasants’ revolt served to emancipate the peasant from the hardship that he was facing working in the lord’s manor. Following this plague, there were very few peasants to work on the lord’s manors and the lords were desperate to keep the ones that they had working for them. Peasants in the middle ages saw this as an opportunity to ask for better working conditions and wages. Peasants began to move from one manor to another looking for a lord who was willing to pay higher wages. This movement threatened the foundation of the feudal system, which required the farmers be bound to the land that they toiled. Interestingly it was the lords who were encouraging farmers to move from one land to another as each promised to pay higher wages than the next lord. The government in England moved in to stop this movement and to maintain the feudal system by imposing the 1351 Statute of Laborers. This legislation prohibited lords from paying peasants more than the normal wages and prohibited peasants from moving from their villages. The government in England also imposed the Poll Tax for a third time, causing the lords to raise taxes paid by the peasants. The earlier statute and this poll tax aggravated the peasants who under the leadership of Jack Straw, Wat Tyler and John Ball began a revolt in 1381. The peasants who congregated in London demanded that King Richard I abolish serfdom, laws that prohibited the hunting of games and the use of forest, and tithes. In the end, only the poll tax was abolished and the peasants’ leaders were barbarically executed.	1,229	ENGLISH	1
Curriculum must be interesting and fun The first thing that one has to realize when faced with a class of ESL children is that they are not short adults, they are something entirely different. Teaching ESL children can be extremely rewarding, and all kinds of fun, but having an interesting and effective curriculum is all important. Learning by Context Children are quite expert at learning by inference. They can deduce the meaning of a word in a sentence by the context. This comes naturally to them, because this is how they first learned their native tongue as babies. I once showed the children in a class a picture of myself in front of an ancient cedar tree. I asked them if the tree was bigger than me. As I said “bigger”, I swelled out my chest and stood tall. In no time at all the children agreed that the tree was bigger then me. Then I asked them if it was older than me. On the word “older”, I hunched over. Very soon the answer came back: “Yes, the tree is older than you.” That evening I repeated the experiment with a class of adults. The only answers I got were “Hey George, what’s this “bigger” stuff,” and “what’s this “older” stuff?” Children will infer the meaning from the context, but adults have to know the reasons behind things before they will take a chance. In Budapest, we taught ESL to children in volunteer after school classes. At first we had about 16 students each, which was fine. But then, when the classes grew to 18, we became alarmed and spoke to the teacher involved. She said: “Don’t worry, lots of them will drop out right away.” Well, they didn’t drop out. The classes kept growing, until we were teaching about 22 students each class. If children have a good curriculum to work from, they will enjoy their classes and will want to come back and learn more. Songs and Verse Many children love to sing. If, as a teacher, you feel that you don’t have the talent to lead the class in song, reciting verse is just as effective. Although this may seem frivolous to some people, I suggest that you think of a verse and a song that you learned as a child. The first is about the days of the months: “Thirty days has September…” The second is the Alphabet Song. This verse and this song were learned by most children, and they are retained for the rest of their lives. So song and verse can be effective learning tool. Sitting in one place doing the same thing over and over is not a natural situation for a child. They need movement and a variety of activities to keep them interested, (and learning.) The following are some activities that we found useful in teaching ESL children. Children love to play Bingo and they will work hard if they know that there will be a Bingo Game at the end of the class. The younger ones will play best with Picture Bingo, while the older children can play Word Bingo. We have used very simple puppets effectively with ESL classes. Strangely, the children shift their identity to the puppets, and this allows them to forget their fear and shyness. Teachers can make their own puppets While children are drawing, they can learn many good adjectives about their drawing. Crossword puzzles can be used as part of the lesson, as homework assignments, or can be given to children who finish their work early. The competitive spirit within most children will motivate them to work hard to solve the puzzles. An ESL curriculum that uses these methods is sure to encourage children to be successful with their lessons, and you are likely to have happy children in your classes!	<urn:uuid:0ce0d245-2c86-43b7-b10e-d3b091b9b828>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://efl-esl.com/choosing-curriculum/?unapproved=2001&moderation-hash=09e67cbb10730d7856eeeea402bd4400	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00004.warc.gz	en	0.981165	801	3.390625	3	[ -0.10165915638208389, 0.0524931326508522, 0.17889651656150818, -0.6264039874076843, -0.5104777812957764, 0.19583216309547424, 0.16674116253852844, -0.06679879128932953, 0.17708301544189453, -0.1773056983947754, 0.04792243242263794, 0.2576483488082886, 0.23288851976394653, 0.411614000797271...	14	Curriculum must be interesting and fun The first thing that one has to realize when faced with a class of ESL children is that they are not short adults, they are something entirely different. Teaching ESL children can be extremely rewarding, and all kinds of fun, but having an interesting and effective curriculum is all important. Learning by Context Children are quite expert at learning by inference. They can deduce the meaning of a word in a sentence by the context. This comes naturally to them, because this is how they first learned their native tongue as babies. I once showed the children in a class a picture of myself in front of an ancient cedar tree. I asked them if the tree was bigger than me. As I said “bigger”, I swelled out my chest and stood tall. In no time at all the children agreed that the tree was bigger then me. Then I asked them if it was older than me. On the word “older”, I hunched over. Very soon the answer came back: “Yes, the tree is older than you.” That evening I repeated the experiment with a class of adults. The only answers I got were “Hey George, what’s this “bigger” stuff,” and “what’s this “older” stuff?” Children will infer the meaning from the context, but adults have to know the reasons behind things before they will take a chance. In Budapest, we taught ESL to children in volunteer after school classes. At first we had about 16 students each, which was fine. But then, when the classes grew to 18, we became alarmed and spoke to the teacher involved. She said: “Don’t worry, lots of them will drop out right away.” Well, they didn’t drop out. The classes kept growing, until we were teaching about 22 students each class. If children have a good curriculum to work from, they will enjoy their classes and will want to come back and learn more. Songs and Verse Many children love to sing. If, as a teacher, you feel that you don’t have the talent to lead the class in song, reciting verse is just as effective. Although this may seem frivolous to some people, I suggest that you think of a verse and a song that you learned as a child. The first is about the days of the months: “Thirty days has September…” The second is the Alphabet Song. This verse and this song were learned by most children, and they are retained for the rest of their lives. So song and verse can be effective learning tool. Sitting in one place doing the same thing over and over is not a natural situation for a child. They need movement and a variety of activities to keep them interested, (and learning.) The following are some activities that we found useful in teaching ESL children. Children love to play Bingo and they will work hard if they know that there will be a Bingo Game at the end of the class. The younger ones will play best with Picture Bingo, while the older children can play Word Bingo. We have used very simple puppets effectively with ESL classes. Strangely, the children shift their identity to the puppets, and this allows them to forget their fear and shyness. Teachers can make their own puppets While children are drawing, they can learn many good adjectives about their drawing. Crossword puzzles can be used as part of the lesson, as homework assignments, or can be given to children who finish their work early. The competitive spirit within most children will motivate them to work hard to solve the puzzles. An ESL curriculum that uses these methods is sure to encourage children to be successful with their lessons, and you are likely to have happy children in your classes!	760	ENGLISH	1
Differences Divide the North and South Regional Differences Pages 477-478 Regional Differences • Many differences developed over time as people found different ways of making a living. • In the mid-1800s most Americans still worked on farms. • Life was changing for many people. Living in the North • In the North, factories were everywhere making all kinds of goods. • Many people were leaving their farms and moving to the city for better paying jobs. Living in the South • Life in the South was not changing as quickly. • Factories were being built and cities were growing but farming remained the most common way to make a living. Southern Plantations • Huge plantations were found along the Coastal Plain and near the Mississippi River. • Planters raised acres of cash crops such as cotton, rice, tobacco, and sugarcane to sell at market. • Wealthy plantation owners were the leaders in the South. A Divided South • Although there were many plantations, most people lived on small farms, where they raised cattle, cut lumber, and grew only enough food to feed their families. Populations • Many more people lived in the North than in the South. • By 1860 the population of the North was more than 19 million. • In the South the population was 7 million with nearly 4 million Africans held as slaves. Let’s Compare • Economy • In the North many people moved to cities to work in factories. • In the South farming remained the most important industry. Let’s Compare • Population • More people lived in the North than in the South. • Fewer people lived in the South than in the North. Let’s Compare • Slavery • The North ended slavery and was against its spread to the West. • The South allowed Slavery and was in favor of its spread to the West.	<urn:uuid:8befcce4-d3d5-4a45-8307-4696c5010b7c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/havily/differences-divide-the-north-and-south	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00421.warc.gz	en	0.986614	377	3.71875	4	[ 0.07014213502407074, -0.29860198497772217, 0.23269404470920563, 0.002213048283010721, 0.5626139044761658, -0.02190832421183586, -0.19308581948280334, -0.24697396159172058, -0.14553071558475494, 0.002081708749756217, 0.24110528826713562, -0.05575598031282425, -0.11577753722667694, 0.0718596...	1	Differences Divide the North and South Regional Differences Pages 477-478 Regional Differences • Many differences developed over time as people found different ways of making a living. • In the mid-1800s most Americans still worked on farms. • Life was changing for many people. Living in the North • In the North, factories were everywhere making all kinds of goods. • Many people were leaving their farms and moving to the city for better paying jobs. Living in the South • Life in the South was not changing as quickly. • Factories were being built and cities were growing but farming remained the most common way to make a living. Southern Plantations • Huge plantations were found along the Coastal Plain and near the Mississippi River. • Planters raised acres of cash crops such as cotton, rice, tobacco, and sugarcane to sell at market. • Wealthy plantation owners were the leaders in the South. A Divided South • Although there were many plantations, most people lived on small farms, where they raised cattle, cut lumber, and grew only enough food to feed their families. Populations • Many more people lived in the North than in the South. • By 1860 the population of the North was more than 19 million. • In the South the population was 7 million with nearly 4 million Africans held as slaves. Let’s Compare • Economy • In the North many people moved to cities to work in factories. • In the South farming remained the most important industry. Let’s Compare • Population • More people lived in the North than in the South. • Fewer people lived in the South than in the North. Let’s Compare • Slavery • The North ended slavery and was against its spread to the West. • The South allowed Slavery and was in favor of its spread to the West.	379	ENGLISH	1
Although our church did not have an organ until 1850, we did incorporate music into the services way back when. Stearn’s valuable History of Rindge explains that, in the early years, attention was paid to the encouragement of church music. In those years, a few members of the congregation had learned how to read music and the church was open to innovations in using music for worship. A brief recap of church music in Colonial New England is useful for context. In the Colonial years of the 1600s and early 1700s, congregational singing was mainly comprised of the oral tradition of metrical psalms, unaccompanied by instruments. The psalms were written into a metered, poetic format so that they could be sung, and there were standard tunes available that were matched up with various psalms. They were sung in a practice known as lining out, in which a designated leader would sing or chant a line and the congregation would repeat it. Lining out was useful since most people did not know how to read music and some were illiterate. Hymns, as we know them, were not yet used. As opposed to psalms which are the inspired words of Scripture, hymns were man-made poems that were based on Bible verses, as well as on psalms. There was actually a reluctance to adopt English hymns by churches in Colonial America, partly due to their growing desire to be separate from the mother country. Americans had not yet started composing their own hymns. Adding to this, there was an open dispute among religious leaders about breaking away from the old way of doing things. By the 1720s, some ministers were looking for an improved method of musical worship. Over the years, lining out had led to a disorderly way of singing. Each leader would put his own spin on the particular tune, and the congregants could not recognize it nor could they follow the tune accurately. This caused the members of the congregations to be singing the psalms in all different ways at the same time, making for messy worship. As a result, singing by rule or regular singing (reading written music) gradually came into our churches, making for a more orderly form of musical worship. Tunebooks were published by the 1770s and music schools were created to teach people how to read music. This was followed by a gradual acceptance of English hymns, and eventually American-composed hymns, followed by published hymn books. Slower to develop was the addition of musical instruments. Now, back to Rindge… The town of Rindge was more open to innovation than surrounding towns and tended to embrace the trends that were occurring in using music for worship. Like many small churches, ours had just a few hymn books, so we practiced lining out. The minister would read the entire hymn first; a deacon or other appointed person would read one line; and then the entire congregation would sing it, following a designated tune. Since a deacon normally read the lines, the process was called deaconing. Our church sang traditional psalms to well-known tunes of the time, such as St. Martin’s, Windham, York, St. Ann’s, and Mear. A site where you can listen to Mear and other tunes is http://www.hymnary.org/tune/mear. In addition to these slow, traditional tunes, Rindge adopted the short-lived innovation of the fuguing tune (pronounced “few-ging”), which was a peppier type of music. Fuguing tunes were written for four parts, in which a solo melody was sung, followed by identical lines of music that entered at different times, eventually all ending at the same point. Towards the end of the 1700s, English hymns by Isaac Watts became very popular and were embraced. Watts, by the way, wrote the words to “Joy To The World” and many other hymns. To read and hear his hymns, click http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/w/a/t/watts_i.htm . 6 PAYSON HILL ROAD RINDGE, NH 03461 Way Back When by Margaret Morabito, Church Historian Early Church Music 1600s-1796 First Congregational Church United Church of Christ	<urn:uuid:013442ef-be8b-4e70-8074-e33c4c78b028>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rindgechurch.org/wbw--9-early-church-music.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00176.warc.gz	en	0.989295	920	3.578125	4	[ 0.1477743685245514, -0.2130122184753418, 0.34448960423469543, -0.23751109838485718, -0.14949561655521393, 0.06810486316680908, -0.36446332931518555, -0.043094202876091, 0.13056737184524536, -0.3008279800415039, -0.07110097259283066, 0.3709952235221863, 0.3847605586051941, -0.09378126263618...	1	Although our church did not have an organ until 1850, we did incorporate music into the services way back when. Stearn’s valuable History of Rindge explains that, in the early years, attention was paid to the encouragement of church music. In those years, a few members of the congregation had learned how to read music and the church was open to innovations in using music for worship. A brief recap of church music in Colonial New England is useful for context. In the Colonial years of the 1600s and early 1700s, congregational singing was mainly comprised of the oral tradition of metrical psalms, unaccompanied by instruments. The psalms were written into a metered, poetic format so that they could be sung, and there were standard tunes available that were matched up with various psalms. They were sung in a practice known as lining out, in which a designated leader would sing or chant a line and the congregation would repeat it. Lining out was useful since most people did not know how to read music and some were illiterate. Hymns, as we know them, were not yet used. As opposed to psalms which are the inspired words of Scripture, hymns were man-made poems that were based on Bible verses, as well as on psalms. There was actually a reluctance to adopt English hymns by churches in Colonial America, partly due to their growing desire to be separate from the mother country. Americans had not yet started composing their own hymns. Adding to this, there was an open dispute among religious leaders about breaking away from the old way of doing things. By the 1720s, some ministers were looking for an improved method of musical worship. Over the years, lining out had led to a disorderly way of singing. Each leader would put his own spin on the particular tune, and the congregants could not recognize it nor could they follow the tune accurately. This caused the members of the congregations to be singing the psalms in all different ways at the same time, making for messy worship. As a result, singing by rule or regular singing (reading written music) gradually came into our churches, making for a more orderly form of musical worship. Tunebooks were published by the 1770s and music schools were created to teach people how to read music. This was followed by a gradual acceptance of English hymns, and eventually American-composed hymns, followed by published hymn books. Slower to develop was the addition of musical instruments. Now, back to Rindge… The town of Rindge was more open to innovation than surrounding towns and tended to embrace the trends that were occurring in using music for worship. Like many small churches, ours had just a few hymn books, so we practiced lining out. The minister would read the entire hymn first; a deacon or other appointed person would read one line; and then the entire congregation would sing it, following a designated tune. Since a deacon normally read the lines, the process was called deaconing. Our church sang traditional psalms to well-known tunes of the time, such as St. Martin’s, Windham, York, St. Ann’s, and Mear. A site where you can listen to Mear and other tunes is http://www.hymnary.org/tune/mear. In addition to these slow, traditional tunes, Rindge adopted the short-lived innovation of the fuguing tune (pronounced “few-ging”), which was a peppier type of music. Fuguing tunes were written for four parts, in which a solo melody was sung, followed by identical lines of music that entered at different times, eventually all ending at the same point. Towards the end of the 1700s, English hymns by Isaac Watts became very popular and were embraced. Watts, by the way, wrote the words to “Joy To The World” and many other hymns. To read and hear his hymns, click http://www.cyberhymnal.org/bio/w/a/t/watts_i.htm . 6 PAYSON HILL ROAD RINDGE, NH 03461 Way Back When by Margaret Morabito, Church Historian Early Church Music 1600s-1796 First Congregational Church United Church of Christ	910	ENGLISH	1
According to mistaken legend, in June of 1776, Betsy Ross, who was a widow struggling to run her own upholstery business sewed the first flag. Upholsterers in Colonial America not only worked on furniture but did all manner of sewing work, which for some included making flags. According to the legend, General Washington showed her a rough design of the flag that included a six-pointed star. Betsy suggested a five-point star because it was easier to make, and demonstrated how to cut a five-pointed star in a single snip. Impressed, the General entrusted Betsy with making our first flag. This is, of course, a legend started by her grandson 100 years after the Revolution was won, and no proof exists that it ever happened or that the traditional design is of her making.	<urn:uuid:bc902129-456b-4123-8f80-8ca25ca02e48>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.independentamericanparty.org/product-page/old-glory-13-stars-betsy-ross-1777-3-5-flag	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00164.warc.gz	en	0.982004	167	3.375	3	[ -0.15259049832820892, 0.054085612297058105, 0.5740275382995605, -0.3549167811870575, -0.16019116342067719, 0.4119691848754883, 0.2848096191883087, 0.24395392835140228, 0.050020523369312286, -0.025145728141069412, 0.1302282065153122, 0.3120703101158142, -0.4997459352016449, 0.20443652570247...	9	According to mistaken legend, in June of 1776, Betsy Ross, who was a widow struggling to run her own upholstery business sewed the first flag. Upholsterers in Colonial America not only worked on furniture but did all manner of sewing work, which for some included making flags. According to the legend, General Washington showed her a rough design of the flag that included a six-pointed star. Betsy suggested a five-point star because it was easier to make, and demonstrated how to cut a five-pointed star in a single snip. Impressed, the General entrusted Betsy with making our first flag. This is, of course, a legend started by her grandson 100 years after the Revolution was won, and no proof exists that it ever happened or that the traditional design is of her making.	170	ENGLISH	1
Hans Kornberg became a biochemist just at the point, in the mid-20th century, when methods became available to explore how organisms convert food and oxygen into energy and tissue – the combustion engine of life. He was one of the pioneers who identified key participants in such metabolic reactions and measured their effects, knowledge that is fundamental to all of biology. Kornberg, who has died aged 91, was a brilliant bench scientist and never happier than when solving problems in his lab. Yet his genial personality and commitment to the wider scientific community ensured he was recruited to lead a succession of educational and scientific bodies, where he was able to foster further generations of researchers. He greeted every new honour and appointment with mild incredulity: if science were a cathedral with few architects and many workers, he wrote, “I have certainly never regarded myself as anything other than a hod carrier on that construction site.” Kornberg’s mentor, the émigré biochemist Hans Krebs, made the Nobel-prizewinning discovery in 1937 of a metabolic cycle within living cells that bears his name. In turn, Kornberg used radioactive labelling, then a novel approach, to trace the sources of carbon in intermediates in the Krebs cycle. By this means he discovered an associated cycle of biochemical reactions that operates in plants and microbes to enable them to exploit different carbon sources, and showed that this cycle could account for the conversion of fats to carbohydrates in plant products such as castor oil beans. The same line of research elucidated mechanisms that keep the intermediate products of the Krebs cycle replenished when they are deployed elsewhere as precursors of other cellular components. With a love of the classical, derived from his grammar school education, he called these “anaplerotic” reactions, from the Greek “to fill up”: anaplerosis is a widely relevant concept in biochemistry. For the rest of his career Kornberg continued to study metabolic cycles in laboratory micro-organisms, adopting the techniques of molecular genetics to tease out the interactions of the enzymes that catalyse the various stages. Later he used the same approach to study the membrane proteins that transport molecules of sugars such as fructose from the environment into the cell to begin the process of metabolism. He was born in Herford, Germany, the elder son of Margarete (nee Silberbach) and Max Kornberg. In 1939 he came to the UK as a refugee from Nazi Germany, and was brought up by his uncle in Yorkshire. Both his parents died in the Holocaust. On leaving Queen Elizabeth grammar school in Wakefield in 1945 at the age of 17, Hans took a job as a technician in the laboratory of Krebs, biochemistry professor at Sheffield University. Krebs had also fled nazism, and he became a father figure to Kornberg as well as a scientific mentor. He insisted Kornberg study maths and chemistry as well as washing bottles, and after a year helped him get a scholarship to take a chemistry degree. He then recommended him to a colleague as a PhD student, so Kornberg could gain experience in another branch of biochemistry. After a two-year fellowship at Yale and the Public Health Research Institute of New York in the US, Kornberg rejoined Krebs, who had won a Nobel prize and moved to Oxford. They jointly published a book, Energy Transformations in Living Matter (1957), and Kornberg made his most significant discoveries during this period. He met Monica King in Oxford: they married in 1956, and had four children. Thereafter Kornberg was on a sure track to becoming one of the great and the good. After a happy and productive period as professor of biochemistry at Leicester University (1960-75), he was invited to become Sir William Dunn professor of biochemistry at Cambridge University. He initially declined, but accepted after the existing laboratory building burned down so that he was spared from working in buildings “whose grandeur was not matched by their utility”. From 1982 until 1995 he was also a popular master of Christ’s College. He was made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1965, knighted in 1978, and received numerous awards and honorary degrees. He did more than his fair share of scientific public service, chairing the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution and the Advisory Committee on Genetic Modification and serving as a governor of the Wellcome Trust, among numerous other committee posts and trusteeships. He was obliged to retire from his Cambridge posts at the age of 67, but immediately accepted an invitation to become professor of biology at Boston University in Massachusetts, where he continued to teach and research for the rest of his life. He was a kind and humorous man with an inexhaustible fund of witty anecdotes, puns and old music-hall jokes: he told an interviewer that at Sheffield he had studied alongside “bottle-scarred veterans”. Despite the traumas of his childhood, he was irrepressibly optimistic: asked to pick the highlights of his career, he said: “I’ve been singularly lucky – it’s been a case of butter side up all the way along.” Monica died in 1989, during his appointment as master of Christ’s College. Two years later he married Donna Haber: theirs was the first Jewish wedding to take place in the college. He is survived by Donna and by the two daughters, Julia and Rachel, and twin sons, Jonathan and Simon, from his first marriage. • Hans Leo Kornberg, biochemist, born 14 January 1928; died 16 December 2019	<urn:uuid:d9ffb6d4-6411-4105-911d-42336b1f1043>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jan/07/hans-kornberg-obituary	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00272.warc.gz	en	0.982936	1,171	3.265625	3	[ -0.08905811607837677, 0.5680047869682312, -0.06491892039775848, 0.4188433587551117, 0.31241947412490845, 0.14233066141605377, 0.41334956884384155, 0.1882716566324234, -0.1455371379852295, -0.14375120401382446, 0.07680191099643707, -0.8448948860168457, -0.06872224807739258, 0.27483147382736...	2	Hans Kornberg became a biochemist just at the point, in the mid-20th century, when methods became available to explore how organisms convert food and oxygen into energy and tissue – the combustion engine of life. He was one of the pioneers who identified key participants in such metabolic reactions and measured their effects, knowledge that is fundamental to all of biology. Kornberg, who has died aged 91, was a brilliant bench scientist and never happier than when solving problems in his lab. Yet his genial personality and commitment to the wider scientific community ensured he was recruited to lead a succession of educational and scientific bodies, where he was able to foster further generations of researchers. He greeted every new honour and appointment with mild incredulity: if science were a cathedral with few architects and many workers, he wrote, “I have certainly never regarded myself as anything other than a hod carrier on that construction site.” Kornberg’s mentor, the émigré biochemist Hans Krebs, made the Nobel-prizewinning discovery in 1937 of a metabolic cycle within living cells that bears his name. In turn, Kornberg used radioactive labelling, then a novel approach, to trace the sources of carbon in intermediates in the Krebs cycle. By this means he discovered an associated cycle of biochemical reactions that operates in plants and microbes to enable them to exploit different carbon sources, and showed that this cycle could account for the conversion of fats to carbohydrates in plant products such as castor oil beans. The same line of research elucidated mechanisms that keep the intermediate products of the Krebs cycle replenished when they are deployed elsewhere as precursors of other cellular components. With a love of the classical, derived from his grammar school education, he called these “anaplerotic” reactions, from the Greek “to fill up”: anaplerosis is a widely relevant concept in biochemistry. For the rest of his career Kornberg continued to study metabolic cycles in laboratory micro-organisms, adopting the techniques of molecular genetics to tease out the interactions of the enzymes that catalyse the various stages. Later he used the same approach to study the membrane proteins that transport molecules of sugars such as fructose from the environment into the cell to begin the process of metabolism. He was born in Herford, Germany, the elder son of Margarete (nee Silberbach) and Max Kornberg. In 1939 he came to the UK as a refugee from Nazi Germany, and was brought up by his uncle in Yorkshire. Both his parents died in the Holocaust. On leaving Queen Elizabeth grammar school in Wakefield in 1945 at the age of 17, Hans took a job as a technician in the laboratory of Krebs, biochemistry professor at Sheffield University. Krebs had also fled nazism, and he became a father figure to Kornberg as well as a scientific mentor. He insisted Kornberg study maths and chemistry as well as washing bottles, and after a year helped him get a scholarship to take a chemistry degree. He then recommended him to a colleague as a PhD student, so Kornberg could gain experience in another branch of biochemistry. After a two-year fellowship at Yale and the Public Health Research Institute of New York in the US, Kornberg rejoined Krebs, who had won a Nobel prize and moved to Oxford. They jointly published a book, Energy Transformations in Living Matter (1957), and Kornberg made his most significant discoveries during this period. He met Monica King in Oxford: they married in 1956, and had four children. Thereafter Kornberg was on a sure track to becoming one of the great and the good. After a happy and productive period as professor of biochemistry at Leicester University (1960-75), he was invited to become Sir William Dunn professor of biochemistry at Cambridge University. He initially declined, but accepted after the existing laboratory building burned down so that he was spared from working in buildings “whose grandeur was not matched by their utility”. From 1982 until 1995 he was also a popular master of Christ’s College. He was made a fellow of the Royal Society in 1965, knighted in 1978, and received numerous awards and honorary degrees. He did more than his fair share of scientific public service, chairing the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution and the Advisory Committee on Genetic Modification and serving as a governor of the Wellcome Trust, among numerous other committee posts and trusteeships. He was obliged to retire from his Cambridge posts at the age of 67, but immediately accepted an invitation to become professor of biology at Boston University in Massachusetts, where he continued to teach and research for the rest of his life. He was a kind and humorous man with an inexhaustible fund of witty anecdotes, puns and old music-hall jokes: he told an interviewer that at Sheffield he had studied alongside “bottle-scarred veterans”. Despite the traumas of his childhood, he was irrepressibly optimistic: asked to pick the highlights of his career, he said: “I’ve been singularly lucky – it’s been a case of butter side up all the way along.” Monica died in 1989, during his appointment as master of Christ’s College. Two years later he married Donna Haber: theirs was the first Jewish wedding to take place in the college. He is survived by Donna and by the two daughters, Julia and Rachel, and twin sons, Jonathan and Simon, from his first marriage. • Hans Leo Kornberg, biochemist, born 14 January 1928; died 16 December 2019	1,182	ENGLISH	1
A Poem for Peter A celebration of the extraordinary life of Ezra Jack Keats, creator of The Snowy Day. The story of The Snowy Day begins more than one hundred years ago, when Ezra Jack Keats was born in Brooklyn, N.Y. The family were struggling Polish immigrants, and despite Keats's obvious talent, his father worried that Ezra's dream of being an artist was an unrealistic one. But Ezra was determined. By high school he was winning prizes and scholarships. Later, jobs followed with the WPA and Marvel comics. But it was many years before Keats's greatest dream was realized and he had the opportunity to write and illustrate his own book. For more than two decades, Ezra had kept pinned to his wall a series of photographs of an adorable African American child. In Keats's hands, the boy morphed into Peter, a boy in a red snowsuit, out enjoying the pristine snow; the book became The Snowy Day, winner of the Caldecott Medal, the first mainstream book to feature an African American child. It was also the first of many books featuring Peter and the children of his - and Keats's - neighborhood. Andrea David Pinkney's lyrical narrative tells the inspiring story of a boy who pursued a dream, and who, in turn, inspired generations of other dreamers. AuthorPinkney, Andrea Davis PublisherViking Books for Young Readers	<urn:uuid:c9c602ff-67b7-4e5d-b7d3-e630e3c5a4f0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyhouseonline.com/product-page/a-poem-for-peter	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00441.warc.gz	en	0.981693	287	3.5	4	[ -0.20435982942581177, 0.49585407972335815, 0.5709444880485535, 0.6151294112205505, -0.5707288384437561, -0.04809273034334183, -0.09594780206680298, 0.5378444790840149, -0.3808572292327881, 0.36883676052093506, 0.12355359643697739, 0.2879747450351715, 0.02729005180299282, 0.4977570176124573...	1	A Poem for Peter A celebration of the extraordinary life of Ezra Jack Keats, creator of The Snowy Day. The story of The Snowy Day begins more than one hundred years ago, when Ezra Jack Keats was born in Brooklyn, N.Y. The family were struggling Polish immigrants, and despite Keats's obvious talent, his father worried that Ezra's dream of being an artist was an unrealistic one. But Ezra was determined. By high school he was winning prizes and scholarships. Later, jobs followed with the WPA and Marvel comics. But it was many years before Keats's greatest dream was realized and he had the opportunity to write and illustrate his own book. For more than two decades, Ezra had kept pinned to his wall a series of photographs of an adorable African American child. In Keats's hands, the boy morphed into Peter, a boy in a red snowsuit, out enjoying the pristine snow; the book became The Snowy Day, winner of the Caldecott Medal, the first mainstream book to feature an African American child. It was also the first of many books featuring Peter and the children of his - and Keats's - neighborhood. Andrea David Pinkney's lyrical narrative tells the inspiring story of a boy who pursued a dream, and who, in turn, inspired generations of other dreamers. AuthorPinkney, Andrea Davis PublisherViking Books for Young Readers	285	ENGLISH	1
On November 21, 1887, Easter Rising leader Joseph Mary Plunkett was born. Joseph Mary Plunkett was the son of Horace Plunkett, a Papal Count. He was born in Dublin in 1887. If there was one renaissance man involved in the Easter Rising it was Joe Plunkett. He was a poet, editor, world traveler, a bit of a scientist, a pretty good military strategist and one of the most mysterious of the 1916 leaders. He became a romantic icon with his marriage to Grace Gifford just hours before he was executed. He was also the youngest signatory of the Proclamation. The Plunketts were a very religious and nationalistic family. (In fact, in the days after the Rising five members of the family – father, mother, and brothers Joe, Jack and George – were all prisoners at Richmond Barracks.) Joe joined the Irish Volunteers when they came into existence and with the onset of the World War traveled to Berlin to make Ireland’s case with the Germans on behalf of the Provisional Government. In June 1915 he produced the “Ireland Report” for the Germans which laid out plans for a German invasion of Ireland to coincide with a Rising. He tried to persuade the Germans that such an invasion would redirect British forces and make it easier for them on the Western Front. The Germans were not convinced and did not back the plan. They did, however, decide to go for Roger Casement’s plan and send rifles to Ireland to be used in the Rising. Back in Dublin in late 1915, Plunkett was one of the chief military strategists of the Rising. He also became a mentor to a young Volunteer by the name of Michael Collins. Collins had returned to Ireland in late summer 1915 and had gone to work for the Plunketts straightening out their real estate holdings. A close bond developed between Plunkett and Collins and Joe chose Collins as his aide-de-camp and bodyguard during Easter Week. At the time of the Rising, Plunkett had just had his neck glands operated on in a bid to help him in his battle against tuberculosis. Plunkett had been given six months to live by the doctors. His illness did not inhibit him in any fashion as he drew his sword and marched into the GPO. During the hellish week, as Pearse sank into something of a funk, Plunkett did his best to keep up the spirits of the men inside the GPO. Joe Good, a London Irishman and friend of Collins, remembered Plunkett fondly in his wonderful autobiography, 'Enchanted by Dreams.' “As time dragged on,” wrote Good, “our morale would have begun to weaken, I’m sure, if it hadn’t been for Joseph Plunkett. Pearse seems to have shot his bolt. Connolly was gravely wounded, out of action and out of sight…but Joe moved amongst us all the time, his eloquent comforting words at odds with his bizarre, eccentric appearance, his dangling sabre and jeweled fingers. We all somehow, and in many different ways responded to his gentle sayings and praise. He was greatly loved. Most of us knew that he had risen from his deathbed to lead us…[His] high collar didn’t any longer hide that bandaged throat.” After the surrender, despite his condition, Plunkett was forced to march from the Rotunda Garden to Richmond Barracks, which nearly killed him. “This man,” wrote General Maxwell to Prime Minister Asquith, “being of good education, exercised great influence for evil over the other members.” He was put on trial and found guilty. “Your Time Is Now Up” It is at this point that the romantic legend of Joseph Plunkett develops. He was supposed to be married in a double wedding ceremony (with his sister and her fiancé) on Easter Sunday, but could not because of the Rising. He was engaged to Grace Gifford of the politically bipolar Gifford family – half were Unionists and the other half Fenians. Thomas MacDonagh was married to her sister, Muriel Gifford. After Joe’s sentencing, his one big concern was to marry Grace and, for once, the British cooperated. Grace did all the legwork, getting the ring from a jeweler in Grafton Street and all the legal papers that were necessary to make it happen. The urgency of the situation made people speculate that Grace was pregnant. Before his death sentence was pronounced Joe sent a note to Grace in which he stated: “I have no notion what they intend to do with me but I have heard a rumor that I am to be sent to England…Listen—if I live it might be possible to get the Church to marry us by proxy—there is such a thing but it is very difficult I’m told.” Luckily, they were able to get together in the Catholic Chapel at Kilmainham. To say the least, it was not a very romantic setting. “I entered Kilmainham Jail on Wednesday, May 2nd, at 6 p.m.,” Grace later wrote, “when I saw him for the first time in the prison chapel, where the marriage was gone through and no speech allowed. He was taken back to his cell, and I left the prison….I went to bed to bed at 1:30, and was wakened at 2 o’clock by a policeman, with a letter from the prison commandant – Major Lennon – asking me to visit Joseph Plunkett. I was brought there in a motor, and saw my husband in his cell, the interview occupying ten minutes. During the interview the cell was packed with officers, and a sergeant, who kept a watch in his hand and closed the interview by saying ‘Your time is now up’.…Also, his last moments with his wife were not rendered more bearable by the presence of as many soldiers and inane officers as could be crammed into his cell – we who had never had enough time to say what we wanted to each other found that in the last ten minutes we couldn’t talk at all.” As he prepared for death, Joseph wrote his last will and testament: “I give and bequeath everything of which I am possessed to Grace Evelyn (Mary Vandeleur) Gifford.” After he received the sacraments Plunkett said to the priest just before being shot: “Father, I am very happy. I am dying for the glory of God and the honor of Ireland.” He was shot between 4:00 and 4:30 a.m. When the news broke of Grace and Joseph’s wedding the tongues of Catholic Dublin began to feverishly wag. Of course, the big question was: “Is she pregnant?” Joe’s sister, Geraldine Plunkett Dillon, in her autobiography "All in the Blood" addresses this question. “The story which went round was that she was going to have a baby but that Joe was not the father. I was told on good authority that this story was put about by Dublin Castle.” But, indeed, Grace was pregnant, and Geraldine relates the terrible story of her miscarriage, one of the last casualties of 1916, in this first-hand account: “I went out to Larkfield to see Grace and was told that she was upstairs in bed. When I went into her bedroom I saw a large white chamberpot full of blood and foetus. She said nothing and I said nothing.” The romance of Joseph and Grace is told in this haunting melody, written by Seán and Frank O’Meara in 1985, here sung by 11-year-old Caoimhe Mooney: Dermot McEvoy is the author of the "The 13th Apostle: A Novel of a Dublin Family, Michael Collins, and the Irish Uprising and Irish Miscellany" (Skyhorse Publishing). He may be reached at email@example.com. Follow him at dermotmcevoy.com. Follow The 13th Apostle on Facebook by clicking here.	<urn:uuid:c707055c-995f-4f22-afa2-67ff44a66d83>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/joseph-mary-plunkett-easter-rising-leader	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00089.warc.gz	en	0.98962	1,729	3.28125	3	[ -0.2050638198852539, -0.14045754075050354, 0.10482332110404968, 0.022656552493572235, 0.029660221189260483, 0.1208355575799942, 0.36558103561401367, -0.10509411990642548, -0.23542100191116333, -0.18941929936408997, -0.06427910178899765, -0.14044322073459625, -0.2278696745634079, 0.38287311...	1	On November 21, 1887, Easter Rising leader Joseph Mary Plunkett was born. Joseph Mary Plunkett was the son of Horace Plunkett, a Papal Count. He was born in Dublin in 1887. If there was one renaissance man involved in the Easter Rising it was Joe Plunkett. He was a poet, editor, world traveler, a bit of a scientist, a pretty good military strategist and one of the most mysterious of the 1916 leaders. He became a romantic icon with his marriage to Grace Gifford just hours before he was executed. He was also the youngest signatory of the Proclamation. The Plunketts were a very religious and nationalistic family. (In fact, in the days after the Rising five members of the family – father, mother, and brothers Joe, Jack and George – were all prisoners at Richmond Barracks.) Joe joined the Irish Volunteers when they came into existence and with the onset of the World War traveled to Berlin to make Ireland’s case with the Germans on behalf of the Provisional Government. In June 1915 he produced the “Ireland Report” for the Germans which laid out plans for a German invasion of Ireland to coincide with a Rising. He tried to persuade the Germans that such an invasion would redirect British forces and make it easier for them on the Western Front. The Germans were not convinced and did not back the plan. They did, however, decide to go for Roger Casement’s plan and send rifles to Ireland to be used in the Rising. Back in Dublin in late 1915, Plunkett was one of the chief military strategists of the Rising. He also became a mentor to a young Volunteer by the name of Michael Collins. Collins had returned to Ireland in late summer 1915 and had gone to work for the Plunketts straightening out their real estate holdings. A close bond developed between Plunkett and Collins and Joe chose Collins as his aide-de-camp and bodyguard during Easter Week. At the time of the Rising, Plunkett had just had his neck glands operated on in a bid to help him in his battle against tuberculosis. Plunkett had been given six months to live by the doctors. His illness did not inhibit him in any fashion as he drew his sword and marched into the GPO. During the hellish week, as Pearse sank into something of a funk, Plunkett did his best to keep up the spirits of the men inside the GPO. Joe Good, a London Irishman and friend of Collins, remembered Plunkett fondly in his wonderful autobiography, 'Enchanted by Dreams.' “As time dragged on,” wrote Good, “our morale would have begun to weaken, I’m sure, if it hadn’t been for Joseph Plunkett. Pearse seems to have shot his bolt. Connolly was gravely wounded, out of action and out of sight…but Joe moved amongst us all the time, his eloquent comforting words at odds with his bizarre, eccentric appearance, his dangling sabre and jeweled fingers. We all somehow, and in many different ways responded to his gentle sayings and praise. He was greatly loved. Most of us knew that he had risen from his deathbed to lead us…[His] high collar didn’t any longer hide that bandaged throat.” After the surrender, despite his condition, Plunkett was forced to march from the Rotunda Garden to Richmond Barracks, which nearly killed him. “This man,” wrote General Maxwell to Prime Minister Asquith, “being of good education, exercised great influence for evil over the other members.” He was put on trial and found guilty. “Your Time Is Now Up” It is at this point that the romantic legend of Joseph Plunkett develops. He was supposed to be married in a double wedding ceremony (with his sister and her fiancé) on Easter Sunday, but could not because of the Rising. He was engaged to Grace Gifford of the politically bipolar Gifford family – half were Unionists and the other half Fenians. Thomas MacDonagh was married to her sister, Muriel Gifford. After Joe’s sentencing, his one big concern was to marry Grace and, for once, the British cooperated. Grace did all the legwork, getting the ring from a jeweler in Grafton Street and all the legal papers that were necessary to make it happen. The urgency of the situation made people speculate that Grace was pregnant. Before his death sentence was pronounced Joe sent a note to Grace in which he stated: “I have no notion what they intend to do with me but I have heard a rumor that I am to be sent to England…Listen—if I live it might be possible to get the Church to marry us by proxy—there is such a thing but it is very difficult I’m told.” Luckily, they were able to get together in the Catholic Chapel at Kilmainham. To say the least, it was not a very romantic setting. “I entered Kilmainham Jail on Wednesday, May 2nd, at 6 p.m.,” Grace later wrote, “when I saw him for the first time in the prison chapel, where the marriage was gone through and no speech allowed. He was taken back to his cell, and I left the prison….I went to bed to bed at 1:30, and was wakened at 2 o’clock by a policeman, with a letter from the prison commandant – Major Lennon – asking me to visit Joseph Plunkett. I was brought there in a motor, and saw my husband in his cell, the interview occupying ten minutes. During the interview the cell was packed with officers, and a sergeant, who kept a watch in his hand and closed the interview by saying ‘Your time is now up’.…Also, his last moments with his wife were not rendered more bearable by the presence of as many soldiers and inane officers as could be crammed into his cell – we who had never had enough time to say what we wanted to each other found that in the last ten minutes we couldn’t talk at all.” As he prepared for death, Joseph wrote his last will and testament: “I give and bequeath everything of which I am possessed to Grace Evelyn (Mary Vandeleur) Gifford.” After he received the sacraments Plunkett said to the priest just before being shot: “Father, I am very happy. I am dying for the glory of God and the honor of Ireland.” He was shot between 4:00 and 4:30 a.m. When the news broke of Grace and Joseph’s wedding the tongues of Catholic Dublin began to feverishly wag. Of course, the big question was: “Is she pregnant?” Joe’s sister, Geraldine Plunkett Dillon, in her autobiography "All in the Blood" addresses this question. “The story which went round was that she was going to have a baby but that Joe was not the father. I was told on good authority that this story was put about by Dublin Castle.” But, indeed, Grace was pregnant, and Geraldine relates the terrible story of her miscarriage, one of the last casualties of 1916, in this first-hand account: “I went out to Larkfield to see Grace and was told that she was upstairs in bed. When I went into her bedroom I saw a large white chamberpot full of blood and foetus. She said nothing and I said nothing.” The romance of Joseph and Grace is told in this haunting melody, written by Seán and Frank O’Meara in 1985, here sung by 11-year-old Caoimhe Mooney: Dermot McEvoy is the author of the "The 13th Apostle: A Novel of a Dublin Family, Michael Collins, and the Irish Uprising and Irish Miscellany" (Skyhorse Publishing). He may be reached at email@example.com. Follow him at dermotmcevoy.com. Follow The 13th Apostle on Facebook by clicking here.	1,680	ENGLISH	1
Recently I was in North Yorkshire and by the A167 near Northallerton I came across a monument to a battle fought in 1138 that was called the "Battle of the Standard." The Battle had been the first major clash between England and Scotland for some 200 years. Yet it had been an "unusual" clash which had more to do with "internal English politics" than any "enmity between the two kingdoms" (Matthews 2003). In 1135 King Henry I of England had died. The Crown was left to his daughter Matilda. But in the event power was seized by King Henry's nephew, Count Stephen of Blois. Matilda had support though, including from her maternal uncle, King David I of Scotland. In 1138 King David decided to launch a full scale invasion with up to 25,000 men. Stephen was preoccupied with rebel barons in the south. So it was left to Archbishop Thurston of York and his priests to raise local militias in the north. Thurston revelled in this task. To fight the Scottish was "to do God's work" he said. Thurston also organised the construction of THE STANDARD. It consisted of a "large wagon pulled by an oxen on which was mounted a ship's mast." This would be used as a rallying point and it would give its' name to the Battle (Matthews 2003). The battle itself took place on 22 August 1138 at Cowton Moor, just north of Northallerton. There the English took up position on the crest of a hill. The Scots, attacking uphill, came under the withering fire of English archers. Thousands died. David, conceding defeat, had to withdraw. Back in Carlisle he regrouped and -despite having lost the battle- was able, within a month, to negotiate a "very favourable truce" (Ibbotson 2009).	<urn:uuid:a51eae78-3db9-467a-8d63-f200786fcd3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.srsm.scot/forum-1/general-discussions/battle-of-the-standard	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00073.warc.gz	en	0.988537	391	3.65625	4	[ -0.4402901530265808, -0.0980689600110054, 0.1921752244234085, -0.0445668026804924, 0.045172493904829025, -0.035867027938365936, 0.047882433980703354, 0.2429003119468689, -0.1568005532026291, -0.3467467725276947, -0.1292542964220047, -0.5813884735107422, 0.2625928521156311, 0.14146542549133...	6	Recently I was in North Yorkshire and by the A167 near Northallerton I came across a monument to a battle fought in 1138 that was called the "Battle of the Standard." The Battle had been the first major clash between England and Scotland for some 200 years. Yet it had been an "unusual" clash which had more to do with "internal English politics" than any "enmity between the two kingdoms" (Matthews 2003). In 1135 King Henry I of England had died. The Crown was left to his daughter Matilda. But in the event power was seized by King Henry's nephew, Count Stephen of Blois. Matilda had support though, including from her maternal uncle, King David I of Scotland. In 1138 King David decided to launch a full scale invasion with up to 25,000 men. Stephen was preoccupied with rebel barons in the south. So it was left to Archbishop Thurston of York and his priests to raise local militias in the north. Thurston revelled in this task. To fight the Scottish was "to do God's work" he said. Thurston also organised the construction of THE STANDARD. It consisted of a "large wagon pulled by an oxen on which was mounted a ship's mast." This would be used as a rallying point and it would give its' name to the Battle (Matthews 2003). The battle itself took place on 22 August 1138 at Cowton Moor, just north of Northallerton. There the English took up position on the crest of a hill. The Scots, attacking uphill, came under the withering fire of English archers. Thousands died. David, conceding defeat, had to withdraw. Back in Carlisle he regrouped and -despite having lost the battle- was able, within a month, to negotiate a "very favourable truce" (Ibbotson 2009).	420	ENGLISH	1
“A man who dares to waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life.”“It is not the strongest or the most intelligent who will survive but those who can best manage change.” Born on 12th February 1809, at The Mount, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, United Kingdom, was an English Naturalist and Geologist, best known for Evolutionary Theory. He established that, all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, His scientific theory states that the branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. “The love for all living creatures is the most noble attribute of man.” A lot of Darwin’s work had been influenced greatly by his own misfortunate health conditions. There were times when he suffered from such medical afflictions that he could do nothing but fight them off. He used this as a means to understand the scientific world around him a little better. Instead of thinking of being cursed, he used his failing condition as a means to understand the world in a different light. This is probably why he was able to understand things that very few had ever really thought about. Darwin’s interest in nature, led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, instead, he started to investigate marine invertebrates. His studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ’s College), encouraged him for his passion for natural science and after five years of travel on HMS Beagle, he established himself as an eminent Geologist, where his observations and theories supported Charles Lyell’s uniformitarian ideas, and then the Voyage publication made him famous as a popular author. Darwin’s social and political views reflected his time and social position. He thought men’s eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection. He was strongly against slavery, that is against “Ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species”, and against “Ill-treatment of native people”. Darwin was able to convince most scientists, insisting that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was recognized for his revolutionized ideas and was honored in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists across the world. During “The Eclipse of Darwinism”, period, scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. From 1930s to the 1950s, that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory. Finally, after all his revolutionary thoughts and theories, Darwin, who was diagnosed for “Angina Pectoris” died due to heart failure, on 19th April 1882 at Down House. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton on Wednesday 26th April 1882 and was attended by thousands of people. Darwin’s portrait had been printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by the Bank of England. A life size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the Natural History Museum in London. “The highest possible stage in moral culture is when we recognize that we ought to control our thoughts.”“If I had my life to live over again, I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week.”	<urn:uuid:d8602d5c-c6b3-42a2-8b95-d7c1fe985aa2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://being-success.com/charles-darwin/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00327.warc.gz	en	0.984079	732	3.609375	4	[ -0.32910680770874023, 0.6413367390632629, 0.12024188041687012, 0.11275003850460052, 0.010756168514490128, -0.13859137892723083, 0.4118802547454834, 0.335650235414505, 0.01963554322719574, -0.10400712490081787, 0.08576565980911255, -0.3845424950122833, 0.3836652636528015, 0.1130086034536361...	6	“A man who dares to waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life.”“It is not the strongest or the most intelligent who will survive but those who can best manage change.” Born on 12th February 1809, at The Mount, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, United Kingdom, was an English Naturalist and Geologist, best known for Evolutionary Theory. He established that, all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, His scientific theory states that the branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. “The love for all living creatures is the most noble attribute of man.” A lot of Darwin’s work had been influenced greatly by his own misfortunate health conditions. There were times when he suffered from such medical afflictions that he could do nothing but fight them off. He used this as a means to understand the scientific world around him a little better. Instead of thinking of being cursed, he used his failing condition as a means to understand the world in a different light. This is probably why he was able to understand things that very few had ever really thought about. Darwin’s interest in nature, led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh, instead, he started to investigate marine invertebrates. His studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ’s College), encouraged him for his passion for natural science and after five years of travel on HMS Beagle, he established himself as an eminent Geologist, where his observations and theories supported Charles Lyell’s uniformitarian ideas, and then the Voyage publication made him famous as a popular author. Darwin’s social and political views reflected his time and social position. He thought men’s eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection. He was strongly against slavery, that is against “Ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species”, and against “Ill-treatment of native people”. Darwin was able to convince most scientists, insisting that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was recognized for his revolutionized ideas and was honored in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists across the world. During “The Eclipse of Darwinism”, period, scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. From 1930s to the 1950s, that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory. Finally, after all his revolutionary thoughts and theories, Darwin, who was diagnosed for “Angina Pectoris” died due to heart failure, on 19th April 1882 at Down House. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton on Wednesday 26th April 1882 and was attended by thousands of people. Darwin’s portrait had been printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by the Bank of England. A life size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the Natural History Museum in London. “The highest possible stage in moral culture is when we recognize that we ought to control our thoughts.”“If I had my life to live over again, I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week.”	710	ENGLISH	1
This is without a doubt the most advanced video project we have attempted to date. Our goal was to create an animated video showing what an ROC post was, what they would have looked like and how one would have operated. ROC Posts were small underground bunkers that were built all across the UK during the 'cold war' period. They were deigned to act as a monitoring post during the even of a nuclear attack on the country. Each post would have been able to provide local data on the direction and altitude of the explosion as well as fall out as it occurred. This data would have been forwarded to each posts area command and then to central command. The combined data could then be used to determine the severity of the attack and help with planning across the country. In theory each post that detected the blast would be able to report it's heading. At command they would be able to use this data to plot the exact location of the blast on a map. If you can imagine several posts reporting a compass heading towards the blast. If each of these posts is at a known location all you need to do is draw a line on the heading the post reported. Then at the point where the line cross, this will be the location of the explosion. The area where the nuclear explosion occurred is referred to as 'ground zero'. the device that recorded the direction towards the explosion was called the 'ground zero indicator'. It not only recorded the direction but also the altitude. The GZI worked a lot like a pin hole camera. It was a round object with photo sensitive paper held inside. It has 4 holes facing north, south, east and west. If there was an explosion the light would be able to pass through one of the holes and expose the paper held within. The exposure mark on the paper would align with a compass heading printed on the paper. It would also show the height to determine if this was an air-burst or ground-burst weapon. Each post also had a device called a 'fixed survey meter' that recorded radiation levels at the surface. This was achieved by passing a probe up through a metal tube to the surface. The tube was generally capped off with a metal plate but when in use, the cap would be removed and replaced with a dome. The dome allowed the probe to measure radiation at the surface whilst still sealing the bunker from the outside. Another device that would have been used in an ROC post was the 'bomb power indicator' This measured the pressure wave generated by the explosion. It used a mechanical pressure meter with a pipe going to the surface. As pressure was forced down the pipe the needle would rise. We have tried to show each of the main devices in detail although this means our 'Virtual ROC Post' is not entirely historically accurate. Some of the items we have added to our post are not period specific. What we have done is try and use the most commonly seen items and use them within our video. There are a lot of videos online of people exploring abandoned ROC posts and we want to try and explain the most commonly Present items. An example would be the TeleTalk device. This item would not have been used in 1979. (This is the date on our diary). This is however the most common communications device seen within ROC posts. All the animation and modeling within this video was done using 'Blender'. Blender is a piece of software released as open-source. Once all our clips were made we used Kdenlive to create the final video. Kdenlive is our NLA (Non Linear Editor) of choice. It is also released as a piece of open-source software.	<urn:uuid:57838efa-32c5-4d32-9c70-4c87eca189de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://urbexy.com/explores/posts/Virtual_ROC_Post/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00306.warc.gz	en	0.982822	744	3.9375	4	[ -0.1937461942434311, 0.2543172240257263, 0.2019951492547989, -0.3490559458732605, 0.5160744190216064, 0.04928985983133316, 0.22397635877132416, 0.1284322738647461, -0.4119313359260559, 0.019924258813261986, 0.3235663175582886, -0.453145831823349, -0.09505595266819, 0.3388058543205261, -0...	3	This is without a doubt the most advanced video project we have attempted to date. Our goal was to create an animated video showing what an ROC post was, what they would have looked like and how one would have operated. ROC Posts were small underground bunkers that were built all across the UK during the 'cold war' period. They were deigned to act as a monitoring post during the even of a nuclear attack on the country. Each post would have been able to provide local data on the direction and altitude of the explosion as well as fall out as it occurred. This data would have been forwarded to each posts area command and then to central command. The combined data could then be used to determine the severity of the attack and help with planning across the country. In theory each post that detected the blast would be able to report it's heading. At command they would be able to use this data to plot the exact location of the blast on a map. If you can imagine several posts reporting a compass heading towards the blast. If each of these posts is at a known location all you need to do is draw a line on the heading the post reported. Then at the point where the line cross, this will be the location of the explosion. The area where the nuclear explosion occurred is referred to as 'ground zero'. the device that recorded the direction towards the explosion was called the 'ground zero indicator'. It not only recorded the direction but also the altitude. The GZI worked a lot like a pin hole camera. It was a round object with photo sensitive paper held inside. It has 4 holes facing north, south, east and west. If there was an explosion the light would be able to pass through one of the holes and expose the paper held within. The exposure mark on the paper would align with a compass heading printed on the paper. It would also show the height to determine if this was an air-burst or ground-burst weapon. Each post also had a device called a 'fixed survey meter' that recorded radiation levels at the surface. This was achieved by passing a probe up through a metal tube to the surface. The tube was generally capped off with a metal plate but when in use, the cap would be removed and replaced with a dome. The dome allowed the probe to measure radiation at the surface whilst still sealing the bunker from the outside. Another device that would have been used in an ROC post was the 'bomb power indicator' This measured the pressure wave generated by the explosion. It used a mechanical pressure meter with a pipe going to the surface. As pressure was forced down the pipe the needle would rise. We have tried to show each of the main devices in detail although this means our 'Virtual ROC Post' is not entirely historically accurate. Some of the items we have added to our post are not period specific. What we have done is try and use the most commonly seen items and use them within our video. There are a lot of videos online of people exploring abandoned ROC posts and we want to try and explain the most commonly Present items. An example would be the TeleTalk device. This item would not have been used in 1979. (This is the date on our diary). This is however the most common communications device seen within ROC posts. All the animation and modeling within this video was done using 'Blender'. Blender is a piece of software released as open-source. Once all our clips were made we used Kdenlive to create the final video. Kdenlive is our NLA (Non Linear Editor) of choice. It is also released as a piece of open-source software.	734	ENGLISH	1
How did the the Western Front become a stalemate in World War I? The Western Front in World War I turned into a stalemate for two main reasons. First, the German Schlieffen Plan was not carried out well enough to overrun France before the French could get their defenses settled. Second, once the defenses were set up, the technology that was available in 1914 favored the defensive and prevented either side from making any decisive attacks. Going into the war, the Germans were supposed to use the Schlieffen Plan to overrun France. This plan envisioned a massive German attack on the German right (through Belgium and in through northern France) that would destroy the French and give Germany a quick victory. However, this plan did not quite work as planned. The German forces were delayed by various factors, throwing off their timing and allowing the French more time to dig in. The Germans’ lines of communication and supply were badly overextended while the French could use their short, internal lines of communication to supply their armies. This allowed the French to stop the Germans deep in French territory, but before Germany could force France to surrender. Once this was accomplished, technology took over. The most important technology was the machine gun. Trenches that were defended by men with machine guns were impossible to attack successfully with the technology of the time. Since both sides had trenches and both sides had machine guns, there was no way that either side was going to be able to pull off any sort of a major attack. This led to the stalemate on the Western Front that lasted for about three years. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:5e074c63-a942-46ad-98f0-d0c1a9d4a7da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-did-the-western-front-become-stalemate-464873?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00542.warc.gz	en	0.990231	328	3.65625	4	[ -0.5017665028572083, 0.4021831452846527, -0.14530375599861145, -0.03198830783367157, 0.05641872435808182, 0.25764524936676025, -0.26596304774284363, 0.3784165382385254, -0.1623237282037735, -0.22731541097164154, 0.11391811817884445, -0.11747647076845169, 0.5059451460838318, 0.5134545564651...	2	How did the the Western Front become a stalemate in World War I? The Western Front in World War I turned into a stalemate for two main reasons. First, the German Schlieffen Plan was not carried out well enough to overrun France before the French could get their defenses settled. Second, once the defenses were set up, the technology that was available in 1914 favored the defensive and prevented either side from making any decisive attacks. Going into the war, the Germans were supposed to use the Schlieffen Plan to overrun France. This plan envisioned a massive German attack on the German right (through Belgium and in through northern France) that would destroy the French and give Germany a quick victory. However, this plan did not quite work as planned. The German forces were delayed by various factors, throwing off their timing and allowing the French more time to dig in. The Germans’ lines of communication and supply were badly overextended while the French could use their short, internal lines of communication to supply their armies. This allowed the French to stop the Germans deep in French territory, but before Germany could force France to surrender. Once this was accomplished, technology took over. The most important technology was the machine gun. Trenches that were defended by men with machine guns were impossible to attack successfully with the technology of the time. Since both sides had trenches and both sides had machine guns, there was no way that either side was going to be able to pull off any sort of a major attack. This led to the stalemate on the Western Front that lasted for about three years. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	326	ENGLISH	1
Doing the laundry used to be a tiring and time-consuming chore. Piped water in homes was unusual before the late 19th century, so washing and drying laundry was done outside, except in wealthy households that had their own laundry rooms. Water had to be carried from a river or standpipe and was usually used cold, as it would be expensive and difficult to heat. Clothes had to be soaked, beaten and rinsed by hand, and then laid out to dry. The posser was an implements used in the 19th century, and until the mid 20th century, to make doing the laundry easier. Washing was placed in water in a large tub and pounded with the posser using vertical movements. Some possers have a long handle without a cross-piece. The one shown here, however, has quite a short wooden handle (about 55 cm) and a wooden cross-piece that would have helped give a twisting movement. The copper dome of the posser is concave on its underneath side. This caused some suction, making the job easier. The rim and the underneath side of the dome are perforated at regular intervals. Early possers were made of solid or perforated wood. Using copper for the dome meant that the posser could be mass-produced. The word posser comes from the Middle English word 'poss', which means to pound or to beat.	<urn:uuid:0a665d7c-17ce-4084-9c94-5a2d65e870ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.objectlessons.org/houses-and-homes-victorians/posser-victorian-original/s59/a971/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00544.warc.gz	en	0.985613	290	4.1875	4	[ 0.012081376276910305, -0.07235653698444366, 0.5372153520584106, -0.32136914134025574, 0.1385979950428009, -0.31468862295150757, 0.3372220993041992, -0.08710210025310516, -0.24161820113658905, -0.21563827991485596, 0.055618394166231155, -0.0946701243519783, -0.02685019001364708, -0.07260143...	3	Doing the laundry used to be a tiring and time-consuming chore. Piped water in homes was unusual before the late 19th century, so washing and drying laundry was done outside, except in wealthy households that had their own laundry rooms. Water had to be carried from a river or standpipe and was usually used cold, as it would be expensive and difficult to heat. Clothes had to be soaked, beaten and rinsed by hand, and then laid out to dry. The posser was an implements used in the 19th century, and until the mid 20th century, to make doing the laundry easier. Washing was placed in water in a large tub and pounded with the posser using vertical movements. Some possers have a long handle without a cross-piece. The one shown here, however, has quite a short wooden handle (about 55 cm) and a wooden cross-piece that would have helped give a twisting movement. The copper dome of the posser is concave on its underneath side. This caused some suction, making the job easier. The rim and the underneath side of the dome are perforated at regular intervals. Early possers were made of solid or perforated wood. Using copper for the dome meant that the posser could be mass-produced. The word posser comes from the Middle English word 'poss', which means to pound or to beat.	284	ENGLISH	1
The Great Florentine sculptor. Born in 1386 Donatello was the greatest Florentine sculptor of his age, and had worked in the studio of Lorenzo Ghiberti. In his early years, he worked in Rome with Fillippo Brunelleschi, excavating and studying in the ancient city. The lessons that these two artistic giants learned in Rome became important for the future development of Italian art. Ghiberti is famous for winning the competition to design the doors for the Baptistery in Florence. The artist assisted Ghiberti with some of the work on these doors and had also received artistic training in a goldsmith's workshop. In fact, Donatello had earned a living during his time in Rome by working in goldsmiths shops. The statue of St George, made in about 1420, is one of the most important works in his development. In this work, the sculptor had broken with the Gothic style of statues and their solemn rows of saints. St George is totally real, steadfast, and determined in his defiance of any enemy that may approach. The figures of St George, St Mark and St Louis of Toulouse, were commissioned by the various wealthy Florentine guilds, to fill the niches around the church of Orsanmichele in Florence.	<urn:uuid:12880f98-a0b2-4a51-9fd1-3d2b11223168>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Donatello.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00337.warc.gz	en	0.988683	272	3.578125	4	[ 0.08529166877269745, 0.34646666049957275, 0.604049801826477, 0.13041283190250397, -0.6609494686126709, 0.13749410212039948, 0.33013588190078735, 0.09090975672006607, 0.07902158796787262, -0.16284167766571045, -0.3604719936847687, -0.05109143629670143, 0.1546352058649063, 0.6424156427383423...	3	The Great Florentine sculptor. Born in 1386 Donatello was the greatest Florentine sculptor of his age, and had worked in the studio of Lorenzo Ghiberti. In his early years, he worked in Rome with Fillippo Brunelleschi, excavating and studying in the ancient city. The lessons that these two artistic giants learned in Rome became important for the future development of Italian art. Ghiberti is famous for winning the competition to design the doors for the Baptistery in Florence. The artist assisted Ghiberti with some of the work on these doors and had also received artistic training in a goldsmith's workshop. In fact, Donatello had earned a living during his time in Rome by working in goldsmiths shops. The statue of St George, made in about 1420, is one of the most important works in his development. In this work, the sculptor had broken with the Gothic style of statues and their solemn rows of saints. St George is totally real, steadfast, and determined in his defiance of any enemy that may approach. The figures of St George, St Mark and St Louis of Toulouse, were commissioned by the various wealthy Florentine guilds, to fill the niches around the church of Orsanmichele in Florence.	269	ENGLISH	1
Vaccine: Weak or dead pathogens that are injected into a person and will cause the immune system to create antibodies without the person have to experience illness. Should the live pathogen enter the body, the immune systems will immediately attack it. In the late 18th century a man by the name of Edward Jenner was experiencing the devistating effects of a smallpox epidemic. All around the village/town people were dying of smallpox (like chickenpox but more severe and found both outside and inside the body). He noticed that one particular group of people were not being affected by smallpox- the milk maids; girls about 14 who would go out and milk the cows. What the milkmaids DID experience was cowpox- a mild form- which they caught from the cows and quickly recoved from in a matter of days. Jenner hypothesized that the disease cowpox was somehow giving the girls the ability to avoid getting smallpox. In that light, he designed a (cowardly) test. Jenner scraped the puss from a cowpox lesion and scratched it into a 5 year old boy- his son- who soon developed cowpox. He recovered, as the milkmaids did, and after a few weeks Jenner then infected the 5 year old with smallpox! Should his hypothesis be wrong the 5 year old would surely have died. Luckily, Jenner was correct and the boy never contracted smallpox. Soon, everyone was being inoculated with cowpox and recovering. The incidence for smallpox dropped dramatically! Flash forward to the early 20th century (1930s or so) and we meet Jonas Salk. Up until this time, people had to suffer a disease to gain immunity to it. Polio was a devastating disease of the time that left its survivors paralyzed or worse. Dr. Salk wondered if a person could gain immunity without getting sick. His hypothesis was that dead polio virus would cause the person's immune system to react the same way live polio would and antibodies would be created to fight it off. In his experiment, Salk injected himself with dead polio virus and waited a few weeks for antibodies to be created (he hoped!). He then injected himself with live polio virus! It worked! Salk became immune to polio without experiencing the terrible affects of having polio. Millions of school children were then vaccinated against polio and the incidence of polio droped from high double digit percentages to single digit percentages. Since that time, children around the world are vaccinated against such stable diseases as mumps, chickenpox, and rubella. Other disease that change or evolve more often have vaccines that will only work for a short period of time- like the flu.	<urn:uuid:2d5568c8-c9df-466c-a652-73a9bf136c7d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.nyewannabe.net/leclass-notes/classifcation/vaccines.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00303.warc.gz	en	0.980045	544	3.53125	4	[ -0.3899655342102051, 0.46922504901885986, 0.1937570869922638, -0.0644671618938446, -0.22078846395015717, 0.07594338059425354, 0.932337760925293, 0.6379561424255371, -0.26872870326042175, -0.051936469972133636, -0.15354576706886292, -0.36456063389778137, 0.42870864272117615, 0.2687581777572...	1	Vaccine: Weak or dead pathogens that are injected into a person and will cause the immune system to create antibodies without the person have to experience illness. Should the live pathogen enter the body, the immune systems will immediately attack it. In the late 18th century a man by the name of Edward Jenner was experiencing the devistating effects of a smallpox epidemic. All around the village/town people were dying of smallpox (like chickenpox but more severe and found both outside and inside the body). He noticed that one particular group of people were not being affected by smallpox- the milk maids; girls about 14 who would go out and milk the cows. What the milkmaids DID experience was cowpox- a mild form- which they caught from the cows and quickly recoved from in a matter of days. Jenner hypothesized that the disease cowpox was somehow giving the girls the ability to avoid getting smallpox. In that light, he designed a (cowardly) test. Jenner scraped the puss from a cowpox lesion and scratched it into a 5 year old boy- his son- who soon developed cowpox. He recovered, as the milkmaids did, and after a few weeks Jenner then infected the 5 year old with smallpox! Should his hypothesis be wrong the 5 year old would surely have died. Luckily, Jenner was correct and the boy never contracted smallpox. Soon, everyone was being inoculated with cowpox and recovering. The incidence for smallpox dropped dramatically! Flash forward to the early 20th century (1930s or so) and we meet Jonas Salk. Up until this time, people had to suffer a disease to gain immunity to it. Polio was a devastating disease of the time that left its survivors paralyzed or worse. Dr. Salk wondered if a person could gain immunity without getting sick. His hypothesis was that dead polio virus would cause the person's immune system to react the same way live polio would and antibodies would be created to fight it off. In his experiment, Salk injected himself with dead polio virus and waited a few weeks for antibodies to be created (he hoped!). He then injected himself with live polio virus! It worked! Salk became immune to polio without experiencing the terrible affects of having polio. Millions of school children were then vaccinated against polio and the incidence of polio droped from high double digit percentages to single digit percentages. Since that time, children around the world are vaccinated against such stable diseases as mumps, chickenpox, and rubella. Other disease that change or evolve more often have vaccines that will only work for a short period of time- like the flu.	567	ENGLISH	1
Alexander III of Macedon, commonly referred to as Alexander the Great, became the king of Macedon at the young age of 20. Although he only reigned for a short 12 years, during his time as king, he led a massive military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa. By the time he was 30, he had forged one of the largest empires in the ancient world that stretched from Greece to northwestern India. Known for his ambition and military prowess, he was never defeated in battle and is widely regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all-time. Take a look to see what made Alexander so great and how he shaped the ancient world in just under a decade. His Ascension To The Throne Was Bloody Although Alexander and his father, King Phillip II, were close in Alexander’s youth, their relationship began to falter when his father married Cleopatra of Macedon. After his father was assassinated in 336 BC, many looked to Alexander and his mother as potential culprits. With the throne now open, Alexander wasted no time and had his father’s last wife and children killed. Rebellions soon began to rise among the Thracians and Greeks, which Alexander swiftly put an end to, restoring Macedonian rule over the conquered states. Everything happened so fast that people had no choice but to knowledge Alexander as their ruler. He Was Tutored By Aristotle As a young teenager, King Phillip II put Alexander under the tutelage of Aristotle, who would grow to be known as one of the greatest minds in history. At the time, Aristotle had yet to make a name for himself, although he was a known student of Plato. His father and mother both had great admiration for Plato and saw it only fitting that their son learns from someone that Plato saw promise in. Under Aristotle, Alexander was trained in medicine, logic, mathematics, art, religion, philosophy, and more. All which had a great impact on Alexander’s later life. His education with Aristotle ended when he was 16. He Named Dozens Of Cities After Himself, And One After His Horse During his military conquests, Alexander was known for commemorating his military successes by founding over 70 cities, which he named all Alexandria. The most famous of these was founded at the mouth of the Nile in 331 BC, which is currently the second-largest city in Egypt. Other cities are sprinkled throughout the Middle East, which can act as a map of Alexander’s army’s movements. During his Indian campaign, Alexander founded the city of Bucephala, the name of his favorite horse that was mortally wounded during the campaign. He Earned His Horse At A Young Age At the tender age of ten-years-old, a trader from Thessaly brought Phillip II a horse, which he offered to sell for an impressive 13 talents. However, the horse refused to be mounted, and to the king’s dismay, the trainers were at a loss. Yet, the clever Alexander discovered that the horse was afraid of his own shadow and asked if he could tame the horse himself. Admiring his son’s courage, the king kissed his son, stating, “My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you” and bought the horse for him. Alexander tamed the horse himself and named him Bucephalus, meaning “ox-head.” The Love Of His Life Was Originally His Captive In 327 BC, Alexander won an incredible victory when he captured Sodian Rock, which was assumed to be an impenetrable mountain fortress. Yet, Alexander succeeded. While looking over his captives, the 28-year-old Alexander’s eyes fell upon Roxana, the teenage daughter of a Bactrian nobleman. Not long after, the two were married, and in a traditional ceremony, Alexander cut a loaf of bread in half with his sword and shared it with his new bride. Roxana would follow him on his India campaign and would give birth to their only son Alexander IV mere months after his death. The Legend Of The Gordian Knot The Gordian Knot refers to an intricate knot that was commonly used by Gordius, the founder of the city of Gordium. Legend said that whoever could untie the knot would become the leader of Asia, with many attempting to untie it, to no avail. At the age of 23, and well on his way to conquering Asia, Alexander visited Gordium as part of his campaign and tried his hand at the Gordian Knot. According to the story, Alexander approached the knot, proclaimed that it didn’t matter how it was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. His Death Remains A Mystery In 323 BC, Alexander suddenly fell ill after drinking a bowl of wine at a gathering. Two weeks later, at the age of 32, the Macedonian king was dead. Considering that his father had been assassinated by one of his own personal guards, those close to Alexander were under suspicion, especially his General Antipater and Antipater’s son Cassander. The two would later go on to murder Alexander’s widow and son. Today, researchers assume that Alexander may have succumbed to malaria, lung infection, liver failure, or possibly typhoid fever. His Body Was Preserved Using Honey Upon his death, Alexander’s body was laid in a gold sarcophagus filled with honey that was then placed inside of a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer named Aristander once prophesized that the leader Alexander would be laid to rest and “would be happy and unvanquishable forever.” His body was then sent back to Macedon where it was intercepted and sent to Egypt by Ptolemy I, one of Alexander’s general. Since burying the former king was a royal prerogative, he saw it as a sign of his succession to the empire. He Never Lost A Battle To this day, Alexander’s incredible military tactics and strategies are studied by military theorists. Winning his first victory at just 18-years-old, Alexander made a name for himself for his courage, wits, and ability to personally lead his men into the thick of battle quickly and efficiently. Throughout his campaign, he never suffered a loss. After securing Macedon in Greece, Alexander crossed into India and what is now modern-day Turkey, where he won a series of battles against the Persians under the rule of Darius III. One of his keys to success was the use of the military formation of a Macedonian phalanx, in which the swords of the Persians stood little chance against the shields and 20-foot-long spears of his army. He Embraced Persian Culture After six years of campaigning in Persia, in 330 BC, Alexander conquered Persepolis, one of the main centers of Persian culture. However, upon conquering the city, he came to the realization that the only way to rule over the Persians was to adopt certain aspects of their culture. So, he began wearing Persian attire, including royal Persian accessories despite the opposition of many Macedonians. In order to further integrate Macedonian and Persian culture, in 324 BC, he held a mass wedding in the Persian city of Susa, in which 92 leading Macedonians took Persian wives, including Alexander who married two. He Supposedly Smelled Great In Plutarch’s “Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans,” which was written 400 years after Alexander’s death, it was stated that Alexander had “a most agreeable odor,” and that “his breath and body all over was so fragrant as to perfume the clothes that which he wore.” Supposedly. This was a rumor that circulated when he was still alive and that his godlike characteristics made him smell better than any mortal man. Alexander even once claimed that he was the Son of Zeus, a notion that his mother supported. He Was Only Half Macedonian When Alexander’s father, King Phillip II, fell in love and married one of his general’s niece, Cleopatra, it put Alexander’s claim to the throne of Macedon at risk. This is because Alexander was only half Macedonian on his fathers’ side, and his father’s child with Cleopatra would be full Macedonian, therefore having a better claim to the throne. So, after having a falling out with his father and his assassination, Alexander and his mother fled from Macedon With the help of a family friend named Demaratus, Alexander was able to return to Macedon and claim his crown just six months later. He Refused Peace After taking over the cities of Marathas and Aradus while campaigning in Persia, King Darius begged Alexander for peace, although Alexander refused. Instead, he attacked the island of Tyre but lacked the navy needed to reach the city. So, he decided to build causeways in order to reach Tyre. While the citizens of Tyre were distracted by the construction of the causeways, Alexander managed to acquire a navy and take the city by surprise. In 332 BC, he broke through the city walls and either enslaved or executed those who had defied him. The Location Of His Tomb Remains Unknown Unfortunately, the exact location of Alexander the Great’s tomb remains a mystery to this day. After his death, there was much discussion about where to bury his body, as many of his generals favored different places. However, according to the Parian Chronicle, Alexander was originally buried in Memphis, Egypt. Yet, in the late 3rd or 4th century, his body was then transferred to Alexandria. Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Augustus are all said to have visited the tomb in Alexandria, although the accounts are varied. His Eyes Were Different Colors According to historians, Alexander the Great possibly had an eye condition called heterochromia iridium, a condition in which a person’s eyes are two different colors. This is caused by a lack of pigmentation in the iris of one of the eyes. Greek historian Arrian describes Alexander’s eyes stating, “[T]he strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky.” Although this condition is more common in animals than humans, it doesn’t negatively affect the individual. His Final Words Because Alexander’s legitimate child had not been born while Alexander was on his deathbed, there was a lingering question about who would succeed as the new leader of the kingdom. When the generals supposedly asked Alexander who should succeed him, he responded saying “Kratisto,” which means “to the strongest” in Greek. However, there was some debate about his final words with others claiming he said “Krater’ oi” meaning to Craterus, a leader in his army. Yet, Craterus was never selected as ruler and the generals would fight among themselves for power. A Philosopher Prophesized His Death Calanus was an Indian philosopher that Alexander met in Taxila and followed him during his travels. When he fell ill in what is now Southwest Iran, Calanus informed Alexander that he planned to take his own life by self-immolation. However, before he entered the fire, Calanus allegedly told Alexander that he would meet him again in Babylon where he would salute him. At the time, nobody gave Calanus’ last words much thought, until Alexander died in Babylon, and it was assumed that Calanus had foreseen Alexander’s death. He Was Deeply Interested In Philosophy Although Alexander had always had a sharp mind and an interest in philosophy, his education under Aristotle certainly helped expand his horizons. While he was known for his successes as a warrior and a general during his campaign, he also made several stops during his travels to speaks with the great minds of the regions he was in. One of the most notable of these stops took place when he was in India where he had lengthy discussions with the gymnosophists or “naked philosophers” in the Hindu and Jain religious traditions. He Inherited His Highly-Trained Army While Alexander the Great is considered to be one of the greatest military tacticians and conquerors in history, he owes a lot of his accomplishments to his father. It was actually King Phillip II that put Macedon on the map and trained what would become one of the deadliest fighting forces of its time. Phillip II helped to develop his infantry’s phalanx fighting style, bred a devastating cavalry, as well as built siege equipment. Although Alexander did most of the conquering himself, he likely wouldn’t have been nearly as successful without his father. His Army Mutinied Against Him In 326 BC, Alexander and his armies fought against King Porus, the King of the Pauravas. Although he was victorious, the battle was costly, yet he still had intentions of marching his army further east into the Indian subcontinent. However, after years of campaigning, his army feared that they would be pushing their luck by fighting against larger and more refreshed armies. So, they mutinied at the Hyphasis River, refusing to march any further east. Although Alexander tried to convince them otherwise, he failed in doing so. He Wasn’t Always An Obedient Student Prior to being tutored by the legendary Aristotle, Alexander had other tutors, as his parents both believed education was quite important. Alexander’s first tutor was Leonidas, who was a relative to his mother. Leonidas was successful in teaching Alexander the basics of mathematics, horsemanship, and archery, but had a hard time controlling the young boy. Supposedly, Alexander’s favorite tutor was Lysimachus, who made up a game in which Alexander would pretend to be Achilles. News On Alexander’s Birthday On the day of Alexander’s birth, in July 356 BC, his father King Philip received both good and bad news. The good news was that his general Parmenion had defeated the Illyrian and Paeonian armies, as well that his horse had won at the Olympic Games. On the other hand, he was notified that the Temple of Artemus, one of the seven wonders of the world, had burned down. There was no telling if Alexander’s birth was a good or bad omen. He Was A Successful Warrior At A Young Age When Alexander was just 16 years old, King Philip II instigated a war against the Byzantion. With Alexander as the heir apparent and Prince Regent, he was given command of a large number of troops to prove his worth as a young soldier. In Philip’s absence, Alexander defended Macedonia against a revolt led by the Thracian and Maedi, successfully driving them from the territory. After his victory, he settled the surrounding area with the Greeks and named established the city of Alexandroupolis. Alexander And Diogenes The Cynic A popular story about Alexander the Great has to do with his encounter with Diogenes the Cynic. Supposedly, as a teenager, Alexander set out to find Diogenes, who was known for his rejection of social norms and for sleeping in a large clay jar. Upon seeing him in a public square, Alexander approached him, asking if there was anything that he could do for the man with the riches that he possessed. Legend says that Diogenes replied, stating, “stand aside; you’re blocking my sun.” Alexander was so impressed by his response that he told his generals, “If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” His Empire Fell Into Civil War After His Death With such a vast empire that spanned so many different cultures, and without a clear heir, Alexander’s once unified empire fell to pieces, with different people claiming the right to be king. This turned into what is known as the Wars of the Successors, which would last for forty years, as warring parties tried to control the massive empire. Eventually, the empire would be divided into three parts known as the Seleucids in Asia, the Antigonids in Macedonia, and the Ptolemies in Egypt. He’s Lucky To Not Have Died In Battle Considering the number of battles that Alexander fought in and how he personally led his armies, it’s a miracle that he was never killed in combat. However, that doesn’t mean he didn’t come close to death. For example, at the Granicus River, his life was saved by Cleitus the Black, who cut off a Persian’s arm before he was able to kill Alexander with his scimitar. Yet, he did suffer multiple wounds throughout his campaigns. At one point during his Indian campaign, he even had his lung pierced by an arrow. Alexander Had Some Requests Before His Death Before his death, Alexander left instructions to Craterus for things he wished to have accomplished. Some of these include military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean. He also wanted the construction of an enormous tomb for his father, as well as great temples across India and Greece, and the circumnavigation of Africa. Furthermore, his final instructions were for the European and Asian populations to create a “common unity.” Although Craterus began carrying out his wishes, the majority of Alexander’s wishes were abandoned. He Held A Massive Drinking Competition After the death of his friend Calanus, Alexander ordered the organization of an Olympic Games in India to honor him. Not terribly educated in Greek games, Alexander decided to host an event of his own, turning it into a wine-drinking contest. However, not many of the contestants had much experience in drinking alcohol, and the competition resulted in 41 of them dying from alcohol poisoning. The winner, a Greek named Promachus, ended up drinking an impressive 13 liters of wine before dying a few days later. He Made Sure To Secure His Borders Before The Persian Campaign Before beginning his campaign in Persia, Alexander secured his Northern borders. In the spring of 335, he began putting down revolts in the east. He defeated Thracian forces at Mount Haemus, taking control and then marched to Triballi, where he defeated an army there as well. He continued his conquest of the area, defeating every army that opposed him. By the time he was done, his Northern borders had all been secured, and Alexander could be at peace knowing his kingdom was under control. He Was Saddened By The Death Of Darius Alexander’s final battle with King Darius III of Persia was the Battle of Gaugamela. Fought in 331 in what is now modern-day northern Iraq, Alexander’s forces were outnumbered, yet Alexander relied on his skilled military tactics to win the day. During the battle, Darius was betrayed by one of his satraps and was captured and murdered by his own men. Upon finding Darius’ body, Alexander was saddened, as he respected Darius as a leader. He then sent Darius’ body back to Persepolis for a proper royal burial. He Killed One Of His Friends One of Alexander’s closest and oldest friends was Cleitus, who had become angry after Alexander began adopting Persian customs and dress. Once, when the two were drinking, Cleitus commented that Alexander should be following Macedonian traditions and not those of the Persians who were once his enemy. Cleitus then brought up how he had saved Alexander in battle, stating, “this is the hand, Alexander, that saved you.” This infuriated Alexander, who then killed Cleitus with a spear. However, Alexander felt terrible for what he had done and never forgave himself for it. He Uncovered A Plot To Take His Life During his campaign in central Asia, Parmerio, Alexander’s second in command’s son, Philotas, allegedly failed to report a possible attack on Alexander’s life. Alexander decided not only to kill Philotas and the other men involved but Parmerio too, who supposedly had nothing to do with the assassination plot. According to Quintus Curtius, Alexander ordered a man named Plydamus to slay Parmerio, ordering him to give him a letter that looked like it was from his son. While Parmerio was reading the letter, a general named Cleander murdered Parmerio with his sword. His Father Was A Huge Influence On Him Although his father, Philip II, was often away during Alexander’s youth, conquering neighboring territories and putting down rebellions, he remained one of Alexander’s most significant role models. His father knew what it would take for his son to be a great leader, so he spared no expense when it came to his education and training. Alexander also saw how his father was with his troops, such as fighting alongside his men, a practice he would adopt as the king. He Had A Unique Yet Paradoxical Personality According to Susan Abernethy of The Freelance History Writer, “The personality of Alexander the Great was a paradox […] “He had great charisma and force of personality but his character was full of contradictions, especially in his later years (his early thirties).” One thing he was adeptly skilled at was motivating his troops, even in the direst of circumstances. Abernethy describes him as a visionary whose ability to strategize under enormous pressure led him to win so many battles, even when he was greatly outnumbered. He Had A Fascination With Greek Heroes Growing up and into adulthood, The Iliad and The Odyssey were two of Alexander’s favorite books. He was inspired by the heroes written about by Homer and was known to keep a copy of The Iliad under his pillow. Of all the characters in the novels, he was most obsessed with the Greek warrior Achilles, who fought at Troy. Furthermore, his biggest idol was Hercules. He identified with the hero to such an extent that he even proclaimed that he was the son of Zeus, like Hercules himself. He Threw A Massive Funeral For His Friend Hephaestion was a member of Alexander’s army, one of his personal bodyguards, his best friend, and right-hand man. When he died suddenly in Ecbatana, Alexander made the decision to honor him as a hero. According to The Library of History, compiled by Diodorus Siculus,Hephaestion’s funeral pyre was several levels, with each more decadent than the last. The height of the pyre was more than “one hundred and thirty cubits.” Few kings had funerals such as this. Many Of Plutarch’s Writings About Alexander The Great Are Most Likely Fictitious The Greek writer Plutarch wrote Parallel Lives, which is a series of biographies about Greeks and Romans in pairs, including Alexander and Julius Caesar. However, living 400 years after Alexander, it is assumed that his reliability as a biographer is questionable. He was also Greek, and Greek people didn’t see Alexander the same life as others, considering many of them resented the Macedonians. He was also questioned for clearly stating that his writings are not a history but a “life story” because it’s more interesting to read about. Questions About His Sexuality When he was alive and after his death, history has taken an interest in Alexander’s sexuality. Although he had three wives during his life, he was also rumored to have been involved with at least one man. However, this wouldn’t exactly have been taboo back then, especially in Ancient Greece, where sexuality wasn’t viewed the same way that it is today. Plenty of men had intimate relations with other men and were known to still take wives and have children as well. The Alexander Romance Right after his death in 323 BC, legends began to spread across the world about many of Alexander the Great’s exploits, many of which were nothing more than fables. This tradition is known as the Alexander Romance. These are stories about him journeying to the bottom of the sea in a glass bubble, or going through the “Land of Darkness” in search of the “Fountain of Youth.” Of course, many of these were mere legends, but considering Alexander’s extraordinary life, they weren’t exactly unbelievable at the time. He Had A Major Influence On Rome Alexander and his successful campaigns caught the eye of the Romans, who greatly admired him. Roman leaders began to see him as a role model, with some even taking on Alexander’s hairstyle and searching for articles of his clothing across his conquered lands. Julius Caesar dedicated a statue to Alexander, although he replaced its head with his own while Octavian changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander’s profile. It is also noted that he was especially admired by emperors Trajan, Nero, and Caracalla, with some making pilgrimages to his tomb.	<urn:uuid:193786b7-ed2a-4074-a5cb-44eae1fe4b3d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.pastfactory.com/history/the-life-of-a-conqueror-alexander-the-great/?view-all	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00265.warc.gz	en	0.988864	5,267	3.5625	4	[ 0.002358832862228155, 0.583467423915863, 0.29498496651649475, 0.08997819572687149, -0.42266643047332764, -0.5450512170791626, 0.2662520110607147, 0.3254351019859314, -0.14567163586616516, -0.21702300012111664, 0.12117739021778107, -0.3871026039123535, 0.30075302720069885, -0.09771230071783...	1	Alexander III of Macedon, commonly referred to as Alexander the Great, became the king of Macedon at the young age of 20. Although he only reigned for a short 12 years, during his time as king, he led a massive military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa. By the time he was 30, he had forged one of the largest empires in the ancient world that stretched from Greece to northwestern India. Known for his ambition and military prowess, he was never defeated in battle and is widely regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all-time. Take a look to see what made Alexander so great and how he shaped the ancient world in just under a decade. His Ascension To The Throne Was Bloody Although Alexander and his father, King Phillip II, were close in Alexander’s youth, their relationship began to falter when his father married Cleopatra of Macedon. After his father was assassinated in 336 BC, many looked to Alexander and his mother as potential culprits. With the throne now open, Alexander wasted no time and had his father’s last wife and children killed. Rebellions soon began to rise among the Thracians and Greeks, which Alexander swiftly put an end to, restoring Macedonian rule over the conquered states. Everything happened so fast that people had no choice but to knowledge Alexander as their ruler. He Was Tutored By Aristotle As a young teenager, King Phillip II put Alexander under the tutelage of Aristotle, who would grow to be known as one of the greatest minds in history. At the time, Aristotle had yet to make a name for himself, although he was a known student of Plato. His father and mother both had great admiration for Plato and saw it only fitting that their son learns from someone that Plato saw promise in. Under Aristotle, Alexander was trained in medicine, logic, mathematics, art, religion, philosophy, and more. All which had a great impact on Alexander’s later life. His education with Aristotle ended when he was 16. He Named Dozens Of Cities After Himself, And One After His Horse During his military conquests, Alexander was known for commemorating his military successes by founding over 70 cities, which he named all Alexandria. The most famous of these was founded at the mouth of the Nile in 331 BC, which is currently the second-largest city in Egypt. Other cities are sprinkled throughout the Middle East, which can act as a map of Alexander’s army’s movements. During his Indian campaign, Alexander founded the city of Bucephala, the name of his favorite horse that was mortally wounded during the campaign. He Earned His Horse At A Young Age At the tender age of ten-years-old, a trader from Thessaly brought Phillip II a horse, which he offered to sell for an impressive 13 talents. However, the horse refused to be mounted, and to the king’s dismay, the trainers were at a loss. Yet, the clever Alexander discovered that the horse was afraid of his own shadow and asked if he could tame the horse himself. Admiring his son’s courage, the king kissed his son, stating, “My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you” and bought the horse for him. Alexander tamed the horse himself and named him Bucephalus, meaning “ox-head.” The Love Of His Life Was Originally His Captive In 327 BC, Alexander won an incredible victory when he captured Sodian Rock, which was assumed to be an impenetrable mountain fortress. Yet, Alexander succeeded. While looking over his captives, the 28-year-old Alexander’s eyes fell upon Roxana, the teenage daughter of a Bactrian nobleman. Not long after, the two were married, and in a traditional ceremony, Alexander cut a loaf of bread in half with his sword and shared it with his new bride. Roxana would follow him on his India campaign and would give birth to their only son Alexander IV mere months after his death. The Legend Of The Gordian Knot The Gordian Knot refers to an intricate knot that was commonly used by Gordius, the founder of the city of Gordium. Legend said that whoever could untie the knot would become the leader of Asia, with many attempting to untie it, to no avail. At the age of 23, and well on his way to conquering Asia, Alexander visited Gordium as part of his campaign and tried his hand at the Gordian Knot. According to the story, Alexander approached the knot, proclaimed that it didn’t matter how it was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. His Death Remains A Mystery In 323 BC, Alexander suddenly fell ill after drinking a bowl of wine at a gathering. Two weeks later, at the age of 32, the Macedonian king was dead. Considering that his father had been assassinated by one of his own personal guards, those close to Alexander were under suspicion, especially his General Antipater and Antipater’s son Cassander. The two would later go on to murder Alexander’s widow and son. Today, researchers assume that Alexander may have succumbed to malaria, lung infection, liver failure, or possibly typhoid fever. His Body Was Preserved Using Honey Upon his death, Alexander’s body was laid in a gold sarcophagus filled with honey that was then placed inside of a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer named Aristander once prophesized that the leader Alexander would be laid to rest and “would be happy and unvanquishable forever.” His body was then sent back to Macedon where it was intercepted and sent to Egypt by Ptolemy I, one of Alexander’s general. Since burying the former king was a royal prerogative, he saw it as a sign of his succession to the empire. He Never Lost A Battle To this day, Alexander’s incredible military tactics and strategies are studied by military theorists. Winning his first victory at just 18-years-old, Alexander made a name for himself for his courage, wits, and ability to personally lead his men into the thick of battle quickly and efficiently. Throughout his campaign, he never suffered a loss. After securing Macedon in Greece, Alexander crossed into India and what is now modern-day Turkey, where he won a series of battles against the Persians under the rule of Darius III. One of his keys to success was the use of the military formation of a Macedonian phalanx, in which the swords of the Persians stood little chance against the shields and 20-foot-long spears of his army. He Embraced Persian Culture After six years of campaigning in Persia, in 330 BC, Alexander conquered Persepolis, one of the main centers of Persian culture. However, upon conquering the city, he came to the realization that the only way to rule over the Persians was to adopt certain aspects of their culture. So, he began wearing Persian attire, including royal Persian accessories despite the opposition of many Macedonians. In order to further integrate Macedonian and Persian culture, in 324 BC, he held a mass wedding in the Persian city of Susa, in which 92 leading Macedonians took Persian wives, including Alexander who married two. He Supposedly Smelled Great In Plutarch’s “Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans,” which was written 400 years after Alexander’s death, it was stated that Alexander had “a most agreeable odor,” and that “his breath and body all over was so fragrant as to perfume the clothes that which he wore.” Supposedly. This was a rumor that circulated when he was still alive and that his godlike characteristics made him smell better than any mortal man. Alexander even once claimed that he was the Son of Zeus, a notion that his mother supported. He Was Only Half Macedonian When Alexander’s father, King Phillip II, fell in love and married one of his general’s niece, Cleopatra, it put Alexander’s claim to the throne of Macedon at risk. This is because Alexander was only half Macedonian on his fathers’ side, and his father’s child with Cleopatra would be full Macedonian, therefore having a better claim to the throne. So, after having a falling out with his father and his assassination, Alexander and his mother fled from Macedon With the help of a family friend named Demaratus, Alexander was able to return to Macedon and claim his crown just six months later. He Refused Peace After taking over the cities of Marathas and Aradus while campaigning in Persia, King Darius begged Alexander for peace, although Alexander refused. Instead, he attacked the island of Tyre but lacked the navy needed to reach the city. So, he decided to build causeways in order to reach Tyre. While the citizens of Tyre were distracted by the construction of the causeways, Alexander managed to acquire a navy and take the city by surprise. In 332 BC, he broke through the city walls and either enslaved or executed those who had defied him. The Location Of His Tomb Remains Unknown Unfortunately, the exact location of Alexander the Great’s tomb remains a mystery to this day. After his death, there was much discussion about where to bury his body, as many of his generals favored different places. However, according to the Parian Chronicle, Alexander was originally buried in Memphis, Egypt. Yet, in the late 3rd or 4th century, his body was then transferred to Alexandria. Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Augustus are all said to have visited the tomb in Alexandria, although the accounts are varied. His Eyes Were Different Colors According to historians, Alexander the Great possibly had an eye condition called heterochromia iridium, a condition in which a person’s eyes are two different colors. This is caused by a lack of pigmentation in the iris of one of the eyes. Greek historian Arrian describes Alexander’s eyes stating, “[T]he strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky.” Although this condition is more common in animals than humans, it doesn’t negatively affect the individual. His Final Words Because Alexander’s legitimate child had not been born while Alexander was on his deathbed, there was a lingering question about who would succeed as the new leader of the kingdom. When the generals supposedly asked Alexander who should succeed him, he responded saying “Kratisto,” which means “to the strongest” in Greek. However, there was some debate about his final words with others claiming he said “Krater’ oi” meaning to Craterus, a leader in his army. Yet, Craterus was never selected as ruler and the generals would fight among themselves for power. A Philosopher Prophesized His Death Calanus was an Indian philosopher that Alexander met in Taxila and followed him during his travels. When he fell ill in what is now Southwest Iran, Calanus informed Alexander that he planned to take his own life by self-immolation. However, before he entered the fire, Calanus allegedly told Alexander that he would meet him again in Babylon where he would salute him. At the time, nobody gave Calanus’ last words much thought, until Alexander died in Babylon, and it was assumed that Calanus had foreseen Alexander’s death. He Was Deeply Interested In Philosophy Although Alexander had always had a sharp mind and an interest in philosophy, his education under Aristotle certainly helped expand his horizons. While he was known for his successes as a warrior and a general during his campaign, he also made several stops during his travels to speaks with the great minds of the regions he was in. One of the most notable of these stops took place when he was in India where he had lengthy discussions with the gymnosophists or “naked philosophers” in the Hindu and Jain religious traditions. He Inherited His Highly-Trained Army While Alexander the Great is considered to be one of the greatest military tacticians and conquerors in history, he owes a lot of his accomplishments to his father. It was actually King Phillip II that put Macedon on the map and trained what would become one of the deadliest fighting forces of its time. Phillip II helped to develop his infantry’s phalanx fighting style, bred a devastating cavalry, as well as built siege equipment. Although Alexander did most of the conquering himself, he likely wouldn’t have been nearly as successful without his father. His Army Mutinied Against Him In 326 BC, Alexander and his armies fought against King Porus, the King of the Pauravas. Although he was victorious, the battle was costly, yet he still had intentions of marching his army further east into the Indian subcontinent. However, after years of campaigning, his army feared that they would be pushing their luck by fighting against larger and more refreshed armies. So, they mutinied at the Hyphasis River, refusing to march any further east. Although Alexander tried to convince them otherwise, he failed in doing so. He Wasn’t Always An Obedient Student Prior to being tutored by the legendary Aristotle, Alexander had other tutors, as his parents both believed education was quite important. Alexander’s first tutor was Leonidas, who was a relative to his mother. Leonidas was successful in teaching Alexander the basics of mathematics, horsemanship, and archery, but had a hard time controlling the young boy. Supposedly, Alexander’s favorite tutor was Lysimachus, who made up a game in which Alexander would pretend to be Achilles. News On Alexander’s Birthday On the day of Alexander’s birth, in July 356 BC, his father King Philip received both good and bad news. The good news was that his general Parmenion had defeated the Illyrian and Paeonian armies, as well that his horse had won at the Olympic Games. On the other hand, he was notified that the Temple of Artemus, one of the seven wonders of the world, had burned down. There was no telling if Alexander’s birth was a good or bad omen. He Was A Successful Warrior At A Young Age When Alexander was just 16 years old, King Philip II instigated a war against the Byzantion. With Alexander as the heir apparent and Prince Regent, he was given command of a large number of troops to prove his worth as a young soldier. In Philip’s absence, Alexander defended Macedonia against a revolt led by the Thracian and Maedi, successfully driving them from the territory. After his victory, he settled the surrounding area with the Greeks and named established the city of Alexandroupolis. Alexander And Diogenes The Cynic A popular story about Alexander the Great has to do with his encounter with Diogenes the Cynic. Supposedly, as a teenager, Alexander set out to find Diogenes, who was known for his rejection of social norms and for sleeping in a large clay jar. Upon seeing him in a public square, Alexander approached him, asking if there was anything that he could do for the man with the riches that he possessed. Legend says that Diogenes replied, stating, “stand aside; you’re blocking my sun.” Alexander was so impressed by his response that he told his generals, “If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” His Empire Fell Into Civil War After His Death With such a vast empire that spanned so many different cultures, and without a clear heir, Alexander’s once unified empire fell to pieces, with different people claiming the right to be king. This turned into what is known as the Wars of the Successors, which would last for forty years, as warring parties tried to control the massive empire. Eventually, the empire would be divided into three parts known as the Seleucids in Asia, the Antigonids in Macedonia, and the Ptolemies in Egypt. He’s Lucky To Not Have Died In Battle Considering the number of battles that Alexander fought in and how he personally led his armies, it’s a miracle that he was never killed in combat. However, that doesn’t mean he didn’t come close to death. For example, at the Granicus River, his life was saved by Cleitus the Black, who cut off a Persian’s arm before he was able to kill Alexander with his scimitar. Yet, he did suffer multiple wounds throughout his campaigns. At one point during his Indian campaign, he even had his lung pierced by an arrow. Alexander Had Some Requests Before His Death Before his death, Alexander left instructions to Craterus for things he wished to have accomplished. Some of these include military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean. He also wanted the construction of an enormous tomb for his father, as well as great temples across India and Greece, and the circumnavigation of Africa. Furthermore, his final instructions were for the European and Asian populations to create a “common unity.” Although Craterus began carrying out his wishes, the majority of Alexander’s wishes were abandoned. He Held A Massive Drinking Competition After the death of his friend Calanus, Alexander ordered the organization of an Olympic Games in India to honor him. Not terribly educated in Greek games, Alexander decided to host an event of his own, turning it into a wine-drinking contest. However, not many of the contestants had much experience in drinking alcohol, and the competition resulted in 41 of them dying from alcohol poisoning. The winner, a Greek named Promachus, ended up drinking an impressive 13 liters of wine before dying a few days later. He Made Sure To Secure His Borders Before The Persian Campaign Before beginning his campaign in Persia, Alexander secured his Northern borders. In the spring of 335, he began putting down revolts in the east. He defeated Thracian forces at Mount Haemus, taking control and then marched to Triballi, where he defeated an army there as well. He continued his conquest of the area, defeating every army that opposed him. By the time he was done, his Northern borders had all been secured, and Alexander could be at peace knowing his kingdom was under control. He Was Saddened By The Death Of Darius Alexander’s final battle with King Darius III of Persia was the Battle of Gaugamela. Fought in 331 in what is now modern-day northern Iraq, Alexander’s forces were outnumbered, yet Alexander relied on his skilled military tactics to win the day. During the battle, Darius was betrayed by one of his satraps and was captured and murdered by his own men. Upon finding Darius’ body, Alexander was saddened, as he respected Darius as a leader. He then sent Darius’ body back to Persepolis for a proper royal burial. He Killed One Of His Friends One of Alexander’s closest and oldest friends was Cleitus, who had become angry after Alexander began adopting Persian customs and dress. Once, when the two were drinking, Cleitus commented that Alexander should be following Macedonian traditions and not those of the Persians who were once his enemy. Cleitus then brought up how he had saved Alexander in battle, stating, “this is the hand, Alexander, that saved you.” This infuriated Alexander, who then killed Cleitus with a spear. However, Alexander felt terrible for what he had done and never forgave himself for it. He Uncovered A Plot To Take His Life During his campaign in central Asia, Parmerio, Alexander’s second in command’s son, Philotas, allegedly failed to report a possible attack on Alexander’s life. Alexander decided not only to kill Philotas and the other men involved but Parmerio too, who supposedly had nothing to do with the assassination plot. According to Quintus Curtius, Alexander ordered a man named Plydamus to slay Parmerio, ordering him to give him a letter that looked like it was from his son. While Parmerio was reading the letter, a general named Cleander murdered Parmerio with his sword. His Father Was A Huge Influence On Him Although his father, Philip II, was often away during Alexander’s youth, conquering neighboring territories and putting down rebellions, he remained one of Alexander’s most significant role models. His father knew what it would take for his son to be a great leader, so he spared no expense when it came to his education and training. Alexander also saw how his father was with his troops, such as fighting alongside his men, a practice he would adopt as the king. He Had A Unique Yet Paradoxical Personality According to Susan Abernethy of The Freelance History Writer, “The personality of Alexander the Great was a paradox […] “He had great charisma and force of personality but his character was full of contradictions, especially in his later years (his early thirties).” One thing he was adeptly skilled at was motivating his troops, even in the direst of circumstances. Abernethy describes him as a visionary whose ability to strategize under enormous pressure led him to win so many battles, even when he was greatly outnumbered. He Had A Fascination With Greek Heroes Growing up and into adulthood, The Iliad and The Odyssey were two of Alexander’s favorite books. He was inspired by the heroes written about by Homer and was known to keep a copy of The Iliad under his pillow. Of all the characters in the novels, he was most obsessed with the Greek warrior Achilles, who fought at Troy. Furthermore, his biggest idol was Hercules. He identified with the hero to such an extent that he even proclaimed that he was the son of Zeus, like Hercules himself. He Threw A Massive Funeral For His Friend Hephaestion was a member of Alexander’s army, one of his personal bodyguards, his best friend, and right-hand man. When he died suddenly in Ecbatana, Alexander made the decision to honor him as a hero. According to The Library of History, compiled by Diodorus Siculus,Hephaestion’s funeral pyre was several levels, with each more decadent than the last. The height of the pyre was more than “one hundred and thirty cubits.” Few kings had funerals such as this. Many Of Plutarch’s Writings About Alexander The Great Are Most Likely Fictitious The Greek writer Plutarch wrote Parallel Lives, which is a series of biographies about Greeks and Romans in pairs, including Alexander and Julius Caesar. However, living 400 years after Alexander, it is assumed that his reliability as a biographer is questionable. He was also Greek, and Greek people didn’t see Alexander the same life as others, considering many of them resented the Macedonians. He was also questioned for clearly stating that his writings are not a history but a “life story” because it’s more interesting to read about. Questions About His Sexuality When he was alive and after his death, history has taken an interest in Alexander’s sexuality. Although he had three wives during his life, he was also rumored to have been involved with at least one man. However, this wouldn’t exactly have been taboo back then, especially in Ancient Greece, where sexuality wasn’t viewed the same way that it is today. Plenty of men had intimate relations with other men and were known to still take wives and have children as well. The Alexander Romance Right after his death in 323 BC, legends began to spread across the world about many of Alexander the Great’s exploits, many of which were nothing more than fables. This tradition is known as the Alexander Romance. These are stories about him journeying to the bottom of the sea in a glass bubble, or going through the “Land of Darkness” in search of the “Fountain of Youth.” Of course, many of these were mere legends, but considering Alexander’s extraordinary life, they weren’t exactly unbelievable at the time. He Had A Major Influence On Rome Alexander and his successful campaigns caught the eye of the Romans, who greatly admired him. Roman leaders began to see him as a role model, with some even taking on Alexander’s hairstyle and searching for articles of his clothing across his conquered lands. Julius Caesar dedicated a statue to Alexander, although he replaced its head with his own while Octavian changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander’s profile. It is also noted that he was especially admired by emperors Trajan, Nero, and Caracalla, with some making pilgrimages to his tomb.	5,082	ENGLISH	1
Today, Bluebirds heard the Bible story of Esau and Jacob to understand more about fairness and found out that God’s view of fairness and justness is greater and longer lasting than our view as humans. Throughout the story, children identified aspects that did not seem fair. Millie – It’s not fair that only Jacob got the blessing. Havana – It was unfair that Esau paid for his food. Jessica – It was not fair that each parent favoured one of their children over the other. Pippa – It was not fair that the eldest child was in charge over everything. Dylan – It wasn’t fair to trick the Dad because he was blind. Also I don’t think it was fair one had to be born hairy! Mrs Parry explained that Esau had disappointed God by choosing food over his birthright and did not see the importance of his special gift he would get later on. She asked the children to think about the brothers making bad choices that they couldn’t change. They should have been careful with their choices as they didn’t realise how it would change their lives later on.	<urn:uuid:33400c66-d458-4ef5-ab57-a14ce5262555>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://year3.bellsfarm.org/?p=8657	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00129.warc.gz	en	0.993623	241	3.453125	3	[ -0.21827057003974915, -0.026020895689725876, -0.31626397371292114, -0.18303172290325165, 0.05945475772023201, 0.1763855516910553, 0.11195394396781921, 0.289724200963974, 0.1630367487668991, 0.11444895714521408, -0.559287428855896, -0.5069605708122253, -0.04350779950618744, 0.13278621435165...	2	Today, Bluebirds heard the Bible story of Esau and Jacob to understand more about fairness and found out that God’s view of fairness and justness is greater and longer lasting than our view as humans. Throughout the story, children identified aspects that did not seem fair. Millie – It’s not fair that only Jacob got the blessing. Havana – It was unfair that Esau paid for his food. Jessica – It was not fair that each parent favoured one of their children over the other. Pippa – It was not fair that the eldest child was in charge over everything. Dylan – It wasn’t fair to trick the Dad because he was blind. Also I don’t think it was fair one had to be born hairy! Mrs Parry explained that Esau had disappointed God by choosing food over his birthright and did not see the importance of his special gift he would get later on. She asked the children to think about the brothers making bad choices that they couldn’t change. They should have been careful with their choices as they didn’t realise how it would change their lives later on.	222	ENGLISH	1
Socrates lived in the fifth century, was a contemporary of Plato and is credited as the founder of Western philosophy. Sentenced to death by the Athenian Democracy for his non conformity, Socrates worked hard to stimulate thinking – promoting thinking among individuals, thus his well known habit of asking his students many questions to encourage, even antagonize them to think and to re-think their views on virtually everything so they came in their own minds to a solid understanding of whatever the discipline or subject may be. Plato’s school, “The Academy,” lasted over nine centuries. Plato studied with Socrates. Plato is credited with creating the “first fixed course of study for 3-4 years on one campus. Where did schools come from? Most people would answer by referring to the school established by Plato in Athens. Plato had studied with Socrates, but Plato was the first to offer a fixed course of study in one location extending over three or four years. Since Plato recruited his students from a public playing field on the outskirts of Athens, called Academus from the name of an athletic hero, Plato’s school became known as the Academy. The school passed from teacher to teacher and lasted for about nine hundred years. Aristotle, who studied under Plato for twenty years, set up a school of his own, choosing as his site another public playing field called the Lyceum. The Greek word for these playing fields was gymnasium. It is interesting that from these two Greek institutions numerous countries have derived their names for a school. The Germanic nations call their primary schools gymnasiums, Frenchmen call their schools lycees, after the Lyceum, while English-speaking nations call many of their schools academies. The educational establishments of the Western world can be traced to these Greek schools, and millions of today’s students are the successors of those first Greek pupils. Yet not nearly as many are in the school of Plato as are in the school of Jesus Christ. Jesus founded His school when He told those of His day, “Come to me, all you who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you and learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy and my burden is light.” Sadly, not all are willing to matriculate in Christ’s school. One of the problems with education today is that many students flatly refuse to learn. If we can carry the analogy this far, it might be said that this was true in the days of Jesus Christ, since the verses in which Jesus invites people to learn of Him are in the middle of two chapters in which Matthew records three negative assessments of Jesus by such persons. The first example of an at-least-partially negative assessment was that of John the Baptist. Jesus failed to fulfill John’s expectations of what he thought the Messiah should do, which was to bring judgment on the wicked of that day. So John sent disciples to Jesus to ask, “Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?” Jesus was the one, of course. He was not indifferent to evil. In the verses we are studying (Mt.11.20-24), He predicts a final judgment for those who refuse to receive His message. Still, the time for that judgment had not yet arrived. Instead, it was the day for God’s grace, which Jesus proved by reporting how the sick were being healed and the poor were hearing the Gospel. The third example, was the hostile reaction of the Pharisees and other religious leaders, who thought Jesus was undermining their teaching, particularly about Sabbath observance. Theirs was a professional jealousy, and the bottom line of their jealous rejection was that they “went out and plotted how they might kill Jesus.” Jesus here denounces the unbelief of the cities in which He had done most of His miracles. John’s doubt was not unbelief, but these people were not wrestling with doubt. They were completely indifferent, and their indifference was an expression of their disbelief. Jesus has done most of the miracles recorded by Matthew in Chorazin, Bethsaida, and especially Capernaum. He healed the servant of a Roman centurion, cured Peter’s mother-in-law of a fever, cast out demons and healed other sick people, healed a paralytic, raised a dead girl to life, restored sight to two blind men, and cast a demon out of a mute person, enabling him to talk. Those are only a selection of the many great works Jesus did. Still the people of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum would not repent of their sin and come to Him, and He pronounces a judgment on them. “Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But I tell you, it will be more bearable for Tyre and Sidon on the day of judgment than for you. And you, Capernaum, will you be exalted to heaven? You will be brought down to Hades. For if the mighty works done in you had been done in Sodom, it would have remained until this day. But I tell you that it will be more tolerable on the day of judgment than for you.” The people of Capernaum never persecuted Jesus, and few of them even criticized Him. They never mocked Him, ridiculed Him, ran Him out of town, or threatened His life. Yet their sin was worse than if they had done those things. Theirs was not the sin of violence or of immorality but of indifference. As one poet wrote,” “They only just passed down the street, and left Him in the rain.” Jesus’ teaching perhaps mildly interested them, and His miracles entertained them, but nothing more. His grace never rent their hearts, His truth never changed their minds, His warning about sin never provoked repentance, and His offer of salvation never induced faith. And because of their indifferent unbelief, Jesus said to them,” I say to you that it shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom in the day of judgment than for you.” One eighteenth-century commentator wrote, “Every hearer of the New Testament truth is either much happier or much more wretched than the men who lived before Christ’s coming.” Such a hearer is also either more secure or more condemned. Which are you?	<urn:uuid:589a5742-bf1b-4cb2-8858-f0b6b22fa775>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://maranathabiblechurch.org/heads-up/unbelief-and-a-wonderful-invitation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00315.warc.gz	en	0.986102	1,404	3.328125	3	[ -0.0534806028008461, 0.24579507112503052, 0.30024638772010803, -0.3786063492298126, -0.8549741506576538, -0.21196016669273376, 0.03499660640954971, 0.5853747725486755, 0.22002725303173065, -0.33575841784477234, -0.055101700127124786, -0.13476498425006866, 0.05700051039457321, 0.48178166151...	12	Socrates lived in the fifth century, was a contemporary of Plato and is credited as the founder of Western philosophy. Sentenced to death by the Athenian Democracy for his non conformity, Socrates worked hard to stimulate thinking – promoting thinking among individuals, thus his well known habit of asking his students many questions to encourage, even antagonize them to think and to re-think their views on virtually everything so they came in their own minds to a solid understanding of whatever the discipline or subject may be. Plato’s school, “The Academy,” lasted over nine centuries. Plato studied with Socrates. Plato is credited with creating the “first fixed course of study for 3-4 years on one campus. Where did schools come from? Most people would answer by referring to the school established by Plato in Athens. Plato had studied with Socrates, but Plato was the first to offer a fixed course of study in one location extending over three or four years. Since Plato recruited his students from a public playing field on the outskirts of Athens, called Academus from the name of an athletic hero, Plato’s school became known as the Academy. The school passed from teacher to teacher and lasted for about nine hundred years. Aristotle, who studied under Plato for twenty years, set up a school of his own, choosing as his site another public playing field called the Lyceum. The Greek word for these playing fields was gymnasium. It is interesting that from these two Greek institutions numerous countries have derived their names for a school. The Germanic nations call their primary schools gymnasiums, Frenchmen call their schools lycees, after the Lyceum, while English-speaking nations call many of their schools academies. The educational establishments of the Western world can be traced to these Greek schools, and millions of today’s students are the successors of those first Greek pupils. Yet not nearly as many are in the school of Plato as are in the school of Jesus Christ. Jesus founded His school when He told those of His day, “Come to me, all you who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you and learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy and my burden is light.” Sadly, not all are willing to matriculate in Christ’s school. One of the problems with education today is that many students flatly refuse to learn. If we can carry the analogy this far, it might be said that this was true in the days of Jesus Christ, since the verses in which Jesus invites people to learn of Him are in the middle of two chapters in which Matthew records three negative assessments of Jesus by such persons. The first example of an at-least-partially negative assessment was that of John the Baptist. Jesus failed to fulfill John’s expectations of what he thought the Messiah should do, which was to bring judgment on the wicked of that day. So John sent disciples to Jesus to ask, “Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?” Jesus was the one, of course. He was not indifferent to evil. In the verses we are studying (Mt.11.20-24), He predicts a final judgment for those who refuse to receive His message. Still, the time for that judgment had not yet arrived. Instead, it was the day for God’s grace, which Jesus proved by reporting how the sick were being healed and the poor were hearing the Gospel. The third example, was the hostile reaction of the Pharisees and other religious leaders, who thought Jesus was undermining their teaching, particularly about Sabbath observance. Theirs was a professional jealousy, and the bottom line of their jealous rejection was that they “went out and plotted how they might kill Jesus.” Jesus here denounces the unbelief of the cities in which He had done most of His miracles. John’s doubt was not unbelief, but these people were not wrestling with doubt. They were completely indifferent, and their indifference was an expression of their disbelief. Jesus has done most of the miracles recorded by Matthew in Chorazin, Bethsaida, and especially Capernaum. He healed the servant of a Roman centurion, cured Peter’s mother-in-law of a fever, cast out demons and healed other sick people, healed a paralytic, raised a dead girl to life, restored sight to two blind men, and cast a demon out of a mute person, enabling him to talk. Those are only a selection of the many great works Jesus did. Still the people of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum would not repent of their sin and come to Him, and He pronounces a judgment on them. “Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But I tell you, it will be more bearable for Tyre and Sidon on the day of judgment than for you. And you, Capernaum, will you be exalted to heaven? You will be brought down to Hades. For if the mighty works done in you had been done in Sodom, it would have remained until this day. But I tell you that it will be more tolerable on the day of judgment than for you.” The people of Capernaum never persecuted Jesus, and few of them even criticized Him. They never mocked Him, ridiculed Him, ran Him out of town, or threatened His life. Yet their sin was worse than if they had done those things. Theirs was not the sin of violence or of immorality but of indifference. As one poet wrote,” “They only just passed down the street, and left Him in the rain.” Jesus’ teaching perhaps mildly interested them, and His miracles entertained them, but nothing more. His grace never rent their hearts, His truth never changed their minds, His warning about sin never provoked repentance, and His offer of salvation never induced faith. And because of their indifferent unbelief, Jesus said to them,” I say to you that it shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom in the day of judgment than for you.” One eighteenth-century commentator wrote, “Every hearer of the New Testament truth is either much happier or much more wretched than the men who lived before Christ’s coming.” Such a hearer is also either more secure or more condemned. Which are you?	1,350	ENGLISH	1
The Feast of the Holy Innocents or Innocent’s Day is to remember the slaughter of male children 2 years and younger in Bethlehem and in its vicinity by Herod the Great. The story as related in the Gospel of Matthew (2:16-18). Herod was angered when the Wise Men did not return to him after locating the Messiah. No one can say with certainty how many were killed. Some have doubted it happened at all but it would be consistent with Herod the Great’s personality. He had no problems executing even members of his family if he thought they were betraying him. And since Bethlehem was a small area, the slaughter may not have been widely noticed. Nearly all the Christian churches observe the feast day though not on the same day. The Catholic Church and most western churches observe it on December 28 but Eastern Orthodox celebrates on December 29. The slain children are treated as martyrs of the church. It is not certain when it was first observed. While the exact date of the deaths is unknown, it is kept in the octave of Christmas as followed after the birth of Jesus. However it is believed it took place 2 years after Jesus birth. Matthew says the Wise Men saw child with his mother indicating he was no longer a baby. And Herod had learned from the Wise Men the approximate date of the birth.	<urn:uuid:64798e39-8dd8-4007-a702-820d657b3dfc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://titanicnewschannel.com/blog/tag/holy-innocents/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00370.warc.gz	en	0.988658	270	3.40625	3	[ 0.35122251510620117, 0.33935171365737915, 0.013414956629276276, -0.00121220201253891, 0.1703919917345047, -0.37594059109687805, -0.12882398068904877, 0.4525875151157379, -0.048247143626213074, 0.0460672453045845, 0.11259292811155319, 0.2925042510032654, 0.33633092045783997, 0.1564717590808...	14	The Feast of the Holy Innocents or Innocent’s Day is to remember the slaughter of male children 2 years and younger in Bethlehem and in its vicinity by Herod the Great. The story as related in the Gospel of Matthew (2:16-18). Herod was angered when the Wise Men did not return to him after locating the Messiah. No one can say with certainty how many were killed. Some have doubted it happened at all but it would be consistent with Herod the Great’s personality. He had no problems executing even members of his family if he thought they were betraying him. And since Bethlehem was a small area, the slaughter may not have been widely noticed. Nearly all the Christian churches observe the feast day though not on the same day. The Catholic Church and most western churches observe it on December 28 but Eastern Orthodox celebrates on December 29. The slain children are treated as martyrs of the church. It is not certain when it was first observed. While the exact date of the deaths is unknown, it is kept in the octave of Christmas as followed after the birth of Jesus. However it is believed it took place 2 years after Jesus birth. Matthew says the Wise Men saw child with his mother indicating he was no longer a baby. And Herod had learned from the Wise Men the approximate date of the birth.	276	ENGLISH	1
September 13, 1993: Israel and Palestine peace accord Over the years, the conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians has become infamous around the world. The many reasons behind the conflict are way too numerous to explain, but mostly boil down to two groups of people really wanting the same land. On September 13, 1993, however, both sides met on the White House lawn to sign what has become known as the “Oslo Accords.” What’s everyone fighting over? If you want to understand what the fighting’s all about, it’s important to realize that the piece of land that both the Israeli Jews and Palestinian Arabs are fighting over is no ordinary one. Both sides not only trace thousands of years worth of history back to the land but also consider several sites within the territory super holy to both the Jewish and Muslim religions. That said, both sides feel that a great deal of national and religious pride is at stake. In the early 20th century, many Jews were fleeing the massive persecution of Europe and decided to establish a national home base. This lead to the establishment of Israel, the world’s only Jewish state, within the territory in 1948. The only problem was that, at the time, the land was inhabited by a mostly Arab, Muslim-majority population who were like, “We don’t think so, this is our land and it’s called Palestine.” Ever since the two sides have been fighting each other over who controls the land and has the right to live there. The handshake seen round the world Finally, in the early 1990s, the leaders of both sides decided that it was time to move towards peace in the Middle East. So they met on the White House lawn, in a ceremony presided over by Bill Clinton, and signed the Oslo Accords, which were an attempt to move towards a peaceful cohabitation in the area. The world watched as Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, shook hands and said several really beautiful quotes about how it was time to get it together and live in peace. Unfortunately, things didn’t go quite as swimmingly as anyone had hoped in the long run. Israeli-Palestinian peace is still at bay, with extremists on both sides still refusing to coexist. How the conflict will ultimately end is still up for grabs, but the Oslo Accords were a sort of cornerstone for those who hope that peace can someday be achieved.	<urn:uuid:a9b75f4d-77a3-4231-b138-8ef53cc2903a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history101.com/september-13-1993-israel-palestine-peace-accord/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00398.warc.gz	en	0.982054	515	3.53125	4	[ -0.4210958778858185, 0.33876803517341614, -0.21608464419841766, -0.16154012084007263, -0.32304054498672485, 0.11458578705787659, 0.13546352088451385, 0.052156198769807816, 0.13389040529727936, 0.3481689989566803, 0.041819583624601364, -0.36415454745292664, 0.563328206539154, 0.374914765357...	5	September 13, 1993: Israel and Palestine peace accord Over the years, the conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians has become infamous around the world. The many reasons behind the conflict are way too numerous to explain, but mostly boil down to two groups of people really wanting the same land. On September 13, 1993, however, both sides met on the White House lawn to sign what has become known as the “Oslo Accords.” What’s everyone fighting over? If you want to understand what the fighting’s all about, it’s important to realize that the piece of land that both the Israeli Jews and Palestinian Arabs are fighting over is no ordinary one. Both sides not only trace thousands of years worth of history back to the land but also consider several sites within the territory super holy to both the Jewish and Muslim religions. That said, both sides feel that a great deal of national and religious pride is at stake. In the early 20th century, many Jews were fleeing the massive persecution of Europe and decided to establish a national home base. This lead to the establishment of Israel, the world’s only Jewish state, within the territory in 1948. The only problem was that, at the time, the land was inhabited by a mostly Arab, Muslim-majority population who were like, “We don’t think so, this is our land and it’s called Palestine.” Ever since the two sides have been fighting each other over who controls the land and has the right to live there. The handshake seen round the world Finally, in the early 1990s, the leaders of both sides decided that it was time to move towards peace in the Middle East. So they met on the White House lawn, in a ceremony presided over by Bill Clinton, and signed the Oslo Accords, which were an attempt to move towards a peaceful cohabitation in the area. The world watched as Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestinian Liberation Organization, shook hands and said several really beautiful quotes about how it was time to get it together and live in peace. Unfortunately, things didn’t go quite as swimmingly as anyone had hoped in the long run. Israeli-Palestinian peace is still at bay, with extremists on both sides still refusing to coexist. How the conflict will ultimately end is still up for grabs, but the Oslo Accords were a sort of cornerstone for those who hope that peace can someday be achieved.	516	ENGLISH	1
In ancient times, some Native American groups taught their children how to fight and hunt using miniature versions of popular projectile weapons, according to a new study. Over a thousand years ago, Chinookan- and Salish-speaking Native Americans lived on the northern Oregon coast near the mouth of the Columbia River, where they ate seafood and crafted tools and weapons. In the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists excavated this area, known as the Par-Tee shell midden site, which is filled with heaps of seashells and various deposits lumped into a pile called a midden. These previous finds included burials, hearths and about 7,000 tools, but most of those artifacts remain unanalyzed, according to a statement. In this new study, a group of researchers examined over 90 of these previously unanalyzed artifacts that are fragments of an ancient weapon called an "atlatl." Predating the bow and arrow, the atlatl was a dart-throwing weapon that could launch projectiles with great force. Made from whalebones, it had a grip on one end and a hook for a dart on the other. The weapon was key to these groups' survival, and people who knew how to use them had significant advantages. "The ability to operate such weapons effectively was a critical skill, but not a simple one to master," the researchers wrote in a new study, published Dec. 10 in the journal Antiquity. "Proficient atlatl users probably would have had greater success in hunting than those less skilled with the atlatl, resulting in dietary and social advantages for themselves and their community." What's more, people who could effectively use the weapon were likely more successful in warfare and self-defense, the researchers added. The team found that the weapons, particularly the grips, varied greatly in size; the largest was 166% larger than the smallest. Because a person's sex, body mass and height account for only 10% to 15% in the difference of the size of an adult human palm, the researchers concluded that the small weapons were used to train children. "Basically, they scaled down their atlatls so they were more easily usable in small hands," lead author Robert Losey, an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Alberta, said in the statement. In this way, children were taught how to use and master the weapons, he added. These smaller weapons likely were not models or toys but actually worked as weapons; previous experiments found that such weapons could hurl a dart around 98 feet (30 meters), according to the statement. Compared with other sites on the West Coast of North America, Par-Tee boasts an "unusually high" abundance of these weapons, the authors wrote in the study. It's unclear why, but most other atlatls were likely made from wood, as opposed to whalebone, and thus didn't survive to this day, they wrote. "The Par-Tee atlatls were made during what appear to have been the last few centuries of the widespread use of these weapons on the northern Oregon Coast," the authors wrote. They might have even been used alongside the "newly introduced bow and arrow." - Photos: Ancient Burial of Elite Members of Nomadic Tribe - Centuries of Tradition: Stunning Photos of Native American Hopi Pottery - In Photos: Discoveries at the Site of the Pequot War in Connecticut Originally published on Live Science.	<urn:uuid:595ff532-b0e6-490a-9d80-156cf9364acd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livescience.com/ancient-tiny-weapons-taught-native-american-children-hunt.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Livesciencecom+%28LiveScience.com+Science+Headline+Feed%29	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00332.warc.gz	en	0.981394	712	3.4375	3	[ -0.20768339931964874, 0.30544576048851013, 0.24298198521137238, -0.30793023109436035, 0.015226298943161964, -0.44098836183547974, -0.051126860082149506, 0.14366686344146729, -0.6361382007598877, -0.04441026970744133, 0.21786972880363464, -0.20944616198539734, 0.10936902463436127, 0.3447532...	9	In ancient times, some Native American groups taught their children how to fight and hunt using miniature versions of popular projectile weapons, according to a new study. Over a thousand years ago, Chinookan- and Salish-speaking Native Americans lived on the northern Oregon coast near the mouth of the Columbia River, where they ate seafood and crafted tools and weapons. In the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists excavated this area, known as the Par-Tee shell midden site, which is filled with heaps of seashells and various deposits lumped into a pile called a midden. These previous finds included burials, hearths and about 7,000 tools, but most of those artifacts remain unanalyzed, according to a statement. In this new study, a group of researchers examined over 90 of these previously unanalyzed artifacts that are fragments of an ancient weapon called an "atlatl." Predating the bow and arrow, the atlatl was a dart-throwing weapon that could launch projectiles with great force. Made from whalebones, it had a grip on one end and a hook for a dart on the other. The weapon was key to these groups' survival, and people who knew how to use them had significant advantages. "The ability to operate such weapons effectively was a critical skill, but not a simple one to master," the researchers wrote in a new study, published Dec. 10 in the journal Antiquity. "Proficient atlatl users probably would have had greater success in hunting than those less skilled with the atlatl, resulting in dietary and social advantages for themselves and their community." What's more, people who could effectively use the weapon were likely more successful in warfare and self-defense, the researchers added. The team found that the weapons, particularly the grips, varied greatly in size; the largest was 166% larger than the smallest. Because a person's sex, body mass and height account for only 10% to 15% in the difference of the size of an adult human palm, the researchers concluded that the small weapons were used to train children. "Basically, they scaled down their atlatls so they were more easily usable in small hands," lead author Robert Losey, an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Alberta, said in the statement. In this way, children were taught how to use and master the weapons, he added. These smaller weapons likely were not models or toys but actually worked as weapons; previous experiments found that such weapons could hurl a dart around 98 feet (30 meters), according to the statement. Compared with other sites on the West Coast of North America, Par-Tee boasts an "unusually high" abundance of these weapons, the authors wrote in the study. It's unclear why, but most other atlatls were likely made from wood, as opposed to whalebone, and thus didn't survive to this day, they wrote. "The Par-Tee atlatls were made during what appear to have been the last few centuries of the widespread use of these weapons on the northern Oregon Coast," the authors wrote. They might have even been used alongside the "newly introduced bow and arrow." - Photos: Ancient Burial of Elite Members of Nomadic Tribe - Centuries of Tradition: Stunning Photos of Native American Hopi Pottery - In Photos: Discoveries at the Site of the Pequot War in Connecticut Originally published on Live Science.	718	ENGLISH	1
Comparison of the Mid-Atlantic and Southern Colonies Early American history is full of exciting events, brave conquests and unmatched victories. At the same time it contains multiple examples of cruelty, inhumanity and savagery. The process of settling first American colonies was two-faced as almost all important historic milestones. It is crucial to pay close attention to these events and the circumstances under which they took place, as this period can give much valuable information about the present-day America, the differences and similarities between its regions. This essay attempts to compare and contrast two geographic sections of the original thirteen colonies, the Mid-Atlantic (Middle) colonies that are made up by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware and the Southern colonies that comprise Georgia and the Carolinas. To give an objective analysis of this topic, it is necessary to pay attention to several aspects of the issue: the connection of the colonies with Europe, specific patterns of settlement, peculiarities of their economy and manufacturing, religious and philosophical background of the colonies, and distinctive features of their social structure. Only the complex approach is a key to finding out the most significant similarities and differences between the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies. Both Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies belonged to that part of the original thirteen colonies that were founded in the first decades of the seventeenth century under the ruling of King Charles II. “Without exception the new colonies were proprietary, awarded by the king to men who had remained loyal or had brought about his restoration or, in one case, to whom he was indebted” (Tindall and Shi 78). That was the major common feature between the Middle and Southern colonies, which, to a large extent, stipulated the special direction of their development. It is also necessary to pay attention to the changes of the ruling countries. The shift from the Netherlands to England had a huge impact on the Middle colonies, especially New York and Delaware. The transition of New Netherland under the jurisdiction of the British Empire was inevitable. The English fleet was far more powerful than all Dutch military forces and eventually they capitulated without a single gunshot. This event put the beginning to the merger of the Dutch and British cultural and economic traditions in this region. It must also be mentioned that neither the Mid-Atlantic nor Southern colonies enjoyed much political and economic freedom. They had their own authorities and ruling bodies, and they executed certain power over the citizens of the colonies. Nevertheless, this power was limited. They were still under the jurisdiction of the British Empire that did not have any intention to let them go away. However, the Southern colonies had rather a low level of the British influence at the stage of the early development, but in 1675 the King appointed the Lords of Trade to control all the commercial operations in these regions. The primary aim of Britain was to make the highest possible profits from these colonies. Georgia, one of the Southern colonies, was under a very strong European influence as it was established partially as a military buffer zone between British territories and the area controlled by the Spanish Empire. The tensions between these two European countries had been at the core of Georgia’s political development for centuries. As at this period America was completely controlled by Britain and some other European countries, whose influence was significantly smaller though, the ties between Europe and both the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies were very powerful. Even if there was a certain degree of freedom in making some specific decisions, on a larger scale these colonies were treated exclusively as the places bringing extra profit to the European nobles and the wealthy. Client says about us I was really stressed out with my course and I knew I could not write this paper on my own. You really helped me much and I got a high grade on my final assignment. Thank you! It is worth using this 123HelpMe.org site to order custom academic papers. I ordered lots of my papers here and all of them were written professionally! I did not even expect such a high quality of writing! I am very appreciative of the excellent work you did on my paper. I got the highest mark in the class! 🙂 All I can say is that I am very impressed. My writer completed an order on time and followed every single instruction I gave! You have done a great job guys, many thanks! Met the deadline and delivered a quality paper. Thanks for a good job! Patterns of Settlement In the Middle colonies the Dutch usually formed joint-stock companies that aimed at establishing the maximum quantity of trading outposts. It affected the structure of the settlements. All activities of social and economic kind were centered on the landholdings that were usually about 100 acres. These landholdings were often operated by a single family who hired additional helpers or servants if they were necessary. These workers were, of course, somewhat inferior to the owners, but their living conditions were quite satisfactory. It often happened that they began renting some parts of the owners’ land and had their own farms. The pattern of settlements in the Southern colonies was based on a different principle. The key term that is necessary to understand the pattern and structure of the first settlements in the Southern colonies is “plantation”. The scheme of the traditional plantation was taken from the West Indies colonies, like Bermuda or Jamaica. The owners of the first plantation on the territory of the Carolinas and Georgia initially intended even to grow the same agricultural crops, for example, sugarcane or tobacco, but these ideas did not prove to be very successful. Rice and cotton quickly became one of the main products in the Southern colonies, so it was agricultural crops that defined the way the settlements were organized. The infrastructure of plantations was sometimes even better than the one in some regions where poor population lived. It is necessary to highlight that the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies had different basic patterns of settlement, but they were perfectly suitable for the functions the colonies performed. The economy and manufacturing in the region also had a great impact on the methods of settlement organization. Economy and Manufacturing Economic prosperity was at the heart of the development of any early colony on the territory of the modern USA. This was absolutely true for both the Middle and Southern colonies; however, there were still some minor differences between these two regions. The nature of economic processes taking place in the colonies was greatly dependent on the people who inhabited these regions. The differences between the people who migrated to North and South Carolina reflect the economic development that had been taking place in these two colonies for several centuries. North Carolina was the place that became a new homeland for many medium and small tobacco farmers that arrived predominantly from Virginia and Maryland. South Carolina was a mixture of two types of population. The north of the colony was inhabited by people from Virginia and Pennsylvania, whereas the south was the place for wealthy planters from Barbados, Bermuda, etc. This diversity proved to be an effective boost for the development of economy, trade and manufacturing. It is necessary to mention that “the Carolinas proved highly profitable to the empire and won the approval of merchants, bankers, and politicians in London” (Wright 45). Both the Carolinas and Georgia’s manufacturing was highly dependent on their hot and humid climate that allowed to take good crops throughout the year. It resulted in their fast development and focus on the trade with other colonies and foreign countries. The same situation was in the Middle colonies where the Dutch came first and brought their unique and very successful style of trading. These colonies quickly turned into centers for various commercial enterprises and endeavors. The authorities exerted every effort to keep this image of a business paradise and tried to boost the development of the region’s economy in every possible way. In general, it would be right to say that there were far more industrial enterprises of different size in the Middle colonies than in the Southern ones. For example, only in Pennsylvania there were plenty of textile companies that produced various types of clothes and materials, including sails for trading vessels. This region was also famous for its high-quality pig iron. In both geographic sections the focus on trade resulted in the development of the industries that were closely connected to all commercial processes. For instance, ship building, manufacturing of naval appliances, creating all other forms of transport vehicles were very popular at that period. Religious and Philosophical Background In terms of religion, the Middle and Southern colonies had much in common. America’s religious life was not stable at that period of time as the population experienced a painful adaptation to new environment and constant shifts in conceptual priorities. There was no single unified religion in the contrasted regions and it resulted in a certain degree of religious freedom and tolerance. The Mid-Atlantic colonies had even greater religious diversity than the Southern colonies. There was evidence of practicing religious groups of Quakers, Catholics, Lutherans, Jews, etc. on the territory of the Mid-Atlantic lands. Quakers were particularly strong at that time. They believed in the notion of universal priesthood. It means that any true believer can preach if he or she is moved to speak by the divine forces. The highest degree of religious diversity could be observed in the state of New York (New Amsterdam). Woodard claims, “Ethnic and ideological purity have never been a priority, government has been seen as an unwelcome intrusion, and political opinion has been moderate, even apathetic” (16). However, it is not possible to say that the Middle and Southern colonies were a paradise for expressing any radical religious ideas. The degree of tolerance differed from one settlement to another. Landsman mentions, “For if toleration and diversity were among the distinguishing characteristics of the Middle Colonies, the ways in which people mixed – the degrees of integration and inclusion, the extent of liberty and tolerance, and the general character of the groups themselves—were quite varied” (267). For example, there were certain tensions with the Quakers as they refused to pay taxes in order to support the English Protestant Church. As it was in case of the Mid-Atlantic colonies, the Southern territories were also originally planned to be a place where any individual would be able to live happily and in harmony with God and the surrounding world. “The Trustees tried earnestly to make Georgia the combination of Eden and Utopia which they had envisioned” (Wright 59). Such naïve and idealistic theories were quite popular among the people who came to both Carolinas and Georgia; although it is worth remembering that the principal reasons for inhabiting this land were, by all means, economic and not religious. These colonies were seen by many as the Promised Land that would give everyone an opportunity to build a prosperous, balanced and peaceful society. The ideological theories praised at both colonies favored religious tolerance and, in fact, the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies were quite similar in their approaches to religion and general philosophic ideas on which the society was supposed to be built. The social systems of the Mid-Atlantic colonies and the Southern colonies were strikingly different. The social structure established at these territories was greatly dependant on the economic and religious spheres described above. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were considered one of the most democratic places at that period. There were many Dutch, German and Swiss immigrants in the Middle colonies that practiced rather democratic attitude to all social and gender groups. For example, women in these colonies enjoyed more equality with men than in any other geographic section. Women were allowed to have their own property, make wills and most of them worked in the fields and workshops with men on the equal footing. At first the Mid-Atlantic colonies had rather homogeneous social structure as most of the population consisted of small and medium farmers and craftsmen. It did not last long, but it created the atmosphere of equality that enrooted in the social system of this region for a very long time. Later some individuals became more powerful and wealthy than others and the greater social stratification emerged, but the gap between different social classes was not enormous. The transitions from one class to another were not rare. The situation in the Southern colonies was absolutely different. As they were initially founded by only one hundred English settlers and many wealthy slave owners from Bermuda, Barbados and some other Caribbean regions, the system of slavery had been adopted there from the very beginning. They introduced “a system so cruel and despotic that it shocked even its seventeenth-century English contemporaries” (Woodard 19). The society was formed according to the West Indies model. The white population was a superior cast that ruled and governed the lives of all other ethnic groups. Democracy and human rights were a privilege of a selected few who enjoyed it by the right of birth and money. The position of slaves was not slightly different from the one that was accepted in ancient cultures. They were property of their owners and had no rights at all. Therefore, the social structure of the Middle and Southern colonies was very different. At that time it was quite difficult to imagine that in the future the population of these colonies would enjoy the same privileges and democratic rights as in the modern USA. However, it must also be mentioned that at the very beginning of the colonies’ functioning these social systems emerged largely not by the will of their inhabitants, but because of the circumstances and influences from outside. In general, the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies had more similarities than differences. This is, to a certain extent, a surprising conclusion as these geographic sections were founded under different circumstances and performed different functions. However, these basic similarities can be explained by the fact that the early period of American history was quite a difficult process that made all the colonies focus on creating, first of all, as strong economic system as it was possible. It was also necessary to maintain relative social stability in the colonies that resulted in paying special attention to religion and other social regulations. All these aspects led to the implementation of the common core principles that became the basis both for the Middle and Southern colonies. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this analysis is extremely useful in understanding the current problems that arise between some American states. As Woodard says, “America’s most essential and abiding divisions are not between red states and blue states, conservatives and liberals…. Rather, our divisions stem from this fact: the United States is a federation comprised of … regional nations, some of which truly do not see eye to eye with one another” (12). It means that understanding the nature of the differences between various parts of America can help the US society to build a more prosperous and harmonious future.	<urn:uuid:54a662f9-9e83-4add-bfb2-93cb68b0c468>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://123helpme.org/essays/comparison-of-the-mid-atlantic-and-southern-colonies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00139.warc.gz	en	0.980258	2,961	3.703125	4	[ -0.25435301661491394, 0.3353683650493622, 0.588835597038269, -0.3966066241264343, 0.02424909919500351, 0.18222396075725555, -0.008570277132093906, 0.13912519812583923, 0.10484375804662704, -0.14093613624572754, 0.025050081312656403, 0.03052942454814911, -0.0978783667087555, 0.2900585532188...	1	Comparison of the Mid-Atlantic and Southern Colonies Early American history is full of exciting events, brave conquests and unmatched victories. At the same time it contains multiple examples of cruelty, inhumanity and savagery. The process of settling first American colonies was two-faced as almost all important historic milestones. It is crucial to pay close attention to these events and the circumstances under which they took place, as this period can give much valuable information about the present-day America, the differences and similarities between its regions. This essay attempts to compare and contrast two geographic sections of the original thirteen colonies, the Mid-Atlantic (Middle) colonies that are made up by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware and the Southern colonies that comprise Georgia and the Carolinas. To give an objective analysis of this topic, it is necessary to pay attention to several aspects of the issue: the connection of the colonies with Europe, specific patterns of settlement, peculiarities of their economy and manufacturing, religious and philosophical background of the colonies, and distinctive features of their social structure. Only the complex approach is a key to finding out the most significant similarities and differences between the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies. Both Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies belonged to that part of the original thirteen colonies that were founded in the first decades of the seventeenth century under the ruling of King Charles II. “Without exception the new colonies were proprietary, awarded by the king to men who had remained loyal or had brought about his restoration or, in one case, to whom he was indebted” (Tindall and Shi 78). That was the major common feature between the Middle and Southern colonies, which, to a large extent, stipulated the special direction of their development. It is also necessary to pay attention to the changes of the ruling countries. The shift from the Netherlands to England had a huge impact on the Middle colonies, especially New York and Delaware. The transition of New Netherland under the jurisdiction of the British Empire was inevitable. The English fleet was far more powerful than all Dutch military forces and eventually they capitulated without a single gunshot. This event put the beginning to the merger of the Dutch and British cultural and economic traditions in this region. It must also be mentioned that neither the Mid-Atlantic nor Southern colonies enjoyed much political and economic freedom. They had their own authorities and ruling bodies, and they executed certain power over the citizens of the colonies. Nevertheless, this power was limited. They were still under the jurisdiction of the British Empire that did not have any intention to let them go away. However, the Southern colonies had rather a low level of the British influence at the stage of the early development, but in 1675 the King appointed the Lords of Trade to control all the commercial operations in these regions. The primary aim of Britain was to make the highest possible profits from these colonies. Georgia, one of the Southern colonies, was under a very strong European influence as it was established partially as a military buffer zone between British territories and the area controlled by the Spanish Empire. The tensions between these two European countries had been at the core of Georgia’s political development for centuries. As at this period America was completely controlled by Britain and some other European countries, whose influence was significantly smaller though, the ties between Europe and both the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies were very powerful. Even if there was a certain degree of freedom in making some specific decisions, on a larger scale these colonies were treated exclusively as the places bringing extra profit to the European nobles and the wealthy. Client says about us I was really stressed out with my course and I knew I could not write this paper on my own. You really helped me much and I got a high grade on my final assignment. Thank you! It is worth using this 123HelpMe.org site to order custom academic papers. I ordered lots of my papers here and all of them were written professionally! I did not even expect such a high quality of writing! I am very appreciative of the excellent work you did on my paper. I got the highest mark in the class! 🙂 All I can say is that I am very impressed. My writer completed an order on time and followed every single instruction I gave! You have done a great job guys, many thanks! Met the deadline and delivered a quality paper. Thanks for a good job! Patterns of Settlement In the Middle colonies the Dutch usually formed joint-stock companies that aimed at establishing the maximum quantity of trading outposts. It affected the structure of the settlements. All activities of social and economic kind were centered on the landholdings that were usually about 100 acres. These landholdings were often operated by a single family who hired additional helpers or servants if they were necessary. These workers were, of course, somewhat inferior to the owners, but their living conditions were quite satisfactory. It often happened that they began renting some parts of the owners’ land and had their own farms. The pattern of settlements in the Southern colonies was based on a different principle. The key term that is necessary to understand the pattern and structure of the first settlements in the Southern colonies is “plantation”. The scheme of the traditional plantation was taken from the West Indies colonies, like Bermuda or Jamaica. The owners of the first plantation on the territory of the Carolinas and Georgia initially intended even to grow the same agricultural crops, for example, sugarcane or tobacco, but these ideas did not prove to be very successful. Rice and cotton quickly became one of the main products in the Southern colonies, so it was agricultural crops that defined the way the settlements were organized. The infrastructure of plantations was sometimes even better than the one in some regions where poor population lived. It is necessary to highlight that the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies had different basic patterns of settlement, but they were perfectly suitable for the functions the colonies performed. The economy and manufacturing in the region also had a great impact on the methods of settlement organization. Economy and Manufacturing Economic prosperity was at the heart of the development of any early colony on the territory of the modern USA. This was absolutely true for both the Middle and Southern colonies; however, there were still some minor differences between these two regions. The nature of economic processes taking place in the colonies was greatly dependent on the people who inhabited these regions. The differences between the people who migrated to North and South Carolina reflect the economic development that had been taking place in these two colonies for several centuries. North Carolina was the place that became a new homeland for many medium and small tobacco farmers that arrived predominantly from Virginia and Maryland. South Carolina was a mixture of two types of population. The north of the colony was inhabited by people from Virginia and Pennsylvania, whereas the south was the place for wealthy planters from Barbados, Bermuda, etc. This diversity proved to be an effective boost for the development of economy, trade and manufacturing. It is necessary to mention that “the Carolinas proved highly profitable to the empire and won the approval of merchants, bankers, and politicians in London” (Wright 45). Both the Carolinas and Georgia’s manufacturing was highly dependent on their hot and humid climate that allowed to take good crops throughout the year. It resulted in their fast development and focus on the trade with other colonies and foreign countries. The same situation was in the Middle colonies where the Dutch came first and brought their unique and very successful style of trading. These colonies quickly turned into centers for various commercial enterprises and endeavors. The authorities exerted every effort to keep this image of a business paradise and tried to boost the development of the region’s economy in every possible way. In general, it would be right to say that there were far more industrial enterprises of different size in the Middle colonies than in the Southern ones. For example, only in Pennsylvania there were plenty of textile companies that produced various types of clothes and materials, including sails for trading vessels. This region was also famous for its high-quality pig iron. In both geographic sections the focus on trade resulted in the development of the industries that were closely connected to all commercial processes. For instance, ship building, manufacturing of naval appliances, creating all other forms of transport vehicles were very popular at that period. Religious and Philosophical Background In terms of religion, the Middle and Southern colonies had much in common. America’s religious life was not stable at that period of time as the population experienced a painful adaptation to new environment and constant shifts in conceptual priorities. There was no single unified religion in the contrasted regions and it resulted in a certain degree of religious freedom and tolerance. The Mid-Atlantic colonies had even greater religious diversity than the Southern colonies. There was evidence of practicing religious groups of Quakers, Catholics, Lutherans, Jews, etc. on the territory of the Mid-Atlantic lands. Quakers were particularly strong at that time. They believed in the notion of universal priesthood. It means that any true believer can preach if he or she is moved to speak by the divine forces. The highest degree of religious diversity could be observed in the state of New York (New Amsterdam). Woodard claims, “Ethnic and ideological purity have never been a priority, government has been seen as an unwelcome intrusion, and political opinion has been moderate, even apathetic” (16). However, it is not possible to say that the Middle and Southern colonies were a paradise for expressing any radical religious ideas. The degree of tolerance differed from one settlement to another. Landsman mentions, “For if toleration and diversity were among the distinguishing characteristics of the Middle Colonies, the ways in which people mixed – the degrees of integration and inclusion, the extent of liberty and tolerance, and the general character of the groups themselves—were quite varied” (267). For example, there were certain tensions with the Quakers as they refused to pay taxes in order to support the English Protestant Church. As it was in case of the Mid-Atlantic colonies, the Southern territories were also originally planned to be a place where any individual would be able to live happily and in harmony with God and the surrounding world. “The Trustees tried earnestly to make Georgia the combination of Eden and Utopia which they had envisioned” (Wright 59). Such naïve and idealistic theories were quite popular among the people who came to both Carolinas and Georgia; although it is worth remembering that the principal reasons for inhabiting this land were, by all means, economic and not religious. These colonies were seen by many as the Promised Land that would give everyone an opportunity to build a prosperous, balanced and peaceful society. The ideological theories praised at both colonies favored religious tolerance and, in fact, the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies were quite similar in their approaches to religion and general philosophic ideas on which the society was supposed to be built. The social systems of the Mid-Atlantic colonies and the Southern colonies were strikingly different. The social structure established at these territories was greatly dependant on the economic and religious spheres described above. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were considered one of the most democratic places at that period. There were many Dutch, German and Swiss immigrants in the Middle colonies that practiced rather democratic attitude to all social and gender groups. For example, women in these colonies enjoyed more equality with men than in any other geographic section. Women were allowed to have their own property, make wills and most of them worked in the fields and workshops with men on the equal footing. At first the Mid-Atlantic colonies had rather homogeneous social structure as most of the population consisted of small and medium farmers and craftsmen. It did not last long, but it created the atmosphere of equality that enrooted in the social system of this region for a very long time. Later some individuals became more powerful and wealthy than others and the greater social stratification emerged, but the gap between different social classes was not enormous. The transitions from one class to another were not rare. The situation in the Southern colonies was absolutely different. As they were initially founded by only one hundred English settlers and many wealthy slave owners from Bermuda, Barbados and some other Caribbean regions, the system of slavery had been adopted there from the very beginning. They introduced “a system so cruel and despotic that it shocked even its seventeenth-century English contemporaries” (Woodard 19). The society was formed according to the West Indies model. The white population was a superior cast that ruled and governed the lives of all other ethnic groups. Democracy and human rights were a privilege of a selected few who enjoyed it by the right of birth and money. The position of slaves was not slightly different from the one that was accepted in ancient cultures. They were property of their owners and had no rights at all. Therefore, the social structure of the Middle and Southern colonies was very different. At that time it was quite difficult to imagine that in the future the population of these colonies would enjoy the same privileges and democratic rights as in the modern USA. However, it must also be mentioned that at the very beginning of the colonies’ functioning these social systems emerged largely not by the will of their inhabitants, but because of the circumstances and influences from outside. In general, the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies had more similarities than differences. This is, to a certain extent, a surprising conclusion as these geographic sections were founded under different circumstances and performed different functions. However, these basic similarities can be explained by the fact that the early period of American history was quite a difficult process that made all the colonies focus on creating, first of all, as strong economic system as it was possible. It was also necessary to maintain relative social stability in the colonies that resulted in paying special attention to religion and other social regulations. All these aspects led to the implementation of the common core principles that became the basis both for the Middle and Southern colonies. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this analysis is extremely useful in understanding the current problems that arise between some American states. As Woodard says, “America’s most essential and abiding divisions are not between red states and blue states, conservatives and liberals…. Rather, our divisions stem from this fact: the United States is a federation comprised of … regional nations, some of which truly do not see eye to eye with one another” (12). It means that understanding the nature of the differences between various parts of America can help the US society to build a more prosperous and harmonious future.	2,932	ENGLISH	1
For this week’s Wikipedia Trails, I started with Arachne after noticing a mention of her on the class Twitter. I couldn’t remember the story, so I decided to refresh myself and see what else I could find. Arachne is a character from Greek mythology. She was an incredibly talented weaver, and she challenged Athena, goddess of crafts, to a weaving contest. Variants of the story differ in who won the challenge, but regardless of the outcome, Athena punished Arachne by turning her into a spider. Marsyas is another character from Greek mythology who was prideful enough to contest the gods. He was a satyr and an accomplished flute player. He challenged Apollo to a music contest, as Apollo was the god of music. Everyone danced to Marsyas’s music, and everyone cried when Apollo played. The Muses decided that the contest was a draw. Apollo wouldn’t settle for this, so he played his lyre upside down. Marsyas couldn’t play his flute upside down, so Apollo won. Marsyas was skinned alive for daring to challenge the gods. The aulos is an ancient Greek wind instrument. It has two reeds, like an oboe, and two forks. It is frequently depicted in Greek art, and archaeologists have even found remains of the instrument. The story says that Athena invented the aulos but thought she looked silly because her cheeks puffed out while she blew into it. So she threw it away and cursed anyone who picked it up. Marsyas the satyr picked it up and mastered it, and as we learned above, the gods were not very happy about that. In Ancient Greece, the Korybantes were the dancers of the cult of the goddess Cybele. They danced and drummed while wearing armor and helmets. Dancing in armor is called Pyrrhic dancing, and it was fairly common among several different Greek cults, including the Kouretes in Crete. All these dancers were men, and the Pyrrhic dance was seen as an initiation ritual following a military victory. Image 1: Arachne and Athena by Rene-Antoine Houasse. Source – Wikipedia. Image 2: Youth playing the aulos. Source – Wikipedia. Image 3: Kouretes in armor dancing around an infant. Source – Wikipedia.	<urn:uuid:a8f5c674-571d-41f0-9442-378492f15162>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://myth.erinbullock.oucreate.com/wikipedia-trails-from-arachne-to-korybantes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00202.warc.gz	en	0.982348	495	3.484375	3	[ -0.4086989760398865, 0.13099737465381622, -0.2029973715543747, 0.04258276894688606, -0.7580472230911255, 0.0913703590631485, 0.35696882009506226, 0.42994624376296997, -0.10180861502885818, -0.07989823073148727, -0.12841250002384186, -0.3783518373966217, -0.1989738792181015, 0.3935464024543...	1	For this week’s Wikipedia Trails, I started with Arachne after noticing a mention of her on the class Twitter. I couldn’t remember the story, so I decided to refresh myself and see what else I could find. Arachne is a character from Greek mythology. She was an incredibly talented weaver, and she challenged Athena, goddess of crafts, to a weaving contest. Variants of the story differ in who won the challenge, but regardless of the outcome, Athena punished Arachne by turning her into a spider. Marsyas is another character from Greek mythology who was prideful enough to contest the gods. He was a satyr and an accomplished flute player. He challenged Apollo to a music contest, as Apollo was the god of music. Everyone danced to Marsyas’s music, and everyone cried when Apollo played. The Muses decided that the contest was a draw. Apollo wouldn’t settle for this, so he played his lyre upside down. Marsyas couldn’t play his flute upside down, so Apollo won. Marsyas was skinned alive for daring to challenge the gods. The aulos is an ancient Greek wind instrument. It has two reeds, like an oboe, and two forks. It is frequently depicted in Greek art, and archaeologists have even found remains of the instrument. The story says that Athena invented the aulos but thought she looked silly because her cheeks puffed out while she blew into it. So she threw it away and cursed anyone who picked it up. Marsyas the satyr picked it up and mastered it, and as we learned above, the gods were not very happy about that. In Ancient Greece, the Korybantes were the dancers of the cult of the goddess Cybele. They danced and drummed while wearing armor and helmets. Dancing in armor is called Pyrrhic dancing, and it was fairly common among several different Greek cults, including the Kouretes in Crete. All these dancers were men, and the Pyrrhic dance was seen as an initiation ritual following a military victory. Image 1: Arachne and Athena by Rene-Antoine Houasse. Source – Wikipedia. Image 2: Youth playing the aulos. Source – Wikipedia. Image 3: Kouretes in armor dancing around an infant. Source – Wikipedia.	473	ENGLISH	1
Sitting Bull (Sioux: Tatanka Iyotake or Tatanka Iyotanka or Ta-Tanka I-Yotank, first called Slon-he, Slow), (c. 1831 – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota chief and holy man. He is notable in American and Native American history in large part for his major victory at the Battle of Little Big Horn against Custer’s 7th Cavalry, where his premonition of defeating them became reality. Even today, his name is synonymous with Native American culture, and he is considered one of the most famous Native Americans in history. Towards the end of his life, Sitting Bull accepted that the new society of Europeans in the Americas was there to stay and realized that cooperation was better than confrontation. He was known among the Lakota and even among his adversaries as an inspirational leader and man of principle, whose deep religious faith motivated his life and gave him prophetic insight. Sitting Bull was born around 1831 near the Grand River in present-day South Dakota. The Lakota called his birthplace "Many Caches" because it was used for food storage pits to ensure the tribe's survival throughout winter. He was given the birth name Tatanka-Iyotanka (Sioux language: Thathą́ka Íyotaka, literally, "buffalo-bull sit-down"), which translates to Sitting Bull. His father's name was Brave Bull because he would always come back with weapons, food, and horses. Early on he was known in his tribe for his excellent singing voice. Sitting Bull's first encounter with American soldiers occurred in June 1863, when the army mounted a broad campaign in retaliation for the Santee Rebellion in Minnesota, in which the Lakota had played no part. The following year, his tribe clashed with U.S. troops at the Battle of Killdeer Mountain. The battle was a decisive victory for the Army and left the Sioux badly beaten, largely because of the Army artillery's devastating effects. The Battle of Killdeer Mountain struck a significant blow against Native American resistance, and many chiefs gave up the fight and went to reservations. Sitting Bull refused to surrender and rose to be a tribal leader, leading his warriors in a siege against the newly constructed Fort Rice in present day North Dakota. This action won him respect among the tribe, and he became head chief of the Lakota nation around 1868. During this period of westward expansion brought growing numbers of settlers, miners, farmers, missionaries, railroad workers, and military personnel, and Native Americans were increasingly being forced from their tribal lands. Sitting Bull, who was a medicine man, began to work toward uniting his people against this invasion. Like many tribal leaders, Sitting Bull first attempted to make peace and trade with the whites. However, many of the men the Lakota encountered would trick them into accepting poor deals for their lands and produce, which created resentment among the tribes. After the discovery of gold in 1876 in the Black Hills, his people were driven from their reservation in the area, a place that the Sioux considered holy. Sitting Bull then took up arms against the Americans and refused to be transported to the Indian territory. Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, a decorated Union veteran of the Civil War, was an ambitious military officer with presidential hopes. In addition to his Civil War exploits, which included commands in several of the war's most famous battles such as Gettysburg, his presence at Lee's surrender at Appomattox (during which he was awarded the actual table upon which the surrender documents had been signed in recognition of his gallantry) and a notable incident during the Union's Grand Review of the Armies had made Custer a household name by the time he joined the Indian Wars. He earned considerable fame among Native Americans and his fame among whites grew ever larger as the result of a series of controversial battles and early dawn attacks against Indian camps. The battles' results, usually reported to readers on the East Coast as great victories, sometimes included the slaughter of many women and children. On June 25, 1876, Custer’s 7th Cavalry advance party of General Alfred Howe Terry’s column attacked Indian tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River, expecting a similar victory. The U.S. army did not realize that before the battle began, more than 3,000 Native Americans had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull. The attacking Sioux, inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull’s, in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe’s camp, fought back. Custer's badly-outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat as they began to realize the true numbers of the Native American force. Custer also had older and lower quality guns than his enemy, yet he was eager to move into action against the Native Americans, and his hastiness cost him dearly. The tribes then led a counter-attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge, ultimately annihilating the soldiers. The victory placed Sitting Bull among the great Native American leaders such as fellow Little Big Horn veteran Crazy Horse and Apache freedom fighter Geronimo. But the Native Americans' celebrations were short lived, as public outrage at the military catastrophe, Custer's death, and heightened wariness of the remaining Native Americans brought thousands more cavalrymen to the area. The country was appalled at the mutilations of soldiers' bodies that occurred after the battle, and soon Congress provided the support to push forward its plans for Indian removal. Over the next year, the new forces relentlessly pursued the Lakota, forcing many of the Indians to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to surrender, and in May 1877 led his band across the border into Canada, where he remained in exile for many years, refusing a pardon and the chance to return. Hunger and cold eventually forced Sitting Bull, his family, and a few remaining warriors to surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his son hand his rifle to the commanding officer of Fort Buford, telling the soldiers they had come to regard them and the white race as friends. He hoped to return to the Standing Rock Agency reservation but was imprisoned for two years by the army, which was fearful of Sitting Bull's influence and notoriety among his own people and, increasingly, among whites in the East, especially in Boston and New York. He was eventually allowed to return to the reservation and his own people. In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to join Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West show. He was rumored to earn about US$50 a week for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Often asked to address the audience, he frequently cursed them in his native tongue to the wild applause of his listeners. Sitting Bull only stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, he had become somewhat of a celebrity and a romanticized freedom fighter. He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture. In his trips throughout the country, Sitting Bull realized that his former enemies were not limited to the small military and settler communities he had encountered in his homelands, but were in fact a large and highly advanced society. He understood that the Native Americans would be overwhelmed if they continued to fight. Back at Standing Rock, Sitting Bull became interested in the Ghost Dance movement. Although it has never been proven that he joined, he allowed others in the tribe to do so. The movement's followers believed performing the ghost dance would make them impervious to the bullets fired by white soldiers. The authorities feared Sitting Bull, as a popular spiritual leader, would give more credibility to the movement and decided to arrest him. Pre-empting the army, 43 Indian police attempted to arrest him on December 15, 1890, at the Standing Rock Agency. However, his followers were still loyal and fought to prevent the arrest, fearing that the army meant to kill Sitting Bull. Shots were fired and Sitting Bull, who was hit in the head, and his son Crow Foot were both killed. Sitting Bull's body was taken by the Indian police to Fort Yates, North Dakota, and buried in the military cemetery. The Lakota claim that his remains were transported in 1953 to Mobridge, South Dakota, where a granite shaft marks his grave. Sitting Bull is still remembered among the Lakota not only as an inspirational leader and fearless warrior, but as a loving father, a gifted singer, and as a man always affable and friendly toward others, whose deep religious faith gave him prophetic insight and lent special power to his prayers. Following his death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago to become part of the 1893 Columbian Exhibition. Sitting Bull, for many, is a symbol of Native American Culture. Despite his reputation as a warrior, he was remembered by his friend, Inspector James Morrow Walsh of the North-West Mounted Police, as wanting only justice; "He asked for nothing but justice … he was not a cruel man, he was kind of heart; he was not dishonest, he was truthful.” Despite the dispossession of the Indians from their land, Sitting Bull, towards the end of his life, accepted that the new society of Europeans in the Americas was there to stay. He realized that cooperation was better than confrontation and upheld his personal dignity and the dignity of Native Americans in his people's encounter with superior force. All links retrieved November 4, 2019. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:	<urn:uuid:b4fa7c78-7a4f-4dbe-a7bf-b1941194f4e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Sitting_Bull	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00387.warc.gz	en	0.98688	2,091	3.609375	4	[ 0.3305377960205078, 0.37593966722488403, 0.32856348156929016, 0.21820470690727234, -0.31800365447998047, -0.1949537843465805, 0.2933558523654938, 0.00368530978448689, -0.047650307416915894, -0.3317467272281647, -0.06359821557998657, -0.3167147934436798, 0.37722069025039673, 0.1989673823118...	2	Sitting Bull (Sioux: Tatanka Iyotake or Tatanka Iyotanka or Ta-Tanka I-Yotank, first called Slon-he, Slow), (c. 1831 – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota chief and holy man. He is notable in American and Native American history in large part for his major victory at the Battle of Little Big Horn against Custer’s 7th Cavalry, where his premonition of defeating them became reality. Even today, his name is synonymous with Native American culture, and he is considered one of the most famous Native Americans in history. Towards the end of his life, Sitting Bull accepted that the new society of Europeans in the Americas was there to stay and realized that cooperation was better than confrontation. He was known among the Lakota and even among his adversaries as an inspirational leader and man of principle, whose deep religious faith motivated his life and gave him prophetic insight. Sitting Bull was born around 1831 near the Grand River in present-day South Dakota. The Lakota called his birthplace "Many Caches" because it was used for food storage pits to ensure the tribe's survival throughout winter. He was given the birth name Tatanka-Iyotanka (Sioux language: Thathą́ka Íyotaka, literally, "buffalo-bull sit-down"), which translates to Sitting Bull. His father's name was Brave Bull because he would always come back with weapons, food, and horses. Early on he was known in his tribe for his excellent singing voice. Sitting Bull's first encounter with American soldiers occurred in June 1863, when the army mounted a broad campaign in retaliation for the Santee Rebellion in Minnesota, in which the Lakota had played no part. The following year, his tribe clashed with U.S. troops at the Battle of Killdeer Mountain. The battle was a decisive victory for the Army and left the Sioux badly beaten, largely because of the Army artillery's devastating effects. The Battle of Killdeer Mountain struck a significant blow against Native American resistance, and many chiefs gave up the fight and went to reservations. Sitting Bull refused to surrender and rose to be a tribal leader, leading his warriors in a siege against the newly constructed Fort Rice in present day North Dakota. This action won him respect among the tribe, and he became head chief of the Lakota nation around 1868. During this period of westward expansion brought growing numbers of settlers, miners, farmers, missionaries, railroad workers, and military personnel, and Native Americans were increasingly being forced from their tribal lands. Sitting Bull, who was a medicine man, began to work toward uniting his people against this invasion. Like many tribal leaders, Sitting Bull first attempted to make peace and trade with the whites. However, many of the men the Lakota encountered would trick them into accepting poor deals for their lands and produce, which created resentment among the tribes. After the discovery of gold in 1876 in the Black Hills, his people were driven from their reservation in the area, a place that the Sioux considered holy. Sitting Bull then took up arms against the Americans and refused to be transported to the Indian territory. Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, a decorated Union veteran of the Civil War, was an ambitious military officer with presidential hopes. In addition to his Civil War exploits, which included commands in several of the war's most famous battles such as Gettysburg, his presence at Lee's surrender at Appomattox (during which he was awarded the actual table upon which the surrender documents had been signed in recognition of his gallantry) and a notable incident during the Union's Grand Review of the Armies had made Custer a household name by the time he joined the Indian Wars. He earned considerable fame among Native Americans and his fame among whites grew ever larger as the result of a series of controversial battles and early dawn attacks against Indian camps. The battles' results, usually reported to readers on the East Coast as great victories, sometimes included the slaughter of many women and children. On June 25, 1876, Custer’s 7th Cavalry advance party of General Alfred Howe Terry’s column attacked Indian tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River, expecting a similar victory. The U.S. army did not realize that before the battle began, more than 3,000 Native Americans had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull. The attacking Sioux, inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull’s, in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe’s camp, fought back. Custer's badly-outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat as they began to realize the true numbers of the Native American force. Custer also had older and lower quality guns than his enemy, yet he was eager to move into action against the Native Americans, and his hastiness cost him dearly. The tribes then led a counter-attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge, ultimately annihilating the soldiers. The victory placed Sitting Bull among the great Native American leaders such as fellow Little Big Horn veteran Crazy Horse and Apache freedom fighter Geronimo. But the Native Americans' celebrations were short lived, as public outrage at the military catastrophe, Custer's death, and heightened wariness of the remaining Native Americans brought thousands more cavalrymen to the area. The country was appalled at the mutilations of soldiers' bodies that occurred after the battle, and soon Congress provided the support to push forward its plans for Indian removal. Over the next year, the new forces relentlessly pursued the Lakota, forcing many of the Indians to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to surrender, and in May 1877 led his band across the border into Canada, where he remained in exile for many years, refusing a pardon and the chance to return. Hunger and cold eventually forced Sitting Bull, his family, and a few remaining warriors to surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his son hand his rifle to the commanding officer of Fort Buford, telling the soldiers they had come to regard them and the white race as friends. He hoped to return to the Standing Rock Agency reservation but was imprisoned for two years by the army, which was fearful of Sitting Bull's influence and notoriety among his own people and, increasingly, among whites in the East, especially in Boston and New York. He was eventually allowed to return to the reservation and his own people. In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to join Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West show. He was rumored to earn about US$50 a week for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Often asked to address the audience, he frequently cursed them in his native tongue to the wild applause of his listeners. Sitting Bull only stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, he had become somewhat of a celebrity and a romanticized freedom fighter. He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture. In his trips throughout the country, Sitting Bull realized that his former enemies were not limited to the small military and settler communities he had encountered in his homelands, but were in fact a large and highly advanced society. He understood that the Native Americans would be overwhelmed if they continued to fight. Back at Standing Rock, Sitting Bull became interested in the Ghost Dance movement. Although it has never been proven that he joined, he allowed others in the tribe to do so. The movement's followers believed performing the ghost dance would make them impervious to the bullets fired by white soldiers. The authorities feared Sitting Bull, as a popular spiritual leader, would give more credibility to the movement and decided to arrest him. Pre-empting the army, 43 Indian police attempted to arrest him on December 15, 1890, at the Standing Rock Agency. However, his followers were still loyal and fought to prevent the arrest, fearing that the army meant to kill Sitting Bull. Shots were fired and Sitting Bull, who was hit in the head, and his son Crow Foot were both killed. Sitting Bull's body was taken by the Indian police to Fort Yates, North Dakota, and buried in the military cemetery. The Lakota claim that his remains were transported in 1953 to Mobridge, South Dakota, where a granite shaft marks his grave. Sitting Bull is still remembered among the Lakota not only as an inspirational leader and fearless warrior, but as a loving father, a gifted singer, and as a man always affable and friendly toward others, whose deep religious faith gave him prophetic insight and lent special power to his prayers. Following his death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago to become part of the 1893 Columbian Exhibition. Sitting Bull, for many, is a symbol of Native American Culture. Despite his reputation as a warrior, he was remembered by his friend, Inspector James Morrow Walsh of the North-West Mounted Police, as wanting only justice; "He asked for nothing but justice … he was not a cruel man, he was kind of heart; he was not dishonest, he was truthful.” Despite the dispossession of the Indians from their land, Sitting Bull, towards the end of his life, accepted that the new society of Europeans in the Americas was there to stay. He realized that cooperation was better than confrontation and upheld his personal dignity and the dignity of Native Americans in his people's encounter with superior force. All links retrieved November 4, 2019. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:	2,115	ENGLISH	1
Who invented the taxi? Answer: The taximeter was invented by three German inventors: Wilhelm Friedrich Nedler, Ferdinand Dencker, and Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn. I didn’t realize that taxi was short for a larger word, so then I also because curious about why it was called a taxi cab… So it looks like the English borrowed the French word “taxi” which came from “taximeter-cabriolet.” When the taximeter-cabriolet reached England, it was shortened to “cab” because “cabriolet” was quite a mouthful. Taxi, from the word “taxe,” is “a charge”; so, a taximeter “measures the charge”. (Which makes sense because that’s what it does. XD) Cabriolet is pure French for a “two-wheeled carriage”. “Cab” is the first syllable of “cabriolet.” The first cabriolet (or sometimes called cabriole), was built in France in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It was a light two-wheeled carriage pulled by a single horse, and it had a large leather hood and a leather apron to protect the legs of the passengers from the water, mud, and dirt that was kicked up by the horse. It looked something like this: “Cabriolet” is from the French “cabri” meaning “kid” or “young goat” because the original non-car taxi had a spring system that caused it to bounce around in a way the resembled a young goat. And now, for the question that I actually set out to find the answer to, and ended up finding out all that above: Why are taxi cabs yellow? Well… This happened in the year 1907. A man named John Hertz had a plethora of cars that had been traded in and decided to start a taxi business. Because apparently when you have an oversupply of cars, that’s what you do with them. (Seriously, it’s cool that’s what he decided to do with them.) Because taxis need to be seen among the many cars on the road (I didn’t realize many cars were on the road in 1907…) he had to be choosy in which color to paint his new taxicabs. A survey was taken by the University of Chicago which stated that yellow was the easiest color to pick out, so that is what he went with. So taxis are yellow because of a survey. Just think, if the survey has said purple, we might have a bunch of purple taxis out there. 🙂	<urn:uuid:eb8bc39c-256b-4de5-ad6a-7e1cb7259a9f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://followinghimbesidestillwaters.wordpress.com/2018/08/29/wonder-wednesdays-who-invented-taxicabs/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00404.warc.gz	en	0.982834	585	3.359375	3	[ -0.22556962072849274, -0.039336059242486954, 0.2968984544277191, 0.18048211932182312, -0.5986274480819702, 0.007406958378851414, 0.694249153137207, 0.49437081813812256, 0.20812411606311798, 0.20239070057868958, 0.16802442073822021, -0.24359890818595886, -0.16948974132537842, 0.470701515674...	8	Who invented the taxi? Answer: The taximeter was invented by three German inventors: Wilhelm Friedrich Nedler, Ferdinand Dencker, and Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn. I didn’t realize that taxi was short for a larger word, so then I also because curious about why it was called a taxi cab… So it looks like the English borrowed the French word “taxi” which came from “taximeter-cabriolet.” When the taximeter-cabriolet reached England, it was shortened to “cab” because “cabriolet” was quite a mouthful. Taxi, from the word “taxe,” is “a charge”; so, a taximeter “measures the charge”. (Which makes sense because that’s what it does. XD) Cabriolet is pure French for a “two-wheeled carriage”. “Cab” is the first syllable of “cabriolet.” The first cabriolet (or sometimes called cabriole), was built in France in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It was a light two-wheeled carriage pulled by a single horse, and it had a large leather hood and a leather apron to protect the legs of the passengers from the water, mud, and dirt that was kicked up by the horse. It looked something like this: “Cabriolet” is from the French “cabri” meaning “kid” or “young goat” because the original non-car taxi had a spring system that caused it to bounce around in a way the resembled a young goat. And now, for the question that I actually set out to find the answer to, and ended up finding out all that above: Why are taxi cabs yellow? Well… This happened in the year 1907. A man named John Hertz had a plethora of cars that had been traded in and decided to start a taxi business. Because apparently when you have an oversupply of cars, that’s what you do with them. (Seriously, it’s cool that’s what he decided to do with them.) Because taxis need to be seen among the many cars on the road (I didn’t realize many cars were on the road in 1907…) he had to be choosy in which color to paint his new taxicabs. A survey was taken by the University of Chicago which stated that yellow was the easiest color to pick out, so that is what he went with. So taxis are yellow because of a survey. Just think, if the survey has said purple, we might have a bunch of purple taxis out there. 🙂	530	ENGLISH	1
Despite the fuss some people make about boys wearing ‘boys clothes’ and girls wearing ‘girls clothes’, back in the day it was all one and the same. Up until the early 20th century little boys work dresses and gowns well into their first few years of life. Back in the day, all boys wore dresses In Western European countries, boys would be dressed like this until anything from two to eight years old, with some boys documented wearing dresses into the late teens. “Boys’ dresses were often made in brighter or darker colours and in plainer or stronger fabrics and might have had chunky belts and trimmings and large metallic buttons, none of which were typical of girls’ dresses,” the V&A Museum of Childhood explains. “Boys’ dresses were more tailored in appearance, and often had features associated only with clothing for boys, such as the opening down the front of the skirt, fashionable in the 1810s and 1820s. Why did boys wear frocks? It’s thought that all young children – boys and girls – wore dresses to make nappy changing and toilet training easier. Some toddler gowns also had practical features, with fabric or ribbon ties sewn to them, as a kind of ‘lead’ to keep them close and support them as they learnt to walk. Dresses were economical and practical and had plenty of room for growing children (which pants did not!). Listen to Kinderling Conversation: Eventually, more practical child-friendly clothing started to be adopted (for example, garments like rompers that kids could climb and lark about it in). Then, once boys were old enough to do up the fastenings on pants – or old enough to be sent to work – they were allowed to wear pants instead. The official wearing of the pants A little boy’s move from these dresses to pants was called ‘breeching’ and it marked a transition out of babyhood and his mother’s exclusive care, and more involvement from his dad. When a boy was breeched, he often got his first Big Boy haircut, and was sometimes given a toy sword, to mark this big shift in his life. Boys were popped into dresses just like girls up until the late 18th century. Then, some little boys began to be dressed in pants or tight ‘skeleton suits’ (above). However, in the early 19th century boys were back to frocks again, this time as well as the long frocks of earlier years, they also wore shorter ones with matching bloomers. A nod to gentler days, practicality and play, perhaps?! Return of the gown It seems that pants on little boys were also a real barometer of how children were viewed and treated at the time. While children were originally seen as fragile mini-adults and rushed from babyhood straight to adulthood (pants for boys!), with kindness often left wanting, in the early 19th century children began to be seen as evolving little beings. Childrearing methods were being reformed slowly but surely, and kids were parented a little kindlier. The dresses now became a symbol of innocence and childhood, with young boys and girls dressed similarly to denote that they were all precious little people. The years rolled on and from the mid-19th to the early 20th century, little boys again began to be uniformly dressed in shorts – which allowed for play and growth and were cheaper than full-length pants – or knickerbockers. The boys in frocks things began to be phased out, perhaps as new ideas about boys and masculinity began to be phased in. By around the 1940s boys were generally only seen in frocks when they were being christened. So why did men wear trousers in the first place? One theory is that pants were seen as menswear, primarily because they were thought to be more practical when horse riding. And originally riding was a wartime pursuit, primarily practised by males. Thus, men wore the pants. And then little boys wore the pants. Well, eventually. After they wore the frocks and the bloomers. #BringItBack This post originally appeared on Babyology. 6 parenting trends that have a hilariously horrifying history They say it takes a village to raise a child. In the past, that village had some really strange ideas about child rearing. How to win the clothes argument with a toddler Dealing with opinions, especially in the wardrobe department. Should you circumcise your baby boy? It's a personal choice for consideration. 7 fun and easy DIY rainbow toddler activities Simple rainbow activities for toddlers you can make and do at home. Xmas Book Competition Win 9 fantastic festive books! 10 fun and festive Christmas crafts perfect for preschoolers Get your Christmas craft on with these fun activities for little kids. Which of these 8 crazy baby hairstyles is your bub rocking? There are 8 crazy baby hairstyles out there, which one is your poppet rocking? ALDI are selling all your fave retro toys from the '80s and '90s! Praise be because ALDI are about to sell all your favourite childhood toys!	<urn:uuid:12522a5b-c40d-4827-a7ea-0a42ff170ee0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kinderling.com.au/news/believe-it-or-not-all-boys-used-to-wear-dresses-and-no-one-cared	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00441.warc.gz	en	0.984367	1,097	3.296875	3	[ 0.006571310572326183, 0.1779070943593979, 0.24321474134922028, -0.280436635017395, 0.0302992295473814, 0.32639941573143005, -0.27647387981414795, 0.11637912690639496, -0.4423230290412903, -0.45004791021347046, 0.30802249908447266, 0.3283484876155853, 0.2504335343837738, 0.3733748197555542,...	1	Despite the fuss some people make about boys wearing ‘boys clothes’ and girls wearing ‘girls clothes’, back in the day it was all one and the same. Up until the early 20th century little boys work dresses and gowns well into their first few years of life. Back in the day, all boys wore dresses In Western European countries, boys would be dressed like this until anything from two to eight years old, with some boys documented wearing dresses into the late teens. “Boys’ dresses were often made in brighter or darker colours and in plainer or stronger fabrics and might have had chunky belts and trimmings and large metallic buttons, none of which were typical of girls’ dresses,” the V&A Museum of Childhood explains. “Boys’ dresses were more tailored in appearance, and often had features associated only with clothing for boys, such as the opening down the front of the skirt, fashionable in the 1810s and 1820s. Why did boys wear frocks? It’s thought that all young children – boys and girls – wore dresses to make nappy changing and toilet training easier. Some toddler gowns also had practical features, with fabric or ribbon ties sewn to them, as a kind of ‘lead’ to keep them close and support them as they learnt to walk. Dresses were economical and practical and had plenty of room for growing children (which pants did not!). Listen to Kinderling Conversation: Eventually, more practical child-friendly clothing started to be adopted (for example, garments like rompers that kids could climb and lark about it in). Then, once boys were old enough to do up the fastenings on pants – or old enough to be sent to work – they were allowed to wear pants instead. The official wearing of the pants A little boy’s move from these dresses to pants was called ‘breeching’ and it marked a transition out of babyhood and his mother’s exclusive care, and more involvement from his dad. When a boy was breeched, he often got his first Big Boy haircut, and was sometimes given a toy sword, to mark this big shift in his life. Boys were popped into dresses just like girls up until the late 18th century. Then, some little boys began to be dressed in pants or tight ‘skeleton suits’ (above). However, in the early 19th century boys were back to frocks again, this time as well as the long frocks of earlier years, they also wore shorter ones with matching bloomers. A nod to gentler days, practicality and play, perhaps?! Return of the gown It seems that pants on little boys were also a real barometer of how children were viewed and treated at the time. While children were originally seen as fragile mini-adults and rushed from babyhood straight to adulthood (pants for boys!), with kindness often left wanting, in the early 19th century children began to be seen as evolving little beings. Childrearing methods were being reformed slowly but surely, and kids were parented a little kindlier. The dresses now became a symbol of innocence and childhood, with young boys and girls dressed similarly to denote that they were all precious little people. The years rolled on and from the mid-19th to the early 20th century, little boys again began to be uniformly dressed in shorts – which allowed for play and growth and were cheaper than full-length pants – or knickerbockers. The boys in frocks things began to be phased out, perhaps as new ideas about boys and masculinity began to be phased in. By around the 1940s boys were generally only seen in frocks when they were being christened. So why did men wear trousers in the first place? One theory is that pants were seen as menswear, primarily because they were thought to be more practical when horse riding. And originally riding was a wartime pursuit, primarily practised by males. Thus, men wore the pants. And then little boys wore the pants. Well, eventually. After they wore the frocks and the bloomers. #BringItBack This post originally appeared on Babyology. 6 parenting trends that have a hilariously horrifying history They say it takes a village to raise a child. In the past, that village had some really strange ideas about child rearing. How to win the clothes argument with a toddler Dealing with opinions, especially in the wardrobe department. Should you circumcise your baby boy? It's a personal choice for consideration. 7 fun and easy DIY rainbow toddler activities Simple rainbow activities for toddlers you can make and do at home. Xmas Book Competition Win 9 fantastic festive books! 10 fun and festive Christmas crafts perfect for preschoolers Get your Christmas craft on with these fun activities for little kids. Which of these 8 crazy baby hairstyles is your bub rocking? There are 8 crazy baby hairstyles out there, which one is your poppet rocking? ALDI are selling all your fave retro toys from the '80s and '90s! Praise be because ALDI are about to sell all your favourite childhood toys!	1,064	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1368 words) Throughout history, the tragic hero has virtually not changed at all. The play, Antigone, written by the Greek playwright Sophocles and the book Whale Rider, written by Witi Ihimaera, has extremely comparable characters. Regardless of being written thousands of years apart, both story lines are very similar in relation to the tragic heroes. Antigone is the story of a woman who is trying to bury her brother’s body, despite the king, Creon’s, ruling against. The play tells of Antigone and Creon’s struggle against each other leading to Antigone’s eventual death. Whale Rider portrays the story of a young Maori girl who is trying to become the leader of her tribe. The young girl, Paikea (Pai), is persistently blocked by Koro. Creon and Koro, the two tragic heroes are comparable in their lack of equality towards women, their similar tragic flaw of too much hubris and their elitist views directed toward people around them. Creon and Koro both share a lack of respect towards woman. Creon continually exhibits his contempt towards women in Antigone. When Creon is talking to his son, Haimon, regarding Antigone’s death, he condemns him by saying that, “Your pleasure with her would soon grow cold, Haimon, and then you’d have a hellcat in bed and elsewhere” (716). Creon believes that because Antigone is a woman, she can be easily replaced. Creon makes it known that he does not think Antigone is important at all and neglects to acknowledge that Haimon might have any affection or love for Antigone, which is why he thinks that he can always replace her. Koro too has the identical sexist reaction towards women such as Pai right from when she was born. Koro refuses to even hold Pai because she is a girl, and because she is a girl she cannot become a leader. Throughout the film, Koro has hatred that is clearly directed towards Pai. Koro thinks that because Pai is a girl, she is not strong enough to be a leader, or to do anything practical. When Koro tests the male students at his school and none of the boys succeed in finding the whale tooth and Pai does, Koro chooses to overlook the fact that the gods choose Pai as the next Maori leader. Koro clearly has a harsh sexist attitude that remains until Pai almost drowns, when she is actually trying to save the whales to show Koro she is the leader and is strong. Although Koro and Creon exhibit these anti-female outlooks from the start their stories, the conclusions of each are different. While Creon’s sexist attitude remains until the end of the story, Koro changes in the end of Whale Rider. Koro identifies where he was wrong and corrects himself, while Creon thinks of himself as higher than women until the end of the story and does not change his sexist attitude. Creon and Koro both have hubris and have way too much pride for their own good. In Antigone, Creon is going to be Antigone’s father in law because of Antigone and Haimon’s love for each other, but regardless of their family relation, Creon shows no compassion or sympathy. When Creon realizes that the person who buried Polyneices is Antigone, he condemns her to death. Creon commands Antigone’s death despite the fact that he does not want to because of their close relationship, all because of his pride. If Creon were to release Antigone it would make him look weak and Creon could not have that reputation. This displays how Creon would rather his title be strong than the existence of a family member. When the Choragos attempts to tell Creon to free Antigone, he admits that it is difficult to overcome his pride. Creon tells him that “it is hard to give in! But it is worse to risk everything for stubborn pride” (731). Creon thinks what he has been doing throughout the story is right and he does not see his mistakes, which lead to his decline at the end of the story. Koro is closely related to Creon in the sense that he is also incapable of conquering his own arrogance. Throughout the movie, Whale Rider, Pai persistently strives to show her grandfather her strength and even goes as far as trying to join the school Koro establishes because she wants to learn the proper way to be the leader of the Maori culture. Koro continuously neglects Pai and denotes her every move because he believes that only a male can be the leader, he cannot put his pride aside to let a new leader emerge. Koro teaches the boys at his school to use a taiaha which is generally something only boys do, however Pai secretly follows Koro’s lessons and learns from her taiaha winning champion uncle how to use the taiaha and ends up beating Hemi, one of Koro’s male students. Koro is furious when he finds out, which only leads to a worse relationship between Koro and Pai, which is not the result Pai was looking for. This shows how his hubris is interfering with an obvious calling for a new leader. When Koro believes that he has failed at finding a new leader, he refuses to let Pai be the leader because he has pushed her away so much. When the whales beach themselves, Pai rides the whales back into the water and saves them. By doing this, Koro realizes and is now aware that Pai, who was the one person he did not allow to try and achieve his power, was the one person destined to be the leader. His pride keeps him from selecting the leader the Maori culture needs, but Koro learns his mistakes at the end of the story, whereas Creon does not get a second chance to redeem himself. Creon and Koro have very comparable views on higher powers and neither of the men listens to higher powers nearly as much as they should. Creon disregards the gods’ intimations throughout the play up until his own life is at risk. When Antigone takes matters into her own hands and buries Polyneices, Creon’s opinion is that the gods agree with him about not burying Polyneices and whoever disobeys him should be punished. When the Choragos questions him if the gods may be responsible for the burial of Polyneices, he responds, “’The gods!’ Intolerable!” (703). Creon is enraged that someone has the nerve to inquire that the gods may be against him. Creon intentions are not to please the gods, but have people believe that the gods are on his side, therefore allowing Creon control over his people. Koro is very similar to Creon as he does not ask for help from his ancestors until he is in trouble. Koro’s search throughout the movie is to find a new leader for the Maori culture, however he only uses the ancestors for help when the whales beach themselves and does not ask the gods earlier on because he wants to be the one to handpick his own leader. Koro only eventually called out for the gods after he has been unsuccessful at finding a new leader. Ironically, at Koro’s school, he preaches to the boys to put their trust in their ancestors; however he does not trust in the gods as much as he stresses to the boys because he does not ask for the gods power when he fails at finding a new leader and predictably spends days mourning in his own wrong doings. Both Creon and Koro lack much faith in their higher powers and are hypocritical in the way that they preach to others to believe in their higher powers, but do not do so themselves. Both Creon and Koro exemplify sexist attitudes throughout the Greek tragedy and film, along with their lack of humbleness and their personality that reflects on them thinking they have a higher rank than everyone. The tragic heroes in “Antigone” and Whale Rider, Creon and Koro, are very similar. Their closeness shows that the tragic hero has not changed in the past three thousand years. The stories both have women trying to persevere in a world where they have less rights, and strong leaders trying to suppress them. Cite this page Creon and Koro in the play Antigone by Sophocles. (2016, Mar 19). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/creon-and-koro-in-the-play-antigone-by-sophocles-essay	<urn:uuid:f85952bc-f9b0-443a-b65c-4a8334717d43>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/creon-and-koro-in-the-play-antigone-by-sophocles-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00091.warc.gz	en	0.982324	1,828	3.296875	3	[ -0.35299426317214966, 0.3678465187549591, -0.047554630786180496, -0.03077094256877899, -0.583063006401062, 0.21050488948822021, 0.34407198429107666, 0.4217410683631897, -0.0642361044883728, 0.2146216481924057, -0.08120168745517731, -0.21304863691329956, 0.37472856044769287, 0.4636753201484...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 6 (1368 words) Throughout history, the tragic hero has virtually not changed at all. The play, Antigone, written by the Greek playwright Sophocles and the book Whale Rider, written by Witi Ihimaera, has extremely comparable characters. Regardless of being written thousands of years apart, both story lines are very similar in relation to the tragic heroes. Antigone is the story of a woman who is trying to bury her brother’s body, despite the king, Creon’s, ruling against. The play tells of Antigone and Creon’s struggle against each other leading to Antigone’s eventual death. Whale Rider portrays the story of a young Maori girl who is trying to become the leader of her tribe. The young girl, Paikea (Pai), is persistently blocked by Koro. Creon and Koro, the two tragic heroes are comparable in their lack of equality towards women, their similar tragic flaw of too much hubris and their elitist views directed toward people around them. Creon and Koro both share a lack of respect towards woman. Creon continually exhibits his contempt towards women in Antigone. When Creon is talking to his son, Haimon, regarding Antigone’s death, he condemns him by saying that, “Your pleasure with her would soon grow cold, Haimon, and then you’d have a hellcat in bed and elsewhere” (716). Creon believes that because Antigone is a woman, she can be easily replaced. Creon makes it known that he does not think Antigone is important at all and neglects to acknowledge that Haimon might have any affection or love for Antigone, which is why he thinks that he can always replace her. Koro too has the identical sexist reaction towards women such as Pai right from when she was born. Koro refuses to even hold Pai because she is a girl, and because she is a girl she cannot become a leader. Throughout the film, Koro has hatred that is clearly directed towards Pai. Koro thinks that because Pai is a girl, she is not strong enough to be a leader, or to do anything practical. When Koro tests the male students at his school and none of the boys succeed in finding the whale tooth and Pai does, Koro chooses to overlook the fact that the gods choose Pai as the next Maori leader. Koro clearly has a harsh sexist attitude that remains until Pai almost drowns, when she is actually trying to save the whales to show Koro she is the leader and is strong. Although Koro and Creon exhibit these anti-female outlooks from the start their stories, the conclusions of each are different. While Creon’s sexist attitude remains until the end of the story, Koro changes in the end of Whale Rider. Koro identifies where he was wrong and corrects himself, while Creon thinks of himself as higher than women until the end of the story and does not change his sexist attitude. Creon and Koro both have hubris and have way too much pride for their own good. In Antigone, Creon is going to be Antigone’s father in law because of Antigone and Haimon’s love for each other, but regardless of their family relation, Creon shows no compassion or sympathy. When Creon realizes that the person who buried Polyneices is Antigone, he condemns her to death. Creon commands Antigone’s death despite the fact that he does not want to because of their close relationship, all because of his pride. If Creon were to release Antigone it would make him look weak and Creon could not have that reputation. This displays how Creon would rather his title be strong than the existence of a family member. When the Choragos attempts to tell Creon to free Antigone, he admits that it is difficult to overcome his pride. Creon tells him that “it is hard to give in! But it is worse to risk everything for stubborn pride” (731). Creon thinks what he has been doing throughout the story is right and he does not see his mistakes, which lead to his decline at the end of the story. Koro is closely related to Creon in the sense that he is also incapable of conquering his own arrogance. Throughout the movie, Whale Rider, Pai persistently strives to show her grandfather her strength and even goes as far as trying to join the school Koro establishes because she wants to learn the proper way to be the leader of the Maori culture. Koro continuously neglects Pai and denotes her every move because he believes that only a male can be the leader, he cannot put his pride aside to let a new leader emerge. Koro teaches the boys at his school to use a taiaha which is generally something only boys do, however Pai secretly follows Koro’s lessons and learns from her taiaha winning champion uncle how to use the taiaha and ends up beating Hemi, one of Koro’s male students. Koro is furious when he finds out, which only leads to a worse relationship between Koro and Pai, which is not the result Pai was looking for. This shows how his hubris is interfering with an obvious calling for a new leader. When Koro believes that he has failed at finding a new leader, he refuses to let Pai be the leader because he has pushed her away so much. When the whales beach themselves, Pai rides the whales back into the water and saves them. By doing this, Koro realizes and is now aware that Pai, who was the one person he did not allow to try and achieve his power, was the one person destined to be the leader. His pride keeps him from selecting the leader the Maori culture needs, but Koro learns his mistakes at the end of the story, whereas Creon does not get a second chance to redeem himself. Creon and Koro have very comparable views on higher powers and neither of the men listens to higher powers nearly as much as they should. Creon disregards the gods’ intimations throughout the play up until his own life is at risk. When Antigone takes matters into her own hands and buries Polyneices, Creon’s opinion is that the gods agree with him about not burying Polyneices and whoever disobeys him should be punished. When the Choragos questions him if the gods may be responsible for the burial of Polyneices, he responds, “’The gods!’ Intolerable!” (703). Creon is enraged that someone has the nerve to inquire that the gods may be against him. Creon intentions are not to please the gods, but have people believe that the gods are on his side, therefore allowing Creon control over his people. Koro is very similar to Creon as he does not ask for help from his ancestors until he is in trouble. Koro’s search throughout the movie is to find a new leader for the Maori culture, however he only uses the ancestors for help when the whales beach themselves and does not ask the gods earlier on because he wants to be the one to handpick his own leader. Koro only eventually called out for the gods after he has been unsuccessful at finding a new leader. Ironically, at Koro’s school, he preaches to the boys to put their trust in their ancestors; however he does not trust in the gods as much as he stresses to the boys because he does not ask for the gods power when he fails at finding a new leader and predictably spends days mourning in his own wrong doings. Both Creon and Koro lack much faith in their higher powers and are hypocritical in the way that they preach to others to believe in their higher powers, but do not do so themselves. Both Creon and Koro exemplify sexist attitudes throughout the Greek tragedy and film, along with their lack of humbleness and their personality that reflects on them thinking they have a higher rank than everyone. The tragic heroes in “Antigone” and Whale Rider, Creon and Koro, are very similar. Their closeness shows that the tragic hero has not changed in the past three thousand years. The stories both have women trying to persevere in a world where they have less rights, and strong leaders trying to suppress them. Cite this page Creon and Koro in the play Antigone by Sophocles. (2016, Mar 19). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/creon-and-koro-in-the-play-antigone-by-sophocles-essay	1,784	ENGLISH	1
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, also called Tacitus, was born in 55 CE, most likely in Gaul. His other name may have been Gaius. Tacitus is called a king of Roman historians. He was learning rhetoric from Quintilianus. In 75 CE, he started his public activity as a legal defence. Then he became a questor, which allowed him to sit in the Senate. In 77 CE, he married a daughter of a consul Agricola, who conquered Britain and became its intendant. In the first years of Domitian rule, he was honored a position of tribune of the people, or, as other sources suggest, became an aedile. In 88 CE, he became a praetor and his career speeded up. In 97 CE, he became a proconsul, and in 112 became a ruler of the province of Asia. He was the first of his house to become so high official in the state (homo novus). As a historian, he probably had an unlimited access to the state archives, thanks to which, his books teem with facts and excellent chronology. The author tried to be objective, writing without any bias and relying on credible sources. His works are related to the period from 14 to 70 CE and are mainly dedicated to Roman legions of the 1st century CE partaking in wars, campaigns and battles of that times. Tacitus names commanders, officers, and also legionaries. In his works, he virtually made no mistakes whatsoever. Nowadays, his works are the main source of knowledge of the legions, military science and history of Rome. His “Annals”, “Histories”, “The Life of Agricola”, and “Germania” are virtually the repositories of knowledge and information about Roman Empire in the first century CE. He died in 120 CE.	<urn:uuid:bd8aa5f9-bce3-473a-9896-8e7adf4aa560>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.imperiumromanum.edu.pl/en/biographies-of-romans/publius-cornelius-tacitus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00476.warc.gz	en	0.989465	392	3.34375	3	[ -0.14837391674518585, 0.6710681915283203, 0.4623558819293976, -0.11750409752130508, -0.5981161594390869, -0.3451929986476898, 0.3213302493095398, 0.3041854500770569, -0.08694997429847717, 0.0006140526966191828, -0.19735480844974518, -0.668422281742096, -0.16482222080230713, 0.5265562534332...	12	Publius Cornelius Tacitus, also called Tacitus, was born in 55 CE, most likely in Gaul. His other name may have been Gaius. Tacitus is called a king of Roman historians. He was learning rhetoric from Quintilianus. In 75 CE, he started his public activity as a legal defence. Then he became a questor, which allowed him to sit in the Senate. In 77 CE, he married a daughter of a consul Agricola, who conquered Britain and became its intendant. In the first years of Domitian rule, he was honored a position of tribune of the people, or, as other sources suggest, became an aedile. In 88 CE, he became a praetor and his career speeded up. In 97 CE, he became a proconsul, and in 112 became a ruler of the province of Asia. He was the first of his house to become so high official in the state (homo novus). As a historian, he probably had an unlimited access to the state archives, thanks to which, his books teem with facts and excellent chronology. The author tried to be objective, writing without any bias and relying on credible sources. His works are related to the period from 14 to 70 CE and are mainly dedicated to Roman legions of the 1st century CE partaking in wars, campaigns and battles of that times. Tacitus names commanders, officers, and also legionaries. In his works, he virtually made no mistakes whatsoever. Nowadays, his works are the main source of knowledge of the legions, military science and history of Rome. His “Annals”, “Histories”, “The Life of Agricola”, and “Germania” are virtually the repositories of knowledge and information about Roman Empire in the first century CE. He died in 120 CE.	398	ENGLISH	1
London brighton railway The London and Brighton Railway (L& BR) was a railway company in England which was incorporated in 1837 and survived until 1846. Its railway runs from a junction with the London& Croydon Railway (L& CR) at Norwood which gives it access from London Bridge, just south of the River Thames in central London.20 December 2018. Introduction. The UK's London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (known as the LB& SCR or Brighton Line) was formed on 27th July 1846 by the amalgamation of the London& Brighton Railway and the London& Croydon Railway. At its peak the railway formed a triangle with its base along the south coast from Portsmouth to Hastings and its apex in London. london brighton railway It extended the London and Croydon Railway to Brighton. It later merged with that line to form the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. The line was joined by the South Eastern Railway at Redhill and was forced by government to sell a portion of its line (Redhill to Coulsdon) to that company.	<urn:uuid:33c9d398-9a37-47dd-a6dd-926e899b53ab>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ogpenneu.gq/459128-london-brighton-railway.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00228.warc.gz	en	0.981053	224	3.34375	3	[ 0.03347202390432358, -0.33573514223098755, 0.49371981620788574, -0.19078034162521362, -0.13964419066905975, 0.009874515235424042, -0.3559308648109436, -0.14323247969150543, -0.0791577622294426, -0.42497020959854126, 0.17246529459953308, -0.6008893847465515, 0.16542783379554749, 0.105493873...	1	London brighton railway The London and Brighton Railway (L& BR) was a railway company in England which was incorporated in 1837 and survived until 1846. Its railway runs from a junction with the London& Croydon Railway (L& CR) at Norwood which gives it access from London Bridge, just south of the River Thames in central London.20 December 2018. Introduction. The UK's London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (known as the LB& SCR or Brighton Line) was formed on 27th July 1846 by the amalgamation of the London& Brighton Railway and the London& Croydon Railway. At its peak the railway formed a triangle with its base along the south coast from Portsmouth to Hastings and its apex in London. london brighton railway It extended the London and Croydon Railway to Brighton. It later merged with that line to form the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. The line was joined by the South Eastern Railway at Redhill and was forced by government to sell a portion of its line (Redhill to Coulsdon) to that company.	238	ENGLISH	1
Printed document of various sizes and formats. Like the manifest, the Freight List has printed columns for the names of shippers and consignees, packages, and their marks and contents. Unlike the manifest, however, a Freight List records the rate at which the transported cargo will be charged, the cost levied for freight and primage, and the final sum due from either the shipper or the consignee. It is a private business documents and was not certified or signed by any public official. “Freight List” usually appears in bold print, and the name of the agent executing the document is often present. The terms “freight” and “cargo” are often misunderstood. Freight is the sum paid by a shipper who hires a vessel to transport his goods, and cargo, while Freight Lists provide a record of the charges assessed for the shipment of cargo. Three kinds of charges were assessed: general charges, freight, and primage. General charges were assessed for any unusual expenses that had been occurred in transporting the cargo. Freight was a charge generally levied on the principle that the merchant was paying for the use of the ship (or part of a ship) for a specific time. Although it was usually assessed by the weight or volume of his cargo, it was possible for shippers to owe freight money simply because they had reserved the use of part of the vessel, regardless of whether they had actually filled it. Primage, the third charge, was for the care of the goods during transport, typically assessed at 5 to 15 percent of the freight. Originally it was a gratuity for the cabin, but by the mid-nineteenth century it was paid to owners. These three charges were collected together, form either the shipper or consignee. The responsible party was designated in the Charter Party or the Bill of Lading. Consequently the Freight List was essentially a business document between the shipper, the consignee, and the vessel transporting the cargo. This Freight List for an 1857 voyage from New Orleans to Glasgow lists the shippers and consignees and the charges assessed for the transportation of their goods. Printed on the form is the name of the agent whose business it was to bring cargoes and available vessels together.	<urn:uuid:d82ed3b1-6d02-45b9-af7e-d9401a7a5d7f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://research.mysticseaport.org/item/l006405/l006405-c022/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00235.warc.gz	en	0.984148	470	3.4375	3	[ 0.004858167842030525, -0.2106095403432846, 0.25579801201820374, -0.248665452003479, 0.4741407632827759, -0.3859913945198059, 0.2667102515697479, 0.2516166567802429, -0.04545290768146515, -0.12753720581531525, 0.240764781832695, 0.07212936133146286, -0.20677851140499115, 0.16714957356452942...	4	Printed document of various sizes and formats. Like the manifest, the Freight List has printed columns for the names of shippers and consignees, packages, and their marks and contents. Unlike the manifest, however, a Freight List records the rate at which the transported cargo will be charged, the cost levied for freight and primage, and the final sum due from either the shipper or the consignee. It is a private business documents and was not certified or signed by any public official. “Freight List” usually appears in bold print, and the name of the agent executing the document is often present. The terms “freight” and “cargo” are often misunderstood. Freight is the sum paid by a shipper who hires a vessel to transport his goods, and cargo, while Freight Lists provide a record of the charges assessed for the shipment of cargo. Three kinds of charges were assessed: general charges, freight, and primage. General charges were assessed for any unusual expenses that had been occurred in transporting the cargo. Freight was a charge generally levied on the principle that the merchant was paying for the use of the ship (or part of a ship) for a specific time. Although it was usually assessed by the weight or volume of his cargo, it was possible for shippers to owe freight money simply because they had reserved the use of part of the vessel, regardless of whether they had actually filled it. Primage, the third charge, was for the care of the goods during transport, typically assessed at 5 to 15 percent of the freight. Originally it was a gratuity for the cabin, but by the mid-nineteenth century it was paid to owners. These three charges were collected together, form either the shipper or consignee. The responsible party was designated in the Charter Party or the Bill of Lading. Consequently the Freight List was essentially a business document between the shipper, the consignee, and the vessel transporting the cargo. This Freight List for an 1857 voyage from New Orleans to Glasgow lists the shippers and consignees and the charges assessed for the transportation of their goods. Printed on the form is the name of the agent whose business it was to bring cargoes and available vessels together.	462	ENGLISH	1
Hamlet is categorized as one of Shakespeare's tragedies. Hamlet the Prince of Denmark is a complicated character that must deal with many issues in the play. The play is set in Denmark in the 16th century. Hamlet's late father the King of Denmark had mysteriously died in his court yard of the Elsinore Castle, now Claudius the kings brother has taken over the throne as King, and has married Hamlet's mother Gertrude. Horatio a friend of Hamlet tells Hamlet that he is afraid because he thinks he has seen a ghost who resembles the late King. . King Claudius and his lord Chamberlain Polonius are dealing with royal affairs because he is now in power and is enjoying his new life. Laertes, the son of Polonius has returned home to Denmark to pay his respects and to celebrate the King's newly appointed position. Hamlet wants to return to college, but Claudius urges him not to go and tells him to stop morning for his father. Hamlet resents his stepfather and mother and their incestuous marriage. Horatio tells the prince about the ghost he has seen, but Hamlet says he won't believe it until he sees it himself. . After Hamlet's strange visit with Ophelia, who is Laertes daughter she tells her father that Hamlet is in love with her, because she is scared of his strange behavior. Polonius and Laertes warn her about the prince who seems to be mentally unbalanced. . The Ghost of Hamlet's father appears in front of Hamlet. The ghost is in fact Hamlet's late father. The ghost tells Hamlet that Claudius poured poison into his ear, which killed him while he was asleep. The Ghost tells Hamlet that revenge is needed, but that it's important that he stays conscious of his actions. Hamlet is told not to harm the Queen, because she had nothing to do with it. Hamlet swears his friends Horatio and Marcellus to secrecy about the ghost and what they've seen. He tells them that he's going to pretend to be crazy while he plans his revenge towards Claudius.	<urn:uuid:a6a8514f-605c-474e-8d60-dcc94fd1bf24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/57006.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00464.warc.gz	en	0.990473	443	3.578125	4	[ 0.2691766321659088, 0.2415359616279602, 0.35564348101615906, -0.3289300203323364, -0.19319748878479004, -0.054477714002132416, 0.62312251329422, 0.20320801436901093, -0.09854260087013245, -0.19252672791481018, 0.3206619620323181, -0.38320988416671753, -0.12265604734420776, 0.23778474330902...	7	Hamlet is categorized as one of Shakespeare's tragedies. Hamlet the Prince of Denmark is a complicated character that must deal with many issues in the play. The play is set in Denmark in the 16th century. Hamlet's late father the King of Denmark had mysteriously died in his court yard of the Elsinore Castle, now Claudius the kings brother has taken over the throne as King, and has married Hamlet's mother Gertrude. Horatio a friend of Hamlet tells Hamlet that he is afraid because he thinks he has seen a ghost who resembles the late King. . King Claudius and his lord Chamberlain Polonius are dealing with royal affairs because he is now in power and is enjoying his new life. Laertes, the son of Polonius has returned home to Denmark to pay his respects and to celebrate the King's newly appointed position. Hamlet wants to return to college, but Claudius urges him not to go and tells him to stop morning for his father. Hamlet resents his stepfather and mother and their incestuous marriage. Horatio tells the prince about the ghost he has seen, but Hamlet says he won't believe it until he sees it himself. . After Hamlet's strange visit with Ophelia, who is Laertes daughter she tells her father that Hamlet is in love with her, because she is scared of his strange behavior. Polonius and Laertes warn her about the prince who seems to be mentally unbalanced. . The Ghost of Hamlet's father appears in front of Hamlet. The ghost is in fact Hamlet's late father. The ghost tells Hamlet that Claudius poured poison into his ear, which killed him while he was asleep. The Ghost tells Hamlet that revenge is needed, but that it's important that he stays conscious of his actions. Hamlet is told not to harm the Queen, because she had nothing to do with it. Hamlet swears his friends Horatio and Marcellus to secrecy about the ghost and what they've seen. He tells them that he's going to pretend to be crazy while he plans his revenge towards Claudius.	443	ENGLISH	1
Pay only for approved parts History Research Paper: Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. Woman is the mother of mankind. However, despite holding such an important and unquestionable position in the society, the status and role of women have been outlined by men over millennia. Vedas clearly suggest to us that women held a significant place in ancient culture. Despite all this, women were still treated like slaves back in the 17th century. Women were looked down upon and treated with less dignity. A situation that has greatly changed today. Today, women have acquired equal heights with men. Men and women are competing in same platforms. Political offices and economic space are contested by both men and women Barton Women in the 17th century were greatly challenged with expressing themselves in a patriarchal system that had basically refused to grant merit to their views. Women could not express themselves to address the conditions they were going through. The social structure of this period allowed women very limited opportunities for involvement; most if not all, served as managers of their households. They were also responsible for curing bacon, making pickles jellies and preserves. They were expected to put their efforts into practical domestic pursuits as well as activities that inspired the betterment of their families, and particularly their husbands. Women were kept very busy. She also kept bees and on top of it took goods to the market if especially if she was from the countryside. In big households, they took care of food and organized the servants and how they worked Barton Apart from being involved in the domestic activities, some women in this period also had a considerable education; especially the upper-class women. The upper-class women were greatly educated. However, even though they went to good schools, they studied some certain disciplines. There were disciplines that were definite for women. They learnt needlework, music, and dancing. They also learnt language skills and communication skills. Studies detail that they studied these kinds of courses so that they could not get derailed from their major chores. Even the courses they learnt were of much significance in their household duties. Some such as dancing were relevant when they had to entertain in different occasions. Therefore, though these women had access to education, the aim of their education was to ensure that they articulately and effectively attain their womanhood. A proper education for women in this period was viewed as that which gave much support to the domestic and social involvements but disregarded more of the academic pursuit Walsh Despite being limited to household activities, women continued to play very important but not acknowledged part in economic and political structures through their domestic roles. Some historic studies in women history suggest that this marked the beginning of change in women status. They add that this was unseen to many people. Women participated in politics and economic affairs through their domestic roles. They acted as counselors in their homes. This was not clearly seen because they were able to participate in politics and economic issues through their roles in the family and community. Therefore, through this, they were able to influence the political system. Women found diverse ways of contributing to the society outside of the home. On the other hand, women from the noble class served as catalysts as well as donors in the maintenance of charitable hospices that ensured the welfare of many unfortunate individuals. This still dictates the role and status of woman during the 17th century period Barton Political systems also perceived women as second-class citizens. They were subject to their fathers from birth. On growing up, they were later handed over like chattel to their husbands. This was mutual across all the classes. They had to be submissive. It is for this reason that divorces were rare during this period.The representation of women in early 18th century England - Claudia Wipprecht - Term Paper - English Language and Literature Studies - Literature - Publish your bachelor's or master's thesis, dissertation, term paper or essay. A review of women’s status was first attempted in Britain and the US in the 18th century. Read our history research paper and buy any kind of papers. In 17th century Euro-America Puritan society believed that men played a patriarchal role upon women, and that this role was instituted by God and nature. The seniority of men over women lay within both the household and the public sphere. The Role of Women in the 17th Century - In 17th century Euro-America Puritan society believed that men played a patriarchal role upon women, and that this role was instituted by God and nature. The seniority of men over women lay within both the household and the public sphere. Women In The 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries Essay - Women In The 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries In the 17th century rich women would normally be taught at home by a tutor, they were taught subjects like Latin, French, Needlework, and how to converse, and they were also taught how to look pretty and to play instruments like the piano. Men utilized wealthy widows as a sort of stepping stone to gain status in the social system. For example, William Kendall, a former indentured servant, married his .	<urn:uuid:9d2505ab-5625-468b-a26d-345e47124201>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zekadaa.ashio-midori.com/women-status-in-the-17th-century-essay-17721yp.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00260.warc.gz	en	0.990961	1,073	3.46875	3	[ 0.019620919600129128, 0.40215426683425903, 0.10357490181922913, -0.03163694590330124, -0.0914248675107956, 0.2706146836280823, -0.19949641823768616, 0.12879088521003723, -0.17661257088184357, -0.16374920308589935, -0.08742113411426544, -0.2167205810546875, 0.056817710399627686, 0.223507538...	2	Pay only for approved parts History Research Paper: Get Full Essay Get access to this section to get all help you need with your essay and educational issues. Woman is the mother of mankind. However, despite holding such an important and unquestionable position in the society, the status and role of women have been outlined by men over millennia. Vedas clearly suggest to us that women held a significant place in ancient culture. Despite all this, women were still treated like slaves back in the 17th century. Women were looked down upon and treated with less dignity. A situation that has greatly changed today. Today, women have acquired equal heights with men. Men and women are competing in same platforms. Political offices and economic space are contested by both men and women Barton Women in the 17th century were greatly challenged with expressing themselves in a patriarchal system that had basically refused to grant merit to their views. Women could not express themselves to address the conditions they were going through. The social structure of this period allowed women very limited opportunities for involvement; most if not all, served as managers of their households. They were also responsible for curing bacon, making pickles jellies and preserves. They were expected to put their efforts into practical domestic pursuits as well as activities that inspired the betterment of their families, and particularly their husbands. Women were kept very busy. She also kept bees and on top of it took goods to the market if especially if she was from the countryside. In big households, they took care of food and organized the servants and how they worked Barton Apart from being involved in the domestic activities, some women in this period also had a considerable education; especially the upper-class women. The upper-class women were greatly educated. However, even though they went to good schools, they studied some certain disciplines. There were disciplines that were definite for women. They learnt needlework, music, and dancing. They also learnt language skills and communication skills. Studies detail that they studied these kinds of courses so that they could not get derailed from their major chores. Even the courses they learnt were of much significance in their household duties. Some such as dancing were relevant when they had to entertain in different occasions. Therefore, though these women had access to education, the aim of their education was to ensure that they articulately and effectively attain their womanhood. A proper education for women in this period was viewed as that which gave much support to the domestic and social involvements but disregarded more of the academic pursuit Walsh Despite being limited to household activities, women continued to play very important but not acknowledged part in economic and political structures through their domestic roles. Some historic studies in women history suggest that this marked the beginning of change in women status. They add that this was unseen to many people. Women participated in politics and economic affairs through their domestic roles. They acted as counselors in their homes. This was not clearly seen because they were able to participate in politics and economic issues through their roles in the family and community. Therefore, through this, they were able to influence the political system. Women found diverse ways of contributing to the society outside of the home. On the other hand, women from the noble class served as catalysts as well as donors in the maintenance of charitable hospices that ensured the welfare of many unfortunate individuals. This still dictates the role and status of woman during the 17th century period Barton Political systems also perceived women as second-class citizens. They were subject to their fathers from birth. On growing up, they were later handed over like chattel to their husbands. This was mutual across all the classes. They had to be submissive. It is for this reason that divorces were rare during this period.The representation of women in early 18th century England - Claudia Wipprecht - Term Paper - English Language and Literature Studies - Literature - Publish your bachelor's or master's thesis, dissertation, term paper or essay. A review of women’s status was first attempted in Britain and the US in the 18th century. Read our history research paper and buy any kind of papers. In 17th century Euro-America Puritan society believed that men played a patriarchal role upon women, and that this role was instituted by God and nature. The seniority of men over women lay within both the household and the public sphere. The Role of Women in the 17th Century - In 17th century Euro-America Puritan society believed that men played a patriarchal role upon women, and that this role was instituted by God and nature. The seniority of men over women lay within both the household and the public sphere. Women In The 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries Essay - Women In The 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries In the 17th century rich women would normally be taught at home by a tutor, they were taught subjects like Latin, French, Needlework, and how to converse, and they were also taught how to look pretty and to play instruments like the piano. Men utilized wealthy widows as a sort of stepping stone to gain status in the social system. For example, William Kendall, a former indentured servant, married his .	1,073	ENGLISH	1
Traditional Maguindanao settlements were located mostly near the myriad waterways of their interior territory and along the extensive coast. This settlement pattern allowed relative ease of transportation and communication by boat. It also enabled the Maguindanao to dominate trade between the coast and the remote interior and mountain areas inhabited by various non-Muslim native peoples (e.g., Manobo, Tiruray, etc.). Several major trading centers were also seats of political power—even sultanates—such as the areas now known as Cotabato City, Datu Plang, and General Santos City. Other settlements along or near the waterways were controlled by datus (local chieftains) and numbered hundreds or even thousands of people. The traditional homes of the datus were large wooden structures designed as multifamily dwellings, often centered in a compound with other buildings housing relatives and followers. Scattered outlying villages were comprised of smaller dwellings of wood, bamboo, and nipa thatch, which also frequently housed extended families. Since the advent of American colonial rule, the traditional settlement pattern in Cotabato has been altered by the building of roads that do not follow the natural course of the waterways. Large towns have sprung up along the roads and highways, becoming new centers of commerce, while many of the older, wateroriented communities have become isolated and have languished.	<urn:uuid:661ca6a4-d350-4b4b-8310-e2f92f45ff3b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Maguindanao-Settlements.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00552.warc.gz	en	0.986237	274	4.25	4	[ 0.3331708610057831, 0.03963426500558853, 0.24848626554012299, -0.3923399746417999, 0.16741131246089935, -0.09700846672058105, 0.21899953484535217, -0.27121129631996155, -0.4668194055557251, -0.10529942810535431, -0.2862316370010376, -0.37201952934265137, -0.3614194691181183, 0.140381857752...	2	Traditional Maguindanao settlements were located mostly near the myriad waterways of their interior territory and along the extensive coast. This settlement pattern allowed relative ease of transportation and communication by boat. It also enabled the Maguindanao to dominate trade between the coast and the remote interior and mountain areas inhabited by various non-Muslim native peoples (e.g., Manobo, Tiruray, etc.). Several major trading centers were also seats of political power—even sultanates—such as the areas now known as Cotabato City, Datu Plang, and General Santos City. Other settlements along or near the waterways were controlled by datus (local chieftains) and numbered hundreds or even thousands of people. The traditional homes of the datus were large wooden structures designed as multifamily dwellings, often centered in a compound with other buildings housing relatives and followers. Scattered outlying villages were comprised of smaller dwellings of wood, bamboo, and nipa thatch, which also frequently housed extended families. Since the advent of American colonial rule, the traditional settlement pattern in Cotabato has been altered by the building of roads that do not follow the natural course of the waterways. Large towns have sprung up along the roads and highways, becoming new centers of commerce, while many of the older, wateroriented communities have become isolated and have languished.	276	ENGLISH	1
The Great Labour Revolt of 1919 Dr. Eric Sager In the spring of 1919 there was a general strike by workers in Winnipeg. Was it merely a strike, or was it a revolution? In that year there were strikes in many cities across Canada. These strikes may have been part of an international movement of protest and rebellion. In 1919 there were 3,600 strikes in the United States - more than ever before. In Britain there was a huge wave of strikes. In some countries, such as Germany, Hungary and Austria, there were revolutions or attempted revolutions. Governments often responded with armed force: in February, 1919, the city of Glasgow was under military occupation. On June 21, 1919 the centre of Winnipeg was controlled by the police and the militia. What was going on, and what caused these events?	<urn:uuid:1f93f6b2-4e0c-47a2-a14a-4fe3caf0013f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://continuingstudies.uvic.ca/humanities-and-social-sciences/courses/1919-on-the-edge-of-a-brave-new-world/the-great-labour-revolt-of-1919	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00007.warc.gz	en	0.990244	165	3.546875	4	[ -0.2586829662322998, 0.23631078004837036, 0.48270002007484436, 0.00006071805182727985, 0.20994322001934052, -0.12272148579359055, -0.04683776572346687, 0.21779608726501465, -0.5183123350143433, 0.3204939365386963, 0.06726326793432236, 0.07167961448431015, 0.0019536789041012526, 0.125117808...	2	The Great Labour Revolt of 1919 Dr. Eric Sager In the spring of 1919 there was a general strike by workers in Winnipeg. Was it merely a strike, or was it a revolution? In that year there were strikes in many cities across Canada. These strikes may have been part of an international movement of protest and rebellion. In 1919 there were 3,600 strikes in the United States - more than ever before. In Britain there was a huge wave of strikes. In some countries, such as Germany, Hungary and Austria, there were revolutions or attempted revolutions. Governments often responded with armed force: in February, 1919, the city of Glasgow was under military occupation. On June 21, 1919 the centre of Winnipeg was controlled by the police and the militia. What was going on, and what caused these events?	190	ENGLISH	1
In the late 1800's Cincinnatians loved Indians and Indians loved Cincinnati. Wild West shows at the end of the 19th century were big because the frontier had disappeared and people were enamored with all things Indian. So when a Wild West show in Bellevue, Kentucky closed up, and Cree Indians from Montana were stranded, the Cincinnati Zoo came to the rescue, as far as the Native Americans were concerned. The Indians signed contracts to work and live at the zoo in the summer of 1895. Zoo Director Thane Maynard looks back. "They were not at all an exhibit, like you would imagine zoo animals on exhibit. It was a cultural exhibit as much as we might bring drummers from a far away place to show culture." The shows were popular and the zoo made $25,000 in just three months. That led them to hire another group in 1896. The Sicangu Sioux from the Rosebud Reservation in South Dakota brought 89 people to live and perform here. The zoo had to first get approval from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Cincinnati Museum Center's curator of archeology Bob Genheimer says the Indians liked living in Cincinnati. It was such a contrast to their impoverished life on reservation where buffalo were almost extinct. He said in Cincinnati they lived an urban life, saw all the sights and went shopping. They may have even ridden the streetcar. More pics can be found on the website's slideshow.	<urn:uuid:3637ef54-4e65-411f-b7d1-709a3b511a99>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/2229/indians-came-live-cincinnati-zoo	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00292.warc.gz	en	0.98793	293	3.421875	3	[ 0.078125961124897, 0.2195938527584076, 0.41124364733695984, 0.41414955258369446, -0.22091075778007507, 0.20155732333660126, 0.079855777323246, 0.16197149455547333, -0.17157582938671112, -0.03808188810944557, 0.1523514837026596, -0.07425639033317566, 0.2930193245410919, 0.3407895863056183, ...	4	In the late 1800's Cincinnatians loved Indians and Indians loved Cincinnati. Wild West shows at the end of the 19th century were big because the frontier had disappeared and people were enamored with all things Indian. So when a Wild West show in Bellevue, Kentucky closed up, and Cree Indians from Montana were stranded, the Cincinnati Zoo came to the rescue, as far as the Native Americans were concerned. The Indians signed contracts to work and live at the zoo in the summer of 1895. Zoo Director Thane Maynard looks back. "They were not at all an exhibit, like you would imagine zoo animals on exhibit. It was a cultural exhibit as much as we might bring drummers from a far away place to show culture." The shows were popular and the zoo made $25,000 in just three months. That led them to hire another group in 1896. The Sicangu Sioux from the Rosebud Reservation in South Dakota brought 89 people to live and perform here. The zoo had to first get approval from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Cincinnati Museum Center's curator of archeology Bob Genheimer says the Indians liked living in Cincinnati. It was such a contrast to their impoverished life on reservation where buffalo were almost extinct. He said in Cincinnati they lived an urban life, saw all the sights and went shopping. They may have even ridden the streetcar. More pics can be found on the website's slideshow.	306	ENGLISH	1
6 MIN READ Improving Efficiency Through Faster Learning Think back to a time when you had to learn a new skill. Maybe you were put in charge of a new or different part of the production process. Or perhaps the computer system you'd become comfortable with was suddenly replaced. Remember how tough it all felt at the start? But a few months down the line, you were probably so confident that you wondered why you ever struggled in the first place! There's an explanation for this: you're benefiting from your journey on a "learning curve." When your performance improves with experience, and it takes less time and effort to complete a task after you've done it for a while, that's a learning curve in action. In this article, we'll explore how learning curves can help you and your organization to plan, support, and evaluate learning. Also, we'll examine how they can be used to help your people to learn faster, and to cope with change. The Origins of Learning Curves Learning curves were first described in research by aeronautical engineer T. P. Wright in 1936. He was studying how long it took to produce airplane parts. As workers gained experience, Wright saw that they were able to produce the parts faster. Efficiency improved – up to a point. Eventually, the speed of improvement slowed. When the time savings flattened out, the learning was "complete." Wright showed that this process could be illustrated on a graph, providing some valuable predictions about learning and its impact on business.	<urn:uuid:670f1fc8-6cb1-4e3f-83bb-f67dc1737e0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newISS_93.htm?utm_source=social&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=tweetchatblog	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00319.warc.gz	en	0.980956	310	3.53125	4	[ -0.2399481236934662, 0.003858853131532669, 0.36864376068115234, 0.28165921568870544, -0.10417874902486801, 0.3959709405899048, 0.028984706848859787, 0.2606314420700073, 0.2862781882286072, 0.006177728064358234, 0.3645297586917877, 0.00793556496500969, 0.020904840901494026, 0.12674210965633...	1	6 MIN READ Improving Efficiency Through Faster Learning Think back to a time when you had to learn a new skill. Maybe you were put in charge of a new or different part of the production process. Or perhaps the computer system you'd become comfortable with was suddenly replaced. Remember how tough it all felt at the start? But a few months down the line, you were probably so confident that you wondered why you ever struggled in the first place! There's an explanation for this: you're benefiting from your journey on a "learning curve." When your performance improves with experience, and it takes less time and effort to complete a task after you've done it for a while, that's a learning curve in action. In this article, we'll explore how learning curves can help you and your organization to plan, support, and evaluate learning. Also, we'll examine how they can be used to help your people to learn faster, and to cope with change. The Origins of Learning Curves Learning curves were first described in research by aeronautical engineer T. P. Wright in 1936. He was studying how long it took to produce airplane parts. As workers gained experience, Wright saw that they were able to produce the parts faster. Efficiency improved – up to a point. Eventually, the speed of improvement slowed. When the time savings flattened out, the learning was "complete." Wright showed that this process could be illustrated on a graph, providing some valuable predictions about learning and its impact on business.	308	ENGLISH	1
Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom The Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was the culmination in the 19th century of efforts over several hundred years to loosen the legal restrictions set in place on England's Jewish population. The nation's mercantile class had long recognised Jews as an economic asset, and they and their allies in Parliament sought and eventually won the passage of laws that placed male Jews in the United Kingdom on an equal legal footing with the kingdom's other emancipated males. Freedom for Catholics bodes well for JewsEdit When in 1829 the Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom were freed from all their civil disabilities, the hopes of the Jews rose high; and the first step toward a similar alleviation in their case was taken in 1830 when William Huskisson presented a petition signed by 2,000 merchants and others of Liverpool. This was immediately followed by a bill presented by Robert Grant on 15 April that year which was destined to engage the British legislature in one form or another for the next thirty years. Thomas Macaulay, later a well-known and influential historian, was elected to Parliament in 1830 and – among other issues he took up – distinguished himself by attacking the exclusion of Jews. At first the bill failed to get through the House of Commons. Against the opposition of Sir Robert Inglis, the first reading was passed by 115 to 97 votes. But the second reading, on 17 May, notwithstanding a sizable petition in its favour from 14,000 citizens of London, was rejected by 265 to 228 votes. The next year, 1833, however, it passed its third reading in the Commons on 22 July by a majority of 189 to 52, and was read for the first time in the Lords. On the second reading in the Lords on 1 August it was rejected by 104 to 54, with the Duke of Wellington speaking and voting against the Bill, though the Duke of Sussex, a constant friend to the Jews, presented a petition in its favour signed by 1,000 distinguished citizens of Westminster. The same thing happened in 1834, the bill being lost in the House of Lords by a majority of 92 votes. The whole force of the Tory Party and the personal antagonism of King William IV was against the bill. In the following year it was deemed inadvisable to make the annual appeal to Parliament, as the battle for religious liberty was going on in another part of the field[vague]; but by the passing of the Sheriffs' Declaration Act[dubious ] on 21 August 1835, Jews were allowed to hold the ancient and important office of sheriff. In the following year the Jew Bill was introduced late in the session, and succeeded in passing its first reading in the Lords on 19 August but was then dropped owing to the lateness of the session. Membership of parliamentEdit Sir Sampson Gideon, who had a Jewish father and Christian mother, was a baronet, member of parliament and Irish peer in the eighteenth century. Benjamin Disraeli, who was born Jewish and baptised aged 12 into the Church of England, was a member of parliament from 1837, served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1852, 1858–1859 and 1867–1868 Conservative governments. He went on to become, in 1868 and again in 1874, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876. His willingness to take Christian oaths meant there were no barriers to his political career; for Jews who had not converted to Christianity the oath remained the key obstacle. The oath of office included the words “and I make this Declaration upon the true Faith of a Christian”. For a time the advocates of Jewish emancipation seemed to have lost heart. The chief supporters of the bill, R. Grant in the Commons, and Lord Holland in the Lords, died within a few months of each other in 1840, and during the next four years the political activity of the English Jews was concentrated on the attempt to obtain admission to municipal office. A bill to that effect got as far as a first reading in the Lords by one vote, in 1841, but was lost on a second reading. It was not until 31 July 1845 that the bill was carried. On 18 August 1846, the Religious Opinions Relief Act removed some of minor disabilities that affected British Jews and dissenters from the Established Church; the only state office that still remained closed to Jews was Parliament. The success with which British Jews had induced Parliament to admit them to the shrievalty and to municipal offices had been because Jews had been actual candidates, and had been elected to those offices before any parliamentary relief was asked. It was now decided to adopt the same policy in regard to a seat in Parliament itself. A Jewish candidate, Lionel de Rothschild, was elected as one of the four members of Parliament for the City of London in 1847 but could not take his seat without taking an oath of office, and the bill that was introduced on 16 December that year was intended to carry out the wishes of a definite English constituency. This passed its third reading in the Commons on 4 May 1848, by a majority of 62 votes, but was rejected in the Lords by 163 non-contents to 128 contents. The same thing happened in 1849 when Lionel de Rothschild was again elected, but in the following year the struggle took on another and more dramatic form. David Salomons, who had successfully fought the battle for the shrievalty and the aldermanic chair, had been elected member for Greenwich and insisted on taking his seat, refusing to withdraw on being ordered to do so by the speaker, and adding to his offence by voting in the division on the motion for adjournment which was made to still the uproar caused by his bold course of action. The Prime minister, Lord John Russell, moved that Salomons be ordered to withdraw, and on that motion Salomons spoke in a dignified and forcible manner, and won the sympathy of the House, which nevertheless passed the Prime Minister's motion. The matter was then referred to the law courts, which decided that Salomons had no right to vote without having taken the oath of abjuration in the form appointed by Parliament, and fined him £500 for each vote he had recorded in the Commons. The government then brought in another bill in 1853, which was also rejected by the Lords. In 1855, Salomons was elected Lord Mayor of London. In the following two years, bills were introduced by the government to modify the parliamentary oath, but they failed to obtain the assent of the Lords. In 1858 when the Oath Bill reached the Lords they eliminated the clause relating to Jews; but when the bill was referred again to the Commons, the lower house refused to accept it as amended, and appointed a committee to formulate its reasons, upon which committee, as if to show the absurdity of the situation, the member for the City of London, Lionel de Rothschild, was appointed to serve, something which he could legally do, even though he had not taken his seat. A conference was appointed between the two houses, and ultimately a compromise was reached with the passage of the Jews Relief Act 1858 by which either house might admit Jews by resolution, allowing them to omit the words "on the true faith of a Christian." As a consequence, on Monday, 26 July 1858, Lionel de Rothschild took the oath with covered head, substituting "so help me, Jehovah" for the ordinary form of oath, and thereupon took his seat as the first Jewish member of Parliament; David Salomons was re-elected for Greenwich in a by-election and took his seat in early 1859. Two years later a more general form of oath for all members of Parliament was introduced, which freed the Jews from all cause of exclusion. Reforms and political freedomsEdit The Reform Act 1867 granted every adult male householder the right to vote. Before this legislation only very few men in Britain could vote. In 1871, in the wake of the case of Numa Edward Hartog, the Universities Tests Act removed the difficulties in the way of a Jew becoming a scholar or a fellow in an English university. In 1885, Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild was raised to the upper house as Lord Rothschild, the first Jewish Lord. In 1876 Disraeli was made Earl of Beaconsfield. They were followed within a few years by Henry de Worms as Lord Pirbright and Sydney Stern as Lord Wandsworth. In 1890 all restrictions for every position in the British Empire were removed being thrown open to every British subject without distinction of creed, except for that of monarch and the offices of Lord High Chancellor and of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. For some time after their admission to Parliament, the Jewish MPs belonged to the party that had given them that privilege, the Liberal Party, and Sir George Jessel acted as solicitor-general in William Ewart Gladstone's first ministry. But from the time of the Conservative reaction in 1874 Jewish voters and candidates showed an increasing tendency toward the Conservatives. The influence of Benjamin Disraeli may have had some effect on this change, but it was in the main due to the altered politics of the middle and commercial classes, to which the Jews chiefly belonged. Baron Henry de Worms acted as under Secretary of State in one of Lord Salisbury's ministries, while Sir Julian Goldsmid, a Liberal Unionist after the Home Rule policy of Gladstone was declared, made a marked impression as Deputy Speaker of the House of Commons. Altogether the struggle had lasted for sixty years; nearly all that was contended for had been gained in half that period, but complete equality was not granted to Roman Catholics and Jews until 1890. The many political friendships made during the process had facilitated social intercourse. Communal organisations and disunityEdit The pause which occurred between 1840 and 1847 in the emancipation struggle was due in large measure to a schism, which at the time seemed unfortunate, which had split the Jewish community in two and which prevented the members acting in unison for the defence of their rights. The Reform movement had reached England in a mild form under the influence of the Goldsmid family, which had been touched by the Mendelssohnian movement. In 1841 a Reform congregation was established in London, and was practically excommunicated by both the Spanish haham and the German chief rabbi. The effect of these differences was to delay common action as regards emancipation and other affairs; and it was not until 1859 that the charity organisation was put on a firm footing by the creation of the Jewish Board of Guardians. Ten years later the congregations were brought under one rule by the formation of the United Synagogue (1870), in the charter of which an attempt was made to give the Chief Rabbi autocratic powers over the doctrines to be taught in the Jewish communities throughout the British empire. But Parliament, which had recently disestablished the Irish Church, did not feel disposed to establish the Jewish Synagogue, and the clause was stricken out. The chief rabbi's salary is paid partly out of contributions from the provincial synagogues, and this gives him a certain amount of authority over all the Jews of the empire with the exception of the 3,000 or more Sephardim, who have a separate haham, and of the dwindling band of Reformers, who number about 2,000, scattered in London, Manchester, and Bradford. In 1871 the Anglo-Jewish Association was established to take the place, so far as regards the British empire, of the Alliance Israélite, which had been weakened by the Franco-German war. The Jews of England felt that they should be organised to take their proper part in Jewish affairs in general. For many years they, together with the French Jews, were the only members of the religion who were unhampered by disabilities; and this enabled them to act more freely in cases where the whole body of Israel was concerned. Fighting false "blood libels"Edit As early as 1840, when the blood accusation was revived with regard to the Damascus affair, and Jewish matters were for the first time treated on an international basis, the Jews of England took by far the most prominent position in the general protest of the European Jewries against the charge. Not only was the Board of Deputies at London the sole Jewish body in Europe to hold public meetings, but owing to their influence a meeting of protest was held by eminent Christians at the Mansion House, London (3 July 1840), which formed a precedent for subsequent distinguished gatherings. Sir Moses Montefiore, after aiding the Damascus Jews by obtaining, in an interview with the Sultan at Constantinople, a firman repudiating the blood accusation, visited Russia in 1846 to intercede for his coreligionists there. In 1860 he went to Rome in connection with the Mortara affair; and in 1863 he led a mission to Morocco on behalf of Jews of that country. Action was likewise taken by the chief English Jews in behalf of the unfortunate Hebrews of the Danubian principalities. Francis Goldsmid made an interpellation in the House of Commons with regard to the Jews of Serbia (29 March 1867), and started a debate in that assembly (19 April 1872) on the subject of the persecutions of the Jews in Romania. As a consequence a Romanian committee was formed, which watched the activities of the illiberal government of that country. Pogroms in RussiaEdit When in 1881 the outburst of violence in Russia brought the position of the Russian Jews prominently before the world, it was their coreligionists in England who took the lead in organising measures for their relief. Articles in "The Times" of 11 and 13 January 1882, drew the attention of the whole world to the extent of the persecutions, and a meeting of the most prominent citizens of London was held at the Mansion House on 1 February 1882 (see Mansion House Meeting). As a consequence a fund was raised amounting to more than £108,000, and a complete scheme of distributing in the United States the Russian refugees from Brody was organised by the committee of the Mansion House Fund. Similarly, when a revival of the persecutions took place in 1891, another meeting was held at the Guildhall, and a further sum of over £100,000 was collected and devoted to facilitating the westward movement of the Russian exodus. An attempt was made this time to obtain access directly to the czar by the delivery of a petition from the lord mayor and citizens of London; but this was contemptuously rejected, and the Russo-Jewish committee which carried out the work of the Mansion House Fund was obliged to confine its activity to measures outside Russia. When Maurice de Hirsch formed his elaborate scheme for the amelioration of the condition of the persecuted Jews, headquarters were established by him in London, though the administration was practically directed from Paris. The immigrants being excluded from most of the cities of the Continent, the burden of receiving most of the Russian refugees moving westward fell on England, as well as America. Result of the Russian exodusEdit "The advent of such a large number of Jews, unprovided with capital, and often without a definite occupation, brought with it difficulties. It was only natural that the newcomers should arouse a certain amount of prejudice by their foreign habits, by the economic pressure they brought to bear upon certain trades, especially on that of clothing, and by their overcrowding in certain localities. While the Continent had seen the rise of strong anti-Semitic feeling, England had been comparatively free from any exhibition of this kind. During Lord Beaconsfield's ministry, a few murmurs had been heard from the more advanced Liberals against the "Semitic" tendencies of the prime minister and his brethren in the race, but as a rule social had followed political emancipation almost automatically. The Russian influx threatened to disturb this natural process, and soon after 1891 protests began to be heard against the "alien immigrants. Bills were even introduced into Parliament to check their entry into England. Nothing came of these protests, however, till the year 1902, when the question had reached such a point that it was deemed desirable to appoint a royal commission to inquire into the whole subject. The commission heard evidence both from those favouring and from those opposed to restricted immigration. Reports were made to the House of Commons that the arrival, in the East End of London, of Eastern European Jews, had brought smallpox and scarlet fever. The evidence, however, does not appear to have supported these accusations." - History of the Jews in England - History of the Jews in England (1066–1200) - Edict of Expulsion - History of the Marranos in England - Resettlement of the Jews in England - Menasseh Ben Israel (1604–1657) - Jewish Naturalization Act 1753 - Influences on the standing of the Jews in England - Early English Jewish literature - Rothschild family - History of the Jews in Scotland - Finestein, Israel (1959). "Anglo-Jewish Opinion During the Struggle for Emancipation (1828—1858)". Transactions (Jewish Historical Society of England). 20: 113–143. ISSN 2047-2331. JSTOR 29777970. - "Macaulay's speech on the exclusion of Jews from parliament". Archived from the original on 2006-12-10. Retrieved 2007-01-11. - 'Parliamentary Debates, 4th series, vol. 145, col.711. and L.Marks. Model mothers, Jewish mothers and maternity provision in East London 1870-1939 (Oxford, 1994) - The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, Volume 5	<urn:uuid:6aabf592-3b34-4841-ae0e-675ef711b165>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00077.warc.gz	en	0.981167	3,679	3.71875	4	[ -0.26895710825920105, 0.31684207916259766, 0.15602631866931915, -0.19968879222869873, -0.056588590145111084, 0.03356161341071129, -0.21829372644424438, 0.004717497155070305, 0.11428259313106537, 0.08975918591022491, -0.1641865074634552, -0.2591005563735962, -0.30698955059051514, -0.0623911...	1	Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom The Emancipation of the Jews in the United Kingdom was the culmination in the 19th century of efforts over several hundred years to loosen the legal restrictions set in place on England's Jewish population. The nation's mercantile class had long recognised Jews as an economic asset, and they and their allies in Parliament sought and eventually won the passage of laws that placed male Jews in the United Kingdom on an equal legal footing with the kingdom's other emancipated males. Freedom for Catholics bodes well for JewsEdit When in 1829 the Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom were freed from all their civil disabilities, the hopes of the Jews rose high; and the first step toward a similar alleviation in their case was taken in 1830 when William Huskisson presented a petition signed by 2,000 merchants and others of Liverpool. This was immediately followed by a bill presented by Robert Grant on 15 April that year which was destined to engage the British legislature in one form or another for the next thirty years. Thomas Macaulay, later a well-known and influential historian, was elected to Parliament in 1830 and – among other issues he took up – distinguished himself by attacking the exclusion of Jews. At first the bill failed to get through the House of Commons. Against the opposition of Sir Robert Inglis, the first reading was passed by 115 to 97 votes. But the second reading, on 17 May, notwithstanding a sizable petition in its favour from 14,000 citizens of London, was rejected by 265 to 228 votes. The next year, 1833, however, it passed its third reading in the Commons on 22 July by a majority of 189 to 52, and was read for the first time in the Lords. On the second reading in the Lords on 1 August it was rejected by 104 to 54, with the Duke of Wellington speaking and voting against the Bill, though the Duke of Sussex, a constant friend to the Jews, presented a petition in its favour signed by 1,000 distinguished citizens of Westminster. The same thing happened in 1834, the bill being lost in the House of Lords by a majority of 92 votes. The whole force of the Tory Party and the personal antagonism of King William IV was against the bill. In the following year it was deemed inadvisable to make the annual appeal to Parliament, as the battle for religious liberty was going on in another part of the field[vague]; but by the passing of the Sheriffs' Declaration Act[dubious ] on 21 August 1835, Jews were allowed to hold the ancient and important office of sheriff. In the following year the Jew Bill was introduced late in the session, and succeeded in passing its first reading in the Lords on 19 August but was then dropped owing to the lateness of the session. Membership of parliamentEdit Sir Sampson Gideon, who had a Jewish father and Christian mother, was a baronet, member of parliament and Irish peer in the eighteenth century. Benjamin Disraeli, who was born Jewish and baptised aged 12 into the Church of England, was a member of parliament from 1837, served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1852, 1858–1859 and 1867–1868 Conservative governments. He went on to become, in 1868 and again in 1874, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. He was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876. His willingness to take Christian oaths meant there were no barriers to his political career; for Jews who had not converted to Christianity the oath remained the key obstacle. The oath of office included the words “and I make this Declaration upon the true Faith of a Christian”. For a time the advocates of Jewish emancipation seemed to have lost heart. The chief supporters of the bill, R. Grant in the Commons, and Lord Holland in the Lords, died within a few months of each other in 1840, and during the next four years the political activity of the English Jews was concentrated on the attempt to obtain admission to municipal office. A bill to that effect got as far as a first reading in the Lords by one vote, in 1841, but was lost on a second reading. It was not until 31 July 1845 that the bill was carried. On 18 August 1846, the Religious Opinions Relief Act removed some of minor disabilities that affected British Jews and dissenters from the Established Church; the only state office that still remained closed to Jews was Parliament. The success with which British Jews had induced Parliament to admit them to the shrievalty and to municipal offices had been because Jews had been actual candidates, and had been elected to those offices before any parliamentary relief was asked. It was now decided to adopt the same policy in regard to a seat in Parliament itself. A Jewish candidate, Lionel de Rothschild, was elected as one of the four members of Parliament for the City of London in 1847 but could not take his seat without taking an oath of office, and the bill that was introduced on 16 December that year was intended to carry out the wishes of a definite English constituency. This passed its third reading in the Commons on 4 May 1848, by a majority of 62 votes, but was rejected in the Lords by 163 non-contents to 128 contents. The same thing happened in 1849 when Lionel de Rothschild was again elected, but in the following year the struggle took on another and more dramatic form. David Salomons, who had successfully fought the battle for the shrievalty and the aldermanic chair, had been elected member for Greenwich and insisted on taking his seat, refusing to withdraw on being ordered to do so by the speaker, and adding to his offence by voting in the division on the motion for adjournment which was made to still the uproar caused by his bold course of action. The Prime minister, Lord John Russell, moved that Salomons be ordered to withdraw, and on that motion Salomons spoke in a dignified and forcible manner, and won the sympathy of the House, which nevertheless passed the Prime Minister's motion. The matter was then referred to the law courts, which decided that Salomons had no right to vote without having taken the oath of abjuration in the form appointed by Parliament, and fined him £500 for each vote he had recorded in the Commons. The government then brought in another bill in 1853, which was also rejected by the Lords. In 1855, Salomons was elected Lord Mayor of London. In the following two years, bills were introduced by the government to modify the parliamentary oath, but they failed to obtain the assent of the Lords. In 1858 when the Oath Bill reached the Lords they eliminated the clause relating to Jews; but when the bill was referred again to the Commons, the lower house refused to accept it as amended, and appointed a committee to formulate its reasons, upon which committee, as if to show the absurdity of the situation, the member for the City of London, Lionel de Rothschild, was appointed to serve, something which he could legally do, even though he had not taken his seat. A conference was appointed between the two houses, and ultimately a compromise was reached with the passage of the Jews Relief Act 1858 by which either house might admit Jews by resolution, allowing them to omit the words "on the true faith of a Christian." As a consequence, on Monday, 26 July 1858, Lionel de Rothschild took the oath with covered head, substituting "so help me, Jehovah" for the ordinary form of oath, and thereupon took his seat as the first Jewish member of Parliament; David Salomons was re-elected for Greenwich in a by-election and took his seat in early 1859. Two years later a more general form of oath for all members of Parliament was introduced, which freed the Jews from all cause of exclusion. Reforms and political freedomsEdit The Reform Act 1867 granted every adult male householder the right to vote. Before this legislation only very few men in Britain could vote. In 1871, in the wake of the case of Numa Edward Hartog, the Universities Tests Act removed the difficulties in the way of a Jew becoming a scholar or a fellow in an English university. In 1885, Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild was raised to the upper house as Lord Rothschild, the first Jewish Lord. In 1876 Disraeli was made Earl of Beaconsfield. They were followed within a few years by Henry de Worms as Lord Pirbright and Sydney Stern as Lord Wandsworth. In 1890 all restrictions for every position in the British Empire were removed being thrown open to every British subject without distinction of creed, except for that of monarch and the offices of Lord High Chancellor and of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. For some time after their admission to Parliament, the Jewish MPs belonged to the party that had given them that privilege, the Liberal Party, and Sir George Jessel acted as solicitor-general in William Ewart Gladstone's first ministry. But from the time of the Conservative reaction in 1874 Jewish voters and candidates showed an increasing tendency toward the Conservatives. The influence of Benjamin Disraeli may have had some effect on this change, but it was in the main due to the altered politics of the middle and commercial classes, to which the Jews chiefly belonged. Baron Henry de Worms acted as under Secretary of State in one of Lord Salisbury's ministries, while Sir Julian Goldsmid, a Liberal Unionist after the Home Rule policy of Gladstone was declared, made a marked impression as Deputy Speaker of the House of Commons. Altogether the struggle had lasted for sixty years; nearly all that was contended for had been gained in half that period, but complete equality was not granted to Roman Catholics and Jews until 1890. The many political friendships made during the process had facilitated social intercourse. Communal organisations and disunityEdit The pause which occurred between 1840 and 1847 in the emancipation struggle was due in large measure to a schism, which at the time seemed unfortunate, which had split the Jewish community in two and which prevented the members acting in unison for the defence of their rights. The Reform movement had reached England in a mild form under the influence of the Goldsmid family, which had been touched by the Mendelssohnian movement. In 1841 a Reform congregation was established in London, and was practically excommunicated by both the Spanish haham and the German chief rabbi. The effect of these differences was to delay common action as regards emancipation and other affairs; and it was not until 1859 that the charity organisation was put on a firm footing by the creation of the Jewish Board of Guardians. Ten years later the congregations were brought under one rule by the formation of the United Synagogue (1870), in the charter of which an attempt was made to give the Chief Rabbi autocratic powers over the doctrines to be taught in the Jewish communities throughout the British empire. But Parliament, which had recently disestablished the Irish Church, did not feel disposed to establish the Jewish Synagogue, and the clause was stricken out. The chief rabbi's salary is paid partly out of contributions from the provincial synagogues, and this gives him a certain amount of authority over all the Jews of the empire with the exception of the 3,000 or more Sephardim, who have a separate haham, and of the dwindling band of Reformers, who number about 2,000, scattered in London, Manchester, and Bradford. In 1871 the Anglo-Jewish Association was established to take the place, so far as regards the British empire, of the Alliance Israélite, which had been weakened by the Franco-German war. The Jews of England felt that they should be organised to take their proper part in Jewish affairs in general. For many years they, together with the French Jews, were the only members of the religion who were unhampered by disabilities; and this enabled them to act more freely in cases where the whole body of Israel was concerned. Fighting false "blood libels"Edit As early as 1840, when the blood accusation was revived with regard to the Damascus affair, and Jewish matters were for the first time treated on an international basis, the Jews of England took by far the most prominent position in the general protest of the European Jewries against the charge. Not only was the Board of Deputies at London the sole Jewish body in Europe to hold public meetings, but owing to their influence a meeting of protest was held by eminent Christians at the Mansion House, London (3 July 1840), which formed a precedent for subsequent distinguished gatherings. Sir Moses Montefiore, after aiding the Damascus Jews by obtaining, in an interview with the Sultan at Constantinople, a firman repudiating the blood accusation, visited Russia in 1846 to intercede for his coreligionists there. In 1860 he went to Rome in connection with the Mortara affair; and in 1863 he led a mission to Morocco on behalf of Jews of that country. Action was likewise taken by the chief English Jews in behalf of the unfortunate Hebrews of the Danubian principalities. Francis Goldsmid made an interpellation in the House of Commons with regard to the Jews of Serbia (29 March 1867), and started a debate in that assembly (19 April 1872) on the subject of the persecutions of the Jews in Romania. As a consequence a Romanian committee was formed, which watched the activities of the illiberal government of that country. Pogroms in RussiaEdit When in 1881 the outburst of violence in Russia brought the position of the Russian Jews prominently before the world, it was their coreligionists in England who took the lead in organising measures for their relief. Articles in "The Times" of 11 and 13 January 1882, drew the attention of the whole world to the extent of the persecutions, and a meeting of the most prominent citizens of London was held at the Mansion House on 1 February 1882 (see Mansion House Meeting). As a consequence a fund was raised amounting to more than £108,000, and a complete scheme of distributing in the United States the Russian refugees from Brody was organised by the committee of the Mansion House Fund. Similarly, when a revival of the persecutions took place in 1891, another meeting was held at the Guildhall, and a further sum of over £100,000 was collected and devoted to facilitating the westward movement of the Russian exodus. An attempt was made this time to obtain access directly to the czar by the delivery of a petition from the lord mayor and citizens of London; but this was contemptuously rejected, and the Russo-Jewish committee which carried out the work of the Mansion House Fund was obliged to confine its activity to measures outside Russia. When Maurice de Hirsch formed his elaborate scheme for the amelioration of the condition of the persecuted Jews, headquarters were established by him in London, though the administration was practically directed from Paris. The immigrants being excluded from most of the cities of the Continent, the burden of receiving most of the Russian refugees moving westward fell on England, as well as America. Result of the Russian exodusEdit "The advent of such a large number of Jews, unprovided with capital, and often without a definite occupation, brought with it difficulties. It was only natural that the newcomers should arouse a certain amount of prejudice by their foreign habits, by the economic pressure they brought to bear upon certain trades, especially on that of clothing, and by their overcrowding in certain localities. While the Continent had seen the rise of strong anti-Semitic feeling, England had been comparatively free from any exhibition of this kind. During Lord Beaconsfield's ministry, a few murmurs had been heard from the more advanced Liberals against the "Semitic" tendencies of the prime minister and his brethren in the race, but as a rule social had followed political emancipation almost automatically. The Russian influx threatened to disturb this natural process, and soon after 1891 protests began to be heard against the "alien immigrants. Bills were even introduced into Parliament to check their entry into England. Nothing came of these protests, however, till the year 1902, when the question had reached such a point that it was deemed desirable to appoint a royal commission to inquire into the whole subject. The commission heard evidence both from those favouring and from those opposed to restricted immigration. Reports were made to the House of Commons that the arrival, in the East End of London, of Eastern European Jews, had brought smallpox and scarlet fever. The evidence, however, does not appear to have supported these accusations." - History of the Jews in England - History of the Jews in England (1066–1200) - Edict of Expulsion - History of the Marranos in England - Resettlement of the Jews in England - Menasseh Ben Israel (1604–1657) - Jewish Naturalization Act 1753 - Influences on the standing of the Jews in England - Early English Jewish literature - Rothschild family - History of the Jews in Scotland - Finestein, Israel (1959). "Anglo-Jewish Opinion During the Struggle for Emancipation (1828—1858)". Transactions (Jewish Historical Society of England). 20: 113–143. ISSN 2047-2331. JSTOR 29777970. - "Macaulay's speech on the exclusion of Jews from parliament". Archived from the original on 2006-12-10. Retrieved 2007-01-11. - 'Parliamentary Debates, 4th series, vol. 145, col.711. and L.Marks. Model mothers, Jewish mothers and maternity provision in East London 1870-1939 (Oxford, 1994) - The Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, Volume 5	3,993	ENGLISH	1
Hatshepsut was a pharaoh (ruler) of Egypt, one of very few women to hold that title. A major temple in her honor was built at Deir el-Bahri (Dayru l-Bahri) near Thebes. We know Hatshepsut mostly through references to her during her lifetime that were meant to reinforce her power. We don"t have the sort of personal biographical material that we might have for more recent women of history: letters from the woman herself or from those who knew her, for instance. She was lost from history for many years, and scholars have had different theories about when to date her reign. Hatshepsut was born about 1503 BCE. She reigned from about 1473 to 1458 BCE (the dates are not certain). She was part of the Eighteenth Dynasty, New Kingdom. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and Ahmose. Thutmose I was the third pharaoh in Egypt"s 18th Dynasty, and was likely the son of Amenhotep I and Senseneb, a minor wife or concubine. Ahmose was the Great Royal Wife of Thutmose I; she may have been a sister or daughter of Amenhotep I. Three children, including Hapshetsup, are associated with her. Hatshepsut married her half-brother Thutmose II, whose father was Thutmose I and mother was Mutnofret. As Great Royal Wife of Thutmose II, Hatshepsut bore him one daughter, Neferure, one of three known offspring of Thutmose II. Thutmose II Thutmose III, son of Thutmose II and a minor wife, Iset, became the Pharaoh on the death of Thutmose II, who ruled for about 14 years. Thutmose III was likely very young (estimated between 2 and 10 years old), and Hatshepsut, his stepmother and aunt, became his regent. Hatshepsut claimed, during her reign, that her father had intended her to be a co-heir with her husband. She gradually assumed the titles, powers and even the ceremonial clothing and beard of a male Pharaoh, claiming legitimacy through a divine birth, even calling herself a "female Horus." She was formally crowned as king in about year 7 of her co-reign with Thutmose III. Senenmut, an architect, became a key advisor and powerful official	<urn:uuid:e9d5886c-059b-41fd-99de-e53081d1f82e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blackfacts.com/fact/hatshepsut-how-she-became-a-female-pharaoh-of-egypt	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00003.warc.gz	en	0.98845	525	3.578125	4	[ -0.24664542078971863, 0.7707279324531555, 0.25771939754486084, -0.018367137759923935, -1.0250095129013062, -0.08232072740793228, 0.6850382089614868, -0.25409236550331116, -0.11464593559503555, -0.04563460871577263, -0.12352113425731659, -0.8578110933303833, -0.0075498661026358604, -0.32827...	2	Hatshepsut was a pharaoh (ruler) of Egypt, one of very few women to hold that title. A major temple in her honor was built at Deir el-Bahri (Dayru l-Bahri) near Thebes. We know Hatshepsut mostly through references to her during her lifetime that were meant to reinforce her power. We don"t have the sort of personal biographical material that we might have for more recent women of history: letters from the woman herself or from those who knew her, for instance. She was lost from history for many years, and scholars have had different theories about when to date her reign. Hatshepsut was born about 1503 BCE. She reigned from about 1473 to 1458 BCE (the dates are not certain). She was part of the Eighteenth Dynasty, New Kingdom. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Thutmose I and Ahmose. Thutmose I was the third pharaoh in Egypt"s 18th Dynasty, and was likely the son of Amenhotep I and Senseneb, a minor wife or concubine. Ahmose was the Great Royal Wife of Thutmose I; she may have been a sister or daughter of Amenhotep I. Three children, including Hapshetsup, are associated with her. Hatshepsut married her half-brother Thutmose II, whose father was Thutmose I and mother was Mutnofret. As Great Royal Wife of Thutmose II, Hatshepsut bore him one daughter, Neferure, one of three known offspring of Thutmose II. Thutmose II Thutmose III, son of Thutmose II and a minor wife, Iset, became the Pharaoh on the death of Thutmose II, who ruled for about 14 years. Thutmose III was likely very young (estimated between 2 and 10 years old), and Hatshepsut, his stepmother and aunt, became his regent. Hatshepsut claimed, during her reign, that her father had intended her to be a co-heir with her husband. She gradually assumed the titles, powers and even the ceremonial clothing and beard of a male Pharaoh, claiming legitimacy through a divine birth, even calling herself a "female Horus." She was formally crowned as king in about year 7 of her co-reign with Thutmose III. Senenmut, an architect, became a key advisor and powerful official	534	ENGLISH	1
In the United States' history, African Americans have featured in every corner of the literary works. The literature has traditionally called it African American history. Most of these African Americans have existed in the United States since 1619. In the previous years, they were referred to as Negro Americans. However, apparently, they are referred to as African Americans as they are all believed to be descendents of African slaves in the United States. Since 1960s, when there was a civil right movement, African American history has continued to grow to constitute American history. The main reason is to understand the entire social, cultural and economical including the political history in America. The Student Nonviolence Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was one of the key organizations that were developed in the year 1960 during American civil rights movement. A meeting, chaired by Ella Baker, was held at Shaw University. Baker led the group to its formation in Raleigh. The organization grew so fast, acquired more members, and gained massive grass root support. The huge support and increased membership enrolment in SNCC turned out to be a vital factor, especially in generating funds to support its operations. Mainly based in the South, workers who were recruited by the organization were paid salaries and given incentives. However, there were so many volunteers who were working with the organization without any pay thus promoting its growth. . Buy Students Nonviolence Coordinating Committee essay paper online Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was founded in the year 1960 April. The founders were young people who had been empowered by Greensboro in the North Carolina. They came up with their own strategy to assist in the realization of a new structure of the country. Ella baker, who conceived the whole idea of SNCC, requested members to remain autonomous in the organization rather than affiliate members. The students who were members of the SNCC appeared in large numbers at the conferences that were mostly held at Raleigh. The students decided to put the Supreme Court into test. They appeared before the law courts and claimed that the segregation in public facilities was not constitutional, and that they wanted justice to be done. They also protested about the civil rights and insisted that the bill on the civil right was too little, demanding that it be reviewed. Bob Moses became the director in the voters' registration in 1961. Although he was committed in Mississippi, he later joined SNCC. Student nonviolence coordinating committee was inspired by Greensboro sit-ins. During this period, the public facilities were not available to blacks and the whites were to facilitate every process. The first officials who assisted in the formation of SNCC included, John Lewis, who acted as a divinity student, Marion Barry Jr., mayor of Washington D.C, Julian Bond, senator in Georgia State and an activist in liberal. In their statement of the SNCC, they embraced the philosophy of nonviolence. Their statement of purpose portrayed their intention to abide by the religious and philosophical ideas of nonviolence. They advocated for harmony and faith. They also insisted on the need to ensure there is human existence and reconciliation through adoption of an environment of justice and peace. Marion Barry was the first chairman for SNCC. He served for a short period of only one year and later became the mayor in Washington DC. The second chairman who replaced Barry was Charles F. McDew, who served from 1961 to 1963. He was later succeeded by his counterpart called John Lewis. During this period, the executive secretary was James Forman who played an important role in ensuring smooth running of the organization. In the so many years that followed, SNCC members were now being referred to as the revolution's shock troop as they continued taking high risks activities like attacking the Ku Klux Klan members. The official members took higher risks that were even personal when they decided to travel to the South. Robert Parris also played a vital role in the transformation of the SNCC. He led the organization to move from a coordinating committee to a community based political organization that assisted those who lived in the rural areas. SNCC also worked on the voter registration, insisted on one man one vote criteria. They also ensured voters were sensitized and encouraged to vote in the elections. Moreover, they insisted that students should come out in large numbers to choose their political leaders. The message was that failing to vote was just allowing unacceptable candidate to win an election. Additionally, it was more like allowing such unpopular politicians to continue destroying the country's economy. Kennedy was forced to provide federal protection to mob violence. During this time, there were no black federal agents in the FBI offices. All the offices were stuffed with white FBI from the South. This had a negative impact as they did not assist in ensuring that the black civil participated in voting and they did not facilitate their registration either. By the year 1965, SNCC members had the largest number of staff among the civil right organization in the South, ensuring that everyone was able to register as a voter. More activists began during this era as they were trained. SNCC later decided to seek its structural changes in an effort to reach the entire American society. Change in Strategy and dissolution Immediately after the conventional democracy in the year 1964, the group split into two due to ideological differences. The first group was more focused on the nonviolence, integration and the need to redress grievances in the political systems. On the other hand, the other group concentrated on the black power and the ideologies of the revolutionary. This brought a big gap between the two groups, which is attributed to the eventual expulsion of white students from the school. The difference however continued to grow especially when there was the campaign of Selma voting rights. In 1966, John Lewis was chosen to be the leader of SNCC. Stokely Carmichael who was the military leader argued that the organization was not a civil right group as intended, but had become a racist organization that advocated for violence. In the year 1964, SNCC decided to join Congress on the Racial Equality platform. They organized their campaigns during summer seasons. Three members from the organization volunteered to concentrate on Mississippi, encouraging people to participate in the politics by voting in their preferred leaders. They also facilitated the campaigns to ensure more schools came up and sensitized people about freedom. Due to this, 30 freedom schools were developed. In 1966, Stokely Carmichael was chosen to be the chairman. To mark a further step towards extremism, H. Brown replaced Carmichael, triggering the stoppage of SNCC functions in the year 1970. Carmichael passed on in 1998 at the age of 57, shortly after donating his papers at Howard University. The continual disintegration of the groups weakened its operations and purpose, with unending internal and external squabbles. The organization also faced serious financial constraints, which consequently jeopardized its operations. H. Brown, as the chairman, tried to reduce the challenges facing the group. However, he was equally faced with other controversies at the management level. He however continued to lead the group towards its nonviolence goals campaigns and preached unity among the community members. In the early years, blacks were not allowed to be served in restaurants. However, the group's effort that was instigated by SNCC ensured that blacks were encouraged to insist on their rights as the citizens of the United States. One of the most effective campaign criteria was seen in blacks who staged sit-ins in hotels in large numbers until they got served. Although quite a number were arrested, others continued with this type of protest. Finally, the southern government was forced to change its stance, allowing blacks to start accessing the government facilities like museums, libraries and restaurants. SNCC became the federal bureau of investigation's target as they tried to bring down the black militancy. The government tried by all means to ensure that the black militancy did not exist. However, there was a high level of black discontent registered come 1968, and what followed was assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. At the time, the SNCC was so weak that the members did not have enough courage to face the then political force. Most of the loyal members had left the organization. By the end of the decade, SNCC FBI surveillance was forced to discontinue as they did not even have activities to perform. They later closed their offices due to lack of activities. The lives and times of SNCC leaders were quite challenging. They faced heavy government criticism over their activities. They were seen as people who were just out to destabilize and curtail government activities. However, many people attribute the American societies freedom and stoppage of racial segregation to its efforts. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:83b9dc77-e48d-45bf-9254-46c339854cbd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/ethics/students-nonviolence-coordinating-committee.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00380.warc.gz	en	0.989216	1,729	3.953125	4	[ -0.22156643867492676, 0.39840465784072876, -3.632158041000366e-7, -0.034692756831645966, -0.2204035073518753, 0.17308032512664795, -0.24689263105392456, -0.018043890595436096, -0.3337465524673462, 0.3427290916442871, 0.4685494303703308, 0.17045091092586517, -0.19515657424926758, -0.1595244...	1	In the United States' history, African Americans have featured in every corner of the literary works. The literature has traditionally called it African American history. Most of these African Americans have existed in the United States since 1619. In the previous years, they were referred to as Negro Americans. However, apparently, they are referred to as African Americans as they are all believed to be descendents of African slaves in the United States. Since 1960s, when there was a civil right movement, African American history has continued to grow to constitute American history. The main reason is to understand the entire social, cultural and economical including the political history in America. The Student Nonviolence Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was one of the key organizations that were developed in the year 1960 during American civil rights movement. A meeting, chaired by Ella Baker, was held at Shaw University. Baker led the group to its formation in Raleigh. The organization grew so fast, acquired more members, and gained massive grass root support. The huge support and increased membership enrolment in SNCC turned out to be a vital factor, especially in generating funds to support its operations. Mainly based in the South, workers who were recruited by the organization were paid salaries and given incentives. However, there were so many volunteers who were working with the organization without any pay thus promoting its growth. . Buy Students Nonviolence Coordinating Committee essay paper online Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was founded in the year 1960 April. The founders were young people who had been empowered by Greensboro in the North Carolina. They came up with their own strategy to assist in the realization of a new structure of the country. Ella baker, who conceived the whole idea of SNCC, requested members to remain autonomous in the organization rather than affiliate members. The students who were members of the SNCC appeared in large numbers at the conferences that were mostly held at Raleigh. The students decided to put the Supreme Court into test. They appeared before the law courts and claimed that the segregation in public facilities was not constitutional, and that they wanted justice to be done. They also protested about the civil rights and insisted that the bill on the civil right was too little, demanding that it be reviewed. Bob Moses became the director in the voters' registration in 1961. Although he was committed in Mississippi, he later joined SNCC. Student nonviolence coordinating committee was inspired by Greensboro sit-ins. During this period, the public facilities were not available to blacks and the whites were to facilitate every process. The first officials who assisted in the formation of SNCC included, John Lewis, who acted as a divinity student, Marion Barry Jr., mayor of Washington D.C, Julian Bond, senator in Georgia State and an activist in liberal. In their statement of the SNCC, they embraced the philosophy of nonviolence. Their statement of purpose portrayed their intention to abide by the religious and philosophical ideas of nonviolence. They advocated for harmony and faith. They also insisted on the need to ensure there is human existence and reconciliation through adoption of an environment of justice and peace. Marion Barry was the first chairman for SNCC. He served for a short period of only one year and later became the mayor in Washington DC. The second chairman who replaced Barry was Charles F. McDew, who served from 1961 to 1963. He was later succeeded by his counterpart called John Lewis. During this period, the executive secretary was James Forman who played an important role in ensuring smooth running of the organization. In the so many years that followed, SNCC members were now being referred to as the revolution's shock troop as they continued taking high risks activities like attacking the Ku Klux Klan members. The official members took higher risks that were even personal when they decided to travel to the South. Robert Parris also played a vital role in the transformation of the SNCC. He led the organization to move from a coordinating committee to a community based political organization that assisted those who lived in the rural areas. SNCC also worked on the voter registration, insisted on one man one vote criteria. They also ensured voters were sensitized and encouraged to vote in the elections. Moreover, they insisted that students should come out in large numbers to choose their political leaders. The message was that failing to vote was just allowing unacceptable candidate to win an election. Additionally, it was more like allowing such unpopular politicians to continue destroying the country's economy. Kennedy was forced to provide federal protection to mob violence. During this time, there were no black federal agents in the FBI offices. All the offices were stuffed with white FBI from the South. This had a negative impact as they did not assist in ensuring that the black civil participated in voting and they did not facilitate their registration either. By the year 1965, SNCC members had the largest number of staff among the civil right organization in the South, ensuring that everyone was able to register as a voter. More activists began during this era as they were trained. SNCC later decided to seek its structural changes in an effort to reach the entire American society. Change in Strategy and dissolution Immediately after the conventional democracy in the year 1964, the group split into two due to ideological differences. The first group was more focused on the nonviolence, integration and the need to redress grievances in the political systems. On the other hand, the other group concentrated on the black power and the ideologies of the revolutionary. This brought a big gap between the two groups, which is attributed to the eventual expulsion of white students from the school. The difference however continued to grow especially when there was the campaign of Selma voting rights. In 1966, John Lewis was chosen to be the leader of SNCC. Stokely Carmichael who was the military leader argued that the organization was not a civil right group as intended, but had become a racist organization that advocated for violence. In the year 1964, SNCC decided to join Congress on the Racial Equality platform. They organized their campaigns during summer seasons. Three members from the organization volunteered to concentrate on Mississippi, encouraging people to participate in the politics by voting in their preferred leaders. They also facilitated the campaigns to ensure more schools came up and sensitized people about freedom. Due to this, 30 freedom schools were developed. In 1966, Stokely Carmichael was chosen to be the chairman. To mark a further step towards extremism, H. Brown replaced Carmichael, triggering the stoppage of SNCC functions in the year 1970. Carmichael passed on in 1998 at the age of 57, shortly after donating his papers at Howard University. The continual disintegration of the groups weakened its operations and purpose, with unending internal and external squabbles. The organization also faced serious financial constraints, which consequently jeopardized its operations. H. Brown, as the chairman, tried to reduce the challenges facing the group. However, he was equally faced with other controversies at the management level. He however continued to lead the group towards its nonviolence goals campaigns and preached unity among the community members. In the early years, blacks were not allowed to be served in restaurants. However, the group's effort that was instigated by SNCC ensured that blacks were encouraged to insist on their rights as the citizens of the United States. One of the most effective campaign criteria was seen in blacks who staged sit-ins in hotels in large numbers until they got served. Although quite a number were arrested, others continued with this type of protest. Finally, the southern government was forced to change its stance, allowing blacks to start accessing the government facilities like museums, libraries and restaurants. SNCC became the federal bureau of investigation's target as they tried to bring down the black militancy. The government tried by all means to ensure that the black militancy did not exist. However, there was a high level of black discontent registered come 1968, and what followed was assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. At the time, the SNCC was so weak that the members did not have enough courage to face the then political force. Most of the loyal members had left the organization. By the end of the decade, SNCC FBI surveillance was forced to discontinue as they did not even have activities to perform. They later closed their offices due to lack of activities. The lives and times of SNCC leaders were quite challenging. They faced heavy government criticism over their activities. They were seen as people who were just out to destabilize and curtail government activities. However, many people attribute the American societies freedom and stoppage of racial segregation to its efforts. Most popular orders	1,792	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Greece: Clitomachus (philosopher) Born Hasdrubal, he was a Carthaginian who studied philosophy under Carneades. Clitomăchus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities （Κλειτόμαχος). A native of Carthage. In his early years he acquired a fondness for learning, which induced him to visit Greece for the purpose of attending the schools of the philosophers. From the time of his first arrival in Athens he attached himself to Carneades (q.v.), and continued his disciple until his death, when he became his successor in the academic chair. He studied with great industry and made himself master of the systems of the other schools, but professed the doctrine of suspension of assent, as it had been taught by his master. Cicero relates that he wrote four hundred books upon philosophical subjects. At an advanced age he was seized with a lethargy. Recovering in some measure the use of his faculties, he said, "The love of life shall deceive me no longer," and laid violent hands upon himself. He entered, as we have said, upon the office of preceptor in the Academy immediately after the death of Carneades, and held it thirty years. According to Cicero, he taught that there is no certain criterion by which to judge of the truth of those reports which we receive from the senses, and that, therefore, a wise man will either wholly suspend his assent, or decline giving a peremptory opinion; but that, nevertheless, men are strongly impelled by nature to follow probability. His moral doctrine established a natural alliance between pleasure and virtue. He was a professed enemy to rhetoric, and thought that no place should be allowed in society to so dangerous an art. Clitomachus (philosopher) in Wikipedia Clitomachus (Greek: Κλειτόμαχος, also Cleitomachus or Kleitomachos; 187/6-110/09 BC) originally named Hasdrubal, was a Carthaginian who came to Athens around 146 BC and studied philosophy under Carneades. He became head of the Academy around 127/6 BC. He was an Academic skeptic like his master. Nothing survives of his writings, which were dedicated to making known the views of Carneades, but Cicero made use of them for some of his works. Clitomachus was born in Carthage in 187/6 BC, and he was originally named Hasdrubal. He came to Athens in 163/2 BC, when he was about 24 years old. He there became connected with the founder of the New Academy, the philosopher Carneades, under whose guidance he rose to be one of the most distinguished disciples of this school; but he also studied at the same time the philosophy of the Stoics and Peripatetics. In 127/6 BC, two years after the death of Carneades, he became the effective head (scholarch) of the Academy. He continued to teach at Athens till as late as 111 BC, as Crassus heard him in that year. He died in 110/09 BC, and was succeeded as scholarch by Philo of Larissa. Of his works, which amounted to 400 books, only a few titles are preserved. His main object in writing them was to make known the philosophy of his master Carneades, from whose views he never dissented. Clitomachus continued to reside at Athens till the end of his life; but he continued to cherish a strong affection for his native country, and when Carthage was taken in 146 BC, he wrote a work to console his unfortunate countrymen. This work, which Cicero says he had read, was taken from a discourse of Carneades, and was intended to exhibit the consolation which philosophy supplies even under the greatest calamities. His work was highly regarded by Cicero, who based parts of his De Natura, De Divinatione and De Fato on a work of Clitomachus he names as On the Withholding of Assent (Latin: De Sustinendis Offensionibus). Clitomachus probably treated of the history of philosophy in his work on the philosophical sects: On the Schools of Thought (Greek: περί αἱρέσεων). Two of Clitomachus' works are known to have been dedicated to prominent Romans, the poet Gaius Lucilius and the one-time consul Lucius Marcius Censorinus, suggesting that his work was known and appreciated in Rome.	<urn:uuid:f3df0be6-4653-49d1-9c04-dc9ec09dcbbb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=3904&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Clitomachus+%28philosopher%29	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00323.warc.gz	en	0.989208	982	3.28125	3	[ 0.22926923632621765, 0.24124270677566528, 0.5357940196990967, -0.1925864815711975, -0.8285982012748718, -0.4136211574077606, 0.34059926867485046, 0.37452271580696106, -0.4452461004257202, -0.058667782694101334, -0.2381400316953659, -0.41883420944213867, 0.4259989261627197, 0.42492395639419...	1	People - Ancient Greece: Clitomachus (philosopher) Born Hasdrubal, he was a Carthaginian who studied philosophy under Carneades. Clitomăchus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities （Κλειτόμαχος). A native of Carthage. In his early years he acquired a fondness for learning, which induced him to visit Greece for the purpose of attending the schools of the philosophers. From the time of his first arrival in Athens he attached himself to Carneades (q.v.), and continued his disciple until his death, when he became his successor in the academic chair. He studied with great industry and made himself master of the systems of the other schools, but professed the doctrine of suspension of assent, as it had been taught by his master. Cicero relates that he wrote four hundred books upon philosophical subjects. At an advanced age he was seized with a lethargy. Recovering in some measure the use of his faculties, he said, "The love of life shall deceive me no longer," and laid violent hands upon himself. He entered, as we have said, upon the office of preceptor in the Academy immediately after the death of Carneades, and held it thirty years. According to Cicero, he taught that there is no certain criterion by which to judge of the truth of those reports which we receive from the senses, and that, therefore, a wise man will either wholly suspend his assent, or decline giving a peremptory opinion; but that, nevertheless, men are strongly impelled by nature to follow probability. His moral doctrine established a natural alliance between pleasure and virtue. He was a professed enemy to rhetoric, and thought that no place should be allowed in society to so dangerous an art. Clitomachus (philosopher) in Wikipedia Clitomachus (Greek: Κλειτόμαχος, also Cleitomachus or Kleitomachos; 187/6-110/09 BC) originally named Hasdrubal, was a Carthaginian who came to Athens around 146 BC and studied philosophy under Carneades. He became head of the Academy around 127/6 BC. He was an Academic skeptic like his master. Nothing survives of his writings, which were dedicated to making known the views of Carneades, but Cicero made use of them for some of his works. Clitomachus was born in Carthage in 187/6 BC, and he was originally named Hasdrubal. He came to Athens in 163/2 BC, when he was about 24 years old. He there became connected with the founder of the New Academy, the philosopher Carneades, under whose guidance he rose to be one of the most distinguished disciples of this school; but he also studied at the same time the philosophy of the Stoics and Peripatetics. In 127/6 BC, two years after the death of Carneades, he became the effective head (scholarch) of the Academy. He continued to teach at Athens till as late as 111 BC, as Crassus heard him in that year. He died in 110/09 BC, and was succeeded as scholarch by Philo of Larissa. Of his works, which amounted to 400 books, only a few titles are preserved. His main object in writing them was to make known the philosophy of his master Carneades, from whose views he never dissented. Clitomachus continued to reside at Athens till the end of his life; but he continued to cherish a strong affection for his native country, and when Carthage was taken in 146 BC, he wrote a work to console his unfortunate countrymen. This work, which Cicero says he had read, was taken from a discourse of Carneades, and was intended to exhibit the consolation which philosophy supplies even under the greatest calamities. His work was highly regarded by Cicero, who based parts of his De Natura, De Divinatione and De Fato on a work of Clitomachus he names as On the Withholding of Assent (Latin: De Sustinendis Offensionibus). Clitomachus probably treated of the history of philosophy in his work on the philosophical sects: On the Schools of Thought (Greek: περί αἱρέσεων). Two of Clitomachus' works are known to have been dedicated to prominent Romans, the poet Gaius Lucilius and the one-time consul Lucius Marcius Censorinus, suggesting that his work was known and appreciated in Rome.	1,008	ENGLISH	1
England had previously been at war with France in 1523 and war against the old enemy was once again proposed in early 1525. In February of that year the French troops had suffered a devastating loss against the Imperial troops of Charles V outside of Pravia. To make matters even worse for the French, their King, Francis I, had been captured in the battle and was now a prisoner of Charles V. When the messenger brought the news of Francis I's capture to Henry VIII the King is reported to have been likened to the Archangel Gabriel, such was his happiness and excitement at hearing the news. Henry VIII, ever the opportunist, saw another chance at military glory and quickly proposed war against France. The English King believed that the idea to go to war had been blessed by God and, unlike two years previously, he had visions of reclaiming the French throne for England. However much the King desired to go to war, his coffers were greatly reduced due to the war England had undertaken against France only two years previously. Naturally, money, and a lot of it, was needed to fund a war and it was needed quickly. Thomas Wolsey proposed an ‘Amicable Grant’ hoping to gain an estimated £800,000 for the proposed war. However, this ‘Amicable Grant’ was not passed through Parliament, rather it was proposed as a means for people to give monetary ‘gifts’ to fund the King's war. Of course, people did not have a say over whether they wished to donate to the King's war fund, rather the grant was proposed as a nice way of demanding coin, hence the title. Clergy were ordered to pay a third of their income, if it was more than £10 a year, or a quarter if it was less. Laity (essentially everyone else, those not in the service of the church) were required to pay 3s 4d in the pound if they earned over £50 a year, those earning between £20 and £50 a year were required to pay 2s 8d per pound and those earning less than £20 a year had to pay 1s per pound. Naturally the ordinary person was not impressed. These so-called gifts to the King to fund his war were nothing of the sort. Instead they were demands upon people who more often than not struggled to make ends meet. In addition to this in 1522 – 1523 a huge loan of £250,000 had been forced upon the people and it had not yet been paid back. Discontent quickly spread through the country. People claimed that they could not afford to pay the tax and that it was unconstitutional because it had not been approved by parliament, while the clergy protested as they had not agreed to such a tax in convocation. Soon there were widespread rumblings in Essex, Kent, Norfolk, Warwickshire and Huntingdonshire. However, the greatest protests were in Lavenham where around 4000 people gathered to protest against the grant. The King quickly sent the Dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk to try to deal with the protesters, who greatly outnumbered their own army. While the Duke of Suffolk waited for the Duke of Norfolk and his men to arrive, he began to burn bridges in an attempt to stop the rebels. He also informed Wolsey that his troops would defend him against all perils, but he doubted that they would fight against their own countrymen. Luckily, the rebels did not put up a great deal of resistance. Several leaders of the rebellion returned with the Dukes of Suffolk Norfolk to London and were quickly put in the Fleet Prison. Henry VIII, ever-conscious of the opinion of his people quickly performed an about-turn. Organising a council meeting, the King stated "that his mynd was neuer, to aske any thyng of his commons, whiche might sounde to his dishonor, or to the breche of his lawes." Whether in an act of clemency or in realisation that it was not possible to gather such funds from the people, and with the threat of rebellion on their hands, the idea of the Amicable Grant was quickly dropped. The King claimed that he knew nothing about the grant and that he had not authorised it. A general pardon was granted for the rebels and those held in the Fleet Prison were released. In the end, Thomas Wolsey took the blame for the whole affair and the idea of going to war with France was dropped. Sarah Bryson is the author of Mary Boleyn: In a Nutshell. She is a researcher, writer and educator who has a Bachelor of Early Childhood Education with Honours and currently works with children with disabilities. Sarah is passionate about Tudor history and has a deep interest in Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn, the reign of Henry VIII and the people of his court. Visiting England in 2009 furthered her passion and when she returned home she started a website, queentohistory.com, and Facebook page about Tudor history. Sarah lives in Australia, enjoys reading, writing, Tudor costume enactment and wishes to return to England one day. She is currently working on a biography of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. - 1525: Amicable Grant (2014), All Kinds of History, viewed 29 November 2015, https://tudorrebellions.wordpress.com/2014/11/23/1525-amicable-grant/. - Betteridge, T & Freeman, T (2012), Henry VIII and History, Ashgate Publishing Limited, England. - Kadouchkine, O (2014), The Amicable Grant, 1525, 29 November 2015, http://jwsmrscott.weebly.com/tudorpedia/the-amicable-grant-1525. - MacCulloch, D (1995) The Reign of Henry VIII Politics, Policy and Piety, St Martin’s Press, New York. - The Amicable Grant 1525, Staging the Henrician Court bringing early modern drama to life, 29 November 2015, http://stagingthehenriciancourt.brookes.ac.uk/historicalcontext/the_amicable_grant_1525.html. - Wooding, L (2015) Henry VIII, Routledge, Oxon.	<urn:uuid:2f791d01-dbd8-40e3-87c8-f22c3e9e0152>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tudorsociety.com/the-amicable-grant-of-1525-by-sarah-bryson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00509.warc.gz	en	0.986133	1,306	3.625	4	[ -0.2807052731513977, 0.35414159297943115, 0.18936538696289062, -0.23225030303001404, 0.2881883978843689, -0.378255158662796, -0.17902299761772156, 0.2768173813819885, 0.25916004180908203, 0.12359097599983215, 0.23932237923145294, -0.38262253999710083, -0.02811140939593315, 0.26745662093162...	9	England had previously been at war with France in 1523 and war against the old enemy was once again proposed in early 1525. In February of that year the French troops had suffered a devastating loss against the Imperial troops of Charles V outside of Pravia. To make matters even worse for the French, their King, Francis I, had been captured in the battle and was now a prisoner of Charles V. When the messenger brought the news of Francis I's capture to Henry VIII the King is reported to have been likened to the Archangel Gabriel, such was his happiness and excitement at hearing the news. Henry VIII, ever the opportunist, saw another chance at military glory and quickly proposed war against France. The English King believed that the idea to go to war had been blessed by God and, unlike two years previously, he had visions of reclaiming the French throne for England. However much the King desired to go to war, his coffers were greatly reduced due to the war England had undertaken against France only two years previously. Naturally, money, and a lot of it, was needed to fund a war and it was needed quickly. Thomas Wolsey proposed an ‘Amicable Grant’ hoping to gain an estimated £800,000 for the proposed war. However, this ‘Amicable Grant’ was not passed through Parliament, rather it was proposed as a means for people to give monetary ‘gifts’ to fund the King's war. Of course, people did not have a say over whether they wished to donate to the King's war fund, rather the grant was proposed as a nice way of demanding coin, hence the title. Clergy were ordered to pay a third of their income, if it was more than £10 a year, or a quarter if it was less. Laity (essentially everyone else, those not in the service of the church) were required to pay 3s 4d in the pound if they earned over £50 a year, those earning between £20 and £50 a year were required to pay 2s 8d per pound and those earning less than £20 a year had to pay 1s per pound. Naturally the ordinary person was not impressed. These so-called gifts to the King to fund his war were nothing of the sort. Instead they were demands upon people who more often than not struggled to make ends meet. In addition to this in 1522 – 1523 a huge loan of £250,000 had been forced upon the people and it had not yet been paid back. Discontent quickly spread through the country. People claimed that they could not afford to pay the tax and that it was unconstitutional because it had not been approved by parliament, while the clergy protested as they had not agreed to such a tax in convocation. Soon there were widespread rumblings in Essex, Kent, Norfolk, Warwickshire and Huntingdonshire. However, the greatest protests were in Lavenham where around 4000 people gathered to protest against the grant. The King quickly sent the Dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk to try to deal with the protesters, who greatly outnumbered their own army. While the Duke of Suffolk waited for the Duke of Norfolk and his men to arrive, he began to burn bridges in an attempt to stop the rebels. He also informed Wolsey that his troops would defend him against all perils, but he doubted that they would fight against their own countrymen. Luckily, the rebels did not put up a great deal of resistance. Several leaders of the rebellion returned with the Dukes of Suffolk Norfolk to London and were quickly put in the Fleet Prison. Henry VIII, ever-conscious of the opinion of his people quickly performed an about-turn. Organising a council meeting, the King stated "that his mynd was neuer, to aske any thyng of his commons, whiche might sounde to his dishonor, or to the breche of his lawes." Whether in an act of clemency or in realisation that it was not possible to gather such funds from the people, and with the threat of rebellion on their hands, the idea of the Amicable Grant was quickly dropped. The King claimed that he knew nothing about the grant and that he had not authorised it. A general pardon was granted for the rebels and those held in the Fleet Prison were released. In the end, Thomas Wolsey took the blame for the whole affair and the idea of going to war with France was dropped. Sarah Bryson is the author of Mary Boleyn: In a Nutshell. She is a researcher, writer and educator who has a Bachelor of Early Childhood Education with Honours and currently works with children with disabilities. Sarah is passionate about Tudor history and has a deep interest in Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn, the reign of Henry VIII and the people of his court. Visiting England in 2009 furthered her passion and when she returned home she started a website, queentohistory.com, and Facebook page about Tudor history. Sarah lives in Australia, enjoys reading, writing, Tudor costume enactment and wishes to return to England one day. She is currently working on a biography of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. - 1525: Amicable Grant (2014), All Kinds of History, viewed 29 November 2015, https://tudorrebellions.wordpress.com/2014/11/23/1525-amicable-grant/. - Betteridge, T & Freeman, T (2012), Henry VIII and History, Ashgate Publishing Limited, England. - Kadouchkine, O (2014), The Amicable Grant, 1525, 29 November 2015, http://jwsmrscott.weebly.com/tudorpedia/the-amicable-grant-1525. - MacCulloch, D (1995) The Reign of Henry VIII Politics, Policy and Piety, St Martin’s Press, New York. - The Amicable Grant 1525, Staging the Henrician Court bringing early modern drama to life, 29 November 2015, http://stagingthehenriciancourt.brookes.ac.uk/historicalcontext/the_amicable_grant_1525.html. - Wooding, L (2015) Henry VIII, Routledge, Oxon.	1,356	ENGLISH	1
Authority of the pope declared void in England The 18th of July 1536 AD Henry VIII ’s split with Rome was far from an overnight event. It was tied in with his marital problems – the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon (refused by the pope, granted by Henry’s own creatures in the English church). It was linked to his need for funds to pay for improved defences for his kingdom, the destination of much of the money seized from the smaller monasteries which were the first to be closed by his officers. And it was concerned with his fears of action by Charles V, who held the pope in his power after sacking Rome. And among the complications caused by Henry’s personal and political situation, it had impetus too from the likes of Cranmer , promoting a Protestant cause that Henry at one time had found anathema. In 1536 Cranmer published The Ten Articles, outlining the core beliefs and doctrines of the new Church of England. And in July of the same year, setting the seal on the break, Henry’s Parliament passed An Act Extinguishing the Authority of the Bishop of Rome. This Act was wordily insulting to the pope, but contained within it the power to punish anybody defending his authority in Britain. It was a step that for Henry’s reign at least ended all possibility of reconciliation with Rome. In spite of this, Henry would not be excommunicated until December 17 1538 . More famous dates here 8543 views since 18th July 2007	<urn:uuid:2d29665e-6afc-4880-854d-19761141f2f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://edit.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=369	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00088.warc.gz	en	0.989038	319	3.65625	4	[ 0.1614181250333786, 0.1491001695394516, 0.32377293705940247, 0.0011507320450618863, -0.16193611919879913, -0.07236827164888382, 0.39765802025794983, 0.18030409514904022, 0.31029507517814636, -0.2176205813884735, -0.3980802893638611, -0.4740862548351288, -0.029867449775338173, 0.52433097362...	1	Authority of the pope declared void in England The 18th of July 1536 AD Henry VIII ’s split with Rome was far from an overnight event. It was tied in with his marital problems – the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon (refused by the pope, granted by Henry’s own creatures in the English church). It was linked to his need for funds to pay for improved defences for his kingdom, the destination of much of the money seized from the smaller monasteries which were the first to be closed by his officers. And it was concerned with his fears of action by Charles V, who held the pope in his power after sacking Rome. And among the complications caused by Henry’s personal and political situation, it had impetus too from the likes of Cranmer , promoting a Protestant cause that Henry at one time had found anathema. In 1536 Cranmer published The Ten Articles, outlining the core beliefs and doctrines of the new Church of England. And in July of the same year, setting the seal on the break, Henry’s Parliament passed An Act Extinguishing the Authority of the Bishop of Rome. This Act was wordily insulting to the pope, but contained within it the power to punish anybody defending his authority in Britain. It was a step that for Henry’s reign at least ended all possibility of reconciliation with Rome. In spite of this, Henry would not be excommunicated until December 17 1538 . More famous dates here 8543 views since 18th July 2007	331	ENGLISH	1
The first universities can be traced back to the days of Ancient Greece and Rome. In terms of location, early universities were located primarily in Athens, Alexandria (Egypt), and Rome. In addition, to being educational centers, these three cities were also seats of spiritual authority with Alexandria and Rome playing critical roles in the development of Christianity. In this post, we will focus on higher education in Ancient Greece. We will look at the curriculum and teaching styles of this time period. For Greeks, there were three key subjects students needed to study at university. These were grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Grammar was focused on written communication and not just spelling and punctuation. Instead, the grammar of the Greeks was about learning to write and communicate persuasively in text. Rhetoric goes by the name of public speaking today. Again, the goal of rhetoric was to learn how to communicate persuasively and to develop ideas and arguments during oral communication. Lastly, logic is often seen as critical thinking today. This subject focused on developing arguments, judging their quality, and applying the same skills to the arguments of others. Trivium & Quadrivium Under Alexander the Great there were some changes to what was considered higher education. The education at the university level was divided into two main components which were the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium consisted of the three subjects we have already discussed (grammar, rhetoric, logic). However, logic was refocused and renamed dialectics. Grammar during the days of Alexander the Great was mostly the same with a stronger emphasis on poetry, semantics, and the addition of history to this subject mater. Rhetoric continued to stress public speaking but also included the study of the forms of literary works. Dialectics was more of a teaching tool and encourage dialog and debate. Subjects under this term included metaphysics, physics, and ethics. Generally, the trivium is seen as focusing on human nature are laying the foundation for the humanities. The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Arithmetic was basic practical math. Geometry dealt with theorems and also geography. Astronomy was not complete about the stars but natural science and philosophy in general. Music included not only music but theatrical arts such as comedy and tragedy, and also dance, lyric poetry, and hymns. The quadrivium is often seen as focused on nature. Greek education was also highly focused on physical education through gymnastics. This is, of course, one of the inspirations for physical education today. The teaching style in Greek universities has been described as dry. There is a focus on memorizing and the minute details of a subject. However, there was also a contradictory emphasis on finding patterns and examining the form of things. It was believed that if students saw the big picture it would help to enlighten the details. There was a focus on debating. This could have made learning more tolerable and interactive. However, argue for the sake of arguing could lead to a great deal of discord and bruised egos if taken to an extreme. It also needs to be mentioned that universities were not thought of as universities as we do today. It would better to use the word of higher education or education beyond the basics. Often teachers would have their own school in which they would pass on their knowledge to pupils. Ancient Greece and its influence are felt to this day. The role of the university was first established in the West by the work of this early time. Without this pioneering work by Greece the world may have been a much different place.	<urn:uuid:d7ca09e8-a8b1-4ac2-91b7-c7af750fbd58>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://educationalresearchtechniques.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00011.warc.gz	en	0.985821	735	3.375	3	[ 0.280200332403183, 0.0974559634923935, 0.2409394532442093, -0.2549836337566376, -0.6004050374031067, -0.22329087555408478, -0.34739387035369873, 0.7455363869667053, 0.07033947110176086, 0.052075982093811035, -0.5057246088981628, -0.43774861097335815, -0.0692850798368454, 0.2085118591785431...	17	The first universities can be traced back to the days of Ancient Greece and Rome. In terms of location, early universities were located primarily in Athens, Alexandria (Egypt), and Rome. In addition, to being educational centers, these three cities were also seats of spiritual authority with Alexandria and Rome playing critical roles in the development of Christianity. In this post, we will focus on higher education in Ancient Greece. We will look at the curriculum and teaching styles of this time period. For Greeks, there were three key subjects students needed to study at university. These were grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Grammar was focused on written communication and not just spelling and punctuation. Instead, the grammar of the Greeks was about learning to write and communicate persuasively in text. Rhetoric goes by the name of public speaking today. Again, the goal of rhetoric was to learn how to communicate persuasively and to develop ideas and arguments during oral communication. Lastly, logic is often seen as critical thinking today. This subject focused on developing arguments, judging their quality, and applying the same skills to the arguments of others. Trivium & Quadrivium Under Alexander the Great there were some changes to what was considered higher education. The education at the university level was divided into two main components which were the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium consisted of the three subjects we have already discussed (grammar, rhetoric, logic). However, logic was refocused and renamed dialectics. Grammar during the days of Alexander the Great was mostly the same with a stronger emphasis on poetry, semantics, and the addition of history to this subject mater. Rhetoric continued to stress public speaking but also included the study of the forms of literary works. Dialectics was more of a teaching tool and encourage dialog and debate. Subjects under this term included metaphysics, physics, and ethics. Generally, the trivium is seen as focusing on human nature are laying the foundation for the humanities. The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Arithmetic was basic practical math. Geometry dealt with theorems and also geography. Astronomy was not complete about the stars but natural science and philosophy in general. Music included not only music but theatrical arts such as comedy and tragedy, and also dance, lyric poetry, and hymns. The quadrivium is often seen as focused on nature. Greek education was also highly focused on physical education through gymnastics. This is, of course, one of the inspirations for physical education today. The teaching style in Greek universities has been described as dry. There is a focus on memorizing and the minute details of a subject. However, there was also a contradictory emphasis on finding patterns and examining the form of things. It was believed that if students saw the big picture it would help to enlighten the details. There was a focus on debating. This could have made learning more tolerable and interactive. However, argue for the sake of arguing could lead to a great deal of discord and bruised egos if taken to an extreme. It also needs to be mentioned that universities were not thought of as universities as we do today. It would better to use the word of higher education or education beyond the basics. Often teachers would have their own school in which they would pass on their knowledge to pupils. Ancient Greece and its influence are felt to this day. The role of the university was first established in the West by the work of this early time. Without this pioneering work by Greece the world may have been a much different place.	720	ENGLISH	1
As a drama teacher, I have spent years writing and editing plays for kids. I’ve also helped countless children write their own short plays. This can be extremely challenging. If you have tried to get your team members to write their own stories/scripts, they may have turned out something like this: Once upon a time a llama rode his bike down the road and fell into a deep hole. A chipmunk was already in there and they decided to have breakfast, but the chipmunk didn’t have anything to eat so they decided to play video games instead. Chipmunk didn’t have Call of Duty, so llama had to play Fortnite, which he didn’t know anything about. Chipmunk tried to teach him, but Fortnite is a very fast game and llama kept getting confused. Finally, llama said it was going to get dark and he’d better get home, so he got back on his bike so that he could get home before his mom got mad. The end. Alas, these are the delightful nonsensical ramblings of a child… but they do not make for great skits or plays. Please know that this is very common! Team Managers may feel frustrated by the quality of the original story that their team members came up with, but they may not know how to help without interfering. Teaching team members about compelling story structure can help dramatically increase the quality of their work. Most Team Managers teach their team members that a story has: - A Beginning - A Middle - An End But what does that mean? In the example above, the story had a beginning. “The llama rode his bike down the road.” It had a middle. “Chipmunk and llama played Fortnite.” And it had an end, “The llama headed home before dark.” To a child, and even to an adult, this would make perfect sense. But the story is about as uninteresting as it can get. What’s missing? In a classic three-act structure, a story not only has three parts, specific things happen in each one of those parts. Here is an extremely simplified version of the three-act structure: Act One (Beginning) A sympathetic character who wants something is introduced. But he/she faces an enormous problem. Act Two (Middle) The character continues to face larger obstacles in pursuit of his goal. Act Three (End) The character achieves his goal, but in so doing, he must summon his strength and even find hidden strengths he did not know he had. Here is a simple rewrite of the opening story using elements of the classic three-act structure. Once upon a time, there was a llama named “Larry” who was terribly shy. But he really wanted a friend. One day, he was riding his bike down the road, thinking, “Maybe I will make a friend today,” when he struck a pothole and was knocked off his bike. Along came a chipmunk who asked him if he needed help. But Larry was too embarrassed to say yes, or even hello. The chipmunk thought Larry was either rude or dull, so he left. As Larry got up to pick up his bike, a huge truck roared by and splashed mud puddle water all over Larry. A blue jay saw this and flew down. “That was awful! Would you like me to dry you off with my feathers?” Larry was so ashamed that he just turned red and couldn’t talk. So, the blue jay flew away. Larry was more depressed than ever, and his bike frame was bent, so he decided to just walk home. On the way, he saw the chipmunk. At first, he wanted to hide. But a voice inside told him to say hello. “Hi, my name is Larry. I’m sorry I didn’t say anything to you earlier. I was too embarrassed to talk to you.” “That’s okay, said the chipmunk. I used to feel the same way. But then, I learned that in order to have friends, you must be friendly. My name’s Chip. What’s yours?” So, Larry invited Chip over to his house where they snacked on grub worms and kale. You might think that’s gross. But friends like Larry and Chip think they’re delicious! Okay, so it won’t win a Pulitzer, but you’ll agree that it is far more interesting than the first version. The story has a sympathetic character who faces obstacles and who must summon his courage to gain what he wants. Make sure that if you are teaching “beginning, middle, and end” that you are including what should happen in each of those parts. Here is a set of fill-in-the-blank Story Outlines based on the three-act structure that can help your students craft better skits and plays! About the Author: Janea Dahl is the author and creator of Drama Notebook, the world’s largest online resource for drama teachers. She spent a year working with DI teams locally, in Portland, Oregon, and she facilitated workshops for Team Managers at the Global Finals. You can find more inspiring drama games and activities at www.dramanotebook.com.	<urn:uuid:501dee8e-2a80-44d8-aa62-9af1fd4ecc39>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.destinationimagination.org/blog/helping-your-team-members-write-better-skits-without-interfering/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00060.warc.gz	en	0.982117	1,148	3.359375	3	[ -0.19024229049682617, -0.021264635026454926, 0.31923460960388184, -0.21282657980918884, -0.2630349397659302, 0.014769320376217365, 0.23063063621520996, 0.047196779400110245, 0.0074625746347010136, 0.09217196702957153, 0.008212060667574406, -0.011199473403394222, 0.3786979913711548, 0.05674...	6	As a drama teacher, I have spent years writing and editing plays for kids. I’ve also helped countless children write their own short plays. This can be extremely challenging. If you have tried to get your team members to write their own stories/scripts, they may have turned out something like this: Once upon a time a llama rode his bike down the road and fell into a deep hole. A chipmunk was already in there and they decided to have breakfast, but the chipmunk didn’t have anything to eat so they decided to play video games instead. Chipmunk didn’t have Call of Duty, so llama had to play Fortnite, which he didn’t know anything about. Chipmunk tried to teach him, but Fortnite is a very fast game and llama kept getting confused. Finally, llama said it was going to get dark and he’d better get home, so he got back on his bike so that he could get home before his mom got mad. The end. Alas, these are the delightful nonsensical ramblings of a child… but they do not make for great skits or plays. Please know that this is very common! Team Managers may feel frustrated by the quality of the original story that their team members came up with, but they may not know how to help without interfering. Teaching team members about compelling story structure can help dramatically increase the quality of their work. Most Team Managers teach their team members that a story has: - A Beginning - A Middle - An End But what does that mean? In the example above, the story had a beginning. “The llama rode his bike down the road.” It had a middle. “Chipmunk and llama played Fortnite.” And it had an end, “The llama headed home before dark.” To a child, and even to an adult, this would make perfect sense. But the story is about as uninteresting as it can get. What’s missing? In a classic three-act structure, a story not only has three parts, specific things happen in each one of those parts. Here is an extremely simplified version of the three-act structure: Act One (Beginning) A sympathetic character who wants something is introduced. But he/she faces an enormous problem. Act Two (Middle) The character continues to face larger obstacles in pursuit of his goal. Act Three (End) The character achieves his goal, but in so doing, he must summon his strength and even find hidden strengths he did not know he had. Here is a simple rewrite of the opening story using elements of the classic three-act structure. Once upon a time, there was a llama named “Larry” who was terribly shy. But he really wanted a friend. One day, he was riding his bike down the road, thinking, “Maybe I will make a friend today,” when he struck a pothole and was knocked off his bike. Along came a chipmunk who asked him if he needed help. But Larry was too embarrassed to say yes, or even hello. The chipmunk thought Larry was either rude or dull, so he left. As Larry got up to pick up his bike, a huge truck roared by and splashed mud puddle water all over Larry. A blue jay saw this and flew down. “That was awful! Would you like me to dry you off with my feathers?” Larry was so ashamed that he just turned red and couldn’t talk. So, the blue jay flew away. Larry was more depressed than ever, and his bike frame was bent, so he decided to just walk home. On the way, he saw the chipmunk. At first, he wanted to hide. But a voice inside told him to say hello. “Hi, my name is Larry. I’m sorry I didn’t say anything to you earlier. I was too embarrassed to talk to you.” “That’s okay, said the chipmunk. I used to feel the same way. But then, I learned that in order to have friends, you must be friendly. My name’s Chip. What’s yours?” So, Larry invited Chip over to his house where they snacked on grub worms and kale. You might think that’s gross. But friends like Larry and Chip think they’re delicious! Okay, so it won’t win a Pulitzer, but you’ll agree that it is far more interesting than the first version. The story has a sympathetic character who faces obstacles and who must summon his courage to gain what he wants. Make sure that if you are teaching “beginning, middle, and end” that you are including what should happen in each of those parts. Here is a set of fill-in-the-blank Story Outlines based on the three-act structure that can help your students craft better skits and plays! About the Author: Janea Dahl is the author and creator of Drama Notebook, the world’s largest online resource for drama teachers. She spent a year working with DI teams locally, in Portland, Oregon, and she facilitated workshops for Team Managers at the Global Finals. You can find more inspiring drama games and activities at www.dramanotebook.com.	1,048	ENGLISH	1
Although "Every Race Has A Flag But The Coon" was written by two white men, who almost certainly had their tongues firmly in their cheeks when they put pen to paper, this doubtful ditty actually inspired the creation of a Pan-African flag The latter half of the Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries saw the rise of two black leaders who saw far beyond the calls for integration and assimilation by attempting to literally drag blacks up from slavery by their bootstraps. One of these men was Booker T. Washington (1856-1915), an educator as well as a politician; the other was Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), who among other things founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association. In 1920, Garvey's organization created the Pan-African Flag, and the man himself said: "Show me the race or the nation without a flag, and I will show you a race of people without any pride. Aye! In song and mimicry they have said, 'Every race has a flag but the coon.' How true! Aye! But that was said of us four years ago. They can't say it now..." Though Washington's greatness would soon be universally acknowledged, the Jamaican-born Garvey's ideas of black economic independence and separatism didn't go down at all well with the powers-that-be, and in 1923 he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment after being railroaded by the FBI for mail fraud. Although he died without even coming close to realizing his dream, in 1964, Garvey's remains were exhumed from Kensal Green Cemetery in London where he died, and returned to his native Jamaica. In November 1964, he was officially proclaimed Jamaica's first National Hero. His remains were re-interred at a shrine in National Heroes Park.	<urn:uuid:ac73c071-39c5-42bb-a9d0-891946c3c82f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.songfacts.com/facts/lottie-gilson/every-race-has-a-flag-but-the-coon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00445.warc.gz	en	0.982867	372	3.671875	4	[ -0.40996870398521423, 0.419277161359787, 0.13141533732414246, 0.2060212939977646, -0.169544979929924, 0.4137159287929535, 0.11299014091491699, -0.10093504935503006, 0.06532729417085648, -0.24564725160598755, 0.10946501791477203, 0.0767693743109703, -0.12124320864677429, 0.09790229052305222...	2	Although "Every Race Has A Flag But The Coon" was written by two white men, who almost certainly had their tongues firmly in their cheeks when they put pen to paper, this doubtful ditty actually inspired the creation of a Pan-African flag The latter half of the Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries saw the rise of two black leaders who saw far beyond the calls for integration and assimilation by attempting to literally drag blacks up from slavery by their bootstraps. One of these men was Booker T. Washington (1856-1915), an educator as well as a politician; the other was Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), who among other things founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association. In 1920, Garvey's organization created the Pan-African Flag, and the man himself said: "Show me the race or the nation without a flag, and I will show you a race of people without any pride. Aye! In song and mimicry they have said, 'Every race has a flag but the coon.' How true! Aye! But that was said of us four years ago. They can't say it now..." Though Washington's greatness would soon be universally acknowledged, the Jamaican-born Garvey's ideas of black economic independence and separatism didn't go down at all well with the powers-that-be, and in 1923 he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment after being railroaded by the FBI for mail fraud. Although he died without even coming close to realizing his dream, in 1964, Garvey's remains were exhumed from Kensal Green Cemetery in London where he died, and returned to his native Jamaica. In November 1964, he was officially proclaimed Jamaica's first National Hero. His remains were re-interred at a shrine in National Heroes Park.	390	ENGLISH	1
The Civil War, changed the U.S. in so many ways. Beyond the final outcome and the abolishment of slavery, the actual war itself was full of technical innovations that altered the future of the country. One such breakthrough was the creation of an instant coffee drink for the Union Army, ready for travel and complete with powdered milk and sugar to add flavor. Another innovation was the widespread use of photography. Not only was this the first war that could be documented for posterity via photos, but it was the first time that an influx of working class men had their photos taken. Archaeology at the Union Army’s Camp Nelson convalescence site in Jessamine County, Kentucky, has found much evidence of how Civil War soldiers lived. On the site were hundreds of buildings and tents- for holding prisoners, for recuperation, and for buying and selling. And, there was plenty of evidence of photographers working on the site. Camp Nelson was also an important site for African American soldiers and for escaped slaves. Being in Kentucky, it was seen as a safe haven for those running from slaveholders and was locally accessible. Many who fled hoped to secure their freedom starting with Camp Nelson. The camp was built first as a supply depot, but morphed into a training ground and refugee center for the wives and children of escaped slaves now in training to become soldiers. Among the many finds that have recently been unearthed there are the remnants of the photography studio of C.J. Young. Glass plates with his stamp etched on them were found at the site, along with other photography supplies. Evidence of 3 other makeshift photography studios were also found at Camp Nelson. At the time, it was the norm for servicemen heading to war (and sometimes returning and grateful to be alive) to have their photos taken in uniform. This was true for both Union and Confederate soldiers. Despite the great expense, for many families it was the only record they might have in case he died and the photos were a precious commodity. It might the thing that a soldier’s mother or wife or sweetheart carried with them to keep the soldier in their thoughts during the war. In the worst case scenario, if a soldier never returned, at least the family would have an image to remember him by. This made photographers synonymous with soldiers during the Civil War. Among the bottles of chemicals needed for developing the photographs found at the Camp Nelson site, there were also some more unusual bottles found. What were at first thought to be broken medicine bottles turned out to be much more interesting. Across the camp were scattered small bottles of hair dye! In the 19th century most hair dye was not a 2-step process which permanently altered the hair strand. Instead, hair treatments were made from ink or pigment and had to be applied often to cover grey hairs. This was usually the type of dye to run if one got caught in the rain. However, when posing for a sepia photograph, dye like this was perfectly acceptable. Because photographs were so important, soldiers wanted to be remembered in the best possible light. According to Stephen McBride, archaeologist and director of interpretation at Camp Nelson, the process of black and white photography had a lot of limits, one of which was that if one had a red or blonde coif (or beard), it sometimes appeared white or grey in photos and could incidentally age the subject. While this type of effect could be tinted or corrected post-production, that type of service would have been expensive and hard to manage without a fully equipped studio. Instead it was much easier to simply dye one’s hair before sitting for the photo. Much like how early movies required skilled makeup application to compensate for issues with the film, Civil War photography also presented a number of challenges. It might seem vain to some, but if this was to be the only photo ever taken of a man, he wanted to look darn good for it! It’s hard to imagine only taking one photo per lifetime in today’s world of selfies and social media, but it was very special thing back then and one that meant special attention was paid to how one looked.	<urn:uuid:c19ad602-1368-4185-bdf4-8b5275c55004>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dustyoldthing.com/civil-war-soldiers-hair-dye/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00155.warc.gz	en	0.987072	847	3.796875	4	[ -0.3169037103652954, 0.1664869785308838, 0.42802131175994873, 0.08039414882659912, 0.4357171654701233, 0.01943943090736866, -0.2425355315208435, -0.031246911734342575, -0.5766730308532715, 0.16947902739048004, 0.46212610602378845, -0.0020271651446819305, 0.007252730429172516, 0.24209256470...	11	The Civil War, changed the U.S. in so many ways. Beyond the final outcome and the abolishment of slavery, the actual war itself was full of technical innovations that altered the future of the country. One such breakthrough was the creation of an instant coffee drink for the Union Army, ready for travel and complete with powdered milk and sugar to add flavor. Another innovation was the widespread use of photography. Not only was this the first war that could be documented for posterity via photos, but it was the first time that an influx of working class men had their photos taken. Archaeology at the Union Army’s Camp Nelson convalescence site in Jessamine County, Kentucky, has found much evidence of how Civil War soldiers lived. On the site were hundreds of buildings and tents- for holding prisoners, for recuperation, and for buying and selling. And, there was plenty of evidence of photographers working on the site. Camp Nelson was also an important site for African American soldiers and for escaped slaves. Being in Kentucky, it was seen as a safe haven for those running from slaveholders and was locally accessible. Many who fled hoped to secure their freedom starting with Camp Nelson. The camp was built first as a supply depot, but morphed into a training ground and refugee center for the wives and children of escaped slaves now in training to become soldiers. Among the many finds that have recently been unearthed there are the remnants of the photography studio of C.J. Young. Glass plates with his stamp etched on them were found at the site, along with other photography supplies. Evidence of 3 other makeshift photography studios were also found at Camp Nelson. At the time, it was the norm for servicemen heading to war (and sometimes returning and grateful to be alive) to have their photos taken in uniform. This was true for both Union and Confederate soldiers. Despite the great expense, for many families it was the only record they might have in case he died and the photos were a precious commodity. It might the thing that a soldier’s mother or wife or sweetheart carried with them to keep the soldier in their thoughts during the war. In the worst case scenario, if a soldier never returned, at least the family would have an image to remember him by. This made photographers synonymous with soldiers during the Civil War. Among the bottles of chemicals needed for developing the photographs found at the Camp Nelson site, there were also some more unusual bottles found. What were at first thought to be broken medicine bottles turned out to be much more interesting. Across the camp were scattered small bottles of hair dye! In the 19th century most hair dye was not a 2-step process which permanently altered the hair strand. Instead, hair treatments were made from ink or pigment and had to be applied often to cover grey hairs. This was usually the type of dye to run if one got caught in the rain. However, when posing for a sepia photograph, dye like this was perfectly acceptable. Because photographs were so important, soldiers wanted to be remembered in the best possible light. According to Stephen McBride, archaeologist and director of interpretation at Camp Nelson, the process of black and white photography had a lot of limits, one of which was that if one had a red or blonde coif (or beard), it sometimes appeared white or grey in photos and could incidentally age the subject. While this type of effect could be tinted or corrected post-production, that type of service would have been expensive and hard to manage without a fully equipped studio. Instead it was much easier to simply dye one’s hair before sitting for the photo. Much like how early movies required skilled makeup application to compensate for issues with the film, Civil War photography also presented a number of challenges. It might seem vain to some, but if this was to be the only photo ever taken of a man, he wanted to look darn good for it! It’s hard to imagine only taking one photo per lifetime in today’s world of selfies and social media, but it was very special thing back then and one that meant special attention was paid to how one looked.	828	ENGLISH	1
The first Viking invasion was in 793 when the Vikings raided the monastery at Lindisfarne. The last was Harald Hardrada’s attempt to take the English throne in 1066. A Viking force landed at Portland, Dorset. When the local reeve went to meet them he was killed. However, this was not an invasionary force but may have been a force that got blown off course. 793 (8th June) A Viking force attacked the monastery on Lindisfarne, Northumbria. They destroyed the abbey, killed a large number of monks and took others as slaves. A Viking force attacked the island of Iona, Scotland. The Vikings first raided Ireland. They attacked monasteries on the west coast. The Vikings began to make raids on France. King Charlemagne of the Franks began organising defence of the French coast. The Vikings attacked Iona again. Iona was attacked for the third time. This time a large number of monks were killed and the rest fled to Kells, Ireland. They took with them a beautifully illustrated manuscript which became known as the Book of Kells. The Vikings founded Limerick in Ireland. Floki of Rogaland discovered Iceland north of the Faeroe Islands. Armagh in Ireland was raided by a large Viking force of around 120 ships. Battle of Carhampton The Vikings attacked North Devon and Somerset. King Egbert of Wessex tried to defeat them but he was forced to retreat. Battle of Hingston Down King Egbert fought a combined force of Vikings and Cornishmen and was victorious. A force of 60 Viking longships sailed up the river Boyne while a further 60 navigated the river Liffey. They began ravaging Ireland. Viking settlers founded Dublin in Ireland. King Egbert of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelwulf The Vikings began making raids along the south coast of England. A Viking force attacked Nantes in France. They then moved on to Tours. A Viking force attacked Seville, Spain, but were defeated. A Viking force led by the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok , made raids into France. They were paid 7,000 pounds of silver to leave Paris alone. The Vikings spent the winter on the island of Thanet rather than returning to Denmark. This was the first time they had overwintered in England. A Danish Viking force took Frisia (north-west Netherlands). King Aethelwulf’s son, Aethelstan, defeated a Viking force off the coast of Sandwich. Ivar the Boneless landed in Dublin and, supported by Olaf the White, took control of the Viking settlement there. The Vikings established Waterford in southern Ireland. 858 (13th January) King Aethelwulf of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelbald Hastein, Danish Viking Chief, accompanied by Bjorn Ironside , son of the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok, led a fleet of 60 ships and raided the coast of northern France. Bjorn and Hastein, continued to the Mediterranean where they beseiged and then sacked the town of Algeciras. Bjorn and Hastein, began raiding the south coast of France and northern Italy. They captured Pisa and then marched inland as far as Luni, which they believed to be Rome. They lay siege to the city and then Bjorn sent a message to the bishop of the city stating that Bjorn had died but had converted to Christianity and wanted to be buried in consecrated ground. He put himself into a coffin and was carried inside the city. He then jumped out of the coffin, opened the city gates and let him men enter the city. He was disappointed to find that the city was not Rome. A force of Rus Vikings attacked Constantinople (Istanbul). 860 (20th December) King Aethelbald of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his brother Aethelberht Bjorn and Hastein raided Sicily before making a series of raids along the North African coast. Bjorn and Hastein were defeated by a Muslim fleet in the Straits of Gibraltar. Although they suffered heavy losses both men survived and sailed to the Loire in France. The Rus Viking, Ulrich, founded Novgorod in Russia. The legendary Viking leader, Ragnar Lothbrok, was killed by King Aelle of Northumbria. Legend states that he was thrown into a pit of vipers. King Aethelberht of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his brother Aethelred I Ivar and the Great Heathen army marched north and invaded Northumbria. 866 (1st November) The Danish Vikings in England took Jorvik (York) and used it as a base to make raids into Mercia. 867 (23rd March) and Aelle, rivals for the Northumbrian throne made an alliance and marched to expel the Vikings from York. They were badly defeated. Osberht was killed during the battle. Aelle was executed, allegedly by being subjected to the Viking Eagle as revenge for his killing Ragnar Lothbork. 867 (after 23rd March) Ivar installed Egbert as puppet king of Northumbria. The Viking force, led by Ivar the Boneless, invaded Mercia and captured Nottingham. King Aethelred and his brother Alfred marched north, but by the time they arrived Burgred , King of Mercia had paid the Vikings off. A Viking force known as the Great Summer Army, led by Bagsecg, arrived in England. They joined forces with Halfdan and began raiding along the Wessex border. They succeeded in taking Reading. The Vikings attacked East Anglia and killed King Edmund . Legend states that the Vikings tied King Edmund to a tree and shot arrows into him until he died. Later, his body was moved to a place which became known as Bury St Edmunds. A Viking force led by Ivar the Boneless and Olaf the White captured Dumbarton in Scotland. Ivar the Boneless returned to Dublin. 871 (4th January) Battle of Reading King Aethelred and Alfred attempted to lay siege to Reading but the Vikings led by Halfdan had fortified the town with a dyke and palisade and the Saxons were defeated by the Vikings. 871 (8th January) Battle of Ashdown Bagsecg, King of Jutland and Wendland, leader of the Great Summer Army, was killed in this battle between the forces of the Great Heathen Army and those of King Aethelred and his brother, Alfred. 871 (after January) Halfdan succeeded Bagsecg as King of Jutland and Wendland in Denmark. 871 (22nd January) Battle of Basing Aethelred was defeated by the Vikings. 871 (22nd March) Battle of Merton Aethelred, supported by his brother Alfred, fought the Vikings. The battle was inconclusive and both sides withdrew. Aethelred had been badly injured in the battle. 871 (23rd April) King Aethelred of Wessex died from injuries sustained in the Battle of Merton. His sons were considered too young to succeed and so Aethelred’s younger brother, Alfred became King. 871 (early Summer) Battle of Wilton The Saxons were defeated by the Vikings. Harald I, known as Fairhair, became King of Norway. Sigfred and Halfdan, son of Ragnar Lothbork, worked together to take control of Denmark. It is believed that Ivar the Boneless died in Dublin. The Vikings established a settlement in Iceland. The Vikings took Mercia after defeating King Burgred. Burgred fled overseas. A puppet King, Ceolwulf was installed. Harald Harfagra became King of Norway. The Vikings began dividing up Northumbria preparing to settle the land permanently. Alfred made a deal with Guthrum, leader of the Vikings, but Guthrum did not keep the deal. He killed his Saxon hostages and moved to Exeter, leaving the Viking ships at Wareham. King Rhodri Mawr of Wales was defeated by the Vikings and fled to Wales. The Vikings began dividing up Mercia preparing to settle the land permanently The Vikings made further raids on Wessex taking land in Wiltshire and Hampshire. Guthrum returned with a large force and marched on Chippenham. Guthrum killed many of the town’s inhabitants. It is likely that this was the last straw for the Witan and that Alfred lost their support due to the fact that his attempts to pay off the Vikings had not worked. Alfred was forced to leave Wessex in fear for his life. He sought refuge in the Somerset marshes at Athelney. The legend of King Alfred and the Burnt Cakes stems from this period. Alfred summoned his troops and defeated the Viking leader, Guthrum and agreed terms at Wedmore. As per the treaty of Wedmore agreed between Alfred and Guthrum, the Viking leader and around 30 chief Vikings were baptised. Rurik made Kiev the centre of Kievan Rus. Another band of Vikings arrived in England. They sailed up the Thames and Alfred was concerned that they would join with Guthrum and mount a new attack. However, after a short while they left England and sailed to France. Alfred’s new navy won a naval battle against the Vikings, destroying two Viking ships and forcing the surrender of two others. Battle of Norditi The Vikings were forced to withdraw from East Frisia after being defeated by a Frisian army. A Viking force lay siege to Paris, France. A band of Vikings arrived and attacked Rochester in Kent. The town had been fortified by Alfred in 878 and was able to hold out until Alfred arrived with the army and defeated the Vikings. King Alfred of Wessex negotiated with the Vikings and allowed them control of the North under Danelaw. Battle of Farnham While King Alfred had been busy trying to make peace with Haesten, the Appledore Vikings had raided towns in Hampshire and Berkshire. They were returning to Appledore with their booty but were cut off by Alfred’s son, Edward who recovered the stolen treasure and put them to flight. Edward then pursued the Vikings, caught up with them and held them under siege at Thorney. While Alfred and Edward had been occupied with the Vikings in Kent and Appledore, the East Anglia Vikings had sailed to Exeter and lay siege to the city. Alfred had intended to help his son defeat the Vikings at Thorney but had to divert and go to Exeter to relieve the siege to the city. Alfred encircled the besiegers. A further group of Vikings marched west probably to relieve the siege of Exeter but they were met at Buttington by a large force led by the Ealdormen of Mercia, Somerset and Wiltshire who succeeded in putting them to flight and the Vikings returned to East Anglia. Soon afterwards the Vikings in Exeter withdrew and also returned to Thorney, East Anglia. The Vikings were forced, through hunger, to leave Thorney, they moved north to Chester but were placed under siege and forced to leave. The Vikings built a new fort about 20 miles north of London by the river Lea. Alfred built two new fortresses by the river Lea which meant that the Viking force further up the river were unable to get their boats out to sea. 895 (late Autumn) On learning of Alfred’s actions the Vikings abandoned their boats on the river Lea and marched overland to Bridgenorth on the river Severn where they built a new fort. Alfred marched to Bridgenorth and lay siege to the Vikings. The Vikings gave up their raids on English towns and returned to East Anglia and Northumbria. Wessex was finally at peace. 899 (26th October) King Alfred the Great died. He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder. The Vikings made a series of raids on the Mediterranean coast. , cousin of King Edward the Elder, had contested Edward’s position as King. He had gained the support of the Vikings and was made King of York. He received the allegiance of the Northern Vikings. Aethelwold of Wessex and the Northern Vikings landed in Essex and allied with the East Anglian Vikings The Swedish Viking, Olef the Wise led a large force to Constantinople (Istanbul). He was paid a large sum to leave the city alone. 910 (5th August) Battle of Tettenhall (Wednesfield) The combined forces of Mercia and Wessex defeated the Northumbrian Vikings The Viking Rollo was given land in the North of France by the French King, Charles the Simple. It became known as the land of the Northmen (Normandy). A Viking force from Brittany that tried to advance up the River Severn was defeated. King Edward stationed a force on the south of the River Severn to deal with any further attempted attacks. In the Autumn the Vikings sailed to Ireland. First battle of Corbridge The-Anglo Saxons were defeated by the Vikings. Harthacnut I became King of Denmark when Sigtrygg Gnupasson died. A force of Vikings from Northampton and Leicester attempted to take the fort at Towcester but were successfully repelled. A force of East Anglian Danes constructed a fort at Tempsford and used it as a base from which to attack Bedford. They were unsuccessful and forced to retreat. 917 (late Summer) Battle of Tempsford The Anglo-Saxons defeated the Danes at Tempsford. The sole surviving Danish King of East Anglia was killed in the Battle. King Edward defeated the Danes and took Colchester. The Danes retaliated by besieging the fort at Maldon but they were unsuccessful and many died. King Edward the Elder received the submission of all the Danes south of the River Humber. Battle of Corbridge This was a battle between Viking forces led by Ragnall and Constantine II of Scotland supported by Ealdred of Bamburgh. Although the battle was indecisive the Vikings suffered huge losses and only a quarter of their force survived. The Viking, Ragnall, took York and proclaimed himself King of York. The Vikings routed an attack by an alliance of Irish Kings. Many of the Kings were killed in the process. The Norse Vikings attacked Cheshire 924 (17th July) King Edward the Elder died. He was succeeded by his son, Aethelstan King Aethelstan married one of his sisters to Sihtric, the Viking ruler of Northumbria. Sihtric of Northumbria died. He was succeeded by a son from a previous marriage who did not support an alliance with Aethelstan. Aethelstan therefore invaded Northumbria and captured York. Eric Haraldsson, known as Eric Bloodaxe, became King of Norway when Harald Fairhair abdicated. Hakon the Good became King of Norway. Sources are unclear as to why he took over from Eric Bloodaxe. Gorm the Old became King of Denmark when Harthacnut I died. Battle of Brunanburh This battle, fought between King Athelstan of England and the combined forces of Constantine of Scotland, Owain of Strathclyde and Olaf Guthfrithson King of Dublin lasted all day but saw Aethelstan victorious. Eric Bloodaxe, became King of Northumberland. 939 (27th October) King Aethelstan of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edmund The Viking Olaf III Guthfrithson, with the support of the Archbishop of York, Wulfstan, conquered Northumbria and invaded Mercia. The Rus Vikings attacked Constantinople (Istanbul). Olaf III Guthfrithson was killed during a raid. He was succeeded by Olaf Sitricson who was not as strong as his predecessor. Edmund attacked and was able to take back Mercia. King Edmund made an alliance with King Olaf of York. Edmund became godfather to Olaf. Edmund re-took Northumbria from the Vikings King Olaf of York was unable to retain his throne and so left England for Ireland where he became King of Dublin. 946 (26th May) King Edmund I of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Eadred Eric Bloodaxe captured Jorvik (York) and took control of Northumbria. King Eadred managed to re-take Northumbria. The former ruler of York, Olaf Sihtricson, returned to the North of England and was accepted as ruler of Northumbria. Eric Bloodaxe returned and took Northumbria. King Eadred captured and imprisoned Archbishop Wulfstan of York who helped the Vikings. Erik Bloodaxe, the last Viking King in England, was driven out of Northumbria and killed. 955 (23rd November) King Eadred of England died. He was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig Harald Bluetooth became King of Denmark when Gorm the Old died. King Eadwig of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Edgar Hakon the Good, regent for Harald Greycloak in Noway, died. Harald Greycloak died. Harald Bluetooth took the throne of Norway. King Edgar received the submission of eight kings of the North, including the Kings of Scotland and Strathclyde at Chester thus strengthening his position. 975 (8th July) King Edgar of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edward King Edward of England was murdered by supporters of his step-brother, Aethelred at Corfe Castle. He is known as Edward the Martyr. He was succeeded by his half-brother Aethelred, known as Unready There were Danish Viking raids on Chester and Southampton. There were Danish Viking raids on Devon and Cornwall. There were Danish Viking raids on Dorset. Erik the Red, who had been banished from Iceland, discovered Greenland. Harald Bluetooth, King of Denmark and Norway died. He was succeeded by his son, Sweyn Forkbeard. Viking ships reached Newfoundland. 991 (10th August) Battle of Maldon Byrhtnoth of Essex was defeated by the Danish Vikings led by Olaf Tryggvason. Following the Viking victory at Maldon King Aethelred was forced to pay the Vikings £10,000 pounds (3.3 kg of silver) to make them leave Wessex alone. The payment was known as a Danegeld. A party of Viking raiders sailed up the River Thames and put London under siege. King Aethelred was forced to make another Danegeld payment to make the raiders leave. This time the Viking leader Olaf Trygvasson, demanded £16,000 (5.3 kg of silver) Olaf Trygvason became King Olaf of Norway. King Olaf of Norway and Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark made a joint invasion on London. It was unsuccessful but they made several raids on the south of England. Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, reached North America becomming the first European to reach the New World. Olaf I of Norway was killed in battle by Sweyn Forkbeard. Norway came under Danish rule. St Brice’s Day Massacre King Aethelred ordered the massacre of all Danes living in England. He hoped that by ridding England of Danes he would minimise the risk of attack from within. A significant number of Danes were killed including the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard. Sweyn Forkbeard and a party of Vikings raided the South coast retaliation for the St Brice’s day massacre. They gained control of land from Exeter to Hampshire. King Aethelred had no choice but to pay the Danes to leave his land alone. The Danegled demanded was £24,000 (8kg of silver). Sweyn Forkbeard destroyed the town of Norwich. Sweyn Forkbeard and the Vikings returned and made a series of raids on Kent and Sussex. King Aethelred was unable to raise sufficient forces to defeat the Vikings and so was forced to make another Danegeld payment to keep the Vikings away. The sum demanded this time was £36,000 (12 kg of silver). King Aethelred decided that he could not keep paying off the Danes and so decided to build a new fleet of ships. A group of Vikings led by Thorkell the Tall made a series of devastating raids on the coast. King Aethelred was unable to defeat the Vikings using his new ships because his Captain, Wulfnoth had taken 20 boats on a piracy mission. Another Captain, Brihtric, who had tried to stop Wulfnoth had run several ships aground. The Danes invaded East Anglia. A battle was fought near Ipswich which left the Danes in control of the town. The Danish Vikings captured Canterbury and took Archbishop Aelheah prisoner. 1012 (19th April) The Danish Vikings in Canterbury went on a drunken raid and murdered Archbishop Aelheah of Canterbury. The Viking leader, Thorkell the Tall, tried to stop the murder but was unsuccessful. He was so angry at his comrades that he defected and joined Aethelred’s forces. King Aethelred made another Danegeld payment of £48,000 (17 kg of silver) to stop the destruction being caused by the Vikings. Sweyn Forkbeard returned and took Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. London alone held out against the Danes. Having conquered the majority of England Sweyn Forkbeard proclaimed himself King of England. Aethelred, Emma and their children fled to Normandy. Sweyn Forkbeard died. His son Harald became King Harald II of Denmark. In England the English rejected his son, Cnut and asked Aethelred the Unready to return. Only the people of Lindsey had wanted Cnut to succeed. 1014 (23rd April) Battle of Clontarf Brian Boru, King of Munster fought the King of Leinster who had allied with the Dublin Vikings. Boru was killed in the fighting. Olaf II retook Norway from the Danes. 1016 (early January) Cnut began attacking more regions of England. King Aethelred’s son, Edmund Ironside , summoned an army but the men refused to fight without authorisation from King Aethelred. Aethelred summoned an army but was warned that his son may betray him and returned to London. Cnut took Northumberland then marched towards London. Edmund Ironside marched to London to try to stop Cnut from taking the city. 1016 (23rd April) King Aethelred II of England died. His son, Edmund Ironside, was proclaimed King Edmund II of England. 1016 (c. 9th May) Battle of Brentford Edmund Ironside managed to defeat the Danish army led by Cnut at Brentford. 1016 (18th October) Battle of Assandun This battle fought between Edmund Ironside and Cnut saw the Dane victorious and left Edmund in control of only Wessex. 1016 (after 18th October) King Edmund had no choice but to agree to share rule with Cnut. Cnut ruled Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia while Edmund ruled Wessex. It was agreed that on the death of either party the other would rule all of England. 1016 (30th November) King Edmund Ironside of England died and Cnut seized the throne of England. Edmund Ironside’s two children were taken to Hungary as it was feared that they would be murdered by Cnut. The three children of Aethelred the Unready by Emma of Normandy were taken to Normandy as it was feared their lives were in danger. Cnut divided England into four earldoms: Wessex – controlled by Cnut himself, Mercia controlled by Eadric Streona, Northumbria controlled by Erik of Hlathir and East Anglia controlled by Thorkell the Tall. 1017 (6th January) Cnut was crowned King of England at St Paul’s Cathedral. 1017 (2nd July) Cnut married Aethelred’s widow, Emma. It was agreed that the succession would be with the children of Emma and Cnut. King Cnut became King of Denmark. Cnut went to Denmark to claim the Kingdom. Battle of Helgea A combined Norwegian and Swedish force launched an attack on Denmark. Cnut responded by sending a combined English and Danish fleet. Despite heavy casualties the battle was won by Cnut. Following victory at the Battle of Helgea over King Olaf II of Norway, Cnut became King of Norway. He was now King of England, Denmark and Norway and became referred to as Cnut the Great Cnut lost the Kingdom of Norway to Magnus the Good 1035 (12th November) King Cnut died. His son and nominated heir, Harthacnut, was in Denmark claiming the Danish throne and unable to return to England immediately. The English throne was therefore taken by Harold Harefoot , son of Aethelred the Unready by his first wife. King Harold Harefoot of England died. He was succeeded by his Danish half-brother, Harthacnut 1042 (8th June) King Harthacnut of England died and Edward the Confessor , son of Aethelred the Unready became King of England. Magnus the Good became King of Norway and Denmark. 1047 (25th October) Magnus the Good died. Sweyn Estridsson became King of Denmark and Harald III, known as Hardrada became King of Norway. Oslo was founded in Norway. 1066 (5th January) 1066 (25th September) Harald Hardrada invaded England. He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. This was the last Viking invasion of England. 1066 (14th October) William of Normandy defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. 1066 (25th December) Harvard Reference for this page: Heather Y Wheeler. (2018). The Viking Age 789 – 1066. Available: https://www.totallytimelines.com/the-viking-age-789-1066 Last accessed January 19th, 2020	<urn:uuid:bd63756e-d48f-4941-b832-357cfade8ce3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.totallytimelines.com/the-viking-age-789-1066/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00474.warc.gz	en	0.981598	5,741	3.625	4	[ -0.06284695118665695, 0.27176305651664734, -0.018334900960326195, -0.2357524335384369, 0.05389242246747017, 0.051333170384168625, -0.48884570598602295, 0.0702785775065422, 0.32584142684936523, -0.2343793511390686, 0.21610115468502045, -0.538372278213501, 0.010249365121126175, 0.16048797965...	1	The first Viking invasion was in 793 when the Vikings raided the monastery at Lindisfarne. The last was Harald Hardrada’s attempt to take the English throne in 1066. A Viking force landed at Portland, Dorset. When the local reeve went to meet them he was killed. However, this was not an invasionary force but may have been a force that got blown off course. 793 (8th June) A Viking force attacked the monastery on Lindisfarne, Northumbria. They destroyed the abbey, killed a large number of monks and took others as slaves. A Viking force attacked the island of Iona, Scotland. The Vikings first raided Ireland. They attacked monasteries on the west coast. The Vikings began to make raids on France. King Charlemagne of the Franks began organising defence of the French coast. The Vikings attacked Iona again. Iona was attacked for the third time. This time a large number of monks were killed and the rest fled to Kells, Ireland. They took with them a beautifully illustrated manuscript which became known as the Book of Kells. The Vikings founded Limerick in Ireland. Floki of Rogaland discovered Iceland north of the Faeroe Islands. Armagh in Ireland was raided by a large Viking force of around 120 ships. Battle of Carhampton The Vikings attacked North Devon and Somerset. King Egbert of Wessex tried to defeat them but he was forced to retreat. Battle of Hingston Down King Egbert fought a combined force of Vikings and Cornishmen and was victorious. A force of 60 Viking longships sailed up the river Boyne while a further 60 navigated the river Liffey. They began ravaging Ireland. Viking settlers founded Dublin in Ireland. King Egbert of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelwulf The Vikings began making raids along the south coast of England. A Viking force attacked Nantes in France. They then moved on to Tours. A Viking force attacked Seville, Spain, but were defeated. A Viking force led by the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok , made raids into France. They were paid 7,000 pounds of silver to leave Paris alone. The Vikings spent the winter on the island of Thanet rather than returning to Denmark. This was the first time they had overwintered in England. A Danish Viking force took Frisia (north-west Netherlands). King Aethelwulf’s son, Aethelstan, defeated a Viking force off the coast of Sandwich. Ivar the Boneless landed in Dublin and, supported by Olaf the White, took control of the Viking settlement there. The Vikings established Waterford in southern Ireland. 858 (13th January) King Aethelwulf of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his son Aethelbald Hastein, Danish Viking Chief, accompanied by Bjorn Ironside , son of the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok, led a fleet of 60 ships and raided the coast of northern France. Bjorn and Hastein, continued to the Mediterranean where they beseiged and then sacked the town of Algeciras. Bjorn and Hastein, began raiding the south coast of France and northern Italy. They captured Pisa and then marched inland as far as Luni, which they believed to be Rome. They lay siege to the city and then Bjorn sent a message to the bishop of the city stating that Bjorn had died but had converted to Christianity and wanted to be buried in consecrated ground. He put himself into a coffin and was carried inside the city. He then jumped out of the coffin, opened the city gates and let him men enter the city. He was disappointed to find that the city was not Rome. A force of Rus Vikings attacked Constantinople (Istanbul). 860 (20th December) King Aethelbald of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his brother Aethelberht Bjorn and Hastein raided Sicily before making a series of raids along the North African coast. Bjorn and Hastein were defeated by a Muslim fleet in the Straits of Gibraltar. Although they suffered heavy losses both men survived and sailed to the Loire in France. The Rus Viking, Ulrich, founded Novgorod in Russia. The legendary Viking leader, Ragnar Lothbrok, was killed by King Aelle of Northumbria. Legend states that he was thrown into a pit of vipers. King Aethelberht of Wessex died. He was succeeded by his brother Aethelred I Ivar and the Great Heathen army marched north and invaded Northumbria. 866 (1st November) The Danish Vikings in England took Jorvik (York) and used it as a base to make raids into Mercia. 867 (23rd March) and Aelle, rivals for the Northumbrian throne made an alliance and marched to expel the Vikings from York. They were badly defeated. Osberht was killed during the battle. Aelle was executed, allegedly by being subjected to the Viking Eagle as revenge for his killing Ragnar Lothbork. 867 (after 23rd March) Ivar installed Egbert as puppet king of Northumbria. The Viking force, led by Ivar the Boneless, invaded Mercia and captured Nottingham. King Aethelred and his brother Alfred marched north, but by the time they arrived Burgred , King of Mercia had paid the Vikings off. A Viking force known as the Great Summer Army, led by Bagsecg, arrived in England. They joined forces with Halfdan and began raiding along the Wessex border. They succeeded in taking Reading. The Vikings attacked East Anglia and killed King Edmund . Legend states that the Vikings tied King Edmund to a tree and shot arrows into him until he died. Later, his body was moved to a place which became known as Bury St Edmunds. A Viking force led by Ivar the Boneless and Olaf the White captured Dumbarton in Scotland. Ivar the Boneless returned to Dublin. 871 (4th January) Battle of Reading King Aethelred and Alfred attempted to lay siege to Reading but the Vikings led by Halfdan had fortified the town with a dyke and palisade and the Saxons were defeated by the Vikings. 871 (8th January) Battle of Ashdown Bagsecg, King of Jutland and Wendland, leader of the Great Summer Army, was killed in this battle between the forces of the Great Heathen Army and those of King Aethelred and his brother, Alfred. 871 (after January) Halfdan succeeded Bagsecg as King of Jutland and Wendland in Denmark. 871 (22nd January) Battle of Basing Aethelred was defeated by the Vikings. 871 (22nd March) Battle of Merton Aethelred, supported by his brother Alfred, fought the Vikings. The battle was inconclusive and both sides withdrew. Aethelred had been badly injured in the battle. 871 (23rd April) King Aethelred of Wessex died from injuries sustained in the Battle of Merton. His sons were considered too young to succeed and so Aethelred’s younger brother, Alfred became King. 871 (early Summer) Battle of Wilton The Saxons were defeated by the Vikings. Harald I, known as Fairhair, became King of Norway. Sigfred and Halfdan, son of Ragnar Lothbork, worked together to take control of Denmark. It is believed that Ivar the Boneless died in Dublin. The Vikings established a settlement in Iceland. The Vikings took Mercia after defeating King Burgred. Burgred fled overseas. A puppet King, Ceolwulf was installed. Harald Harfagra became King of Norway. The Vikings began dividing up Northumbria preparing to settle the land permanently. Alfred made a deal with Guthrum, leader of the Vikings, but Guthrum did not keep the deal. He killed his Saxon hostages and moved to Exeter, leaving the Viking ships at Wareham. King Rhodri Mawr of Wales was defeated by the Vikings and fled to Wales. The Vikings began dividing up Mercia preparing to settle the land permanently The Vikings made further raids on Wessex taking land in Wiltshire and Hampshire. Guthrum returned with a large force and marched on Chippenham. Guthrum killed many of the town’s inhabitants. It is likely that this was the last straw for the Witan and that Alfred lost their support due to the fact that his attempts to pay off the Vikings had not worked. Alfred was forced to leave Wessex in fear for his life. He sought refuge in the Somerset marshes at Athelney. The legend of King Alfred and the Burnt Cakes stems from this period. Alfred summoned his troops and defeated the Viking leader, Guthrum and agreed terms at Wedmore. As per the treaty of Wedmore agreed between Alfred and Guthrum, the Viking leader and around 30 chief Vikings were baptised. Rurik made Kiev the centre of Kievan Rus. Another band of Vikings arrived in England. They sailed up the Thames and Alfred was concerned that they would join with Guthrum and mount a new attack. However, after a short while they left England and sailed to France. Alfred’s new navy won a naval battle against the Vikings, destroying two Viking ships and forcing the surrender of two others. Battle of Norditi The Vikings were forced to withdraw from East Frisia after being defeated by a Frisian army. A Viking force lay siege to Paris, France. A band of Vikings arrived and attacked Rochester in Kent. The town had been fortified by Alfred in 878 and was able to hold out until Alfred arrived with the army and defeated the Vikings. King Alfred of Wessex negotiated with the Vikings and allowed them control of the North under Danelaw. Battle of Farnham While King Alfred had been busy trying to make peace with Haesten, the Appledore Vikings had raided towns in Hampshire and Berkshire. They were returning to Appledore with their booty but were cut off by Alfred’s son, Edward who recovered the stolen treasure and put them to flight. Edward then pursued the Vikings, caught up with them and held them under siege at Thorney. While Alfred and Edward had been occupied with the Vikings in Kent and Appledore, the East Anglia Vikings had sailed to Exeter and lay siege to the city. Alfred had intended to help his son defeat the Vikings at Thorney but had to divert and go to Exeter to relieve the siege to the city. Alfred encircled the besiegers. A further group of Vikings marched west probably to relieve the siege of Exeter but they were met at Buttington by a large force led by the Ealdormen of Mercia, Somerset and Wiltshire who succeeded in putting them to flight and the Vikings returned to East Anglia. Soon afterwards the Vikings in Exeter withdrew and also returned to Thorney, East Anglia. The Vikings were forced, through hunger, to leave Thorney, they moved north to Chester but were placed under siege and forced to leave. The Vikings built a new fort about 20 miles north of London by the river Lea. Alfred built two new fortresses by the river Lea which meant that the Viking force further up the river were unable to get their boats out to sea. 895 (late Autumn) On learning of Alfred’s actions the Vikings abandoned their boats on the river Lea and marched overland to Bridgenorth on the river Severn where they built a new fort. Alfred marched to Bridgenorth and lay siege to the Vikings. The Vikings gave up their raids on English towns and returned to East Anglia and Northumbria. Wessex was finally at peace. 899 (26th October) King Alfred the Great died. He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder. The Vikings made a series of raids on the Mediterranean coast. , cousin of King Edward the Elder, had contested Edward’s position as King. He had gained the support of the Vikings and was made King of York. He received the allegiance of the Northern Vikings. Aethelwold of Wessex and the Northern Vikings landed in Essex and allied with the East Anglian Vikings The Swedish Viking, Olef the Wise led a large force to Constantinople (Istanbul). He was paid a large sum to leave the city alone. 910 (5th August) Battle of Tettenhall (Wednesfield) The combined forces of Mercia and Wessex defeated the Northumbrian Vikings The Viking Rollo was given land in the North of France by the French King, Charles the Simple. It became known as the land of the Northmen (Normandy). A Viking force from Brittany that tried to advance up the River Severn was defeated. King Edward stationed a force on the south of the River Severn to deal with any further attempted attacks. In the Autumn the Vikings sailed to Ireland. First battle of Corbridge The-Anglo Saxons were defeated by the Vikings. Harthacnut I became King of Denmark when Sigtrygg Gnupasson died. A force of Vikings from Northampton and Leicester attempted to take the fort at Towcester but were successfully repelled. A force of East Anglian Danes constructed a fort at Tempsford and used it as a base from which to attack Bedford. They were unsuccessful and forced to retreat. 917 (late Summer) Battle of Tempsford The Anglo-Saxons defeated the Danes at Tempsford. The sole surviving Danish King of East Anglia was killed in the Battle. King Edward defeated the Danes and took Colchester. The Danes retaliated by besieging the fort at Maldon but they were unsuccessful and many died. King Edward the Elder received the submission of all the Danes south of the River Humber. Battle of Corbridge This was a battle between Viking forces led by Ragnall and Constantine II of Scotland supported by Ealdred of Bamburgh. Although the battle was indecisive the Vikings suffered huge losses and only a quarter of their force survived. The Viking, Ragnall, took York and proclaimed himself King of York. The Vikings routed an attack by an alliance of Irish Kings. Many of the Kings were killed in the process. The Norse Vikings attacked Cheshire 924 (17th July) King Edward the Elder died. He was succeeded by his son, Aethelstan King Aethelstan married one of his sisters to Sihtric, the Viking ruler of Northumbria. Sihtric of Northumbria died. He was succeeded by a son from a previous marriage who did not support an alliance with Aethelstan. Aethelstan therefore invaded Northumbria and captured York. Eric Haraldsson, known as Eric Bloodaxe, became King of Norway when Harald Fairhair abdicated. Hakon the Good became King of Norway. Sources are unclear as to why he took over from Eric Bloodaxe. Gorm the Old became King of Denmark when Harthacnut I died. Battle of Brunanburh This battle, fought between King Athelstan of England and the combined forces of Constantine of Scotland, Owain of Strathclyde and Olaf Guthfrithson King of Dublin lasted all day but saw Aethelstan victorious. Eric Bloodaxe, became King of Northumberland. 939 (27th October) King Aethelstan of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edmund The Viking Olaf III Guthfrithson, with the support of the Archbishop of York, Wulfstan, conquered Northumbria and invaded Mercia. The Rus Vikings attacked Constantinople (Istanbul). Olaf III Guthfrithson was killed during a raid. He was succeeded by Olaf Sitricson who was not as strong as his predecessor. Edmund attacked and was able to take back Mercia. King Edmund made an alliance with King Olaf of York. Edmund became godfather to Olaf. Edmund re-took Northumbria from the Vikings King Olaf of York was unable to retain his throne and so left England for Ireland where he became King of Dublin. 946 (26th May) King Edmund I of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Eadred Eric Bloodaxe captured Jorvik (York) and took control of Northumbria. King Eadred managed to re-take Northumbria. The former ruler of York, Olaf Sihtricson, returned to the North of England and was accepted as ruler of Northumbria. Eric Bloodaxe returned and took Northumbria. King Eadred captured and imprisoned Archbishop Wulfstan of York who helped the Vikings. Erik Bloodaxe, the last Viking King in England, was driven out of Northumbria and killed. 955 (23rd November) King Eadred of England died. He was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig Harald Bluetooth became King of Denmark when Gorm the Old died. King Eadwig of England died. He was succeeded by his brother Edgar Hakon the Good, regent for Harald Greycloak in Noway, died. Harald Greycloak died. Harald Bluetooth took the throne of Norway. King Edgar received the submission of eight kings of the North, including the Kings of Scotland and Strathclyde at Chester thus strengthening his position. 975 (8th July) King Edgar of England died. He was succeeded by his son Edward King Edward of England was murdered by supporters of his step-brother, Aethelred at Corfe Castle. He is known as Edward the Martyr. He was succeeded by his half-brother Aethelred, known as Unready There were Danish Viking raids on Chester and Southampton. There were Danish Viking raids on Devon and Cornwall. There were Danish Viking raids on Dorset. Erik the Red, who had been banished from Iceland, discovered Greenland. Harald Bluetooth, King of Denmark and Norway died. He was succeeded by his son, Sweyn Forkbeard. Viking ships reached Newfoundland. 991 (10th August) Battle of Maldon Byrhtnoth of Essex was defeated by the Danish Vikings led by Olaf Tryggvason. Following the Viking victory at Maldon King Aethelred was forced to pay the Vikings £10,000 pounds (3.3 kg of silver) to make them leave Wessex alone. The payment was known as a Danegeld. A party of Viking raiders sailed up the River Thames and put London under siege. King Aethelred was forced to make another Danegeld payment to make the raiders leave. This time the Viking leader Olaf Trygvasson, demanded £16,000 (5.3 kg of silver) Olaf Trygvason became King Olaf of Norway. King Olaf of Norway and Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark made a joint invasion on London. It was unsuccessful but they made several raids on the south of England. Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, reached North America becomming the first European to reach the New World. Olaf I of Norway was killed in battle by Sweyn Forkbeard. Norway came under Danish rule. St Brice’s Day Massacre King Aethelred ordered the massacre of all Danes living in England. He hoped that by ridding England of Danes he would minimise the risk of attack from within. A significant number of Danes were killed including the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard. Sweyn Forkbeard and a party of Vikings raided the South coast retaliation for the St Brice’s day massacre. They gained control of land from Exeter to Hampshire. King Aethelred had no choice but to pay the Danes to leave his land alone. The Danegled demanded was £24,000 (8kg of silver). Sweyn Forkbeard destroyed the town of Norwich. Sweyn Forkbeard and the Vikings returned and made a series of raids on Kent and Sussex. King Aethelred was unable to raise sufficient forces to defeat the Vikings and so was forced to make another Danegeld payment to keep the Vikings away. The sum demanded this time was £36,000 (12 kg of silver). King Aethelred decided that he could not keep paying off the Danes and so decided to build a new fleet of ships. A group of Vikings led by Thorkell the Tall made a series of devastating raids on the coast. King Aethelred was unable to defeat the Vikings using his new ships because his Captain, Wulfnoth had taken 20 boats on a piracy mission. Another Captain, Brihtric, who had tried to stop Wulfnoth had run several ships aground. The Danes invaded East Anglia. A battle was fought near Ipswich which left the Danes in control of the town. The Danish Vikings captured Canterbury and took Archbishop Aelheah prisoner. 1012 (19th April) The Danish Vikings in Canterbury went on a drunken raid and murdered Archbishop Aelheah of Canterbury. The Viking leader, Thorkell the Tall, tried to stop the murder but was unsuccessful. He was so angry at his comrades that he defected and joined Aethelred’s forces. King Aethelred made another Danegeld payment of £48,000 (17 kg of silver) to stop the destruction being caused by the Vikings. Sweyn Forkbeard returned and took Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. London alone held out against the Danes. Having conquered the majority of England Sweyn Forkbeard proclaimed himself King of England. Aethelred, Emma and their children fled to Normandy. Sweyn Forkbeard died. His son Harald became King Harald II of Denmark. In England the English rejected his son, Cnut and asked Aethelred the Unready to return. Only the people of Lindsey had wanted Cnut to succeed. 1014 (23rd April) Battle of Clontarf Brian Boru, King of Munster fought the King of Leinster who had allied with the Dublin Vikings. Boru was killed in the fighting. Olaf II retook Norway from the Danes. 1016 (early January) Cnut began attacking more regions of England. King Aethelred’s son, Edmund Ironside , summoned an army but the men refused to fight without authorisation from King Aethelred. Aethelred summoned an army but was warned that his son may betray him and returned to London. Cnut took Northumberland then marched towards London. Edmund Ironside marched to London to try to stop Cnut from taking the city. 1016 (23rd April) King Aethelred II of England died. His son, Edmund Ironside, was proclaimed King Edmund II of England. 1016 (c. 9th May) Battle of Brentford Edmund Ironside managed to defeat the Danish army led by Cnut at Brentford. 1016 (18th October) Battle of Assandun This battle fought between Edmund Ironside and Cnut saw the Dane victorious and left Edmund in control of only Wessex. 1016 (after 18th October) King Edmund had no choice but to agree to share rule with Cnut. Cnut ruled Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia while Edmund ruled Wessex. It was agreed that on the death of either party the other would rule all of England. 1016 (30th November) King Edmund Ironside of England died and Cnut seized the throne of England. Edmund Ironside’s two children were taken to Hungary as it was feared that they would be murdered by Cnut. The three children of Aethelred the Unready by Emma of Normandy were taken to Normandy as it was feared their lives were in danger. Cnut divided England into four earldoms: Wessex – controlled by Cnut himself, Mercia controlled by Eadric Streona, Northumbria controlled by Erik of Hlathir and East Anglia controlled by Thorkell the Tall. 1017 (6th January) Cnut was crowned King of England at St Paul’s Cathedral. 1017 (2nd July) Cnut married Aethelred’s widow, Emma. It was agreed that the succession would be with the children of Emma and Cnut. King Cnut became King of Denmark. Cnut went to Denmark to claim the Kingdom. Battle of Helgea A combined Norwegian and Swedish force launched an attack on Denmark. Cnut responded by sending a combined English and Danish fleet. Despite heavy casualties the battle was won by Cnut. Following victory at the Battle of Helgea over King Olaf II of Norway, Cnut became King of Norway. He was now King of England, Denmark and Norway and became referred to as Cnut the Great Cnut lost the Kingdom of Norway to Magnus the Good 1035 (12th November) King Cnut died. His son and nominated heir, Harthacnut, was in Denmark claiming the Danish throne and unable to return to England immediately. The English throne was therefore taken by Harold Harefoot , son of Aethelred the Unready by his first wife. King Harold Harefoot of England died. He was succeeded by his Danish half-brother, Harthacnut 1042 (8th June) King Harthacnut of England died and Edward the Confessor , son of Aethelred the Unready became King of England. Magnus the Good became King of Norway and Denmark. 1047 (25th October) Magnus the Good died. Sweyn Estridsson became King of Denmark and Harald III, known as Hardrada became King of Norway. Oslo was founded in Norway. 1066 (5th January) 1066 (25th September) Harald Hardrada invaded England. He was defeated and killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. This was the last Viking invasion of England. 1066 (14th October) William of Normandy defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. 1066 (25th December) Harvard Reference for this page: Heather Y Wheeler. (2018). The Viking Age 789 – 1066. Available: https://www.totallytimelines.com/the-viking-age-789-1066 Last accessed January 19th, 2020	5,682	ENGLISH	1
Publisher: Mott Media Item #: N371 Level: Grade 4, Grade 5, Grade 6, Grade 7, Grade 8 Every member of Congress was in his place. The gallery was crowded and people stood along the walls and jammed the hallways. William Jennings Bryan was about to speak. He stood tall and strong, a handsome figure, smartly dressed, in western boots. Everywhere Bryan spoke, excited crowds cheered and applauded. He was called the golden-tongued orator yet he was known as the Great Commoner, fighting for the common people against the power of big corporation and monopolies, fighting against evils in society and government. Bryan could help even the children in his audiences to understand the big issues. "When you buy one dollar's worth of starch," he said in a farming town, "you pay sixty cents for the starch and forty cents for the trusts and the tariff." As a schoolboy, Bryan failed to place at all in the first speech contest he entered. Practicing in the fields and woods, speaking with pebbles in his mouth as he heard Demosthenes of ancient Greece had done, planning all year long for upcoming contests, he began to win prizes. While still a youth, he determined to emulate Cicero and use what eloquence and power he might attain, not for himself, but for those who were oppressed. And throughout his life he held to that decision. A great Christian and a great American, William Jennings Bryan left an indelible mark upon America and upon the world.	<urn:uuid:733c2474-1554-45d2-822d-277bc75d78cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://heritageresources.ca/product-details.asp?id=4148&categoryid=	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00093.warc.gz	en	0.983395	320	3.4375	3	[ -0.4486524164676666, 0.419137567281723, 0.2643185257911682, -0.20822031795978546, -0.6379321813583374, -0.027792682871222496, 0.38124531507492065, 0.2317219078540802, -0.37038660049438477, -0.027238165959715843, -0.01351598184555769, 0.2059750258922577, 0.5849483609199524, 0.36261802911758...	2	Publisher: Mott Media Item #: N371 Level: Grade 4, Grade 5, Grade 6, Grade 7, Grade 8 Every member of Congress was in his place. The gallery was crowded and people stood along the walls and jammed the hallways. William Jennings Bryan was about to speak. He stood tall and strong, a handsome figure, smartly dressed, in western boots. Everywhere Bryan spoke, excited crowds cheered and applauded. He was called the golden-tongued orator yet he was known as the Great Commoner, fighting for the common people against the power of big corporation and monopolies, fighting against evils in society and government. Bryan could help even the children in his audiences to understand the big issues. "When you buy one dollar's worth of starch," he said in a farming town, "you pay sixty cents for the starch and forty cents for the trusts and the tariff." As a schoolboy, Bryan failed to place at all in the first speech contest he entered. Practicing in the fields and woods, speaking with pebbles in his mouth as he heard Demosthenes of ancient Greece had done, planning all year long for upcoming contests, he began to win prizes. While still a youth, he determined to emulate Cicero and use what eloquence and power he might attain, not for himself, but for those who were oppressed. And throughout his life he held to that decision. A great Christian and a great American, William Jennings Bryan left an indelible mark upon America and upon the world.	322	ENGLISH	1
Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online Child labor was a crucial part for the success of the United States. Making small children work for fifteen hours a day is terrible and in no way moral. However, without the children working then the Industrial revolution would have failed in America ,thus, having major consequences. America is one of the leading countries in the world in economics,science, technology, and more. All of this success stems from the Industrial revolution. Without the revolution America would be so far behind where it is today. Therefore, if America’s Industrial revolution failed it would also have great effects on the world. Many areas in the world depend on the US for a variety of different reasons. Thus, if America never advanced to become the world power it is today then the whole world would be completely different. Finally, America would not be as great or successful if there was never child labor. Child labor was a crucial part for the success of the United States During the Industrial revolution there were more jobs than there were hands. The men could not fill all the jobs. There were so many jobs which increased the demand for workers to fill the jobs. Therefore, when there weren’t enough men to fill all the jobs companies started hiring children and women. However, children were not being paid as much as the men were being paid. Of course, children would obviously not be able to do as much work as a man. However, there were so many children in the country in need of jobs; so hiring ten children would cost the same as one man. Children would fill jobs quick for businesses. Children would start working as early as the age of six. “Children performed all sorts of jobs including working on machines in factories, selling newspapers on street corners, breaking up coal at the coal mines, and as chimney sweeps. Sometimes children were preferred to adults because they were small and could easily fit between machines and into small spaces.”(Ducksters, educational site) Children were also used to do grunt work, the jobs no one else would want to do. For example, children might be put in the coal mine which is a not so fun job to have. Although, this is all terrible and children should never be used for such labor, they played a big part in the Industrial revolution. Even with child labor and million of kids all around the country working there were still jobs to fill. The Industrial revolution brought new machinery and businesses that needed workers. There was a large demand for workers in the factories, mines, and construction. Jobs were overflowing into the country. The whole country was shifting from a more agricultural economy into a more Industrial economy. “At the beginning of the 19th century, America was mostly an agrarian(agricultural) society. Approximately six out of seven workers were involved in some type of farming. In 1820, the United States started to shift from an agricultural society to one based on wage labor, which was called the American Industrial Revolution. As the number of states increased from 16 to 34 in 1860, the percentage of farmers decreased to half of the workforce.” (Study.com,Industrial Revolution). Of course, many of the workers were new to working in factories and mines. Therefore, being new to this kind of work the workers would not be as efficient as workers who are experienced. Therefore, they would need more workers in order to be more effective. However, as time went on workers gained more experience. There would become a lesser need for child labor. So, when child labor laws came in effect, all these industries would continue to work well. However, in the beginning there was a large need for workers. If the children were not put to work and jobs were not filled then businesses would fail. The whole Industrial revolution would have failed. America would be so far behind where it is today. Child labor was important for the economy, but it was more important for the families in America during this time. “ When the industrial revolution first came to Britain and the U.S., there was a high demand for labor. Families quickly migrated from the rural farm areas to the newly industrialized cities to find work. Once they got there, things did not look as bright as they did. To survive in even the lowest level of poverty, families had to have every able member of the family go to work.”(Child labor, navigation). These new industries needed workers; and these families needed jobs so they could provide food on the table every evening. Looking back child labor looks terrible and it was terrible; these kids were overworked and underpaid. However, this was life back then. These kids needed jobs so they could help provide for their family. It is hard to think of these kids working; but they were just trying to survive. This goes to show how harsh life can be and how desperate humans can get. Child labor is terrible; but working in these factories definitely hardened these kids and matured them. These children would grow up doing more work than almost any adult nowadays would work. Therefore, when these children became adults two things happened. First, these kids knew how to work hard. So, this really benefited all the industries because they were receiving hard, strong, tough workers. This helped the economy a lot to have so many no nonsense workers. Secondly, a lot of these kids would see this life and be more motivated to get a better education. Therefore, a lot of children become more educated, thus, creating more young leaders and entrepreneurs which also helped the economy a lot. Therefore, the country is now filled with a mix of educated, smart leaders and strong dedicated workers to strengthen the economy. American workers are smarter and more efficient than any other worker in the world. This is because Americans have grit and perseverance due to a long and tough history including the Industrial revolution. Child labor is terrible; but it was vital to both the families trying to survive and the success of the country. Child labor was vital to the success of America, thus the world would not be the same if America did not thrive off child labor. The US thrived off of child labor. Children filled jobs that needed to be filled. The Industrial revolution changed America.Child labor played a vital role in the Industrial revolution. The Industrial revolution directly affected the economy, machinery, science etc. America has one of the strongest economies and leads the world in science etc. This is all heavily due to the Industrial revolution which really shaped America. During the Industrial Revolution “There were hundreds of inventions during this time period…the steam engine, cotton gin, power loom”(Important inventions, Bright Hub), and so much more. These new inventions helped to produce more resources than ever before. These new inventions did require humans to operate. Therefore, all these industries and businesses needed lots of workers including children. By producing so much, America could also trade and sell extra resources. This led to America having one of the greatest economies in the world. America has always been a step ahead. This is because there are scientist and inventors creating new machinery and inventions that push America an extra step ahead. However, at the end of the day America is not perfect and the country still had to depend on every person that could work including children. Children needed to work for everyone’s sake. Therefore, for all these reasons child labor was vital to the success of the US. Also, the US provides protection, resources, trades and aid to so many countries around the world. There are many countries in Africa that receive medicine and food from the United States. There are also a lot of countries in Europe that depend on America for Military Alliance. South Korea depends on the Alliance with the United States to maintain safety from North Korea. Israel receives weapons and money from the United States every year. If America never became the world power it is today then the world would look very different today. Russia or China would lead the world into communism. World war two would not have ended as soon or at all if America never stepped in. America has changed the world in so many ways, so if America never progressed to become a world power then the world would be a much darker place. Therefore, child labor was vital to not only America but the whole world. Child labor played a very important role in the Industrial revolution and thus the entire world. It’s terrible to look back and think about how all those children were treated. They were made to work so hard. Life must have been so hard. There are still children all over the world that are victims of child labor. There are arguments about child labor in the US. It was terrible but very important. Good news is, there are laws now in the US preventing child labor. Plus, the country is still doing great and is still one of the most powerful countries in the world. The US has a rather dark history but a vital history in making the United States. The US benefited from child labor; and the world benefits off the US. The Industrial revolution has changed the world; and child labor played a big role in the success of the Industrial revolution. Therefore, child labor played a big role in the success of the country. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!	<urn:uuid:84332b67-3e1d-4fca-98ea-7678557f862b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/child-labor-was-crucial-for-the-industrial-revolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00549.warc.gz	en	0.980843	2,002	3.46875	3	[ -0.37247639894485474, -0.07353171706199646, -0.07834254950284958, -0.13504737615585327, -0.07099941372871399, 0.5497617125511169, -0.496209979057312, 0.2913132905960083, -0.2794188857078552, 0.22621376812458038, 0.25761935114860535, 0.5243155360221863, 0.10972099751234055, 0.16840878129005...	2	Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online Child labor was a crucial part for the success of the United States. Making small children work for fifteen hours a day is terrible and in no way moral. However, without the children working then the Industrial revolution would have failed in America ,thus, having major consequences. America is one of the leading countries in the world in economics,science, technology, and more. All of this success stems from the Industrial revolution. Without the revolution America would be so far behind where it is today. Therefore, if America’s Industrial revolution failed it would also have great effects on the world. Many areas in the world depend on the US for a variety of different reasons. Thus, if America never advanced to become the world power it is today then the whole world would be completely different. Finally, America would not be as great or successful if there was never child labor. Child labor was a crucial part for the success of the United States During the Industrial revolution there were more jobs than there were hands. The men could not fill all the jobs. There were so many jobs which increased the demand for workers to fill the jobs. Therefore, when there weren’t enough men to fill all the jobs companies started hiring children and women. However, children were not being paid as much as the men were being paid. Of course, children would obviously not be able to do as much work as a man. However, there were so many children in the country in need of jobs; so hiring ten children would cost the same as one man. Children would fill jobs quick for businesses. Children would start working as early as the age of six. “Children performed all sorts of jobs including working on machines in factories, selling newspapers on street corners, breaking up coal at the coal mines, and as chimney sweeps. Sometimes children were preferred to adults because they were small and could easily fit between machines and into small spaces.”(Ducksters, educational site) Children were also used to do grunt work, the jobs no one else would want to do. For example, children might be put in the coal mine which is a not so fun job to have. Although, this is all terrible and children should never be used for such labor, they played a big part in the Industrial revolution. Even with child labor and million of kids all around the country working there were still jobs to fill. The Industrial revolution brought new machinery and businesses that needed workers. There was a large demand for workers in the factories, mines, and construction. Jobs were overflowing into the country. The whole country was shifting from a more agricultural economy into a more Industrial economy. “At the beginning of the 19th century, America was mostly an agrarian(agricultural) society. Approximately six out of seven workers were involved in some type of farming. In 1820, the United States started to shift from an agricultural society to one based on wage labor, which was called the American Industrial Revolution. As the number of states increased from 16 to 34 in 1860, the percentage of farmers decreased to half of the workforce.” (Study.com,Industrial Revolution). Of course, many of the workers were new to working in factories and mines. Therefore, being new to this kind of work the workers would not be as efficient as workers who are experienced. Therefore, they would need more workers in order to be more effective. However, as time went on workers gained more experience. There would become a lesser need for child labor. So, when child labor laws came in effect, all these industries would continue to work well. However, in the beginning there was a large need for workers. If the children were not put to work and jobs were not filled then businesses would fail. The whole Industrial revolution would have failed. America would be so far behind where it is today. Child labor was important for the economy, but it was more important for the families in America during this time. “ When the industrial revolution first came to Britain and the U.S., there was a high demand for labor. Families quickly migrated from the rural farm areas to the newly industrialized cities to find work. Once they got there, things did not look as bright as they did. To survive in even the lowest level of poverty, families had to have every able member of the family go to work.”(Child labor, navigation). These new industries needed workers; and these families needed jobs so they could provide food on the table every evening. Looking back child labor looks terrible and it was terrible; these kids were overworked and underpaid. However, this was life back then. These kids needed jobs so they could help provide for their family. It is hard to think of these kids working; but they were just trying to survive. This goes to show how harsh life can be and how desperate humans can get. Child labor is terrible; but working in these factories definitely hardened these kids and matured them. These children would grow up doing more work than almost any adult nowadays would work. Therefore, when these children became adults two things happened. First, these kids knew how to work hard. So, this really benefited all the industries because they were receiving hard, strong, tough workers. This helped the economy a lot to have so many no nonsense workers. Secondly, a lot of these kids would see this life and be more motivated to get a better education. Therefore, a lot of children become more educated, thus, creating more young leaders and entrepreneurs which also helped the economy a lot. Therefore, the country is now filled with a mix of educated, smart leaders and strong dedicated workers to strengthen the economy. American workers are smarter and more efficient than any other worker in the world. This is because Americans have grit and perseverance due to a long and tough history including the Industrial revolution. Child labor is terrible; but it was vital to both the families trying to survive and the success of the country. Child labor was vital to the success of America, thus the world would not be the same if America did not thrive off child labor. The US thrived off of child labor. Children filled jobs that needed to be filled. The Industrial revolution changed America.Child labor played a vital role in the Industrial revolution. The Industrial revolution directly affected the economy, machinery, science etc. America has one of the strongest economies and leads the world in science etc. This is all heavily due to the Industrial revolution which really shaped America. During the Industrial Revolution “There were hundreds of inventions during this time period…the steam engine, cotton gin, power loom”(Important inventions, Bright Hub), and so much more. These new inventions helped to produce more resources than ever before. These new inventions did require humans to operate. Therefore, all these industries and businesses needed lots of workers including children. By producing so much, America could also trade and sell extra resources. This led to America having one of the greatest economies in the world. America has always been a step ahead. This is because there are scientist and inventors creating new machinery and inventions that push America an extra step ahead. However, at the end of the day America is not perfect and the country still had to depend on every person that could work including children. Children needed to work for everyone’s sake. Therefore, for all these reasons child labor was vital to the success of the US. Also, the US provides protection, resources, trades and aid to so many countries around the world. There are many countries in Africa that receive medicine and food from the United States. There are also a lot of countries in Europe that depend on America for Military Alliance. South Korea depends on the Alliance with the United States to maintain safety from North Korea. Israel receives weapons and money from the United States every year. If America never became the world power it is today then the world would look very different today. Russia or China would lead the world into communism. World war two would not have ended as soon or at all if America never stepped in. America has changed the world in so many ways, so if America never progressed to become a world power then the world would be a much darker place. Therefore, child labor was vital to not only America but the whole world. Child labor played a very important role in the Industrial revolution and thus the entire world. It’s terrible to look back and think about how all those children were treated. They were made to work so hard. Life must have been so hard. There are still children all over the world that are victims of child labor. There are arguments about child labor in the US. It was terrible but very important. Good news is, there are laws now in the US preventing child labor. Plus, the country is still doing great and is still one of the most powerful countries in the world. The US has a rather dark history but a vital history in making the United States. The US benefited from child labor; and the world benefits off the US. The Industrial revolution has changed the world; and child labor played a big role in the success of the Industrial revolution. Therefore, child labor played a big role in the success of the country. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!	1,975	ENGLISH	1
A denarius (plural denarii) is an ancient Roman coin made of silver. Like most countries, ancient Roman coins represented a portion of a larger denomination. The smallest denomination issued at the time was the as (plural asses). A denarius functioned similarly to the United States penny in today's commerce. It was originally equal to 10 asses, hence its name means "containing ten," although its value and silver content decreased through the centuries of Rome's existence. At first, a denarius contained an average of 4.5 grams or 1/72 of a Roman pound of silver. By the end of its useful lifetime, the Roman emperor reduced its content to an average of 3 grams. The denarius was struck from approximately 211 BCE during the Second Punic War to 244 CE. History of the Denarius Over its approximate 400 years of being issued, the denarius lost much of his purchasing power due to inflation. When it was first issued a year's pay for a commander in the Roman army was about 10 asses. Four hundred years later, the pay rose to 1,500 denarii (or 24,000 asses). This silver coin usually depicted an Emperor wearing a laurel wreath on the obverse. The reverse varied in topics depending upon the current political environment of Rome. In the third century A.D., the coin was no longer issued by the ancient Roman empire. The term "denarius" was still used to refer to a variety of coins made in areas of the world that were once under the control of the Roman Empire. There are also several biblical references that refer to this denomination. The silver Roman denarius is thought to be based on the small silver Greek coins that were used in Italy around the 4th century B.C. The Romans later produced their own coin, the "quadrigati," named after the Roman quadriga that appeared on its reverse. Value of a Denarius It is difficult to come up with an equivalent value of currency commonly in use today. Given that this coin is over 2000 years old, the range of products and services available to the common man today is different than it was back then. Some classical historians have discovered that a common day's pay for unskilled labor was equal to one denarius. Roman infantry soldiers were paid slightly less and Roman officers were paid slightly more. If we were to base the value on the relative price of silver, a denarius weighs on the average 0.10 Troy ounces. With silver selling at approximately $20 per Troy ounce, this would have a value of approximately two dollars in today's currency. Therefore, it was a relatively low valued coin when it was in circulation over 2000 years ago. Today's coin collectors must be aware that there are counterfeit denarii on the market. Many of them originate from counterfeiters in China. An extremely rare denarius in excellent condition can sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. A common denarius in circulated condition or one that has been damaged by being buried in the ground can sell for less than $100.	<urn:uuid:808621fd-1a60-414e-9503-e862a64f22b9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/what-is-a-denarius-768439	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00338.warc.gz	en	0.980795	625	3.609375	4	[ -0.14538787305355072, 0.1484760344028473, 0.55097496509552, -0.07625524699687958, -0.0760938823223114, -0.2699334919452667, -0.028177868574857712, 0.2817671000957489, 0.35389354825019836, -0.30024516582489014, -0.20739540457725525, -0.8006694316864014, 0.03751903027296066, 0.19555896520614...	11	A denarius (plural denarii) is an ancient Roman coin made of silver. Like most countries, ancient Roman coins represented a portion of a larger denomination. The smallest denomination issued at the time was the as (plural asses). A denarius functioned similarly to the United States penny in today's commerce. It was originally equal to 10 asses, hence its name means "containing ten," although its value and silver content decreased through the centuries of Rome's existence. At first, a denarius contained an average of 4.5 grams or 1/72 of a Roman pound of silver. By the end of its useful lifetime, the Roman emperor reduced its content to an average of 3 grams. The denarius was struck from approximately 211 BCE during the Second Punic War to 244 CE. History of the Denarius Over its approximate 400 years of being issued, the denarius lost much of his purchasing power due to inflation. When it was first issued a year's pay for a commander in the Roman army was about 10 asses. Four hundred years later, the pay rose to 1,500 denarii (or 24,000 asses). This silver coin usually depicted an Emperor wearing a laurel wreath on the obverse. The reverse varied in topics depending upon the current political environment of Rome. In the third century A.D., the coin was no longer issued by the ancient Roman empire. The term "denarius" was still used to refer to a variety of coins made in areas of the world that were once under the control of the Roman Empire. There are also several biblical references that refer to this denomination. The silver Roman denarius is thought to be based on the small silver Greek coins that were used in Italy around the 4th century B.C. The Romans later produced their own coin, the "quadrigati," named after the Roman quadriga that appeared on its reverse. Value of a Denarius It is difficult to come up with an equivalent value of currency commonly in use today. Given that this coin is over 2000 years old, the range of products and services available to the common man today is different than it was back then. Some classical historians have discovered that a common day's pay for unskilled labor was equal to one denarius. Roman infantry soldiers were paid slightly less and Roman officers were paid slightly more. If we were to base the value on the relative price of silver, a denarius weighs on the average 0.10 Troy ounces. With silver selling at approximately $20 per Troy ounce, this would have a value of approximately two dollars in today's currency. Therefore, it was a relatively low valued coin when it was in circulation over 2000 years ago. Today's coin collectors must be aware that there are counterfeit denarii on the market. Many of them originate from counterfeiters in China. An extremely rare denarius in excellent condition can sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. A common denarius in circulated condition or one that has been damaged by being buried in the ground can sell for less than $100.	655	ENGLISH	1
The nursing profession has traditionally been dominated by females. Vicki Chung from Minority Nurses states that in 2001 less than six percent of the total number of nurses was male, but a decade later the number had increased by one percent. Historically, nursing is seen as being the domain of women and very few men ever thought of pursuing this type of work. Male nurses are new to the profession and are seen as being pioneers in breaking down the invisible barrier that seems to exist between the sexes. Civil War Nurses The Civil War had the most influence on nursing due to numerous injuries and illnesses that both sides of the conflict suffered. There were male nurses, but they did not have any training. As part of the stereotype associated with men, they were clumsy and not particularly comforting to the patients. Cathryn Domrose, in the article she wrote for Nurse.com in April 2011, stated that male nurses during the Civil War did much notable work. However, it was the women that received the bulk of praises for the care they have provided to the wounded on the battlefield. The increased need for trained nurses led to the development of schools and the opportunity for women to choose a career in nursing. Career Advancement and Gender Bias During the mid-20th century, women had an extremely difficult time getting hired for administrative or supervisory nursing positions. Men were seen as the better choice. Some of the other obstacles faced by male and female nurses were: •Women were seen as not having the same physical strength as men •Women were not seen as being capable of being managers. •Males were seen as being better suited as doctors •There were not many chances for male orderlies to obtain a promotion. •Male nurses were not permitted in the delivery room or care for female patients Mental Health Settings Bias The area of mental health is one field of heath care in which the number of male nurses exceeds that of females. According to the National Institutes of Health, there are about three percent more male nurses working in psychiatry than their female counterparts. It also reports that there are more registered nurses with a Master’s degree working in this area of specialization than those with just a Bachelor’s degree. For the most part, the average age for nurses is around forty-five to fifty years old. For these older nurses gender bias played a significant role in their choice of career. Even today, women are being labeled as the “weaker” sex, and mental health settings usually involve taking care of patients who have a violent past. Concerns about women being able to physically restrain patients in the past meant “stronger” male nurses who were more adept at working in psychiatric facilities. Only recently, opportunities have opened up for men who are interested in nursing. They are now hired to work on hospital floors where there are women patients, assist in delivering babies and work in a nursery. Some women do prefer to have a female nurse. Overcoming Bias and Trends Today, a majority of female nurses are earning advanced degrees or advancing to managerial positions compared to previous decades. Career and educational opportunities are available equally to both women and men throughout the medical profession. These changing views will open the door for more female psych nurses in the future. Male nurses will less likely be labeled as strange, gay, or effeminate in our society as our norms evolve to meet the enormous shortages in nurses within the United States. History has influenced the career choices of males and females in the medical profession and positions for which they are hired. There are much more upward mobility and promotions. With the severe shortage of nurses, there is an exceptionally good chance that the barriers of gender bias will be broken down. Showing schools in your area - Fortis offers nursing programs including ADN, PN, BSN degrees, and more - 40+ schools in 15 states including Florida, Arizona, Ohio, and Virginia - All colleges are accredited by ABHES, ACCSC, ACICS, or other accrediting bodies - Fortis Online serves benefits to US military service members - Grants & scholarship aid may be available for qualifying students - Financial Aid - Find Online Schools. 100% Online Accredited Courses - Get Matched to Programs In A Few Clicks! - Earn an Affordable Degree from Home at your own pace - Get College info today. Its Free and Easy! - Online Courses Showing schools in your area	<urn:uuid:fc485ecb-31b4-4e0e-a130-bde4949077b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://educationcareerarticles.com/career-information/career-news/why-are-there-so-many-male-psych-nurses/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00352.warc.gz	en	0.984158	920	3.578125	4	[ -0.22815075516700745, 0.36623117327690125, 0.12999001145362854, -0.3025224506855011, 0.18157649040222168, 0.6698952913284302, 0.11436184495687485, 0.14335112273693085, 0.1733739972114563, 0.15221795439720154, -0.14571896195411682, 0.1487937867641449, -0.15936993062496185, 0.243034049868583...	1	The nursing profession has traditionally been dominated by females. Vicki Chung from Minority Nurses states that in 2001 less than six percent of the total number of nurses was male, but a decade later the number had increased by one percent. Historically, nursing is seen as being the domain of women and very few men ever thought of pursuing this type of work. Male nurses are new to the profession and are seen as being pioneers in breaking down the invisible barrier that seems to exist between the sexes. Civil War Nurses The Civil War had the most influence on nursing due to numerous injuries and illnesses that both sides of the conflict suffered. There were male nurses, but they did not have any training. As part of the stereotype associated with men, they were clumsy and not particularly comforting to the patients. Cathryn Domrose, in the article she wrote for Nurse.com in April 2011, stated that male nurses during the Civil War did much notable work. However, it was the women that received the bulk of praises for the care they have provided to the wounded on the battlefield. The increased need for trained nurses led to the development of schools and the opportunity for women to choose a career in nursing. Career Advancement and Gender Bias During the mid-20th century, women had an extremely difficult time getting hired for administrative or supervisory nursing positions. Men were seen as the better choice. Some of the other obstacles faced by male and female nurses were: •Women were seen as not having the same physical strength as men •Women were not seen as being capable of being managers. •Males were seen as being better suited as doctors •There were not many chances for male orderlies to obtain a promotion. •Male nurses were not permitted in the delivery room or care for female patients Mental Health Settings Bias The area of mental health is one field of heath care in which the number of male nurses exceeds that of females. According to the National Institutes of Health, there are about three percent more male nurses working in psychiatry than their female counterparts. It also reports that there are more registered nurses with a Master’s degree working in this area of specialization than those with just a Bachelor’s degree. For the most part, the average age for nurses is around forty-five to fifty years old. For these older nurses gender bias played a significant role in their choice of career. Even today, women are being labeled as the “weaker” sex, and mental health settings usually involve taking care of patients who have a violent past. Concerns about women being able to physically restrain patients in the past meant “stronger” male nurses who were more adept at working in psychiatric facilities. Only recently, opportunities have opened up for men who are interested in nursing. They are now hired to work on hospital floors where there are women patients, assist in delivering babies and work in a nursery. Some women do prefer to have a female nurse. Overcoming Bias and Trends Today, a majority of female nurses are earning advanced degrees or advancing to managerial positions compared to previous decades. Career and educational opportunities are available equally to both women and men throughout the medical profession. These changing views will open the door for more female psych nurses in the future. Male nurses will less likely be labeled as strange, gay, or effeminate in our society as our norms evolve to meet the enormous shortages in nurses within the United States. History has influenced the career choices of males and females in the medical profession and positions for which they are hired. There are much more upward mobility and promotions. With the severe shortage of nurses, there is an exceptionally good chance that the barriers of gender bias will be broken down. Showing schools in your area - Fortis offers nursing programs including ADN, PN, BSN degrees, and more - 40+ schools in 15 states including Florida, Arizona, Ohio, and Virginia - All colleges are accredited by ABHES, ACCSC, ACICS, or other accrediting bodies - Fortis Online serves benefits to US military service members - Grants & scholarship aid may be available for qualifying students - Financial Aid - Find Online Schools. 100% Online Accredited Courses - Get Matched to Programs In A Few Clicks! - Earn an Affordable Degree from Home at your own pace - Get College info today. Its Free and Easy! - Online Courses Showing schools in your area	902	ENGLISH	1
French artist Henri Matisse was born in 1869 in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, France. is known as one of the most influential and prominent artists of the early twentieth century. Matisse is most known for being a painter, but he was also a draughtsman, printmaker and sculptor. He began his life studying law in Paris, destined to become a lawyer. However, he suffered a bout of appendicitis and was brought art materials by his mother whilst he recovered. It was at this serendipitous point that Matisse discovered art. In 1891 he moved back to Paris in order to study at the Académie Julian, under masters Gustave Moreau and William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Matisse is known for his intense colour, which associated him with the Fauvist movement in 1900-1905. His most popular pieces were created in the decade following 1906, wherein he used decorative patterns and focussed on flattened form. Matisse gained contemporary critical acclaim for upholding the classical styles association with traditional French painting. Towards the end of his life, he experimented with a different medium; using cut paper to form collages. Matisse died after a heart attack at the age of 84 in Nice, France. Matisse’s grandson and great-granddaughter have both followed in his footsteps as artists.	<urn:uuid:4dd868e3-85a1-4ee8-9d52-8727685508f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/henri-matisse/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00369.warc.gz	en	0.985559	280	3.390625	3	[ -0.045631710439920425, 0.21644268929958344, -0.20720277726650238, -0.009073634631931782, -0.20587146282196045, 0.396523118019104, 0.15929175913333893, 0.35727739334106445, 0.299471914768219, -0.3724771738052368, 0.20448723435401917, -0.5960833430290222, -0.05689443647861481, 0.556988835334...	13	French artist Henri Matisse was born in 1869 in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, France. is known as one of the most influential and prominent artists of the early twentieth century. Matisse is most known for being a painter, but he was also a draughtsman, printmaker and sculptor. He began his life studying law in Paris, destined to become a lawyer. However, he suffered a bout of appendicitis and was brought art materials by his mother whilst he recovered. It was at this serendipitous point that Matisse discovered art. In 1891 he moved back to Paris in order to study at the Académie Julian, under masters Gustave Moreau and William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Matisse is known for his intense colour, which associated him with the Fauvist movement in 1900-1905. His most popular pieces were created in the decade following 1906, wherein he used decorative patterns and focussed on flattened form. Matisse gained contemporary critical acclaim for upholding the classical styles association with traditional French painting. Towards the end of his life, he experimented with a different medium; using cut paper to form collages. Matisse died after a heart attack at the age of 84 in Nice, France. Matisse’s grandson and great-granddaughter have both followed in his footsteps as artists.	301	ENGLISH	1
The American Civil War was the bloodiest American War, which placed brother against brother and tested the will of the Union. There were many causes to the breakup of the Union in 1860 to1861, but there are three that stood out the most. Many people believe that the Civil War was a war fought solely over slavery, but the reality was it was fought on several fronts. The three main causes were: the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the decision of the Dred Scott case, and the South’s cultural influenced fanaticism on slavery. In 1854 Kansas territory wanted become a state. The only question left to be decided was whether it would be a slave state or a free state. Stephen Arnold Douglas, the Democratic Senator of Illinois, strongly believed that the people of the territories should decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery. He sponsored the Kansas Nebraska bill and said that Kansas should be split into two states Kansas and Nebraska and that the question of slavery would be left to the vote of the settlers. He called this principle popular sovereignty. The debate over the question of slavery in the territories became more of a problem than expected. Proslavery and antislavery groups fought many wars, each side wanting to gain control of Kansas so they could have more power in Congress. More power would mean more votes for or against slavery. The bill also had its flaws. The law said that the people of Kansas were free to decide on slavery but the territories were not sovereign political units so they were not entirely free. This also caused controversy between the two sections. The wars were known as “Bloody Kansas.” Neither side knew it, but with each day of fighting, they were getting a step closer to the Civil War. In 1846 Dred Scott, a slave from Missouri, was involved in a case that would further the separation between the North and the South. After his master died, Scott tried to sue Missouri for his freedom claiming that since he lived in Illinois and was a resident there that he was no longer a slave, for slavery was barred under the Northwest Ordinance. Also he was a citizen in the Wisconsin Territory, where slavery was outlawed under the Missouri Compromise. Chief Justice Roger Taney declared that blacks were not citizens therefore Scott had no right to sue the court. Furthermore, the court ruled that his residence in the Wisconsin Territory did not make him free because the Missouri Compromise had been ruled unconstitutional. Taney’s controversial decision in the case widened the breach between the North and South and further aggravated debates over slavery. Southern justices argued that according to the Bill of Rights, the federal government could not deprive anyone of their right to life, liberty or property. The northerners were angered by the courts decision to employ the Bill of Rights in order to keep blacks in slavery. This case was a controversy for years. The problem wasn’t that Scott had to return to being a slave but that the decision made slavery a national institution instead of it being a local one. It widened the gap between the two sections, the North and the South, feeding a fire that was to burn the rope holding the two together in union. As the North gained power over the national government, the northern Free-Soilers and the Abolitionists pressured the South on the issue of slavery. In a world where “Cotton is King” the institution of slavery grew at the crack of a whip in order to fatten the pockets of the social elites. Their entire economic system was based on the institution of slavery. That is why they were so fanatical about it and that is why they refused to let it go. When the North went against the Constitution by allowing fugitive slaves to reside in northern states and not returning them to their owners, as was their duty under the Fugitive Slave Act, the South threatened succession. The South now had no safety net and their economy would fail without the manual labor of slaves. The North did require the same type of cruel labor that the South required with the tobacco and cotton fields in their own factories. With the influence of the Industrial Revolution in the North, slavery was fading away. The two sides debated back and forth over slavery. When the North denied the Southern states the right to secession, the South thought the North was denying them their constitutional rights. The two sides stood at Fort Sumter, South Carolina for the first shot. With the first Southern shot, the South succeeded and the Civil War began. In conclusion, the Civil war occurred due to a combination of small events that, had they not occurred, so many lives could have been saved. The diversity between the North and the South really influenced the decision the South made to secede. They figured that they were so different from the rest of the country might as well be separated. Events such as the decision of the Dred Scott case and the signing of the Kansas Nebraska Act were main causes to the break up of the Union but the underlying and most important issue was slavery. Cite this page The causes of the break up of the Union. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-causes-of-the-break-up-of-the-union-essay	<urn:uuid:1be7e7d7-1080-4b8a-906b-93d28ce6f44e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/the-causes-of-the-break-up-of-the-union-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00112.warc.gz	en	0.985587	1,074	4.25	4	[ -0.3052307367324829, 0.3731485903263092, 0.2043030560016632, 0.06212777644395828, -0.10079070925712585, -0.12944388389587402, -0.11565104126930237, -0.11581936478614807, -0.24664336442947388, 0.11760629713535309, 0.11010386049747467, 0.03999883681535721, -0.36899006366729736, 0.57145804166...	1	The American Civil War was the bloodiest American War, which placed brother against brother and tested the will of the Union. There were many causes to the breakup of the Union in 1860 to1861, but there are three that stood out the most. Many people believe that the Civil War was a war fought solely over slavery, but the reality was it was fought on several fronts. The three main causes were: the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the decision of the Dred Scott case, and the South’s cultural influenced fanaticism on slavery. In 1854 Kansas territory wanted become a state. The only question left to be decided was whether it would be a slave state or a free state. Stephen Arnold Douglas, the Democratic Senator of Illinois, strongly believed that the people of the territories should decide for themselves whether they wanted slavery. He sponsored the Kansas Nebraska bill and said that Kansas should be split into two states Kansas and Nebraska and that the question of slavery would be left to the vote of the settlers. He called this principle popular sovereignty. The debate over the question of slavery in the territories became more of a problem than expected. Proslavery and antislavery groups fought many wars, each side wanting to gain control of Kansas so they could have more power in Congress. More power would mean more votes for or against slavery. The bill also had its flaws. The law said that the people of Kansas were free to decide on slavery but the territories were not sovereign political units so they were not entirely free. This also caused controversy between the two sections. The wars were known as “Bloody Kansas.” Neither side knew it, but with each day of fighting, they were getting a step closer to the Civil War. In 1846 Dred Scott, a slave from Missouri, was involved in a case that would further the separation between the North and the South. After his master died, Scott tried to sue Missouri for his freedom claiming that since he lived in Illinois and was a resident there that he was no longer a slave, for slavery was barred under the Northwest Ordinance. Also he was a citizen in the Wisconsin Territory, where slavery was outlawed under the Missouri Compromise. Chief Justice Roger Taney declared that blacks were not citizens therefore Scott had no right to sue the court. Furthermore, the court ruled that his residence in the Wisconsin Territory did not make him free because the Missouri Compromise had been ruled unconstitutional. Taney’s controversial decision in the case widened the breach between the North and South and further aggravated debates over slavery. Southern justices argued that according to the Bill of Rights, the federal government could not deprive anyone of their right to life, liberty or property. The northerners were angered by the courts decision to employ the Bill of Rights in order to keep blacks in slavery. This case was a controversy for years. The problem wasn’t that Scott had to return to being a slave but that the decision made slavery a national institution instead of it being a local one. It widened the gap between the two sections, the North and the South, feeding a fire that was to burn the rope holding the two together in union. As the North gained power over the national government, the northern Free-Soilers and the Abolitionists pressured the South on the issue of slavery. In a world where “Cotton is King” the institution of slavery grew at the crack of a whip in order to fatten the pockets of the social elites. Their entire economic system was based on the institution of slavery. That is why they were so fanatical about it and that is why they refused to let it go. When the North went against the Constitution by allowing fugitive slaves to reside in northern states and not returning them to their owners, as was their duty under the Fugitive Slave Act, the South threatened succession. The South now had no safety net and their economy would fail without the manual labor of slaves. The North did require the same type of cruel labor that the South required with the tobacco and cotton fields in their own factories. With the influence of the Industrial Revolution in the North, slavery was fading away. The two sides debated back and forth over slavery. When the North denied the Southern states the right to secession, the South thought the North was denying them their constitutional rights. The two sides stood at Fort Sumter, South Carolina for the first shot. With the first Southern shot, the South succeeded and the Civil War began. In conclusion, the Civil war occurred due to a combination of small events that, had they not occurred, so many lives could have been saved. The diversity between the North and the South really influenced the decision the South made to secede. They figured that they were so different from the rest of the country might as well be separated. Events such as the decision of the Dred Scott case and the signing of the Kansas Nebraska Act were main causes to the break up of the Union but the underlying and most important issue was slavery. Cite this page The causes of the break up of the Union. (2016, Jul 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/the-causes-of-the-break-up-of-the-union-essay	1,063	ENGLISH	1
The 22nd of July is National Ratcatcher's Day. You might be saying, "Whaaaaat? That can't be true!" I'm here to tell you that it is true. National Ratcatcher's Day commemorates the story of the Pied Piper. If you're not familiar with this story, or if you've simply forgotten it, the premise is this. In 1284, in the town of Hamelin, Germany, a fellow dressed in odd clothing was hired to rid the village of its many rats. Using a musical instrument (it looks like a clarinet or oboe to me) he successfully lured all the vermin out of town. The problem came when the villagers of Hamlin refused to pay the piper for his services. But the story didn't end there. The piper returned to Hamelin the following year. Only this time he lured away all the village children who were never seen again. The now-destroyed stained glass window from 1300 is among the first known records of the Pied Piper of Hamelin story. There was supposedly an eye witness to the event who claims that "130 children were taken from the town by a piper dressed in many colours.” In the 15th Century a manuscript asserted, "In the year of 1284, on the day of Saints John and Paul on June 26, by a piper, clothed in many kinds of colours, 130 children born in Hamelin were seduced, and lost at the place of execution near the koppen." Okay, so I can hear what you're thinking about the mixed up dates. And you're right, the date does vary. Some say it happened on 22, July while others insist it was 26, July. Either way, it may seem odd to celebrate the horrific revenge of the piper. "Depending on where you live, the day includes festivals and re-enactments. Due to differing dates in stories and poems, Hamelin, Germany celebrates the day on June 26th. The event consists of a pied piper leading children through the city streets. There’s even Richard the Rat who gets to tell his version of the story." The Brothers Grimm brought the story of the Pied Piper to the English-speaking world in the 19th century. And you might be wondering if any part of this 800-year-old tale is true. To begin with, the part about the rats is probably false. It appears that these critters didn't enter the story until the 16th century. it is also widely believed that the Black Death was probably the real reason that the children "vanished," never to return. "It’s also entirely possible that the youngsters were part of migration eastward, possibly to Transylvania of all places." We'll probably never know. Nonetheless, it's an interesting if not sad tale that endures to this today. I might add here that in Land of Lily Pad, the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin is also told. But in our retelling of it, there were (of course) a few frogs that got lured away along with the rats. many of you may not feel that National Ratcatcher's Day is worthy of celebrating, but if you are a fan of this day, it might offer you an opportunity to reread this classic tale. Please join me back here tomorrow for a look at new ways to think about time...something none of us ever has enough of! Until then, I wish you a glorious week.	<urn:uuid:99d720cc-7464-4eb1-87a8-9482429165bf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.irwinquagmirewart.com/irwin-the-frogs-little-blog/a-kinda-weird-day-to-celebrate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00375.warc.gz	en	0.980102	724	3.34375	3	[ 0.011243481189012527, 0.20458242297172546, -0.12222836911678314, 0.12446970492601395, -0.04150077700614929, 0.3038579821586609, 0.14514616131782532, 0.14911356568336487, -0.48891839385032654, 0.12336638569831848, -0.0071372976526618, 0.025785911828279495, 0.25595197081565857, 0.35465574264...	9	The 22nd of July is National Ratcatcher's Day. You might be saying, "Whaaaaat? That can't be true!" I'm here to tell you that it is true. National Ratcatcher's Day commemorates the story of the Pied Piper. If you're not familiar with this story, or if you've simply forgotten it, the premise is this. In 1284, in the town of Hamelin, Germany, a fellow dressed in odd clothing was hired to rid the village of its many rats. Using a musical instrument (it looks like a clarinet or oboe to me) he successfully lured all the vermin out of town. The problem came when the villagers of Hamlin refused to pay the piper for his services. But the story didn't end there. The piper returned to Hamelin the following year. Only this time he lured away all the village children who were never seen again. The now-destroyed stained glass window from 1300 is among the first known records of the Pied Piper of Hamelin story. There was supposedly an eye witness to the event who claims that "130 children were taken from the town by a piper dressed in many colours.” In the 15th Century a manuscript asserted, "In the year of 1284, on the day of Saints John and Paul on June 26, by a piper, clothed in many kinds of colours, 130 children born in Hamelin were seduced, and lost at the place of execution near the koppen." Okay, so I can hear what you're thinking about the mixed up dates. And you're right, the date does vary. Some say it happened on 22, July while others insist it was 26, July. Either way, it may seem odd to celebrate the horrific revenge of the piper. "Depending on where you live, the day includes festivals and re-enactments. Due to differing dates in stories and poems, Hamelin, Germany celebrates the day on June 26th. The event consists of a pied piper leading children through the city streets. There’s even Richard the Rat who gets to tell his version of the story." The Brothers Grimm brought the story of the Pied Piper to the English-speaking world in the 19th century. And you might be wondering if any part of this 800-year-old tale is true. To begin with, the part about the rats is probably false. It appears that these critters didn't enter the story until the 16th century. it is also widely believed that the Black Death was probably the real reason that the children "vanished," never to return. "It’s also entirely possible that the youngsters were part of migration eastward, possibly to Transylvania of all places." We'll probably never know. Nonetheless, it's an interesting if not sad tale that endures to this today. I might add here that in Land of Lily Pad, the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin is also told. But in our retelling of it, there were (of course) a few frogs that got lured away along with the rats. many of you may not feel that National Ratcatcher's Day is worthy of celebrating, but if you are a fan of this day, it might offer you an opportunity to reread this classic tale. Please join me back here tomorrow for a look at new ways to think about time...something none of us ever has enough of! Until then, I wish you a glorious week.	741	ENGLISH	1
October 9 2012 Salem Witch Trials Who is a witch? Is she a magical being derived from fairytales? Is she a figment of a child’s imagination? What about a character from a book? These are many different ways to perceive witches, but in no way are any of the real. To the people of Salem in 1692 these storybook witches became real. It became a time of fear. It was a time when reality and imagination collided. Salem, Massachusetts 1688 is where the trials begin. The trials were a great test for the Boston Puritans of the time. The trouble started in the summer of 1688. A thirteen-year-old Martha Goodwin noticed that some of her families clothing was missing. She accused the washerwoman. The washerwoman’s mother, Glover, angry cursed Martha. The terrible words Glover spoke seemed to infect Martha. Shortly after Martha and her younger siblings fell into fits. Later a minister wrote “it would have broke a heart of stone to see their agonies” (Aronson 23). The Goodwin family called in a physician whose only explanation was witchcraft. It was easy to guess who had afflicted the children. Glover often named as Mary was exactly what Puritans thought of as a witch. The New England Puritans saw themselves a spiritual community and feared being attacked by the devil. Witches to them were people who had made pacts with the devil. On a popular level, a witch was person who could do harm through magical means (Aronson, 31). The witch was generally an older woman who did not fit it in. She had few or no children, yet would own property. A person who was bitter, angry, and disrupted the harmony of life was easily accused of being a witch. Glover easily fit the picture of a witch as she was an angry older woman. Six years previous a dying woman had told another woman that Glover had bewitched her to death. As the woman was getting ready to testify these claims her son was assaulted by a black thing in a blue cap. Glover may have been a poor old lady but she seemed to be able to cause much harm to others. Cotton Mather the new minister came to aid the Goodwin children. If anybody could help them it was believed to be him. Mather knew that a tangle with a witch was an opportunity for reminding the people of New England why they were there. He realized that this event was leading to a momentous cause. It was a test and a rallying point for the New England Puritans. After seeing the afflicted Goodwin children Mather set out to reveal Glover for what he believed she was. Firstly he tried a simple test. If she was not working with the devil than he believed she should be able to recite the Lord’s Prayer. Glover butchered line after line and soon after was brought to trial. Suddenly a complication arose Glover claimed that she could not understand English only Gaelic. This was not hard to believe as Glover was from Ireland and was a Catholic. But with an interpreter she confessed all and several articles of evidence were found. The evidence was many rag puppets and small images. These were believed to be props of witches. By trading ones soul they could become a puppet master and control others through their puppets. But by losing one’s soul they would become essentially a puppet of the devil. Despite the evidence found in Glover’s home judges were hesitant in their analysis. So they tried another test. This time they brought glover her puppets. If she was not a witch nothing would happen to the accursed when she touched them. But when Glover held her puppets the Goodwin children fell into fits once more and Glover was sent to jail. Mather saw this as an opportunity. Many ministers of the time would question witches about the devil to find others that the devil may have condemned. Mather using this strategy went to visit Glover in jail. Here Glover admitted to meeting her prince, the devil and four others. Convicted of being a witch Glover was properly hanged unlike being burned in Europe. Before her death Glover warned that her death would not help aide the Goodwin children. The Goodwin children still fell into fits of pain which their father reasoned was because he had not been harsh enough a parent to them. With one witch gone Mather was now using the words of the afflicted to find other witches. John Goodwin age eleven said that he could see four evil shapes in the room with him that he could almost name. Mather tried another test. If the invisible forms were from a human being than by hitting the invisible being the human responsible should have injury. Soon after the test an obnoxious woman whose identity is unknown developed a wound. Mather continued to help the Goodwin children till their fits were gone. But Mather never revealed any other witches he may have found in the process. To the Puritans of Salem this was a success. A witch had been discovered, led to confess and later killed; four children had been afflicted, but all were healed (Aronson 38). The following trials were very similar to this one. Children seemed to be disturbed by a evil spirit and the accused was prisoned on flimsy evidence. As the trials went on accusers became more extravagant in their claims. In court rooms the cursed would suddenly fall into fits and scream at the accused. Later during trials wounds would magically appear on the cursed. Was it that no one noticed the pin sticking through their lip as they walked in or that they carefully put it in during the trials un-noticed. People accused of being witches that confessed were often not punished as harshly. One of the few was Tituba, a slave from Barbados. Tituba was accused the same time as another; after seeing that claiming one was not guilty did not work Tituba confessed. Tituba spread many supernatural stories to the court. She told of a creature that had a head of a woman, two legs and wings, another creature was a hairy being that walked like man. Many of her other mythological creatures were from South American folktales. Tituba talked about a terrifying bird which showed up again and again the later trilas. Tituba also spoke of a man. He was a tall man dressed in black who seemed to be the satanic ringleader. The last Tituba spoke of was the Devil. She warned people of him telling them to watch out for a man with a dark book. When questioned about the Devil’s book the only names Tituba claimed to see were Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne. Both Sarah’s were already on trial for being witches and this cemented their fates. Tituba’s trial was for many of the later trials a starting point. Her stories and the act of feeling upset about what she had done had saved her. She was one of the few who had been accused and had gotten off much better than most despite being thrown in jail. The Puritans of the time did not see her as a horrible witch as they say many others. Though directly Tituba was not thought of much again her role played a major part in the later events. Towards the end of the trials more people like Margret Jacobs and Sarah Churchill had figured out that Tituba’s strategy of confessing kept them from being killed. By May anyone accused knew to confess led to temporary safety. However this was a turning point in the trials. After confessing in court (the cursed seemingly fine) guilt ate at these women. To confess was to lie. And some of the confessors could not bear to have such horrible, deadly lies on the consciences. Sarah Churchill was the first to take back her confession. By lying she fell to tears as she was “being undone.” Only after did she turn to Sarah Ingersoll who was neither an accused or accuser and confessed all. She told that she had never signed the Devils book. But Sarah Ingersoll did not believe her. Yet Ingersoll carefully recorded Sarah Churchill’s admittance and preserved it for history. Margret Jacobs later told that the afflictions of the cursed had frightened her and she had confessed to make them stop. Others later retracted their confessions stating the same. Later at age eighteen, Mary Easty denied all doings of witchcraft and was ruled as innocent. It may have been that she was a powerful figure but also that her statements and logic were hard to ignore for people of the time. The trials came to end when two main accusing figures Thomas and Ann Putman Sr. both died in 1699. Ann Jr. aged now nineteen was now head of her family when she became chronically ill. Worn down by fatigue, responsibility and the weight of her past Ann started to resemble those she had accused. On August 25, 1706 Ann Putnam released a statement admitting that as a child she had been an instrument in accusing several people of witchcraft which led to their lives being taken away from them. That now she had good reasons to believe that they were innocent people. Her statement brings us to believe that she had been part of a conspiracy by her extended family and that all of the accusers had worked together to bring down people that they did not like/ opposed them. What to young girls and boys may have been seen as “sport” had brought great un-justice to those living in Salem. The playing of being the one in charge may have been great fun to those accusing but led to destruction of those accused. The Salem Witch Trials were an awful event in history. They show how easily we can be led to believe things. There are many different theories about exactly what happened. But we know that this event in history was a great production. The decade of trials almost seems like it should be in a story book instead of a textbook. The true bad people frame the innocent and later confess to their crimes. This time of supposed witchcraft was not a book though. It really happened many people lived through great in-justice as they pleaded their innocence. “American Fanaticism.” Witch Hunts and Special Prosecutions. 16 September 2012. Aronson Marc. Witch-Hunt Mysteries of the Salem Witch Trials. Atheneum Books for Young Readers, Boyer; Paul and Stephen Nissenbaum. Salem Possessed. Harvard University. Press, 1976 Le Beau, Bryan F. “Archiving Early America. “The Carey Document: On the Trail of a Salem Death Warrant. 16 September 2012. Norton, Mary B. In the Devil’s Snare. Cahners Business Information, Inc.:2002 Salem Witch Museum. “Salem Witch Museum.” FAQs About the Salem Witch Trials. 21 September 2012.	<urn:uuid:ab25c8f7-0ec3-4717-a039-0c13f306f993>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/salem-witch-trials.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00317.warc.gz	en	0.990082	2,224	3.671875	4	[ -0.26751264929771423, 0.33691105246543884, 0.2540993392467499, 0.3408103883266449, -0.4976181387901306, 0.23240283131599426, 0.5402417182922363, -0.0933404266834259, -0.36017224192619324, 0.18751677870750427, -0.15715202689170837, 0.16222995519638062, -0.6555110812187195, 0.141494125127792...	1	October 9 2012 Salem Witch Trials Who is a witch? Is she a magical being derived from fairytales? Is she a figment of a child’s imagination? What about a character from a book? These are many different ways to perceive witches, but in no way are any of the real. To the people of Salem in 1692 these storybook witches became real. It became a time of fear. It was a time when reality and imagination collided. Salem, Massachusetts 1688 is where the trials begin. The trials were a great test for the Boston Puritans of the time. The trouble started in the summer of 1688. A thirteen-year-old Martha Goodwin noticed that some of her families clothing was missing. She accused the washerwoman. The washerwoman’s mother, Glover, angry cursed Martha. The terrible words Glover spoke seemed to infect Martha. Shortly after Martha and her younger siblings fell into fits. Later a minister wrote “it would have broke a heart of stone to see their agonies” (Aronson 23). The Goodwin family called in a physician whose only explanation was witchcraft. It was easy to guess who had afflicted the children. Glover often named as Mary was exactly what Puritans thought of as a witch. The New England Puritans saw themselves a spiritual community and feared being attacked by the devil. Witches to them were people who had made pacts with the devil. On a popular level, a witch was person who could do harm through magical means (Aronson, 31). The witch was generally an older woman who did not fit it in. She had few or no children, yet would own property. A person who was bitter, angry, and disrupted the harmony of life was easily accused of being a witch. Glover easily fit the picture of a witch as she was an angry older woman. Six years previous a dying woman had told another woman that Glover had bewitched her to death. As the woman was getting ready to testify these claims her son was assaulted by a black thing in a blue cap. Glover may have been a poor old lady but she seemed to be able to cause much harm to others. Cotton Mather the new minister came to aid the Goodwin children. If anybody could help them it was believed to be him. Mather knew that a tangle with a witch was an opportunity for reminding the people of New England why they were there. He realized that this event was leading to a momentous cause. It was a test and a rallying point for the New England Puritans. After seeing the afflicted Goodwin children Mather set out to reveal Glover for what he believed she was. Firstly he tried a simple test. If she was not working with the devil than he believed she should be able to recite the Lord’s Prayer. Glover butchered line after line and soon after was brought to trial. Suddenly a complication arose Glover claimed that she could not understand English only Gaelic. This was not hard to believe as Glover was from Ireland and was a Catholic. But with an interpreter she confessed all and several articles of evidence were found. The evidence was many rag puppets and small images. These were believed to be props of witches. By trading ones soul they could become a puppet master and control others through their puppets. But by losing one’s soul they would become essentially a puppet of the devil. Despite the evidence found in Glover’s home judges were hesitant in their analysis. So they tried another test. This time they brought glover her puppets. If she was not a witch nothing would happen to the accursed when she touched them. But when Glover held her puppets the Goodwin children fell into fits once more and Glover was sent to jail. Mather saw this as an opportunity. Many ministers of the time would question witches about the devil to find others that the devil may have condemned. Mather using this strategy went to visit Glover in jail. Here Glover admitted to meeting her prince, the devil and four others. Convicted of being a witch Glover was properly hanged unlike being burned in Europe. Before her death Glover warned that her death would not help aide the Goodwin children. The Goodwin children still fell into fits of pain which their father reasoned was because he had not been harsh enough a parent to them. With one witch gone Mather was now using the words of the afflicted to find other witches. John Goodwin age eleven said that he could see four evil shapes in the room with him that he could almost name. Mather tried another test. If the invisible forms were from a human being than by hitting the invisible being the human responsible should have injury. Soon after the test an obnoxious woman whose identity is unknown developed a wound. Mather continued to help the Goodwin children till their fits were gone. But Mather never revealed any other witches he may have found in the process. To the Puritans of Salem this was a success. A witch had been discovered, led to confess and later killed; four children had been afflicted, but all were healed (Aronson 38). The following trials were very similar to this one. Children seemed to be disturbed by a evil spirit and the accused was prisoned on flimsy evidence. As the trials went on accusers became more extravagant in their claims. In court rooms the cursed would suddenly fall into fits and scream at the accused. Later during trials wounds would magically appear on the cursed. Was it that no one noticed the pin sticking through their lip as they walked in or that they carefully put it in during the trials un-noticed. People accused of being witches that confessed were often not punished as harshly. One of the few was Tituba, a slave from Barbados. Tituba was accused the same time as another; after seeing that claiming one was not guilty did not work Tituba confessed. Tituba spread many supernatural stories to the court. She told of a creature that had a head of a woman, two legs and wings, another creature was a hairy being that walked like man. Many of her other mythological creatures were from South American folktales. Tituba talked about a terrifying bird which showed up again and again the later trilas. Tituba also spoke of a man. He was a tall man dressed in black who seemed to be the satanic ringleader. The last Tituba spoke of was the Devil. She warned people of him telling them to watch out for a man with a dark book. When questioned about the Devil’s book the only names Tituba claimed to see were Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne. Both Sarah’s were already on trial for being witches and this cemented their fates. Tituba’s trial was for many of the later trials a starting point. Her stories and the act of feeling upset about what she had done had saved her. She was one of the few who had been accused and had gotten off much better than most despite being thrown in jail. The Puritans of the time did not see her as a horrible witch as they say many others. Though directly Tituba was not thought of much again her role played a major part in the later events. Towards the end of the trials more people like Margret Jacobs and Sarah Churchill had figured out that Tituba’s strategy of confessing kept them from being killed. By May anyone accused knew to confess led to temporary safety. However this was a turning point in the trials. After confessing in court (the cursed seemingly fine) guilt ate at these women. To confess was to lie. And some of the confessors could not bear to have such horrible, deadly lies on the consciences. Sarah Churchill was the first to take back her confession. By lying she fell to tears as she was “being undone.” Only after did she turn to Sarah Ingersoll who was neither an accused or accuser and confessed all. She told that she had never signed the Devils book. But Sarah Ingersoll did not believe her. Yet Ingersoll carefully recorded Sarah Churchill’s admittance and preserved it for history. Margret Jacobs later told that the afflictions of the cursed had frightened her and she had confessed to make them stop. Others later retracted their confessions stating the same. Later at age eighteen, Mary Easty denied all doings of witchcraft and was ruled as innocent. It may have been that she was a powerful figure but also that her statements and logic were hard to ignore for people of the time. The trials came to end when two main accusing figures Thomas and Ann Putman Sr. both died in 1699. Ann Jr. aged now nineteen was now head of her family when she became chronically ill. Worn down by fatigue, responsibility and the weight of her past Ann started to resemble those she had accused. On August 25, 1706 Ann Putnam released a statement admitting that as a child she had been an instrument in accusing several people of witchcraft which led to their lives being taken away from them. That now she had good reasons to believe that they were innocent people. Her statement brings us to believe that she had been part of a conspiracy by her extended family and that all of the accusers had worked together to bring down people that they did not like/ opposed them. What to young girls and boys may have been seen as “sport” had brought great un-justice to those living in Salem. The playing of being the one in charge may have been great fun to those accusing but led to destruction of those accused. The Salem Witch Trials were an awful event in history. They show how easily we can be led to believe things. There are many different theories about exactly what happened. But we know that this event in history was a great production. The decade of trials almost seems like it should be in a story book instead of a textbook. The true bad people frame the innocent and later confess to their crimes. This time of supposed witchcraft was not a book though. It really happened many people lived through great in-justice as they pleaded their innocence. “American Fanaticism.” Witch Hunts and Special Prosecutions. 16 September 2012. Aronson Marc. Witch-Hunt Mysteries of the Salem Witch Trials. Atheneum Books for Young Readers, Boyer; Paul and Stephen Nissenbaum. Salem Possessed. Harvard University. Press, 1976 Le Beau, Bryan F. “Archiving Early America. “The Carey Document: On the Trail of a Salem Death Warrant. 16 September 2012. Norton, Mary B. In the Devil’s Snare. Cahners Business Information, Inc.:2002 Salem Witch Museum. “Salem Witch Museum.” FAQs About the Salem Witch Trials. 21 September 2012.	2,231	ENGLISH	1
Trial of Socrates In Athens, the jury system was introduced simultaneously with Athenian democracy in 590 BC. A council called Areopagus consisting of elected aristocrats, ran both the government as well as the court. Pericles and his predecessor Aphialtes, had accomplished one of the greatest reforms in the judicial system that of .transference of the judicial powers from this council of aristocrats, to the heliaea, a law council consisting of 6000 jurors, annually drawn by lots from the citizen's register. Only male citizens over thirty years of age were permitted to volunteer for jury duty. Women and slaves as well as alien residents were not permitted. These 6000 jurors were divided into 10 panels of roughly 500 jurors each. Jury duty was voluntary and each juror served for a year at a time. Pericles also began the practice of a fee of three obols for a day of jury duty. Athens employed panels ranging from 500 to as many as 1500 jurors, depending on the nature of the case. Using a large number of jurors prevented bribery and the panel before which a case was to be tried was decided by lot at the last minute to reduce corruption. All jurors swore an oath by the gods Zeus, Apollo and Demeter: "I will cast my vote in consonance with the laws and decrees passed by the Assembly and by the council, but, if there is no law, in consonance with my sense of what is most just, without favour or enmity. I will vote only on the matters raised in the charge, and I will listen impartially to the accusers and defenders alike."	<urn:uuid:b14eb262-3fcd-4adf-be1c-a157f0e859cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.kireetjoshiarchives.com/teachers-training/socrates/appendix-2/&page=139	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00228.warc.gz	en	0.98366	329	4.25	4	[ -0.5760006308555603, 0.12300900369882584, 0.135138139128685, -0.5171025395393372, -0.5703290104866028, -0.31936898827552795, 0.3371714949607849, 0.016694650053977966, 0.07736553996801376, 0.21501460671424866, -0.3098698854446411, 0.028206562623381615, -0.09309414774179459, 0.25492352247238...	2	Trial of Socrates In Athens, the jury system was introduced simultaneously with Athenian democracy in 590 BC. A council called Areopagus consisting of elected aristocrats, ran both the government as well as the court. Pericles and his predecessor Aphialtes, had accomplished one of the greatest reforms in the judicial system that of .transference of the judicial powers from this council of aristocrats, to the heliaea, a law council consisting of 6000 jurors, annually drawn by lots from the citizen's register. Only male citizens over thirty years of age were permitted to volunteer for jury duty. Women and slaves as well as alien residents were not permitted. These 6000 jurors were divided into 10 panels of roughly 500 jurors each. Jury duty was voluntary and each juror served for a year at a time. Pericles also began the practice of a fee of three obols for a day of jury duty. Athens employed panels ranging from 500 to as many as 1500 jurors, depending on the nature of the case. Using a large number of jurors prevented bribery and the panel before which a case was to be tried was decided by lot at the last minute to reduce corruption. All jurors swore an oath by the gods Zeus, Apollo and Demeter: "I will cast my vote in consonance with the laws and decrees passed by the Assembly and by the council, but, if there is no law, in consonance with my sense of what is most just, without favour or enmity. I will vote only on the matters raised in the charge, and I will listen impartially to the accusers and defenders alike."	348	ENGLISH	1
Joseph, whose father was called Jacob, was the third of six brothers. His parents lived in a large house outside Bethlehem, once the ancestral home of David, whose father Isai or Jesse had owned it. By Joseph's time there was, however, little remaining of the old building except the main walls. The situation was very airy, and water was abundant there. He knew the way around their better than his own little village of Flamske. Time of Joseph First appearing in the gospels of Matthew and Luke, St. Joseph was the earthly father of Jesus Christ and the husband of the Virgin Mary. Joseph's lineage is traced back to King David. According to the Bible, Joseph was born circa 100 B.C.E. and later wed the Virgin Mary, Jesus's mother. He died in Israel circa 1 A.D. After marrying Mary, Joseph found that she was already pregnant, and being "a just man and unwilling to put her to shame" he decided to divorce her quietly, knowing that if he did so publicly, she could be stoned to death. An angel, however, came to Joseph and told him that the child Mary carried was the son of God and was conceived by the Holy Spirit, so Joseph kept Mary as his wife this would be one of the life changing experiences that joseph. After Jesus's birth in Bethlehem, an angel came to Joseph again, this time to warn him and Mary about King Herod of Judaea and the violence he would bring down upon the child. Joseph then fled to Egypt with Mary and Jesus, and the angel appeared again, telling Joseph that Herod had died and instructing him to return to the Holy Land. Difficulties in the life of St Joseph One great difficulty would of have to have been the death of Joseph’s step son Jesus. This would have been a great challenge for Joseph to overcome this sadness within him. That is if he were there researchers do not know if he was dead before or…	<urn:uuid:cc697402-68a8-4e01-a4e2-5bcd8610b970>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Religion-2015-573596.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00506.warc.gz	en	0.992577	407	3.296875	3	[ 0.021837716922163963, 0.19074222445487976, 0.16762715578079224, -0.3470081686973572, -0.08340803533792496, 0.11194682866334915, 0.2844802141189575, 0.2714964747428894, 0.2931675612926483, -0.07581895589828491, -0.07041383534669876, 0.13608403503894806, 0.19963201880455017, 0.28222659230232...	1	Joseph, whose father was called Jacob, was the third of six brothers. His parents lived in a large house outside Bethlehem, once the ancestral home of David, whose father Isai or Jesse had owned it. By Joseph's time there was, however, little remaining of the old building except the main walls. The situation was very airy, and water was abundant there. He knew the way around their better than his own little village of Flamske. Time of Joseph First appearing in the gospels of Matthew and Luke, St. Joseph was the earthly father of Jesus Christ and the husband of the Virgin Mary. Joseph's lineage is traced back to King David. According to the Bible, Joseph was born circa 100 B.C.E. and later wed the Virgin Mary, Jesus's mother. He died in Israel circa 1 A.D. After marrying Mary, Joseph found that she was already pregnant, and being "a just man and unwilling to put her to shame" he decided to divorce her quietly, knowing that if he did so publicly, she could be stoned to death. An angel, however, came to Joseph and told him that the child Mary carried was the son of God and was conceived by the Holy Spirit, so Joseph kept Mary as his wife this would be one of the life changing experiences that joseph. After Jesus's birth in Bethlehem, an angel came to Joseph again, this time to warn him and Mary about King Herod of Judaea and the violence he would bring down upon the child. Joseph then fled to Egypt with Mary and Jesus, and the angel appeared again, telling Joseph that Herod had died and instructing him to return to the Holy Land. Difficulties in the life of St Joseph One great difficulty would of have to have been the death of Joseph’s step son Jesus. This would have been a great challenge for Joseph to overcome this sadness within him. That is if he were there researchers do not know if he was dead before or…	403	ENGLISH	1
Secular games as a festival established in ancient Rome in 249 BC. They celebrated the past century and met a new one. In mythology, there is the following explanation for the birth of secular games: one resident of ancient Italy prayed to the gods to help them find medicines for his children. And then the voices answered him so that he would go to Tarentum and give the children water to the water heated on the altar of the gods Dis and Proserpina. He did just that - his children were healed. In the dream, they were told to sacrifice on the Field of Mars to the gods of the underworld. A more historic and confirmed version says that in 249 BC, the priests of Ancient Rome said that if the Romans needed victory in wars, then they should arrange Trentinian games for three days and nights. The victims, according to this legend, were to bring as Pluto and Proserpina. The Romans heard the priests and held the first games, solemnly singing the hymn and killing animals. Sacrifices were permanent and even described in detail. So, on the night of May 1, nine lambs and nine female goats were to be donated to the gods, two bulls were killed during the day. Also on the list were cows, a pregnant sow and pies. Each victim was followed by theatrical performances and feasts. The sculpture "The Abduction of Proserpina" by Bernini. Source: arteopereartisti. it The games were held approximately once every 100 or 110 years, so the maximum human lifespan was estimated, although some time intervals ranged from 63 to 129 years. After 140 BC. er secular games were not held until 17 BC. er Then they made the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus. At that time, the sacrifices were intended for other gods — the goddesses of fate, Moiram, the goddess of the family of Illytha, and the mother of Earth, Telluru. Games 17 BC. er celebrated on the Capitol and Palatine hills. The secular games invited people (but not slaves) to take part in a major celebration. People were handed out torches, mountain pitch as a symbol of purification, as well as wheat and barley for sacrifices. The altar of Pluto and Proserpina was buried deep in the ground on ordinary days. Up it was raised only during the holiday. In the Middle Ages, secular games acquired a slightly different character - now they were celebrated as Pope's jubilees. Basilier "Ancient Roman S. Games" Image lead: davidderrick. wordpress.com Image Announcement: fineartamerica.com	<urn:uuid:19082c82-3bac-4d60-93ff-8d6a715d210b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.broadwayblogspot.com/315-secular-games.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00504.warc.gz	en	0.981592	547	3.453125	3	[ -0.16177886724472046, 0.8765741586685181, 0.03690182790160179, -0.3195789158344269, -0.5296292304992676, 0.058828867971897125, -0.14495596289634705, 0.16978618502616882, 0.4581928253173828, -0.02369212731719017, -0.4537124037742615, -0.29218029975891113, 0.12857171893119812, 0.235280990600...	1	Secular games as a festival established in ancient Rome in 249 BC. They celebrated the past century and met a new one. In mythology, there is the following explanation for the birth of secular games: one resident of ancient Italy prayed to the gods to help them find medicines for his children. And then the voices answered him so that he would go to Tarentum and give the children water to the water heated on the altar of the gods Dis and Proserpina. He did just that - his children were healed. In the dream, they were told to sacrifice on the Field of Mars to the gods of the underworld. A more historic and confirmed version says that in 249 BC, the priests of Ancient Rome said that if the Romans needed victory in wars, then they should arrange Trentinian games for three days and nights. The victims, according to this legend, were to bring as Pluto and Proserpina. The Romans heard the priests and held the first games, solemnly singing the hymn and killing animals. Sacrifices were permanent and even described in detail. So, on the night of May 1, nine lambs and nine female goats were to be donated to the gods, two bulls were killed during the day. Also on the list were cows, a pregnant sow and pies. Each victim was followed by theatrical performances and feasts. The sculpture "The Abduction of Proserpina" by Bernini. Source: arteopereartisti. it The games were held approximately once every 100 or 110 years, so the maximum human lifespan was estimated, although some time intervals ranged from 63 to 129 years. After 140 BC. er secular games were not held until 17 BC. er Then they made the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus. At that time, the sacrifices were intended for other gods — the goddesses of fate, Moiram, the goddess of the family of Illytha, and the mother of Earth, Telluru. Games 17 BC. er celebrated on the Capitol and Palatine hills. The secular games invited people (but not slaves) to take part in a major celebration. People were handed out torches, mountain pitch as a symbol of purification, as well as wheat and barley for sacrifices. The altar of Pluto and Proserpina was buried deep in the ground on ordinary days. Up it was raised only during the holiday. In the Middle Ages, secular games acquired a slightly different character - now they were celebrated as Pope's jubilees. Basilier "Ancient Roman S. Games" Image lead: davidderrick. wordpress.com Image Announcement: fineartamerica.com	562	ENGLISH	1
Artist's Biography - Pablo Picasso ( October 25, 1881 - April 8th, 1973 ) Born Pablo Blasco on October 25, 1881, in Malaga, Spain, to JosÃ© Ruiz Blasco, and Maria Picasso whose name he took after 1901. Picasso is largely considered one of the most influential artists of the twentieth century. He is best known as the inventor of the revolutionary art style, principally Cubism; and for his contributions as a sculptor, painter, and designer. In 1891, Picasso moved with his family to La CoruÃ±a, where he studied fine art formally, as well as with his father, who was an artist and former professor at the School of Arts and Crafts in Malaga. The family moved again in 1896 to Barcelona, where Picasso excelled at the School of Fine Arts. In 1897, he entered the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid, an academic environment he found stifling. Picasso promptly quit the academy and returned to Barcelona, where he surrounded himself with vanguard artists and writers, continuing to study art informally. Picasso traveled between Barcelona and Paris from 1900 to 1904, and afterward lived almost exclusively in Paris, where he was a prominent figure among his contemporaries. It was there that he met the writer and art collector Gertrude Stein, and her brother Leo, who were great fans of Picasso's style and helped support him by purchasing many of his early works. (Impressionist painters Henri Matisse and Paul CÃ©zanne were also among the Steins' protÃ©gÃ©s.) One of the more remarkable qualities of Picasso's career was the rapidity and ease with which he evolved from one artistic style to the next. His work between 1900 and 1906 was representative of the Impressionist style founded by masters such as Matisse, Claude Monet, and Georges Seurat. He also experimented with a style borrowed from the Art Nouveau movement. The years between 1901 and 1904 are considered Picasso's Blue Period, so named for the dominant use of blue in his paintings. From this period, his most outstanding works were The Soup (1902), Crouching Woman, and Blind Man's Meal (1903). His works tended to reflect the suffering of his own poverty at that stage in his career although he eventually became a wealthy and celebrated artist. Later, his paintings began to exhibit red and pink tones more prevalently; thus his work between 1904 and and 1906 is referred to as his Pink Period. Boy Leading a Horse (1905), Woman with Loaves (1906) and Portrait of Gertrude Stein (1906) are examples from this period. Generally regarded as the first cubist painting, Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon was created in 1907 and represents what stands as Picasso's seminal artistic achievement: the foundation of the Cubist movement. The painting demonstrates a groundbreaking pictorial style that dissects the subject, ultimately creating an abstract and multi-angled representation. Picasso's contemporaries found the new style shocking; and because of this particular subject (the young women of Avignon were referred to as the wayward residents of brothels) his portrayal of them was considered brutish. By his own decision, Les Desmoiselles D'Avignon was not shown in public until the late 1930s. However, despite this initial negative reception, from 1908-1914 Picasso working with artist Georges Braque continued to develop the Cubist techniques that immediately began to influence a generation of prominent painters (Fernand LÃ©ger, Marcel Duchamp, Jean Metzinger, among them), sculptors (Aleksandr Archipenko and Raymond Dumchamp-Villon, for example) and architects (chiefly Le Corbusier). From 1912 to 1915, Picasso and Braque began experimenting with new techniques that evolved naturally from the principles of Cubism. Using papier collÃ© a type of paper glued onto canvases with various other materials they created a new form known as Collage. Picasso's Student with a Pipe (1913), and six different versions of Absinthe Glass (1914) typify this style. During World War I, Picasso befriended poet Jean Cocteau, with whom he collaborated on a production of the ballet Parade. Conceived by Cocteau, Parade was organized in Rome before its Paris opening in May 1917. Picasso contributed the set and costumes to the production, designed in the Cubist style. Picasso returned from Italy with a renewed approach to his own work as well. An infusion of colors and the use of classical forms produced a style referred to as New Mediterraneanism, which borrowed largely from the neoclassical tradition of Romanticism, while still building on earlier principles of Cubism. During the 1920s, Picasso contributed to the rising Surrealist movement, spearheaded by artists like Salvador Dali and AndrÃ© Breton. Picasso's popularity did not cease after this point in fact, it grew steadily throughout his relatively long life (he died at the age of 92) but his dominance as an artist began to wane. From this period, which lasted well into the 30s, Picasso produced a series of â%80%9CCrucifixionâ%80%9D paintings and the highly eroticized â%80%9CDinardâ%80%9D series. During the Spanish Civil War, which began in 1936, Picasso painted one of his most historically significant works. Guernica (1937), was Picasso's response to the bombing of a mostly civilian Spanish villa in the Basque region by Germans allies of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco. His work, begun May 1 and completed in early June, depicted the horror and turmoil of the war by focusing on that singular event of April 27, 1937. Upon its completion, Guernica was deemed a masterpiece. It was displayed at the World Fair, held in Paris later that year, followed by a flurry of international exhibitions. World War II then broke out, and throughout the duration of the war, Picasso remained in France, despite the occupation of German armies. There he was allowed to continue his work without incident, although the Nazis forbade him to exhibit any of his creations. After the war, Picasso experimented in mediums other than painting and sculpture, including writing. Among his works are the surrealist play Le DÃ©sir attrapÃ© par la queue (Desire Caught by the Tail, written in 1941) and two collections of poems. He also worked with ceramics, although his works produced from this medium are often disregarded as frivolous. In 1944, Picasso announced that he had joined the French Communist Party, which opened him up to sharp criticism. His political beliefs evolved from his early experiences growing up in near poverty, as well as from his wartime perspective, and he didn't budge in his commitment to the ideal of communism. Picasso lived with Fernande Ulivier from 1905 to 1911. In 1912, he met Eva Gouell (also known as Marcelle Humbert), whom he adored and made the focus of much of his work. Gouell died of consumption in 1915. Three years later he married Olga Koklova, a dancer he had met while traveling in Italy during the creation of Parade. The couple had a son, Paul, before divorcing in 1935. He then lived with Marie Therese Walter, with whom he had a daughter, Maria. From 1946 to 1953, he lived with FranÃ§oise Gilot, and together they had two children, Claude and Paloma. In 1958, he married Jacqueline Rogul. On April 8, 1973, Picasso died from a pulminary condition in Antibes, France. ˆ© 2000 A&E Television Networks. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2020 Doubletake Gallery, All Rights Reserved	<urn:uuid:afe134d5-75e8-4e79-897d-3538b15f20a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://doubletakeart.com/pablo_picasso4.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00224.warc.gz	en	0.98274	1,659	3.484375	3	[ 0.29421475529670715, 0.2902732193470001, 0.24416233599185944, 0.04393240064382553, -0.4531926214694977, 0.05992460250854492, 0.09246900677680969, 0.2520744502544403, -0.035430096089839935, -0.1539725363254547, 0.2109507918357849, -0.11847923696041107, 0.016513708978891373, 0.47984120249748...	5	Artist's Biography - Pablo Picasso ( October 25, 1881 - April 8th, 1973 ) Born Pablo Blasco on October 25, 1881, in Malaga, Spain, to JosÃ© Ruiz Blasco, and Maria Picasso whose name he took after 1901. Picasso is largely considered one of the most influential artists of the twentieth century. He is best known as the inventor of the revolutionary art style, principally Cubism; and for his contributions as a sculptor, painter, and designer. In 1891, Picasso moved with his family to La CoruÃ±a, where he studied fine art formally, as well as with his father, who was an artist and former professor at the School of Arts and Crafts in Malaga. The family moved again in 1896 to Barcelona, where Picasso excelled at the School of Fine Arts. In 1897, he entered the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid, an academic environment he found stifling. Picasso promptly quit the academy and returned to Barcelona, where he surrounded himself with vanguard artists and writers, continuing to study art informally. Picasso traveled between Barcelona and Paris from 1900 to 1904, and afterward lived almost exclusively in Paris, where he was a prominent figure among his contemporaries. It was there that he met the writer and art collector Gertrude Stein, and her brother Leo, who were great fans of Picasso's style and helped support him by purchasing many of his early works. (Impressionist painters Henri Matisse and Paul CÃ©zanne were also among the Steins' protÃ©gÃ©s.) One of the more remarkable qualities of Picasso's career was the rapidity and ease with which he evolved from one artistic style to the next. His work between 1900 and 1906 was representative of the Impressionist style founded by masters such as Matisse, Claude Monet, and Georges Seurat. He also experimented with a style borrowed from the Art Nouveau movement. The years between 1901 and 1904 are considered Picasso's Blue Period, so named for the dominant use of blue in his paintings. From this period, his most outstanding works were The Soup (1902), Crouching Woman, and Blind Man's Meal (1903). His works tended to reflect the suffering of his own poverty at that stage in his career although he eventually became a wealthy and celebrated artist. Later, his paintings began to exhibit red and pink tones more prevalently; thus his work between 1904 and and 1906 is referred to as his Pink Period. Boy Leading a Horse (1905), Woman with Loaves (1906) and Portrait of Gertrude Stein (1906) are examples from this period. Generally regarded as the first cubist painting, Les Desmoiselles d'Avignon was created in 1907 and represents what stands as Picasso's seminal artistic achievement: the foundation of the Cubist movement. The painting demonstrates a groundbreaking pictorial style that dissects the subject, ultimately creating an abstract and multi-angled representation. Picasso's contemporaries found the new style shocking; and because of this particular subject (the young women of Avignon were referred to as the wayward residents of brothels) his portrayal of them was considered brutish. By his own decision, Les Desmoiselles D'Avignon was not shown in public until the late 1930s. However, despite this initial negative reception, from 1908-1914 Picasso working with artist Georges Braque continued to develop the Cubist techniques that immediately began to influence a generation of prominent painters (Fernand LÃ©ger, Marcel Duchamp, Jean Metzinger, among them), sculptors (Aleksandr Archipenko and Raymond Dumchamp-Villon, for example) and architects (chiefly Le Corbusier). From 1912 to 1915, Picasso and Braque began experimenting with new techniques that evolved naturally from the principles of Cubism. Using papier collÃ© a type of paper glued onto canvases with various other materials they created a new form known as Collage. Picasso's Student with a Pipe (1913), and six different versions of Absinthe Glass (1914) typify this style. During World War I, Picasso befriended poet Jean Cocteau, with whom he collaborated on a production of the ballet Parade. Conceived by Cocteau, Parade was organized in Rome before its Paris opening in May 1917. Picasso contributed the set and costumes to the production, designed in the Cubist style. Picasso returned from Italy with a renewed approach to his own work as well. An infusion of colors and the use of classical forms produced a style referred to as New Mediterraneanism, which borrowed largely from the neoclassical tradition of Romanticism, while still building on earlier principles of Cubism. During the 1920s, Picasso contributed to the rising Surrealist movement, spearheaded by artists like Salvador Dali and AndrÃ© Breton. Picasso's popularity did not cease after this point in fact, it grew steadily throughout his relatively long life (he died at the age of 92) but his dominance as an artist began to wane. From this period, which lasted well into the 30s, Picasso produced a series of â%80%9CCrucifixionâ%80%9D paintings and the highly eroticized â%80%9CDinardâ%80%9D series. During the Spanish Civil War, which began in 1936, Picasso painted one of his most historically significant works. Guernica (1937), was Picasso's response to the bombing of a mostly civilian Spanish villa in the Basque region by Germans allies of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco. His work, begun May 1 and completed in early June, depicted the horror and turmoil of the war by focusing on that singular event of April 27, 1937. Upon its completion, Guernica was deemed a masterpiece. It was displayed at the World Fair, held in Paris later that year, followed by a flurry of international exhibitions. World War II then broke out, and throughout the duration of the war, Picasso remained in France, despite the occupation of German armies. There he was allowed to continue his work without incident, although the Nazis forbade him to exhibit any of his creations. After the war, Picasso experimented in mediums other than painting and sculpture, including writing. Among his works are the surrealist play Le DÃ©sir attrapÃ© par la queue (Desire Caught by the Tail, written in 1941) and two collections of poems. He also worked with ceramics, although his works produced from this medium are often disregarded as frivolous. In 1944, Picasso announced that he had joined the French Communist Party, which opened him up to sharp criticism. His political beliefs evolved from his early experiences growing up in near poverty, as well as from his wartime perspective, and he didn't budge in his commitment to the ideal of communism. Picasso lived with Fernande Ulivier from 1905 to 1911. In 1912, he met Eva Gouell (also known as Marcelle Humbert), whom he adored and made the focus of much of his work. Gouell died of consumption in 1915. Three years later he married Olga Koklova, a dancer he had met while traveling in Italy during the creation of Parade. The couple had a son, Paul, before divorcing in 1935. He then lived with Marie Therese Walter, with whom he had a daughter, Maria. From 1946 to 1953, he lived with FranÃ§oise Gilot, and together they had two children, Claude and Paloma. In 1958, he married Jacqueline Rogul. On April 8, 1973, Picasso died from a pulminary condition in Antibes, France. ˆ© 2000 A&E Television Networks. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2020 Doubletake Gallery, All Rights Reserved	1,772	ENGLISH	1
Of all the great social icons of the 20th century, Nelson Mandela probably tops the list. He is right up there with Gandhi and Martin Luther King, and probably, for the scope of his influence and achievements, he stands rather higher. He was born in 1918, the year that WWI ended, a moment that marked the beginning of the age of African liberation. By 1918, almost every scrap of Africa lay under the sovereignty of one or other of the European powers. The War, however, shook the foundation of global empire, and it certainly served notice on those empires that survived – namely the British, the French and the Portuguese – that the end was nigh. At about this time, the first generation of university educated backs were beginning to filter back into their respective colonies, and it was they who commenced the early organization of black political resistance. It would take another war, however, for the movement to solidify. If WWI weakened the British Empire at the knees, it was WWII that put it on the canvas. Hundreds of thousands of demobilized black troops flooded back to their colonies, disgruntled at the lack of their own freedom, and in combination with the new black intelligentsia, founded the first mass movements of liberation. Prominent in the South African movement at this time, of course, was a young black attorney by the name of Nelson Mandela. Nelson Mandela’s first name was not Nelson Nelson Mandela was born in a region of South Africa known as the Eastern Cape, and he belonged to a language group known as the Xhosa. This is perhaps best pronounced by a non-Xhosa speaker as core-sa, because there are very few people who are not indigenous South Africans who can bend their tongues around the phonetic clicks that characterize southern African Bantu languages. The Xhosa are part of a wider language group known as the Nguni, which also includes the Zulu, and traditionally they have tended to be the most politically alert of South Africa’s many tribal subgroups. The Eastern Cape was the birthplace of the African nationalist movement in South Africa, and Mandela was born into a vibrant black political culture, at a time when the worst oppression of apartheid had yet to be felt. The forename that he was given at birth was Rolihlahla, another name almost impossible for a non-South African to pronounce. Whoever decided on that name, however, certainly sensed something unusual about the child, for it’s idiomatic translation means something along the lines of ‘troublemaker’. In later years, he was probably better known by his clan name, Madiba, but the question is, where did the ‘Nelson’ part come from? Well, in the early decades of the twentieth century, black South African youth were typically educated by Wesleyan or Methodist missionaries, and the price paid for that education was often an obligation to convert to Christianity, to abandon traditional worship and to adopt western dress, lifestyles and habits. Part of the de-Africanization effort was to give young students western names in place of their traditional names, and Mandela’s teacher chose rather randomly the name ‘Nelson’. This practice was usually accepted, but used only in regards to a person’s interactions outside of the traditional sphere. The name, however, became part of his official identification, and the rest, as they say, is history.	<urn:uuid:8e6d153c-c88d-445b-95cd-4ad6f5caf8db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/10-things-you-probably-havent-read-about-nelson-mandela/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00076.warc.gz	en	0.982091	707	3.53125	4	[ -0.3325636684894562, 0.856268584728241, 0.15814939141273499, -0.3140549063682556, -0.20079992711544037, 0.15609435737133026, -0.00714325113222003, -0.19447562098503113, -0.27595216035842896, 0.10392148047685623, 0.5474762320518494, -0.14190082252025604, 0.2337694615125656, 0.25529938936233...	3	Of all the great social icons of the 20th century, Nelson Mandela probably tops the list. He is right up there with Gandhi and Martin Luther King, and probably, for the scope of his influence and achievements, he stands rather higher. He was born in 1918, the year that WWI ended, a moment that marked the beginning of the age of African liberation. By 1918, almost every scrap of Africa lay under the sovereignty of one or other of the European powers. The War, however, shook the foundation of global empire, and it certainly served notice on those empires that survived – namely the British, the French and the Portuguese – that the end was nigh. At about this time, the first generation of university educated backs were beginning to filter back into their respective colonies, and it was they who commenced the early organization of black political resistance. It would take another war, however, for the movement to solidify. If WWI weakened the British Empire at the knees, it was WWII that put it on the canvas. Hundreds of thousands of demobilized black troops flooded back to their colonies, disgruntled at the lack of their own freedom, and in combination with the new black intelligentsia, founded the first mass movements of liberation. Prominent in the South African movement at this time, of course, was a young black attorney by the name of Nelson Mandela. Nelson Mandela’s first name was not Nelson Nelson Mandela was born in a region of South Africa known as the Eastern Cape, and he belonged to a language group known as the Xhosa. This is perhaps best pronounced by a non-Xhosa speaker as core-sa, because there are very few people who are not indigenous South Africans who can bend their tongues around the phonetic clicks that characterize southern African Bantu languages. The Xhosa are part of a wider language group known as the Nguni, which also includes the Zulu, and traditionally they have tended to be the most politically alert of South Africa’s many tribal subgroups. The Eastern Cape was the birthplace of the African nationalist movement in South Africa, and Mandela was born into a vibrant black political culture, at a time when the worst oppression of apartheid had yet to be felt. The forename that he was given at birth was Rolihlahla, another name almost impossible for a non-South African to pronounce. Whoever decided on that name, however, certainly sensed something unusual about the child, for it’s idiomatic translation means something along the lines of ‘troublemaker’. In later years, he was probably better known by his clan name, Madiba, but the question is, where did the ‘Nelson’ part come from? Well, in the early decades of the twentieth century, black South African youth were typically educated by Wesleyan or Methodist missionaries, and the price paid for that education was often an obligation to convert to Christianity, to abandon traditional worship and to adopt western dress, lifestyles and habits. Part of the de-Africanization effort was to give young students western names in place of their traditional names, and Mandela’s teacher chose rather randomly the name ‘Nelson’. This practice was usually accepted, but used only in regards to a person’s interactions outside of the traditional sphere. The name, however, became part of his official identification, and the rest, as they say, is history.	693	ENGLISH	1
Czersk is today a very small village, a couple of kilometres south-east of Góra Kalwaria and around 33 km south of Warsaw but once it almost became the capital of Poland and had not the Vistula river taken a different route then history may have been different. It is hard to believe that this little village was once the second largest town in the Mazovia area, only Płock was larger. That means that it used to be bigger than Warsaw. The first known settlement on this site dates back to the seventh century. The structure of the village we see today dates to the mid thirteenth century. In 1388, the Duke of Mazovia started the castle on the site of an eleventh century structure. It was completed in 1410. Three years later, the capital of the duchy was moved to Warsaw which was better located as it was on the Vistula river. The Vistula river moved away from Czersk due to silting in the fourteenth century, you can see the Oxbow lake in this film. Czersk started a slow decline after the capital moved to Warsaw although trade still prospered in the region and a brewery was opned. However after the Battle of Warka in 1656, the invading Swedes destroyed the town and castle, the latter being left in the state we see it today. One hundred years later an attempt was made to rebuild the castle but this failed due to the Russian occupation. Czersk was stripped of its town rights in 1869 becoming a village and that is how it is today.	<urn:uuid:f0beb8e1-0375-4a67-9356-5f4b6730b47f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.motorhomefulltime.com/place/czersk-poland	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00207.warc.gz	en	0.989313	331	3.484375	3	[ -0.2051335871219635, -0.027518365532159805, 0.06797187775373459, 0.3472839593887329, -0.08296337723731995, -0.2894333302974701, 0.19761212170124054, 0.03807692229747772, -0.5140791535377502, -0.35779517889022827, 0.1049480214715004, -0.6211722493171692, 0.08055751770734787, 0.2050569653511...	2	Czersk is today a very small village, a couple of kilometres south-east of Góra Kalwaria and around 33 km south of Warsaw but once it almost became the capital of Poland and had not the Vistula river taken a different route then history may have been different. It is hard to believe that this little village was once the second largest town in the Mazovia area, only Płock was larger. That means that it used to be bigger than Warsaw. The first known settlement on this site dates back to the seventh century. The structure of the village we see today dates to the mid thirteenth century. In 1388, the Duke of Mazovia started the castle on the site of an eleventh century structure. It was completed in 1410. Three years later, the capital of the duchy was moved to Warsaw which was better located as it was on the Vistula river. The Vistula river moved away from Czersk due to silting in the fourteenth century, you can see the Oxbow lake in this film. Czersk started a slow decline after the capital moved to Warsaw although trade still prospered in the region and a brewery was opned. However after the Battle of Warka in 1656, the invading Swedes destroyed the town and castle, the latter being left in the state we see it today. One hundred years later an attempt was made to rebuild the castle but this failed due to the Russian occupation. Czersk was stripped of its town rights in 1869 becoming a village and that is how it is today.	341	ENGLISH	1
If you have been reading BNR and the recently issue of Paper Money, you will see that Fred Reed had done a wonderful job of outlining how postage and then fractional currency came into being, the laws, the players, etc. But when did it actually first begin circulating? A law was signed into service on July 17, 1862 that began postage currency. The notes were first issued on August 21, 1862 and lasted until May 29, 1863. The first notes were printed entirely by the National Banknote Company (which was printing the postage stamps of the day) and came in sheets that had to be cut apart by hand. It was decided to print them with perforations like postage stamps. Soon after printing of the sheets began, as a security measure, Secretary of the Treasury Chase directed that the National Banknote Company print the fronts and the American Banknote Company print the backs of the notes. These notes come with a small ABC in the lower right corner of the back and are perforated as well. However, these perforations were found to be difficult and inconvenient for the public so the issue reverted to the plain edge sheets. The design of the issue has the 5-cent and 10-cent stamps of Washington and Jefferson as their central vignette. The twenty-five and fifty cent notes show five of the stamps. Five and ten-cent notes were issued in sheet of 20 (4 vertically by 5 horizontally) and the twenty-five and fifty cent notes were issued in sheet of 16 (4X4). When the notes became available to the public, there was a very high demand for them due to the small change crisis. Some cities had to limit the amount of the currency that merchants could buy due to this high demand. Due to counterfeiting, the second issue (first issue of fractional currency) was begun. Submitted by Benny Bolin on Sat, 08/11/2012 - 09:14	<urn:uuid:ade08821-c71e-408e-9d6c-78b4c0b59496>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.spmc.org/blog/august-21-150th-birthday-postage-currency	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00431.warc.gz	en	0.989043	391	3.71875	4	[ -0.695287823677063, 0.12105678766965866, -0.15012261271476746, -0.427835613489151, -0.21832923591136932, -0.03417238965630531, -0.3496357500553131, 0.16885779798030853, 0.11842169612646103, -0.059554360806941986, -0.05048523098230362, 0.35907843708992004, -0.07841473072767258, 0.2380436807...	7	If you have been reading BNR and the recently issue of Paper Money, you will see that Fred Reed had done a wonderful job of outlining how postage and then fractional currency came into being, the laws, the players, etc. But when did it actually first begin circulating? A law was signed into service on July 17, 1862 that began postage currency. The notes were first issued on August 21, 1862 and lasted until May 29, 1863. The first notes were printed entirely by the National Banknote Company (which was printing the postage stamps of the day) and came in sheets that had to be cut apart by hand. It was decided to print them with perforations like postage stamps. Soon after printing of the sheets began, as a security measure, Secretary of the Treasury Chase directed that the National Banknote Company print the fronts and the American Banknote Company print the backs of the notes. These notes come with a small ABC in the lower right corner of the back and are perforated as well. However, these perforations were found to be difficult and inconvenient for the public so the issue reverted to the plain edge sheets. The design of the issue has the 5-cent and 10-cent stamps of Washington and Jefferson as their central vignette. The twenty-five and fifty cent notes show five of the stamps. Five and ten-cent notes were issued in sheet of 20 (4 vertically by 5 horizontally) and the twenty-five and fifty cent notes were issued in sheet of 16 (4X4). When the notes became available to the public, there was a very high demand for them due to the small change crisis. Some cities had to limit the amount of the currency that merchants could buy due to this high demand. Due to counterfeiting, the second issue (first issue of fractional currency) was begun. Submitted by Benny Bolin on Sat, 08/11/2012 - 09:14	414	ENGLISH	1
FREE Catholic Classes German King and Roman Emperor, son of Frederick Barbarossa and Beatrice of Burgundy ; b. in 1165; d. 28 September, 1197. He became German King on 15 August, 1169. In many ways he afforded a strong contrast to his father. Whereas the latter, even in his old age, was an imposing figure on account of his powerful frame and the impressiveness of his actions, his son, pale and slender, was of a more quiet and serious disposition; the former a man of action, experienced, and idolized by his people, the latter a somewhat solitary, positive character, not easy to penetrate, who took his measures according to well-considered and statesmanlike views. Henry VI was great in his conceptions, great also in the energy with which he pursued his aims, clearly conscious of passing failures but never daunted by them. The restlessness which led him ever to advance his aims, and the ambition that ever impelled him to enlarge his empire ( semper Augustus ), often make him appear nervous and not less frequently hard and unfeeling. It is natural that such a man living in such an age should aim at world-empire. And the key to this ambitious policy of Henry's lay in Sicily. Having married Constance, daughter of Roger II of Sicily, Henry became heir of William II upon the latter's death without issue (18 November, 1189). Henry was the legitimate heir, but the Neapolitan princes were in no humour to tolerate a German emperor over them. Precarious as the conditions were for him in Germany, Henry was determined to act at once and with vigour. Henry the Lion had returned from exile in violation of his oath. His father-in-law, Richard Coeur de Lion of England, abetted him in his revolt. After fighting with varying success, both parties were inclined to make peace. This was especially true of the king, who wished to have his hands free for his Italian projects. The peace was a sham. It provided that Duke Henry should be left undisturbed and should have half of the revenues of Lübeck, while on the other hand Brunswick and Lübeck were henceforth to be open cities and two of the duke's sons were to remain at the king's court as hostages. Meanwhile the nationalist party in Sicily had placed the able Tancred of Lecce on the throne. Pope Clement gladly ratified the election of this national king and absolved all the Sicilian nobles from the oath they had sworn to the German king. His successor on the papal throne, Celestine III, thought that he might safely refuse the imperial crown to the German king though his power was steadily growing. By skilful diplomatic methods, and especially by taking advantage of the local conditions in the city of Rome that were the cause of so much trouble to the papacy, Henry finally managed to change the pope's mind. Henry was crowned emperor in St. Peter's, 15 April, 1191. Thereupon he started at once for his hereditary possession, Sicily, at the head of his army. But the enterprise was doomed to complete disaster. While the emperor was besieging Naples, Henry the Lion's son, Henry, escaped from the king's camp in order to stir up the rebellion in Germany. In fact, Cologne and the Lower Rhine, as well as the Saxon Guelphs, entered into an alliance against the emperor. England was the backer of the league. Upon Henry's return to Germany the opposition was fostered by the dispute over the Liège succession. Henry now acted with offensive recklessness in filling the vacant bishoprics. In Liège this led to bloody disturbances. In that town the pope's candidate, Albert, a brother of the Duke of Brabant, was murdered by German knights (1192). The emperor was accused of complicity -- probably without reason. The insurrection now spread throughout all the provinces on the Lower Rhine. The conspiracy of the princes assumed constantly increasing proportions. It was in league not only with the King of England but also with the pope and the rival King of Sicily. In this critical situation Henry showed himself to be an able diplomat and his shrewd, statesmanlike measures checked the formidable uprising for a considerable time. Then an unexpected stroke of fortune came to the aid of the king. King Richard Coeur de Lion of England, on his return from Palestine, was taken prisoner by Duke Leopold of Austria and delivered into Henry's hands. Thereupon the dangerous opposition of the princes was paralysed. The Guelphs themselves were won over by means of a matrimonial alliance with the emperor's consent, a cousin of the emperor and daughter of the Count Palatine Conrad of the Rhine. Richard of England had returned to his kingdom as a vassal of the German king. Thereby the first step had been taken towards a far-reaching policy of expansion. Henry was now able to start on his second expedition to Italy (1194) with a much stronger force. King Tancred had died there, 20 February, 1194. His only issue was an infant son. Henry was able to to enter Palermo without opposition. The day after his coronation his wife Constance bore him a son who was baptized and received names held in especial honour by the Normans, Frederick and Roger. This child was now the legitimate heir to the throne of Sicily. With the birth of this son the idea of an hereditary imperial crown first assumed really tangible shape in the emperor's mind. He was already thinking of the constitutional union of Sicily with the empire. Thereby -- so ran his thoughts -- the hereditary right to the throne of Sicily would accrue to the Roman imperial crown. This plan was naturally the first step to a policy looking towards world-empire and would have divested the empire of its national character. Henry pursued this design obstinately, although as he well perceived, it was unfeasible without the co-operation of the pope and of the German princes. He was prepared to purchase the assent of the German princes by concessions. Consequently he was willing to give up the right of spoils to the spiritual princes and to grant the temporal princes the right to transmit their fiefs which had become hereditary by tradition, to the female line. Perhaps they were only apparent concessions, perhaps it was Henry's purpose after the acceptance of his scheme to extend Sicilian regulations with their princely officials to Germany. The German territorial lords would have been automatically and gradually reduced thereby to the status of large landed proprietors. The emperor's power was so great that at first no serious opposition was made to his plan. But it was not long before the Saxon princes and the Archbishop of Cologne opposed it. Henry shrewdly put aside his great plan of an hereditary empire, satisfied for the time being with the election of his son Frederick as king at the Frankfort Diet. The years 1196-97 saw the Staufian kingdom at its zenith. England and half of France were vassals to the empire, Hungary and Denmark acknowledged the suzerainty of Germany. Once more the national party in Sicily rose in rebellion against the emperor's growing power, and this time it seems to have been in league with Henry's hot-blooded wife, Constance. But a plot for a general massacre was discovered in time and suppressed in a most cruel fashion. The course was now absolutely clear for Henry's policy of world-empire. With Sicily as a centre, Henry pursued a Mediterranean policy that was to recall ancient Roman times. Already he seriously thought of conquering Constantinople and had demanded the cession of territory from the Byzantine emperor. Already the Kings of Cyprus and Armenia became the vassals of Henry. A crusade on a magnificent scale was to crown Henry's world-policy. In fact, 60,000 crusaders left Sicily in 1197, led by Henry's chancellor, Conrad. The emperor intended to follow later. However, Henry VI died at the height of his power. Of this the chronicler of St. Blasien writes: "His premature death should be mourned by the German people and by all men throughout the empire. For he increased their glory by the wealth of foreign countries, struck terror into the surrounding nations by his bravery and proved that they (the Germans) would certainly have surpassed all other nations had not death cut him short." Henry's death in truth foreboded a catastrophe for Germany. FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:fb27352a-8288-4e1d-9038-f6a7c2a64d64>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=5660	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00515.warc.gz	en	0.985042	1,885	3.46875	3	[ -0.27686941623687744, 0.8560582399368286, 0.20636460185050964, -0.14393341541290283, -0.28109556436538696, -0.2757083773612976, 0.13528400659561157, 0.15380358695983887, 0.04612073302268982, -0.2752106785774231, -0.18157993257045746, -0.4352492690086365, -0.061481840908527374, 0.3449184298...	1	FREE Catholic Classes German King and Roman Emperor, son of Frederick Barbarossa and Beatrice of Burgundy ; b. in 1165; d. 28 September, 1197. He became German King on 15 August, 1169. In many ways he afforded a strong contrast to his father. Whereas the latter, even in his old age, was an imposing figure on account of his powerful frame and the impressiveness of his actions, his son, pale and slender, was of a more quiet and serious disposition; the former a man of action, experienced, and idolized by his people, the latter a somewhat solitary, positive character, not easy to penetrate, who took his measures according to well-considered and statesmanlike views. Henry VI was great in his conceptions, great also in the energy with which he pursued his aims, clearly conscious of passing failures but never daunted by them. The restlessness which led him ever to advance his aims, and the ambition that ever impelled him to enlarge his empire ( semper Augustus ), often make him appear nervous and not less frequently hard and unfeeling. It is natural that such a man living in such an age should aim at world-empire. And the key to this ambitious policy of Henry's lay in Sicily. Having married Constance, daughter of Roger II of Sicily, Henry became heir of William II upon the latter's death without issue (18 November, 1189). Henry was the legitimate heir, but the Neapolitan princes were in no humour to tolerate a German emperor over them. Precarious as the conditions were for him in Germany, Henry was determined to act at once and with vigour. Henry the Lion had returned from exile in violation of his oath. His father-in-law, Richard Coeur de Lion of England, abetted him in his revolt. After fighting with varying success, both parties were inclined to make peace. This was especially true of the king, who wished to have his hands free for his Italian projects. The peace was a sham. It provided that Duke Henry should be left undisturbed and should have half of the revenues of Lübeck, while on the other hand Brunswick and Lübeck were henceforth to be open cities and two of the duke's sons were to remain at the king's court as hostages. Meanwhile the nationalist party in Sicily had placed the able Tancred of Lecce on the throne. Pope Clement gladly ratified the election of this national king and absolved all the Sicilian nobles from the oath they had sworn to the German king. His successor on the papal throne, Celestine III, thought that he might safely refuse the imperial crown to the German king though his power was steadily growing. By skilful diplomatic methods, and especially by taking advantage of the local conditions in the city of Rome that were the cause of so much trouble to the papacy, Henry finally managed to change the pope's mind. Henry was crowned emperor in St. Peter's, 15 April, 1191. Thereupon he started at once for his hereditary possession, Sicily, at the head of his army. But the enterprise was doomed to complete disaster. While the emperor was besieging Naples, Henry the Lion's son, Henry, escaped from the king's camp in order to stir up the rebellion in Germany. In fact, Cologne and the Lower Rhine, as well as the Saxon Guelphs, entered into an alliance against the emperor. England was the backer of the league. Upon Henry's return to Germany the opposition was fostered by the dispute over the Liège succession. Henry now acted with offensive recklessness in filling the vacant bishoprics. In Liège this led to bloody disturbances. In that town the pope's candidate, Albert, a brother of the Duke of Brabant, was murdered by German knights (1192). The emperor was accused of complicity -- probably without reason. The insurrection now spread throughout all the provinces on the Lower Rhine. The conspiracy of the princes assumed constantly increasing proportions. It was in league not only with the King of England but also with the pope and the rival King of Sicily. In this critical situation Henry showed himself to be an able diplomat and his shrewd, statesmanlike measures checked the formidable uprising for a considerable time. Then an unexpected stroke of fortune came to the aid of the king. King Richard Coeur de Lion of England, on his return from Palestine, was taken prisoner by Duke Leopold of Austria and delivered into Henry's hands. Thereupon the dangerous opposition of the princes was paralysed. The Guelphs themselves were won over by means of a matrimonial alliance with the emperor's consent, a cousin of the emperor and daughter of the Count Palatine Conrad of the Rhine. Richard of England had returned to his kingdom as a vassal of the German king. Thereby the first step had been taken towards a far-reaching policy of expansion. Henry was now able to start on his second expedition to Italy (1194) with a much stronger force. King Tancred had died there, 20 February, 1194. His only issue was an infant son. Henry was able to to enter Palermo without opposition. The day after his coronation his wife Constance bore him a son who was baptized and received names held in especial honour by the Normans, Frederick and Roger. This child was now the legitimate heir to the throne of Sicily. With the birth of this son the idea of an hereditary imperial crown first assumed really tangible shape in the emperor's mind. He was already thinking of the constitutional union of Sicily with the empire. Thereby -- so ran his thoughts -- the hereditary right to the throne of Sicily would accrue to the Roman imperial crown. This plan was naturally the first step to a policy looking towards world-empire and would have divested the empire of its national character. Henry pursued this design obstinately, although as he well perceived, it was unfeasible without the co-operation of the pope and of the German princes. He was prepared to purchase the assent of the German princes by concessions. Consequently he was willing to give up the right of spoils to the spiritual princes and to grant the temporal princes the right to transmit their fiefs which had become hereditary by tradition, to the female line. Perhaps they were only apparent concessions, perhaps it was Henry's purpose after the acceptance of his scheme to extend Sicilian regulations with their princely officials to Germany. The German territorial lords would have been automatically and gradually reduced thereby to the status of large landed proprietors. The emperor's power was so great that at first no serious opposition was made to his plan. But it was not long before the Saxon princes and the Archbishop of Cologne opposed it. Henry shrewdly put aside his great plan of an hereditary empire, satisfied for the time being with the election of his son Frederick as king at the Frankfort Diet. The years 1196-97 saw the Staufian kingdom at its zenith. England and half of France were vassals to the empire, Hungary and Denmark acknowledged the suzerainty of Germany. Once more the national party in Sicily rose in rebellion against the emperor's growing power, and this time it seems to have been in league with Henry's hot-blooded wife, Constance. But a plot for a general massacre was discovered in time and suppressed in a most cruel fashion. The course was now absolutely clear for Henry's policy of world-empire. With Sicily as a centre, Henry pursued a Mediterranean policy that was to recall ancient Roman times. Already he seriously thought of conquering Constantinople and had demanded the cession of territory from the Byzantine emperor. Already the Kings of Cyprus and Armenia became the vassals of Henry. A crusade on a magnificent scale was to crown Henry's world-policy. In fact, 60,000 crusaders left Sicily in 1197, led by Henry's chancellor, Conrad. The emperor intended to follow later. However, Henry VI died at the height of his power. Of this the chronicler of St. Blasien writes: "His premature death should be mourned by the German people and by all men throughout the empire. For he increased their glory by the wealth of foreign countries, struck terror into the surrounding nations by his bravery and proved that they (the Germans) would certainly have surpassed all other nations had not death cut him short." Henry's death in truth foreboded a catastrophe for Germany. FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	1,944	ENGLISH	1
Struggling through such things as the depression, the Dust Bowl summers, and trying to provide for their own families, which included finding somewhere to travel to where life would be safe. Such is the story of the Joads. The Joads were the main family in John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, a book which was written in order to show what a family was going through, at this time period, and how they were trying to better their lives at the same time. It wouldn’t be enough for Steinbeck to simply write this story in very plain terms, as anyone could have simply logged an account of events and published it. Critics have argued, however, that Steinbeck was too artificial in his ways of trying to gain some respect for the migrants. Regardless of the critical opinions, John Steinbeck utilized symbolism as a forum to convey the hardships and attitudes of the citizens of America during the 1930’s in his book The Grapes of Wrath. The first aspect of the novel that must be looked at when viewing the symbolic nature is that of the characters created by Steinbeck and how even the smallest facets of their person lead to a much larger meaning. The first goal that Steinbeck had in mind, was to appeal to the common Midwesterner at that ime. The best way to go about doing this was to focus on one of the two things that nearly all migrants had in common, which was religion and hardships. Steinbeck creates a story about the journey of a family and mirrors it to that of biblical events. The entire family, in themselves, were like the Israelites. “They too flee from oppression, wander through the wilderness of hardships, seeking their own Promised Land” (Shockley, 91). Unfortunately, although the Israelites were successful, the Joads never really found what they could consider to be a promised land. They were never lucky enough to really satisfy heir dreams of living a comfortable life. But, they were still able to improve on their situation. Another symbolic character that was undoubtedly more religious than anyone else taking the journey was Jim Casy. He was a preacher that was picked up along the way by the Joads. Steinbeck manages to squeeze in a lot about this character, and a lot of the background he creates about Mr. Casy shows just how much of a biblical man he really is supposed to be. So much so, that Steinbeck uses Jim Casy to symbolize Christ. Oddly enough, his initials were not only the same as Jesus Christ, but much of his life is similar to the biblical accounts f Christ. Not only did he also begin his long trek after a stay in the wilderness, he also had rejected an old religion to try and find his own version of the gospel and convince people to follow him. His death, another aspect comparable to that of Christ, also occurred in the middle of a stream, which could represent the “crossing over Jordan” account. “Particularly significant, however, are Casy’s last words directed to the man who murders him” (Shockley, 92-93). Jim’s last words are to forgive the man who kills him with a pickax. He tells him “You don’t know what you’re a-doing,” which is a simple allusion to he statement by Jesus to God when He is being crucified and asks his Father to forgive them, for they knew not what they were doing. In this novel, even the title is a Christian allusion. The title is “a direct Christian allusion, suggesting the glory of the coming of the Lord” (Shockley, 90). Looking at the main character of the story, Tom Joad, even more Christian symbolism is seen. Tom Joad is almost a direct fit for the story of the “prodigal son” from the bible. He is the son that must lead everyone across in a great journey, while symbolically already wandering from the favor of God by killing a man in self-defense. Tom must find a way to forget about this event and continue to keep his goal of getting to California (and his Promised Land) in sight. He understands that he must stay determined and persevere because he is an example and a leader to his family and he cannot allow any internal event to slow him down. Rose of Sharon, the daughter of the family, also has a very religious connotation; her religious meaning is not so much symbolic of a specific person or event in the bible, but more of an example of Christian values. The great hardship in her life was the fact that the child she was pregnant with the whole tory, and the one that kept her from doing work necessary to everyone’s survival, was stillborn. Now, after going through all this, she had to face the reality of living without her child and the reality of her husband walking out on her. Even after all this when the Joads come upon the old man in the barn “the two women [Ma Joad and Rose of Sharon] looked deep into each other’s eyes. Not my will, but Thine be done. ” (Shockley, 94) Rose knows that even though she had lost her own child, she must now take another, and the fact that Steinbeck has her say “Thine will be done” is because she knows that it is in fact God’s ill that she is serving, and that is much more important than any problem she has. Next, the women in the story are an example of the mentality of the “indestructible woman. ” The greatest example of this is the eldest, Ma Joad. Ma Joad stands out in Steinbeck’s work as a complete and positive characterization of a woman” (Gladstein, 118). She is the only character in the novel that appears to be flawless on every level, not just as someone who does monotonous chores throughout the story. She stands as a shining example of a woman who refuses to back down, no matter what the obstacles at hand. Some of he obstacles included Grandma’s death, the desertion of Noah, the leaving behind of the Wilsons followed by Connie’s departure, the murder of Casy, Tom becoming a fugitive, Rose of Sharon’s baby being stillborn, and being surrounded by starvation and depression. She uses al of her strength and willpower to help deal with these tragedies. One of the biggest examples of her undying strength and love is the way she help Rose of Sharon deal with her pregnancy and the loss of her baby. She helps keep the family together, and if that meant giving every ounce of spirit and energy that she had, she’d do it because of the love she had or her family. Steinbeck creates her as that indestructible woman because he wants to convince the migrants of the 1930’s to follow in the footsteps of Ma Joad, and ultimately, mirror the journey of the entire Joad family. Warren French explains exactly what Steinbeck’s intent with having the characters, especially Ma Joad, develop the way they do throughout the novel: The story that Steinbeck sought to tell does end, furthermore, with Ma Joad’s discovery that it is no longer the “fambly” alone that one must “give a han’,” but “everybody. As I wrote in my own study of Steinbeck, answer the harge that the tale is inconclusive, the scene in the barn “marks the end of the story that Steinbeck has to tell about the Joads,” because “their education is completed What happens to them now depends upon the ability of the rest of society to learn the same lesson they have already learned. ” (93-94) Rose of Sharon is another woman who shows indestructibility. She also has to deal with her stillborn baby and all of what Ma Joad had to go through, but she still attempts to continue on and help Ma whenever she can. Bedraggled and burdened, deserted by her husband, Rose of Sharon still drags herself out of ed to do her part in earning money for support of the family” (Gladstein, 122). In the novel Steinbeck writes about she tries how because of the way she tried so hard to help, that she was constantly vomiting, just to keep up with regular chores, yet her spirit remained unwavering. With all of this occurring around her, one of the novel’s greatest Christian allusions comes from her character. In the climactic event at the end of the novel, Rose of Sharon looked at the old man who needed her milk and just smiled. “This is my body, says Rosasharn, and becomes the Resurrection and the Life. In her, life and death are one, and through her, life triumphs over death” (Shockley, 94). She gives herself for that of another, and that is a major Christian principle. Besides the characters, the events in the story are also an example of how Steinbeck uses symbolism. This is the second major way that Steinbeck uses symbolism in this story. There are several examples which show how perserverent the human spirit could be in times of trouble. The trek itself shows how committed to their dreams the Joads were. They had to risk everything just to find work and a place to live. Also, the characters in the story had to adapt o the events that were happening to them throughout the journey. For example, Tom first got his idea of transportation when he saw the tractor at the beginning of the story and remembered that tractors were just now starting to cover the plains all the time, so they must be able to make it in some kind of machine. When Tom visits the car dealer, he comes away with a car that didn’t quite fit their needs, but he made it work. Another example is how the family learns to use every item, the realize how valuable every single item they have isto their existence, and it becomes more and more clear every single day as the ituation becomes more and more harsh. Also, the kindness of the human spirit is shown in Steinbeck’s novel through these events. The main example in the novel is when the waitress in the caf lets the poor migrant have a free loaf of bread just to continue his journey. She is then rewarded with two big tips from the next customers, who are truckers that come through to eat. This is a shining example of the old adage “kindness breeds kindness” (Carlson, 97). Then, when Rose of Sharon took care of the old man in the barn, she ends up symbolically gaining a child where before she had lost her own. These two were both examples of human kindness and in both instances, the people were rewarded for their kindness. These examples are also examples of a major principle in Christianity which is to do unto others as you would like done to you. The third and final major aspect of symbolism shown in The Grapes of Wrath is the role that nature plays in the story. It is unquestioned that nature plays a big part in the lives of the Joads simply because their journey takes place in the middle of the plains where weather, such as rain, can easily become a harsh hazard since there is really no shelter from it and they really ave no other option that to continue trudging forward as much as possible. Weather is shown in this as both a destroying and regenerative force. Steinbeck goes on to depict in lyrical prose the disintegration of the house before the almost delicate onslaught of nature: rain, weeds, dust, wind” (Owens, 79). Nature then knows that the house is no longer useful to the Joads and “reclaims it as its own” (Owens, 79). One of the most interesting parts of this work is what is known by Steinbeck as the “interchapters. ” Steinbeck includes several chapters throughout the novel which simply act as a symbolic reference to some other idea, hat at first glance, have no meaning to the story, but these stories symbolically prove a point for Steinbeck. The first, and most famous, of these is the journey of the turtle. Steinbeck opens a chapter by simply describing a turtle that is struggling to cross a highway. Steinbeck goes through great detail to explain much about the turtle and its own little journey, but he really doesn’t say much about the purpose. That is because it is so clear. The turtle is simply heading somewhere and must cross the road. It struggles and struggles and when it finally gets close to the other side a truck comes by and nocks it across the road anyway, unharmed. The moral is that the turtle made it across, but if it had tried any less, it might have been hit by the tire instead of just being brushed aside by it. Another story symbolic of the plight of the farmer is the ant lion trap which is analogous to the fact that most farmers were scurrying around trying to acquire land and supplies to live but avoid being caught at the same time. Of course, not everyone can succeed, so Steinbeck inserts the story of the Joad’s dog being hit by the truck. Not everyone is going to be as lucky as the turtle in their efforts, and this lesson omes at a price to the Joads. Machines played a major part in this story in the way was created because of the fact that machines were taking over everything in the farming community and workers weren’t really needed anymore. Not only were machines one of the causes of the migration in the first place, but they also directly cause several deaths in the story. It is stated in the novel that “one man on a tractor can take the place of twelve or fourteen families. Through this manner, Steinbeck shows in the plot itself how machines add to the complexity of the situation. He then uses the interchapters to show how much effect they had on ature and animals as well as humans. “Tom sees the No Riders’ sticker on the tractor as an example of how inhuman machinery has become” (Griffin, 222). It is then very symbolic when they meet at the beginning of the journey westward and must meet at the truck, which is seen as the only “real” thing left, since the house is demolished. The truck was never meant to be of any “real” significance in the first place, for it is a machine. Lastly, Steinbeck made great reference to animals throughout the story. He used them repeatedly to show how people were acting and to describe things and events, as well as foreshadow future happenings. One example of the description of people was the reference to Muley Grave’s sex drive in his younger days, when “he describes his first experience as snorting like a buck deer, randy as a billygoat” (Griffin, 220). Then a reference to nature again being like farmers is when the moths circling the fire are pointed out, they are just like the farmers circling a town, looking for opportunity and waiting to enter. Then, animals are also used in foreshadowing death (be it the dog or Rose of Sharon’s baby) by the circling of buzzards overhead. Steinbeck loved to use more minor events in nature to explain the trials and tribulations of the Joads. Although Steinbeck created this highly acclaimed world of symbolism, it is not without its fault, at least according to some interpretations. Steinbeck goes to great lengths to create this world of symbolism with very intricate characters which he wants the reader to understand to be his representation of the public during the 1930’s. Unfortunately, some found his book to be all too artificial. “Complete literalness in such matters doesn’t necessarily simulate life in literature” (Moore, 59). The dispute here is whether or not Steinbeck is attempting to overglorify the attempts or the migrants. Many Midwesterners id feel quite a bit of harshness enter their lives when trying to live through the 1930’s, but it is hard to say if the Joads had life as tough as most. However, Henry Moore states that the shining examples of good symbolism and truth in The Grapes of Wrath come in the interchapters, such as the turtle and tractor tales. The problem though, as he states it, is that “the contrapuntal chapters about the Joad family don’t always have the continuous strength to carry them” (Moore, 60). Basically Dr. Moore is saying that if Steinbeck really wanted to use symbolism in this story to show the trials and tribulations of the igrants in the 1930’s, he should have kept the story more realistic and down- to-earth in its approach to the topic. Overall, John Steinbeck did appeal to the Midwesterners through his book The Grapes of Wrath. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1962 while The Grapes of Wrath won the Pulitzer Prize in 1939. He managed to explain many events of the current time period through his use symbolism, and obviously, many readers enjoyed it. By using characters, nature and events for forms of symbolism, Steinbeck keeps the reader interested and at the same time conveys his thoughts and beliefs.	<urn:uuid:be5f6141-6b25-4633-bb35-43ba50cfe5a5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studyboss.com/literature/the-grapes-of-wrath	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00325.warc.gz	en	0.981229	3,654	3.734375	4	[ 0.27861714363098145, 0.22516533732414246, 0.18743517994880676, -0.6002861261367798, 0.0021535526029765606, 0.08728280663490295, -0.30078113079071045, 0.31179338693618774, 0.08351819217205048, -0.1573643684387207, 0.07433435320854187, 0.21182425320148468, 0.1924813836812973, -0.265916407108...	1	Struggling through such things as the depression, the Dust Bowl summers, and trying to provide for their own families, which included finding somewhere to travel to where life would be safe. Such is the story of the Joads. The Joads were the main family in John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, a book which was written in order to show what a family was going through, at this time period, and how they were trying to better their lives at the same time. It wouldn’t be enough for Steinbeck to simply write this story in very plain terms, as anyone could have simply logged an account of events and published it. Critics have argued, however, that Steinbeck was too artificial in his ways of trying to gain some respect for the migrants. Regardless of the critical opinions, John Steinbeck utilized symbolism as a forum to convey the hardships and attitudes of the citizens of America during the 1930’s in his book The Grapes of Wrath. The first aspect of the novel that must be looked at when viewing the symbolic nature is that of the characters created by Steinbeck and how even the smallest facets of their person lead to a much larger meaning. The first goal that Steinbeck had in mind, was to appeal to the common Midwesterner at that ime. The best way to go about doing this was to focus on one of the two things that nearly all migrants had in common, which was religion and hardships. Steinbeck creates a story about the journey of a family and mirrors it to that of biblical events. The entire family, in themselves, were like the Israelites. “They too flee from oppression, wander through the wilderness of hardships, seeking their own Promised Land” (Shockley, 91). Unfortunately, although the Israelites were successful, the Joads never really found what they could consider to be a promised land. They were never lucky enough to really satisfy heir dreams of living a comfortable life. But, they were still able to improve on their situation. Another symbolic character that was undoubtedly more religious than anyone else taking the journey was Jim Casy. He was a preacher that was picked up along the way by the Joads. Steinbeck manages to squeeze in a lot about this character, and a lot of the background he creates about Mr. Casy shows just how much of a biblical man he really is supposed to be. So much so, that Steinbeck uses Jim Casy to symbolize Christ. Oddly enough, his initials were not only the same as Jesus Christ, but much of his life is similar to the biblical accounts f Christ. Not only did he also begin his long trek after a stay in the wilderness, he also had rejected an old religion to try and find his own version of the gospel and convince people to follow him. His death, another aspect comparable to that of Christ, also occurred in the middle of a stream, which could represent the “crossing over Jordan” account. “Particularly significant, however, are Casy’s last words directed to the man who murders him” (Shockley, 92-93). Jim’s last words are to forgive the man who kills him with a pickax. He tells him “You don’t know what you’re a-doing,” which is a simple allusion to he statement by Jesus to God when He is being crucified and asks his Father to forgive them, for they knew not what they were doing. In this novel, even the title is a Christian allusion. The title is “a direct Christian allusion, suggesting the glory of the coming of the Lord” (Shockley, 90). Looking at the main character of the story, Tom Joad, even more Christian symbolism is seen. Tom Joad is almost a direct fit for the story of the “prodigal son” from the bible. He is the son that must lead everyone across in a great journey, while symbolically already wandering from the favor of God by killing a man in self-defense. Tom must find a way to forget about this event and continue to keep his goal of getting to California (and his Promised Land) in sight. He understands that he must stay determined and persevere because he is an example and a leader to his family and he cannot allow any internal event to slow him down. Rose of Sharon, the daughter of the family, also has a very religious connotation; her religious meaning is not so much symbolic of a specific person or event in the bible, but more of an example of Christian values. The great hardship in her life was the fact that the child she was pregnant with the whole tory, and the one that kept her from doing work necessary to everyone’s survival, was stillborn. Now, after going through all this, she had to face the reality of living without her child and the reality of her husband walking out on her. Even after all this when the Joads come upon the old man in the barn “the two women [Ma Joad and Rose of Sharon] looked deep into each other’s eyes. Not my will, but Thine be done. ” (Shockley, 94) Rose knows that even though she had lost her own child, she must now take another, and the fact that Steinbeck has her say “Thine will be done” is because she knows that it is in fact God’s ill that she is serving, and that is much more important than any problem she has. Next, the women in the story are an example of the mentality of the “indestructible woman. ” The greatest example of this is the eldest, Ma Joad. Ma Joad stands out in Steinbeck’s work as a complete and positive characterization of a woman” (Gladstein, 118). She is the only character in the novel that appears to be flawless on every level, not just as someone who does monotonous chores throughout the story. She stands as a shining example of a woman who refuses to back down, no matter what the obstacles at hand. Some of he obstacles included Grandma’s death, the desertion of Noah, the leaving behind of the Wilsons followed by Connie’s departure, the murder of Casy, Tom becoming a fugitive, Rose of Sharon’s baby being stillborn, and being surrounded by starvation and depression. She uses al of her strength and willpower to help deal with these tragedies. One of the biggest examples of her undying strength and love is the way she help Rose of Sharon deal with her pregnancy and the loss of her baby. She helps keep the family together, and if that meant giving every ounce of spirit and energy that she had, she’d do it because of the love she had or her family. Steinbeck creates her as that indestructible woman because he wants to convince the migrants of the 1930’s to follow in the footsteps of Ma Joad, and ultimately, mirror the journey of the entire Joad family. Warren French explains exactly what Steinbeck’s intent with having the characters, especially Ma Joad, develop the way they do throughout the novel: The story that Steinbeck sought to tell does end, furthermore, with Ma Joad’s discovery that it is no longer the “fambly” alone that one must “give a han’,” but “everybody. As I wrote in my own study of Steinbeck, answer the harge that the tale is inconclusive, the scene in the barn “marks the end of the story that Steinbeck has to tell about the Joads,” because “their education is completed What happens to them now depends upon the ability of the rest of society to learn the same lesson they have already learned. ” (93-94) Rose of Sharon is another woman who shows indestructibility. She also has to deal with her stillborn baby and all of what Ma Joad had to go through, but she still attempts to continue on and help Ma whenever she can. Bedraggled and burdened, deserted by her husband, Rose of Sharon still drags herself out of ed to do her part in earning money for support of the family” (Gladstein, 122). In the novel Steinbeck writes about she tries how because of the way she tried so hard to help, that she was constantly vomiting, just to keep up with regular chores, yet her spirit remained unwavering. With all of this occurring around her, one of the novel’s greatest Christian allusions comes from her character. In the climactic event at the end of the novel, Rose of Sharon looked at the old man who needed her milk and just smiled. “This is my body, says Rosasharn, and becomes the Resurrection and the Life. In her, life and death are one, and through her, life triumphs over death” (Shockley, 94). She gives herself for that of another, and that is a major Christian principle. Besides the characters, the events in the story are also an example of how Steinbeck uses symbolism. This is the second major way that Steinbeck uses symbolism in this story. There are several examples which show how perserverent the human spirit could be in times of trouble. The trek itself shows how committed to their dreams the Joads were. They had to risk everything just to find work and a place to live. Also, the characters in the story had to adapt o the events that were happening to them throughout the journey. For example, Tom first got his idea of transportation when he saw the tractor at the beginning of the story and remembered that tractors were just now starting to cover the plains all the time, so they must be able to make it in some kind of machine. When Tom visits the car dealer, he comes away with a car that didn’t quite fit their needs, but he made it work. Another example is how the family learns to use every item, the realize how valuable every single item they have isto their existence, and it becomes more and more clear every single day as the ituation becomes more and more harsh. Also, the kindness of the human spirit is shown in Steinbeck’s novel through these events. The main example in the novel is when the waitress in the caf lets the poor migrant have a free loaf of bread just to continue his journey. She is then rewarded with two big tips from the next customers, who are truckers that come through to eat. This is a shining example of the old adage “kindness breeds kindness” (Carlson, 97). Then, when Rose of Sharon took care of the old man in the barn, she ends up symbolically gaining a child where before she had lost her own. These two were both examples of human kindness and in both instances, the people were rewarded for their kindness. These examples are also examples of a major principle in Christianity which is to do unto others as you would like done to you. The third and final major aspect of symbolism shown in The Grapes of Wrath is the role that nature plays in the story. It is unquestioned that nature plays a big part in the lives of the Joads simply because their journey takes place in the middle of the plains where weather, such as rain, can easily become a harsh hazard since there is really no shelter from it and they really ave no other option that to continue trudging forward as much as possible. Weather is shown in this as both a destroying and regenerative force. Steinbeck goes on to depict in lyrical prose the disintegration of the house before the almost delicate onslaught of nature: rain, weeds, dust, wind” (Owens, 79). Nature then knows that the house is no longer useful to the Joads and “reclaims it as its own” (Owens, 79). One of the most interesting parts of this work is what is known by Steinbeck as the “interchapters. ” Steinbeck includes several chapters throughout the novel which simply act as a symbolic reference to some other idea, hat at first glance, have no meaning to the story, but these stories symbolically prove a point for Steinbeck. The first, and most famous, of these is the journey of the turtle. Steinbeck opens a chapter by simply describing a turtle that is struggling to cross a highway. Steinbeck goes through great detail to explain much about the turtle and its own little journey, but he really doesn’t say much about the purpose. That is because it is so clear. The turtle is simply heading somewhere and must cross the road. It struggles and struggles and when it finally gets close to the other side a truck comes by and nocks it across the road anyway, unharmed. The moral is that the turtle made it across, but if it had tried any less, it might have been hit by the tire instead of just being brushed aside by it. Another story symbolic of the plight of the farmer is the ant lion trap which is analogous to the fact that most farmers were scurrying around trying to acquire land and supplies to live but avoid being caught at the same time. Of course, not everyone can succeed, so Steinbeck inserts the story of the Joad’s dog being hit by the truck. Not everyone is going to be as lucky as the turtle in their efforts, and this lesson omes at a price to the Joads. Machines played a major part in this story in the way was created because of the fact that machines were taking over everything in the farming community and workers weren’t really needed anymore. Not only were machines one of the causes of the migration in the first place, but they also directly cause several deaths in the story. It is stated in the novel that “one man on a tractor can take the place of twelve or fourteen families. Through this manner, Steinbeck shows in the plot itself how machines add to the complexity of the situation. He then uses the interchapters to show how much effect they had on ature and animals as well as humans. “Tom sees the No Riders’ sticker on the tractor as an example of how inhuman machinery has become” (Griffin, 222). It is then very symbolic when they meet at the beginning of the journey westward and must meet at the truck, which is seen as the only “real” thing left, since the house is demolished. The truck was never meant to be of any “real” significance in the first place, for it is a machine. Lastly, Steinbeck made great reference to animals throughout the story. He used them repeatedly to show how people were acting and to describe things and events, as well as foreshadow future happenings. One example of the description of people was the reference to Muley Grave’s sex drive in his younger days, when “he describes his first experience as snorting like a buck deer, randy as a billygoat” (Griffin, 220). Then a reference to nature again being like farmers is when the moths circling the fire are pointed out, they are just like the farmers circling a town, looking for opportunity and waiting to enter. Then, animals are also used in foreshadowing death (be it the dog or Rose of Sharon’s baby) by the circling of buzzards overhead. Steinbeck loved to use more minor events in nature to explain the trials and tribulations of the Joads. Although Steinbeck created this highly acclaimed world of symbolism, it is not without its fault, at least according to some interpretations. Steinbeck goes to great lengths to create this world of symbolism with very intricate characters which he wants the reader to understand to be his representation of the public during the 1930’s. Unfortunately, some found his book to be all too artificial. “Complete literalness in such matters doesn’t necessarily simulate life in literature” (Moore, 59). The dispute here is whether or not Steinbeck is attempting to overglorify the attempts or the migrants. Many Midwesterners id feel quite a bit of harshness enter their lives when trying to live through the 1930’s, but it is hard to say if the Joads had life as tough as most. However, Henry Moore states that the shining examples of good symbolism and truth in The Grapes of Wrath come in the interchapters, such as the turtle and tractor tales. The problem though, as he states it, is that “the contrapuntal chapters about the Joad family don’t always have the continuous strength to carry them” (Moore, 60). Basically Dr. Moore is saying that if Steinbeck really wanted to use symbolism in this story to show the trials and tribulations of the igrants in the 1930’s, he should have kept the story more realistic and down- to-earth in its approach to the topic. Overall, John Steinbeck did appeal to the Midwesterners through his book The Grapes of Wrath. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1962 while The Grapes of Wrath won the Pulitzer Prize in 1939. He managed to explain many events of the current time period through his use symbolism, and obviously, many readers enjoyed it. By using characters, nature and events for forms of symbolism, Steinbeck keeps the reader interested and at the same time conveys his thoughts and beliefs.	3,565	ENGLISH	1
UNCA’s Africa Studies program recently celebrated 400 years of African American resilience, commemorating 400 years since enslaved Africans arrived in Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. A keynote lecture was recently delivered by Molefi Kete Asante, a leading philosopher and scholar of African American studies, chair and professor of Africology and African American Studies at Temple University. Asante referres to the first 20 Africans to land at Port Comfort, Virginia as the “Lonesome Twenty” from Angola. They represented the first 20 Africans in the English colony. “They were not the first 20 Africans in the Americas,” Asante said. “There had been Africans in Florida with the Spanish before, and in Haiti. They were brought to Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Columbia — every country in South America — with the possible exception of Bolivia.” But the first Africans landing in the English colony give us a point of reference. We say 400 years, 1619 to 2019. “There begins a list of great men and women who struggled for freedom from the very beginning,” said Asante. “The Black population in our country grew from 20 to nearly 43,000,000, but how did they come, and where did they come from? Who are these people that we call African Americans?” Asante said that these people came from over 250 African nations, brought across the ocean in slave ships speaking over 250 different languages. The American nation itself was born with some defects, the destabilization and removal of the native peoples and their lands, and the enslavement of Africans. They were not immediately enslaved, they were first indentured. In 1663 there were declarations in the colonies that Africans should not just be indentured, but held in permanent bondage. Africa is so much more than one country, one set of customs, or one set of traditions. “Africa is the most diverse continent on the face of the Earth, and all these African ethnic groups were brought to the Americas,”Asante said. “The journey itself was an astonishing experience because it has become an iconic part of our resilience as a middle passage. About 800 to 1,000 people packed into the hold of the ship, with only 18 inches of space.” Asante said sometimes it would take 50 to 60 days for ships to cross from Africa to the Americas, and a third of the people died onboard the ships. They were typically between 16 to 22 years of age. When people died they were just thrown overboard. Some of the ships had sharks following them because people were customarily thrown into the Atlantic Ocean, and their blood attracted the sharks. “This is how we got here. Now, there is a certain resilience in the middle passage, but the greater horror was yet to come. Africans were then sold as chattel, something you own as a possession. When you own it you can do anything you want to with it, you can brutalize it, sell it, or pay your mortgage with it. It can be whipped, beaten, raped, or killed.” How human beings were able to be so resilient, and so capable of dealing with this system, is itself a remarkable epic. “Africans had to be clever enough to deal with other Africans who didn’t speak the same language, as well as the overseers on plantations and farms. Suppose you had a Swede, a German, a Portuguese, a French, a Hungarian, and an Italian on the same farm, and the overseer was Japanese. You’d have a communication problem. That’s how it was with the Africans.” Asante said the first genius creation of the Africans here was language itself. How one speaks with all the other Africans, and still speak with the Europeans, and have an understanding. “That’s why I have always rejected this notion that the language of my ancestors from my home state of Georgia was considered ‘bad English.’ We were not trying to speak English. Our issue was to create a language based on the structure, and the sounds of African languages with enough English lexical items that we could be understood by the Whites as well,” Asante said. After more than a century, Blacks started the African Methodist Episcopal Church. It was started in 1793, and it’s still around today. “We had to camouflage our spirituality beneath the Christian veneer,” Asante said. “We practiced what we could, but we always knew something was missing. A majority of us were not allowed to speak about religion, or to perform or practice our own religion.” For 246 years it was illegal for Black people to play drums. “The African drums could not be played because the White people thought they were talking drums, and they were. When Asante visits his village in Ghana, he knows when his name is being played on the drums. It’s a very powerful, spiritual thing, a part of the spiritual rhythm, a part of the African spirituality that was suppressed.” Asante compares Germany with America. Germany had a revolution to extinguish the Nazi regime. America had a civil war. “It is against the law to do or say certain things in Germany, but we could never do that here because we have freedom of speech,” Asante said. “At the end of the Civil War we did not get rid of the iconic images of the Confederacy, or the attitudes. Don’t ever say that the African people were given freedom in the Civil War, because we had 186,000 African people fighting during the Civil War, with a majority fighting for the Union side. We fought for our freedom. That was another part of our resistance.” In the final analysis, African Americans have expanded America. The African American experience has been crucial, and not just in its contributions and achievements which have been magnificent for a people who have had to work against such incredible odds. “Charles Bolden, the leader of the NASA program for nearly 25 years was African American, but most people don’t know that because our education keeps us divided. Yet the joy of the American nation, the difference between America and any other nation that I can think of is the tremendous talent of all the different ethnic populations in this country,” Asante said.	<urn:uuid:bad0bf92-a3ff-4682-9b71-dc2f39b04083>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biltmorebeacon.com/news/celebrating-years-of-african-american-resilience/article_12c7b67c-04b7-11ea-ba20-63411e6fac03.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00417.warc.gz	en	0.982771	1,343	3.625	4	[ -0.11518929153680801, 0.6317239999771118, 0.11231056600809097, 0.18547090888023376, -0.30278855562210083, -0.04014526307582855, -0.14972113072872162, -0.06389935314655304, -0.20251792669296265, 0.10587039589881897, 0.3279440104961395, -0.29637378454208374, -0.14999401569366455, 0.402486860...	1	UNCA’s Africa Studies program recently celebrated 400 years of African American resilience, commemorating 400 years since enslaved Africans arrived in Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. A keynote lecture was recently delivered by Molefi Kete Asante, a leading philosopher and scholar of African American studies, chair and professor of Africology and African American Studies at Temple University. Asante referres to the first 20 Africans to land at Port Comfort, Virginia as the “Lonesome Twenty” from Angola. They represented the first 20 Africans in the English colony. “They were not the first 20 Africans in the Americas,” Asante said. “There had been Africans in Florida with the Spanish before, and in Haiti. They were brought to Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, Columbia — every country in South America — with the possible exception of Bolivia.” But the first Africans landing in the English colony give us a point of reference. We say 400 years, 1619 to 2019. “There begins a list of great men and women who struggled for freedom from the very beginning,” said Asante. “The Black population in our country grew from 20 to nearly 43,000,000, but how did they come, and where did they come from? Who are these people that we call African Americans?” Asante said that these people came from over 250 African nations, brought across the ocean in slave ships speaking over 250 different languages. The American nation itself was born with some defects, the destabilization and removal of the native peoples and their lands, and the enslavement of Africans. They were not immediately enslaved, they were first indentured. In 1663 there were declarations in the colonies that Africans should not just be indentured, but held in permanent bondage. Africa is so much more than one country, one set of customs, or one set of traditions. “Africa is the most diverse continent on the face of the Earth, and all these African ethnic groups were brought to the Americas,”Asante said. “The journey itself was an astonishing experience because it has become an iconic part of our resilience as a middle passage. About 800 to 1,000 people packed into the hold of the ship, with only 18 inches of space.” Asante said sometimes it would take 50 to 60 days for ships to cross from Africa to the Americas, and a third of the people died onboard the ships. They were typically between 16 to 22 years of age. When people died they were just thrown overboard. Some of the ships had sharks following them because people were customarily thrown into the Atlantic Ocean, and their blood attracted the sharks. “This is how we got here. Now, there is a certain resilience in the middle passage, but the greater horror was yet to come. Africans were then sold as chattel, something you own as a possession. When you own it you can do anything you want to with it, you can brutalize it, sell it, or pay your mortgage with it. It can be whipped, beaten, raped, or killed.” How human beings were able to be so resilient, and so capable of dealing with this system, is itself a remarkable epic. “Africans had to be clever enough to deal with other Africans who didn’t speak the same language, as well as the overseers on plantations and farms. Suppose you had a Swede, a German, a Portuguese, a French, a Hungarian, and an Italian on the same farm, and the overseer was Japanese. You’d have a communication problem. That’s how it was with the Africans.” Asante said the first genius creation of the Africans here was language itself. How one speaks with all the other Africans, and still speak with the Europeans, and have an understanding. “That’s why I have always rejected this notion that the language of my ancestors from my home state of Georgia was considered ‘bad English.’ We were not trying to speak English. Our issue was to create a language based on the structure, and the sounds of African languages with enough English lexical items that we could be understood by the Whites as well,” Asante said. After more than a century, Blacks started the African Methodist Episcopal Church. It was started in 1793, and it’s still around today. “We had to camouflage our spirituality beneath the Christian veneer,” Asante said. “We practiced what we could, but we always knew something was missing. A majority of us were not allowed to speak about religion, or to perform or practice our own religion.” For 246 years it was illegal for Black people to play drums. “The African drums could not be played because the White people thought they were talking drums, and they were. When Asante visits his village in Ghana, he knows when his name is being played on the drums. It’s a very powerful, spiritual thing, a part of the spiritual rhythm, a part of the African spirituality that was suppressed.” Asante compares Germany with America. Germany had a revolution to extinguish the Nazi regime. America had a civil war. “It is against the law to do or say certain things in Germany, but we could never do that here because we have freedom of speech,” Asante said. “At the end of the Civil War we did not get rid of the iconic images of the Confederacy, or the attitudes. Don’t ever say that the African people were given freedom in the Civil War, because we had 186,000 African people fighting during the Civil War, with a majority fighting for the Union side. We fought for our freedom. That was another part of our resistance.” In the final analysis, African Americans have expanded America. The African American experience has been crucial, and not just in its contributions and achievements which have been magnificent for a people who have had to work against such incredible odds. “Charles Bolden, the leader of the NASA program for nearly 25 years was African American, but most people don’t know that because our education keeps us divided. Yet the joy of the American nation, the difference between America and any other nation that I can think of is the tremendous talent of all the different ethnic populations in this country,” Asante said.	1,316	ENGLISH	1
“Glory Enough,” chapter 2 of Saints: The Story of the Church of Jesus Christ in the Latter Days, Volume 2, No Unhallowed Hand, 1846–1893 (2020) Chapter 2: “Glory Enough” Cold wind blew as Brigham Young arrived at Sugar Creek on the evening of February 15, 1846. Scattered around a snowy patch of woods, not far from an icy brook, hundreds of Saints shivered in damp coats and blankets. Many families collected around fires or underneath tents fashioned from bedsheets or wagon covers. Others huddled together in carriages or wagons for warmth.1 Right away Brigham knew he needed to organize the camp. With the help of other Church leaders, he divided the Saints into companies and called captains to lead them. He warned against taking unnecessary trips back to Nauvoo, being idle, and borrowing without permission. Men were to protect the camp constantly and monitor cleanliness, and each family was to pray together mornings and evenings.2 A good spirit soon settled over the camp. Safely out of Nauvoo, the Saints worried less about mobs or government threats to stop the exodus. In the evenings, a brass band played lively music while the men and women danced. Saints who practiced plural marriage also became less guarded and began to speak openly about the principle and how it linked their families together.3 Brigham, meanwhile, spent hours refining plans for the move west.4 While fasting and praying in the temple shortly before leaving Nauvoo, he had seen a vision of Joseph Smith pointing to a flag flying over a mountaintop. “Build under the point where the colors fall,” Joseph had instructed him, “and you will prosper and have peace.”5 Brigham knew the Lord had a place prepared for the Church, but guiding thousands of Saints there would be a monumental task. During this time, letters arrived in camp from Sam Brannan, who was now sailing for California on the Brooklyn. Among the letters was the contract promising a safe exodus for the Saints in exchange for land in the West. Brigham read the contract carefully with the apostles. If they did not sign it, Sam’s letters suggested, the president of the United States could order the Saints to disarm and cease gathering together.6 Brigham was unconvinced. As wary as he was of the government, he had already decided to try working with it rather than against it. Shortly before leaving Nauvoo, in fact, he had instructed Jesse Little, the new presiding elder in the eastern states, to lobby for the Church and accept any honorable offer from the federal government to assist the Saints’ exodus. Brigham and the apostles quickly perceived that the contract was nothing more than an elaborate scheme designed to favor the men who had drafted it. Rather than sign the agreement, the apostles decided to trust in God and look to Him for protection.7 As the month rolled on, temperatures dropped below freezing, and the surface of the Mississippi River turned to ice, allowing easy passage across the river. Soon around two thousand people were camped at Sugar Creek, although some returned to Nauvoo time and again on one errand or another. The traffic back and forth troubled Brigham, who believed these Saints were neglecting their families and focusing too much on their property in the city. With the westward trek already behind schedule, he decided it was time for the Saints to move on from Sugar Creek, even if the companies were underequipped. On March 1, five hundred wagons started west across the Iowa prairie. Brigham still wanted to send an advance company over the Rocky Mountains that year, but first the Saints needed every resource to move the camp farther from Nauvoo.8 While the Saints with Brigham were leaving Sugar Creek, forty-three-year-old Louisa Pratt remained in Nauvoo, preparing to leave the city with her four young daughters. Three years earlier, the Lord had called her husband, Addison, on a mission to the Pacific Islands. Since then, unreliable mail service between Nauvoo and Tubuai, the island in French Polynesia where Addison was serving, had made it hard to stay in contact with him. Most of his letters were several months old when they arrived, and some were older than a year. Addison’s latest letter made it clear that he would not be home in time to go west with her. The Twelve had instructed him to remain in the Pacific Islands until they called him home or sent missionaries to replace him. At one point, Brigham had hoped to send more missionaries to the islands after the Saints received the endowment, but the exodus from Nauvoo had postponed that plan.9 Louisa was willing to make the journey without her husband, but thinking about it made her nervous. She hated to leave Nauvoo and the temple and did not relish the idea of traveling by wagon over the Rocky Mountains. She also wanted to see her aging parents in Canada—possibly for the last time—before going west. If she sold her ox team, she could get enough money to visit her parents and book passage for her family on a ship bound for the California coast, thus avoiding overland travel altogether. Louisa had almost made up her mind to go to Canada, but something did not feel right. She decided to write to Brigham Young about her concerns with overland travel and her desire to see her parents. “If you say the ox team expedition is the best way for salvation, then I shall engage in it heart and hand,” she wrote, “and I believe I can stand it as long without grumbling as any other woman.”10 A short time later, a messenger arrived with Brigham’s response. “Come on. The ox team salvation is the safest way,” he told her. “Brother Pratt will meet us in the wilderness where we locate, and he will be sorely disappointed if his family is not with us.” Louisa considered the counsel, steeled her heart against the difficult trail ahead, and decided to follow the main body of the Saints, come life or death.11 That spring, the Saints traveling through Iowa began calling themselves the Camp of Israel, after the ancient Hebrews the Lord had led out of captivity in Egypt. Day after day, they battled the elements as unrelenting snow and rain turned the Iowa prairie soft and muddy. Rivers and streams ran high and swift. Dirt roads dissolved into mire. The Saints had intended to cross most of the territory in a month, but in that time they had covered only a third of the distance.12 On April 6, the sixteenth anniversary of the organization of the Church, rain fell all day. Brigham spent hours up to his knees in mud, helping the Saints along the road to a place called Locust Creek. There he helped to arrange wagons, pitch tents, and chop wood until all the Saints were settled in the camp. One woman who saw him in the mud, pushing and pulling to free a mired wagon, thought he looked as happy as a king, despite the challenges surrounding him. That evening, freezing rain and hail bombarded the camp, coating it in ice. In the morning, William Clayton, Brigham’s clerk and captain of the brass band, found the camp in disarray. Many tents lay flat on the frozen ground. A fallen tree had crushed a wagon. Some men in the band were also out of provisions.13 William shared what he had with his band, although his own family had little. One of the first Saints to have practiced plural marriage, William traveled with three wives and four children. Another wife, Diantha, was still in Nauvoo, under the care of her mother. She was pregnant with her first child and in frail health, adding to William’s anxiety on the trail. While the Claytons rested at Locust Creek with the Camp of Israel, Brigham proposed a plan to establish a way station midway across Iowa where Saints could wait out the bad weather, build cabins, and plant crops for those who would come later. Some Saints would then tend the way station while others returned to Nauvoo to guide companies across Iowa. The rest of the camp would push on with him to the Missouri River.14 On April 14, William was out all night rounding up horses and cattle that had broken loose in camp. In the morning, he needed sleep, but someone in camp received a letter mentioning Diantha and the birth of her baby. That evening, William celebrated the birth, singing and playing music with the band long into the night. The skies were clear the next morning, and William saw better days ahead for the Camp of Israel. Sitting down with ink and paper, he wrote a hymn of encouragement for the Saints: Come, come, ye Saints, no toil nor labor fear; But with joy wend your way. Though hard to you this journey may appear, Grace shall be as your day. ’Tis better far for us to strive Our useless cares from us to drive; Do this, and joy your hearts will swell— All is well! All is well!15 One hundred miles to the east, Wilford Woodruff stood on the deck of a riverboat on the Mississippi River, gazing at the Nauvoo temple through a spyglass. When he had last seen the temple, its walls were still unfinished. Now it had a roof, gleaming windows, and a majestic tower topped with a weather vane shaped like an angel.16 Portions of the temple had already been dedicated for ordinance work, and soon the building would be finished and ready to be fully dedicated to the Lord. Wilford’s voyage home from Britain had been treacherous. Hard winds and waves had battered the ship to and fro. Wilford had held on, seasick and miserable. “Any man that would sell a farm and go to sea for a living,” he had groaned at the time, “has a different taste from mine.”17 Phebe had set sail from England first, taking their children Susan and Joseph on board a ship filled with Saints who were emigrating to the United States. Wilford had remained in Liverpool a little longer to settle some financial matters, transfer the leadership of the Church to the new mission president, and solicit donations to finish construction on the temple.18 “The building of the temple of God is of equal interest to every truehearted Saint, wherever his lot may be cast,” he had reminded Church members.19 Although the temple would have to be abandoned soon after its completion, Saints on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean were determined to finish it in obedience to the Lord’s commandment to the Church in 1841. “I grant unto you a sufficient time to build a house unto me,” the Lord had declared through Joseph Smith, “and if you do not these things at the end of the appointment ye shall be rejected as a church, with your dead, saith the Lord your God.”20 Even though many British Saints were impoverished, Wilford had encouraged them to donate what they could to help pay for the temple, promising blessings for their sacrifice. They had given generously, and Wilford was grateful for their consecration.21 Upon arriving in the United States, Wilford picked up his daughter Phebe Amelia in Maine and traveled south to visit his parents, whom he persuaded to go west with him.22 After disembarking at Nauvoo, Wilford reunited with his wife and met with Orson Hyde, the presiding apostle in the city, who had little good news to report. Among the Saints still in Nauvoo were some who felt restless and abandoned. A few were even questioning the Twelve’s claim to leadership in the Church. Among them were Wilford’s sister and brother-in-law, Eunice and Dwight Webster.23 The news grieved Wilford for days. He had taught and baptized Eunice and Dwight a decade earlier. Recently, they had been drawn to a man named James Strang, who claimed that Joseph Smith had secretly appointed him to be his successor. Strang’s claim was false, but his charisma had won over some Saints in Nauvoo, including former apostles John Page and William Smith, the prophet Joseph’s younger brother.24 On April 18, Wilford became incensed when he learned that Dwight and Eunice were trying to convince his parents to follow Strang rather than go west. Wilford called his family together and denounced the false prophet. He then left to load his wagons. “I have much to do,” he wrote in his journal, “and little time to do it.”25 That spring, workers raced to finish the temple before its public dedication on May 1. They installed a brick floor around the baptismal font, fitted decorative woodwork into place, and painted the walls. The work proceeded all day and often into the night. Since the Church had little money to pay the laborers, many of them sacrificed part of their wages to ensure the temple was ready to dedicate to the Lord.26 Two days before the dedication, workers finished painting the first-floor assembly hall. The next day, they swept the dust and debris out of the large room and prepared for the service. The workers were not able to put finishing touches on every room, but they knew that would not keep the Lord from accepting the temple. Confident they had fulfilled God’s command, they painted the words “The Lord has beheld our sacrifice” above the pulpits along the east wall of the assembly hall.27 Conscious of the debt they owed the workers, Church leaders announced that the first session of the dedication would be a charitable event. Those who attended were asked to contribute a dollar to help pay the impoverished laborers. On the morning of May 1, fourteen-year-old Elvira Stevens left her camp west of the Mississippi and crossed the river to attend the dedication. An orphan whose parents had died soon after the family moved to Nauvoo, Elvira now lived with her married sister. Since no one else in her camp could join her for the dedication, she went alone. Knowing that it might be years before another temple was built in the West, the apostles had administered the endowment to some young single people, including Elvira. Now, three months later, she climbed the steps to the temple doors once more, contributed her dollar, and found a seat in the assembly hall.28 The session opened with singing from a choir. Orson Hyde then offered the dedicatory prayer. “Grant that Thy Spirit shall dwell here,” he pleaded, “and may all feel a sacred influence on their hearts that His hand has helped this work.”29 Elvira felt heavenly power in the room. After the session, she returned to her camp, but she came back for the next session two days later, hoping to feel the same power again. Orson Hyde and Wilford Woodruff gave sermons on temple work, priesthood, and the resurrection. Before closing the meeting, Wilford praised the Saints for finishing the temple even though they would have to abandon it. “Thousands of the Saints have received their endowment in it, and the light will not go out,” he said. “This is glory enough for building the temple.” After the session, Elvira returned to her camp, crossing the river one last time.30 Saints in Nauvoo, meanwhile, spent the rest of the day and night packing up and removing chairs, tables, and other furnishings until the temple was empty and left in the hands of the Lord.31 A few weeks after the temple dedication, Louisa Pratt and her daughters started west with a company of Saints. Ellen was now fourteen, Frances was twelve, Lois was nine, and Ann was five. They had two yoke of oxen, two cows, and a wagon loaded with new clothes and provisions. Before crossing the river into Iowa, Louisa called at the post office and found a long letter from Addison dated January 6, 1846—five months earlier. Addison reported that he was now in Tahiti with some Tubuaian friends, the married couple Nabota and Telii, on their way to help his fellow missionary Benjamin Grouard with missionary work on the nearby Anaa atoll. He had sent Louisa sixty dollars and loving words for her and the children. Addison expected to serve among the island Saints for many years to come, but not without his family. “If you can get any books,” he wrote, “and have any leisure time, I think you and the children had better attend to the studying of the Tahitian language, for in my opinion you may have use for it within a few years.”32 The letter pleased Louisa, and she found her journey west surprisingly joyful. The spring rains had ended, and she liked riding horseback beneath clear skies while a hired man drove her wagons. She rose early every morning, gathered up stray cattle, and helped to drive them during the day. Occasionally she worried about how far she was traveling from her parents and other relatives, but her belief in Zion comforted her. The revelations spoke of Zion as a place of refuge, a land of peace. That was what she wanted in her life. “Sometimes I feel cheerful,” she wrote in her journal on June 10. “The Lord has called us, and appointed us a place where we can live in peace and be free from the dread of our cruel persecutors!”33 Five days later, Louisa and her company arrived at Mount Pisgah, one of two large way stations the Saints had established along the Iowa trail. The encampment hugged the base of some low, sloping hills crowned with a grove of oak trees. As Brigham had envisioned, the Saints there lived in tents or log cabins and cultivated crops to supply food for companies who would arrive later. Other areas of the camp provided pastureland for the livestock. Louisa selected a site in the shade of some oak trees for her family. The place was beautiful, but overhead the sun beat down on the encamped Saints, many of whom were exhausted from the rain and mud they had battled that spring. “May the Lord reward them for all their sacrifices,” Louisa thought.34 Farther ahead on the trail, Brigham and the Camp of Israel stopped at a place called Mosquito Creek, not far from the Missouri River. They were hungry, two months behind schedule, and desperately poor.35 Yet Brigham still insisted on sending an advance company over the Rocky Mountains. He believed that a group of Saints needed to finish the journey that season, for as long as the Church wandered without a home, its enemies would try to scatter it or block its way.36 Brigham knew, however, that outfitting such a group would strain the Saints’ resources. Few had money or provisions to spare, and Iowa provided limited opportunities for paid labor. To survive on the prairie, many Saints had sold prized possessions along the trail or worked odd jobs to earn money for food and supplies. As the camp moved west and settlements thinned, these opportunities would only become harder to find.37 Other matters also weighed on Brigham. The Saints who did not belong to the advance company needed a place to spend the winter. The Omahas and other Native peoples who inhabited the land west of the Missouri River were willing to let the Saints camp there over the winter, but government agents were reluctant to allow them to settle on protected Indian lands for a long period of time.38 Brigham also knew the sick and impoverished Saints in Nauvoo were depending on the Church to take them west. For a time, he had hoped to assist them by selling valuable property in Nauvoo, including the temple. But so far this effort had been unsuccessful.39 On June 29, Brigham learned that three officers from the United States Army were coming to Mosquito Creek. The United States had declared war on Mexico, and President James Polk had authorized the men to recruit a battalion of five hundred Saints for a military campaign to the California coast. The next day, Brigham discussed the news with Heber Kimball and Willard Richards. Brigham had no quarrel with Mexico, and the idea of helping the United States galled him. But the West could become American territory if the United States won the war, and assisting the army could improve the Saints’ relationship with the nation. More important, the enlisted men’s pay could help the Church fund its westward migration.40 Brigham spoke with the officers as soon as they arrived. He learned that their orders had come after Thomas Kane, a well-connected young man on the East Coast, had heard about the Saints’ plight and introduced Jesse Little to important officials in Washington, DC. After some lobbying, Jesse had met with President Polk and persuaded him to help the Saints move west by enlisting some of them in military service. Seeing the benefits of the arrangement, Brigham endorsed the orders wholeheartedly. “This is the first offer we have ever had from the government to benefit us,” he declared. “I propose that the five hundred volunteers be mustered, and I will do my best to see all their families brought forward, as far as my influence can be extended, and feed them when I have anything to eat myself.”41 Drusilla Hendricks was furious with Brigham’s decision to cooperate with the United States. Her husband, James, had been shot in the neck during a skirmish with Missourians in 1838, leaving him partially paralyzed. Like others in camp, she still resented the government for not helping the Saints at that time. Even though her son William was old enough to volunteer for the battalion, she did not want to let him join. With her husband’s paralysis, she depended on her son for help.42 Recruiters visited the camp daily, often with Brigham or other apostles. “If we want the privilege of going where we can worship God according to the dictates of our conscience,” Brigham testified, “we must raise the battalion.”43 Many Saints swallowed their resentment and supported the endeavor, but Drusilla could not bear parting with her son. Sometimes the Spirit whispered to her, “Are you afraid to trust the God of Israel? Has He not been with you in all your trials? Has He not provided for your wants?” She would acknowledge God’s goodness, but then she would remember the government’s cruelty, and her anger would return. On the day of the battalion’s departure, William rose early to bring in the cows. Drusilla watched him as he walked through the tall, wet grass, and she worried that her lack of faith would do him more harm than good. He could get hurt traveling on the trail with his family just as easily as he could marching with the battalion. And if that happened, she would regret having made him stay. Drusilla started breakfast, unsure what to do about William. Climbing onto the wagon to get flour, she again felt the Spirit’s whisper: Didn’t she want the greatest blessings of the Lord? “Yes,” she said aloud. “Then how can you get it without making the greatest sacrifice?” the Spirit asked. “Let your son go in the battalion.” “It is too late,” she said. “They are to be marched off this morning.” William returned, and the family gathered for breakfast. As James blessed the food, Drusilla was startled when a man interrupted the camp. “Turn out, men!” he shouted. “We lack some men yet in the battalion.” Drusilla opened her eyes and saw William staring at her. She studied his face, memorizing each feature. She knew then that he would join the battalion. “If I never see you again until the morning of the resurrection,” she thought, “I shall know you are my child.” After breakfast, Drusilla prayed alone. “Spare his life,” she pleaded, “and let him be restored to me and to the bosom of the Church.” “It shall be done unto you,” the Spirit whispered, “as it was unto Abraham when he offered Isaac on the altar.” Drusilla searched for William and found him sitting in the wagon, his head buried in his hands. “Do you want to go with the battalion?” she asked. “If you do, I have had a testimony that it is right for you to go.” “President Young said it is for the salvation of this people,” William said, “and I might as well have a hand in it as anyone.” “I have held you back,” Drusilla said, “but if you want to go, I shall hold you no longer.”44	<urn:uuid:f959034c-0116-417f-94ec-549412564aeb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/history/saints-v2/part-1/02-glory-enough?lang=eng	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00331.warc.gz	en	0.984279	5,277	3.453125	3	[ 0.00024986197240650654, 0.0033137882128357887, -0.045073002576828, -0.2413613498210907, -0.06907527148723602, -0.07297214865684509, -0.35177430510520935, -0.13602431118488312, 0.2766219973564148, 0.08613607287406921, -0.15060678124427795, 0.12874019145965576, 0.7302579879760742, 0.17148986...	5	“Glory Enough,” chapter 2 of Saints: The Story of the Church of Jesus Christ in the Latter Days, Volume 2, No Unhallowed Hand, 1846–1893 (2020) Chapter 2: “Glory Enough” Cold wind blew as Brigham Young arrived at Sugar Creek on the evening of February 15, 1846. Scattered around a snowy patch of woods, not far from an icy brook, hundreds of Saints shivered in damp coats and blankets. Many families collected around fires or underneath tents fashioned from bedsheets or wagon covers. Others huddled together in carriages or wagons for warmth.1 Right away Brigham knew he needed to organize the camp. With the help of other Church leaders, he divided the Saints into companies and called captains to lead them. He warned against taking unnecessary trips back to Nauvoo, being idle, and borrowing without permission. Men were to protect the camp constantly and monitor cleanliness, and each family was to pray together mornings and evenings.2 A good spirit soon settled over the camp. Safely out of Nauvoo, the Saints worried less about mobs or government threats to stop the exodus. In the evenings, a brass band played lively music while the men and women danced. Saints who practiced plural marriage also became less guarded and began to speak openly about the principle and how it linked their families together.3 Brigham, meanwhile, spent hours refining plans for the move west.4 While fasting and praying in the temple shortly before leaving Nauvoo, he had seen a vision of Joseph Smith pointing to a flag flying over a mountaintop. “Build under the point where the colors fall,” Joseph had instructed him, “and you will prosper and have peace.”5 Brigham knew the Lord had a place prepared for the Church, but guiding thousands of Saints there would be a monumental task. During this time, letters arrived in camp from Sam Brannan, who was now sailing for California on the Brooklyn. Among the letters was the contract promising a safe exodus for the Saints in exchange for land in the West. Brigham read the contract carefully with the apostles. If they did not sign it, Sam’s letters suggested, the president of the United States could order the Saints to disarm and cease gathering together.6 Brigham was unconvinced. As wary as he was of the government, he had already decided to try working with it rather than against it. Shortly before leaving Nauvoo, in fact, he had instructed Jesse Little, the new presiding elder in the eastern states, to lobby for the Church and accept any honorable offer from the federal government to assist the Saints’ exodus. Brigham and the apostles quickly perceived that the contract was nothing more than an elaborate scheme designed to favor the men who had drafted it. Rather than sign the agreement, the apostles decided to trust in God and look to Him for protection.7 As the month rolled on, temperatures dropped below freezing, and the surface of the Mississippi River turned to ice, allowing easy passage across the river. Soon around two thousand people were camped at Sugar Creek, although some returned to Nauvoo time and again on one errand or another. The traffic back and forth troubled Brigham, who believed these Saints were neglecting their families and focusing too much on their property in the city. With the westward trek already behind schedule, he decided it was time for the Saints to move on from Sugar Creek, even if the companies were underequipped. On March 1, five hundred wagons started west across the Iowa prairie. Brigham still wanted to send an advance company over the Rocky Mountains that year, but first the Saints needed every resource to move the camp farther from Nauvoo.8 While the Saints with Brigham were leaving Sugar Creek, forty-three-year-old Louisa Pratt remained in Nauvoo, preparing to leave the city with her four young daughters. Three years earlier, the Lord had called her husband, Addison, on a mission to the Pacific Islands. Since then, unreliable mail service between Nauvoo and Tubuai, the island in French Polynesia where Addison was serving, had made it hard to stay in contact with him. Most of his letters were several months old when they arrived, and some were older than a year. Addison’s latest letter made it clear that he would not be home in time to go west with her. The Twelve had instructed him to remain in the Pacific Islands until they called him home or sent missionaries to replace him. At one point, Brigham had hoped to send more missionaries to the islands after the Saints received the endowment, but the exodus from Nauvoo had postponed that plan.9 Louisa was willing to make the journey without her husband, but thinking about it made her nervous. She hated to leave Nauvoo and the temple and did not relish the idea of traveling by wagon over the Rocky Mountains. She also wanted to see her aging parents in Canada—possibly for the last time—before going west. If she sold her ox team, she could get enough money to visit her parents and book passage for her family on a ship bound for the California coast, thus avoiding overland travel altogether. Louisa had almost made up her mind to go to Canada, but something did not feel right. She decided to write to Brigham Young about her concerns with overland travel and her desire to see her parents. “If you say the ox team expedition is the best way for salvation, then I shall engage in it heart and hand,” she wrote, “and I believe I can stand it as long without grumbling as any other woman.”10 A short time later, a messenger arrived with Brigham’s response. “Come on. The ox team salvation is the safest way,” he told her. “Brother Pratt will meet us in the wilderness where we locate, and he will be sorely disappointed if his family is not with us.” Louisa considered the counsel, steeled her heart against the difficult trail ahead, and decided to follow the main body of the Saints, come life or death.11 That spring, the Saints traveling through Iowa began calling themselves the Camp of Israel, after the ancient Hebrews the Lord had led out of captivity in Egypt. Day after day, they battled the elements as unrelenting snow and rain turned the Iowa prairie soft and muddy. Rivers and streams ran high and swift. Dirt roads dissolved into mire. The Saints had intended to cross most of the territory in a month, but in that time they had covered only a third of the distance.12 On April 6, the sixteenth anniversary of the organization of the Church, rain fell all day. Brigham spent hours up to his knees in mud, helping the Saints along the road to a place called Locust Creek. There he helped to arrange wagons, pitch tents, and chop wood until all the Saints were settled in the camp. One woman who saw him in the mud, pushing and pulling to free a mired wagon, thought he looked as happy as a king, despite the challenges surrounding him. That evening, freezing rain and hail bombarded the camp, coating it in ice. In the morning, William Clayton, Brigham’s clerk and captain of the brass band, found the camp in disarray. Many tents lay flat on the frozen ground. A fallen tree had crushed a wagon. Some men in the band were also out of provisions.13 William shared what he had with his band, although his own family had little. One of the first Saints to have practiced plural marriage, William traveled with three wives and four children. Another wife, Diantha, was still in Nauvoo, under the care of her mother. She was pregnant with her first child and in frail health, adding to William’s anxiety on the trail. While the Claytons rested at Locust Creek with the Camp of Israel, Brigham proposed a plan to establish a way station midway across Iowa where Saints could wait out the bad weather, build cabins, and plant crops for those who would come later. Some Saints would then tend the way station while others returned to Nauvoo to guide companies across Iowa. The rest of the camp would push on with him to the Missouri River.14 On April 14, William was out all night rounding up horses and cattle that had broken loose in camp. In the morning, he needed sleep, but someone in camp received a letter mentioning Diantha and the birth of her baby. That evening, William celebrated the birth, singing and playing music with the band long into the night. The skies were clear the next morning, and William saw better days ahead for the Camp of Israel. Sitting down with ink and paper, he wrote a hymn of encouragement for the Saints: Come, come, ye Saints, no toil nor labor fear; But with joy wend your way. Though hard to you this journey may appear, Grace shall be as your day. ’Tis better far for us to strive Our useless cares from us to drive; Do this, and joy your hearts will swell— All is well! All is well!15 One hundred miles to the east, Wilford Woodruff stood on the deck of a riverboat on the Mississippi River, gazing at the Nauvoo temple through a spyglass. When he had last seen the temple, its walls were still unfinished. Now it had a roof, gleaming windows, and a majestic tower topped with a weather vane shaped like an angel.16 Portions of the temple had already been dedicated for ordinance work, and soon the building would be finished and ready to be fully dedicated to the Lord. Wilford’s voyage home from Britain had been treacherous. Hard winds and waves had battered the ship to and fro. Wilford had held on, seasick and miserable. “Any man that would sell a farm and go to sea for a living,” he had groaned at the time, “has a different taste from mine.”17 Phebe had set sail from England first, taking their children Susan and Joseph on board a ship filled with Saints who were emigrating to the United States. Wilford had remained in Liverpool a little longer to settle some financial matters, transfer the leadership of the Church to the new mission president, and solicit donations to finish construction on the temple.18 “The building of the temple of God is of equal interest to every truehearted Saint, wherever his lot may be cast,” he had reminded Church members.19 Although the temple would have to be abandoned soon after its completion, Saints on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean were determined to finish it in obedience to the Lord’s commandment to the Church in 1841. “I grant unto you a sufficient time to build a house unto me,” the Lord had declared through Joseph Smith, “and if you do not these things at the end of the appointment ye shall be rejected as a church, with your dead, saith the Lord your God.”20 Even though many British Saints were impoverished, Wilford had encouraged them to donate what they could to help pay for the temple, promising blessings for their sacrifice. They had given generously, and Wilford was grateful for their consecration.21 Upon arriving in the United States, Wilford picked up his daughter Phebe Amelia in Maine and traveled south to visit his parents, whom he persuaded to go west with him.22 After disembarking at Nauvoo, Wilford reunited with his wife and met with Orson Hyde, the presiding apostle in the city, who had little good news to report. Among the Saints still in Nauvoo were some who felt restless and abandoned. A few were even questioning the Twelve’s claim to leadership in the Church. Among them were Wilford’s sister and brother-in-law, Eunice and Dwight Webster.23 The news grieved Wilford for days. He had taught and baptized Eunice and Dwight a decade earlier. Recently, they had been drawn to a man named James Strang, who claimed that Joseph Smith had secretly appointed him to be his successor. Strang’s claim was false, but his charisma had won over some Saints in Nauvoo, including former apostles John Page and William Smith, the prophet Joseph’s younger brother.24 On April 18, Wilford became incensed when he learned that Dwight and Eunice were trying to convince his parents to follow Strang rather than go west. Wilford called his family together and denounced the false prophet. He then left to load his wagons. “I have much to do,” he wrote in his journal, “and little time to do it.”25 That spring, workers raced to finish the temple before its public dedication on May 1. They installed a brick floor around the baptismal font, fitted decorative woodwork into place, and painted the walls. The work proceeded all day and often into the night. Since the Church had little money to pay the laborers, many of them sacrificed part of their wages to ensure the temple was ready to dedicate to the Lord.26 Two days before the dedication, workers finished painting the first-floor assembly hall. The next day, they swept the dust and debris out of the large room and prepared for the service. The workers were not able to put finishing touches on every room, but they knew that would not keep the Lord from accepting the temple. Confident they had fulfilled God’s command, they painted the words “The Lord has beheld our sacrifice” above the pulpits along the east wall of the assembly hall.27 Conscious of the debt they owed the workers, Church leaders announced that the first session of the dedication would be a charitable event. Those who attended were asked to contribute a dollar to help pay the impoverished laborers. On the morning of May 1, fourteen-year-old Elvira Stevens left her camp west of the Mississippi and crossed the river to attend the dedication. An orphan whose parents had died soon after the family moved to Nauvoo, Elvira now lived with her married sister. Since no one else in her camp could join her for the dedication, she went alone. Knowing that it might be years before another temple was built in the West, the apostles had administered the endowment to some young single people, including Elvira. Now, three months later, she climbed the steps to the temple doors once more, contributed her dollar, and found a seat in the assembly hall.28 The session opened with singing from a choir. Orson Hyde then offered the dedicatory prayer. “Grant that Thy Spirit shall dwell here,” he pleaded, “and may all feel a sacred influence on their hearts that His hand has helped this work.”29 Elvira felt heavenly power in the room. After the session, she returned to her camp, but she came back for the next session two days later, hoping to feel the same power again. Orson Hyde and Wilford Woodruff gave sermons on temple work, priesthood, and the resurrection. Before closing the meeting, Wilford praised the Saints for finishing the temple even though they would have to abandon it. “Thousands of the Saints have received their endowment in it, and the light will not go out,” he said. “This is glory enough for building the temple.” After the session, Elvira returned to her camp, crossing the river one last time.30 Saints in Nauvoo, meanwhile, spent the rest of the day and night packing up and removing chairs, tables, and other furnishings until the temple was empty and left in the hands of the Lord.31 A few weeks after the temple dedication, Louisa Pratt and her daughters started west with a company of Saints. Ellen was now fourteen, Frances was twelve, Lois was nine, and Ann was five. They had two yoke of oxen, two cows, and a wagon loaded with new clothes and provisions. Before crossing the river into Iowa, Louisa called at the post office and found a long letter from Addison dated January 6, 1846—five months earlier. Addison reported that he was now in Tahiti with some Tubuaian friends, the married couple Nabota and Telii, on their way to help his fellow missionary Benjamin Grouard with missionary work on the nearby Anaa atoll. He had sent Louisa sixty dollars and loving words for her and the children. Addison expected to serve among the island Saints for many years to come, but not without his family. “If you can get any books,” he wrote, “and have any leisure time, I think you and the children had better attend to the studying of the Tahitian language, for in my opinion you may have use for it within a few years.”32 The letter pleased Louisa, and she found her journey west surprisingly joyful. The spring rains had ended, and she liked riding horseback beneath clear skies while a hired man drove her wagons. She rose early every morning, gathered up stray cattle, and helped to drive them during the day. Occasionally she worried about how far she was traveling from her parents and other relatives, but her belief in Zion comforted her. The revelations spoke of Zion as a place of refuge, a land of peace. That was what she wanted in her life. “Sometimes I feel cheerful,” she wrote in her journal on June 10. “The Lord has called us, and appointed us a place where we can live in peace and be free from the dread of our cruel persecutors!”33 Five days later, Louisa and her company arrived at Mount Pisgah, one of two large way stations the Saints had established along the Iowa trail. The encampment hugged the base of some low, sloping hills crowned with a grove of oak trees. As Brigham had envisioned, the Saints there lived in tents or log cabins and cultivated crops to supply food for companies who would arrive later. Other areas of the camp provided pastureland for the livestock. Louisa selected a site in the shade of some oak trees for her family. The place was beautiful, but overhead the sun beat down on the encamped Saints, many of whom were exhausted from the rain and mud they had battled that spring. “May the Lord reward them for all their sacrifices,” Louisa thought.34 Farther ahead on the trail, Brigham and the Camp of Israel stopped at a place called Mosquito Creek, not far from the Missouri River. They were hungry, two months behind schedule, and desperately poor.35 Yet Brigham still insisted on sending an advance company over the Rocky Mountains. He believed that a group of Saints needed to finish the journey that season, for as long as the Church wandered without a home, its enemies would try to scatter it or block its way.36 Brigham knew, however, that outfitting such a group would strain the Saints’ resources. Few had money or provisions to spare, and Iowa provided limited opportunities for paid labor. To survive on the prairie, many Saints had sold prized possessions along the trail or worked odd jobs to earn money for food and supplies. As the camp moved west and settlements thinned, these opportunities would only become harder to find.37 Other matters also weighed on Brigham. The Saints who did not belong to the advance company needed a place to spend the winter. The Omahas and other Native peoples who inhabited the land west of the Missouri River were willing to let the Saints camp there over the winter, but government agents were reluctant to allow them to settle on protected Indian lands for a long period of time.38 Brigham also knew the sick and impoverished Saints in Nauvoo were depending on the Church to take them west. For a time, he had hoped to assist them by selling valuable property in Nauvoo, including the temple. But so far this effort had been unsuccessful.39 On June 29, Brigham learned that three officers from the United States Army were coming to Mosquito Creek. The United States had declared war on Mexico, and President James Polk had authorized the men to recruit a battalion of five hundred Saints for a military campaign to the California coast. The next day, Brigham discussed the news with Heber Kimball and Willard Richards. Brigham had no quarrel with Mexico, and the idea of helping the United States galled him. But the West could become American territory if the United States won the war, and assisting the army could improve the Saints’ relationship with the nation. More important, the enlisted men’s pay could help the Church fund its westward migration.40 Brigham spoke with the officers as soon as they arrived. He learned that their orders had come after Thomas Kane, a well-connected young man on the East Coast, had heard about the Saints’ plight and introduced Jesse Little to important officials in Washington, DC. After some lobbying, Jesse had met with President Polk and persuaded him to help the Saints move west by enlisting some of them in military service. Seeing the benefits of the arrangement, Brigham endorsed the orders wholeheartedly. “This is the first offer we have ever had from the government to benefit us,” he declared. “I propose that the five hundred volunteers be mustered, and I will do my best to see all their families brought forward, as far as my influence can be extended, and feed them when I have anything to eat myself.”41 Drusilla Hendricks was furious with Brigham’s decision to cooperate with the United States. Her husband, James, had been shot in the neck during a skirmish with Missourians in 1838, leaving him partially paralyzed. Like others in camp, she still resented the government for not helping the Saints at that time. Even though her son William was old enough to volunteer for the battalion, she did not want to let him join. With her husband’s paralysis, she depended on her son for help.42 Recruiters visited the camp daily, often with Brigham or other apostles. “If we want the privilege of going where we can worship God according to the dictates of our conscience,” Brigham testified, “we must raise the battalion.”43 Many Saints swallowed their resentment and supported the endeavor, but Drusilla could not bear parting with her son. Sometimes the Spirit whispered to her, “Are you afraid to trust the God of Israel? Has He not been with you in all your trials? Has He not provided for your wants?” She would acknowledge God’s goodness, but then she would remember the government’s cruelty, and her anger would return. On the day of the battalion’s departure, William rose early to bring in the cows. Drusilla watched him as he walked through the tall, wet grass, and she worried that her lack of faith would do him more harm than good. He could get hurt traveling on the trail with his family just as easily as he could marching with the battalion. And if that happened, she would regret having made him stay. Drusilla started breakfast, unsure what to do about William. Climbing onto the wagon to get flour, she again felt the Spirit’s whisper: Didn’t she want the greatest blessings of the Lord? “Yes,” she said aloud. “Then how can you get it without making the greatest sacrifice?” the Spirit asked. “Let your son go in the battalion.” “It is too late,” she said. “They are to be marched off this morning.” William returned, and the family gathered for breakfast. As James blessed the food, Drusilla was startled when a man interrupted the camp. “Turn out, men!” he shouted. “We lack some men yet in the battalion.” Drusilla opened her eyes and saw William staring at her. She studied his face, memorizing each feature. She knew then that he would join the battalion. “If I never see you again until the morning of the resurrection,” she thought, “I shall know you are my child.” After breakfast, Drusilla prayed alone. “Spare his life,” she pleaded, “and let him be restored to me and to the bosom of the Church.” “It shall be done unto you,” the Spirit whispered, “as it was unto Abraham when he offered Isaac on the altar.” Drusilla searched for William and found him sitting in the wagon, his head buried in his hands. “Do you want to go with the battalion?” she asked. “If you do, I have had a testimony that it is right for you to go.” “President Young said it is for the salvation of this people,” William said, “and I might as well have a hand in it as anyone.” “I have held you back,” Drusilla said, “but if you want to go, I shall hold you no longer.”44	5,135	ENGLISH	1
To act as a ‘water carrier’ and learn from the men, that was more than likely the only permission given to fourteen year-old Long Soldier when he tagged along on his first war party. A young He Dog, then in his late teens, was among the warriors. They located a Crow village near the Bighorns and in the initial stages of the attack a Crow man as shot. He fell down in the dirt, prompting some Oglalas to race toward him in an effort to count coup. Long Soldier (not to be confused with the Hunkpapa chief of the same name) followed and was third in line to strike the hapless Crow. The boy then wheeled around, put an arrow in the Crow’s back and jumped off his horse to scalp him. With the fresh scalp attached to his belt, Long Soldier remounted and returned to his comrades. There he learned that his uncle’s horse was shot down in the fight, leaving him on foot and vulnerable. Long Soldier immediately set out to find his uncle and when he did, the boy put him behind him on his horse and rode away to safety. At just fourteen years of age, after his very first war party, Long Soldier was already the proud owner of three significant war honors.	<urn:uuid:6c9bdceb-b339-4a43-93f0-aabbe240c6ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://amertribes.proboards.com/thread/1514/august-1857-oglala-expedition	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00446.warc.gz	en	0.993394	264	3.34375	3	[ -0.409706175327301, -0.011019815690815449, 0.0618603341281414, 0.07521001249551773, -0.20889998972415924, -0.18189093470573425, 0.4399350583553314, 0.09853888303041458, -0.1651187241077423, -0.3636459708213806, 0.1792958825826645, -0.2624247074127197, -0.033723361790180206, 0.2477361261844...	3	To act as a ‘water carrier’ and learn from the men, that was more than likely the only permission given to fourteen year-old Long Soldier when he tagged along on his first war party. A young He Dog, then in his late teens, was among the warriors. They located a Crow village near the Bighorns and in the initial stages of the attack a Crow man as shot. He fell down in the dirt, prompting some Oglalas to race toward him in an effort to count coup. Long Soldier (not to be confused with the Hunkpapa chief of the same name) followed and was third in line to strike the hapless Crow. The boy then wheeled around, put an arrow in the Crow’s back and jumped off his horse to scalp him. With the fresh scalp attached to his belt, Long Soldier remounted and returned to his comrades. There he learned that his uncle’s horse was shot down in the fight, leaving him on foot and vulnerable. Long Soldier immediately set out to find his uncle and when he did, the boy put him behind him on his horse and rode away to safety. At just fourteen years of age, after his very first war party, Long Soldier was already the proud owner of three significant war honors.	257	ENGLISH	1
An analysis of the character of lennie small in of mice and men by john steinbeck He says, "they was dead—because they was so little," but their size doesn't really have anything to do with it. George character traits George sometimes complains about his care-taking role, but he is clearly committed to looking out for Lennie. Despite himself, Crooks becomes fond of Lennie, and though he derisively claims to have seen countless men following empty dreams of buying their own land, he asks Lennie if he can go with them and hoe in the garden. Lennie also adds a daily dose of sunshine to George's life, even if George doesn't seem too grateful. For George in steinbeck 's book mice of men by John Steinbeck,it was the great depression. We can look at all of these traits through his devoted dependency towards George Crooks Crooks, who got his nickname because of his misshapen back, is a stable hand and the sole African American worker on the ranch. George insists that he's "jes like a kid," and that "There ain't no more harm in him than a kid neither, except he's so strong" 3. Throughout the novel, Lennie and George dream of having their own farm. Even though George has sworn him to secrecy, Lennie tells Crooks that he and George are planning to buy land. Because he doesn't understand all the nasty currents of the adult world, Lennie is an innocent. And his obsession with rabbits is—we'll say it—a little creepy. In the beginning of the novel, Lennie kept asking George where they were going Steinbeck When the book begins, George and Lennie have just arrived at a new ranch; there, George and Lennie—and, through them, the readers—meet a fascinating cast of characters. A large man with enormous strength, yet kind and childlike, he seems to find joy in simple life pleasures like petting a furry animal and making the water ripple. Although he frequently speaks of how much better his life would be without his caretaking responsibilities, George is obviously devoted to Lennie. She has a sweet side, demonstrated when she tells Lennie about her childhood dreams of movie stardom, as well as a cruel streak, as evidenced by the racist verbal attack she launches at Crooks. George keeps the dream out in front of the huge man as a goal: Their farm is a place where they can live together, have animals, grow their own crops and, in general, feel safe. How does lennie small view the world Even when George is yelling at him not to drink too much, he says, " Tha's good … You drink some, George. She has a sweet side, demonstrated when she tells Lennie about her childhood dreams of movie stardom, as well as a cruel streak, as evidenced by the racist verbal attack she launches at Crooks. George also gives him advice and helps Lennie when overwhelming forces, like Curley , scare him. We don't think Lennie is malicious. At the start of the novel he had a different way of living and outlook on life than he did towards the end. They're dead because Lennie retaliated. Even though George has sworn him to secrecy, Lennie tells Crooks that he and George are planning to buy land. Lennie and George Lennie, who had been watching, imitated George exactly. Lennie also adds a daily dose of sunshine to George's life, even if George doesn't seem too grateful. The novels both tell like stories that convey alike ideas, but the books are written differently. Click the character infographic to download. The two men share a vision of a farm that they will own together, a vision that Lennie believes in wholeheartedly. But we're also not sure he's just supposed to be a gentle giant. Unfortunately, that's about all he has going for him—that, and he's got a really good friend. Lennie small quotes Crooks is bitter and cynical, but nevertheless gets along well with Lennie, who doesn't share the other workers' racism. Lennie's prodigious strength combined with his lack of intelligence and conscience make him dangerous, and he needs George to keep him out of trouble. He pulled his hat down a little more over his eyes, the way George's hat was. Lennie has a lot of character and personality traits that define him. John Steinbeck especially excels in this, and therefore is the reason I have chosen this book to describe. Novel Menagerie, The two men grew up together, but George exerts greater authority in the friendship because of Lennie's dependence. Read an in-depth analysis of Curley. Read an in-depth analysis of Slim. We can look at all of these traits through his devoted dependency towards George Like a kid, he mournfully wishes for ketchup to put on his beans; like a kid, he demands a bedtime story—even when he knows it all himself: "No…you tell it. Of mice and men characters But we're also not sure he's just supposed to be a gentle giant. Lennie and George Lennie, who had been watching, imitated George exactly. While he acts with great loyalty to George, he has no comprehension of the idea of "loyalty. However, his reasoning is never clearly explained. George sometimes complains about his care-taking role, but he is clearly committed to looking out for Lennie. After Lennie accidentally kills Curley's wife, George chooses to kill Lennie. He is never named and appears only once, but seems to be a fair-minded man. based on 28 review	<urn:uuid:d1632bb5-6f50-4763-b586-86fa22298d32>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pyhosahevabeb.dellrichards.com/an-analysis-of-the-character-of-lennie-small-in-of-mice-and-men-by-john-steinbeck155189749pu.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00358.warc.gz	en	0.982506	1,180	3.296875	3	[ -0.3188481330871582, -0.01730462722480297, 0.2580122649669647, -0.04268326982855797, 0.0409000888466835, -0.0002808093558996916, 0.2700957655906677, 0.2447817325592041, 0.04738928750157356, -0.10011771321296692, 0.12476593255996704, 0.19624553620815277, -0.009731359779834747, 0.07741498947...	2	An analysis of the character of lennie small in of mice and men by john steinbeck He says, "they was dead—because they was so little," but their size doesn't really have anything to do with it. George character traits George sometimes complains about his care-taking role, but he is clearly committed to looking out for Lennie. Despite himself, Crooks becomes fond of Lennie, and though he derisively claims to have seen countless men following empty dreams of buying their own land, he asks Lennie if he can go with them and hoe in the garden. Lennie also adds a daily dose of sunshine to George's life, even if George doesn't seem too grateful. For George in steinbeck 's book mice of men by John Steinbeck,it was the great depression. We can look at all of these traits through his devoted dependency towards George Crooks Crooks, who got his nickname because of his misshapen back, is a stable hand and the sole African American worker on the ranch. George insists that he's "jes like a kid," and that "There ain't no more harm in him than a kid neither, except he's so strong" 3. Throughout the novel, Lennie and George dream of having their own farm. Even though George has sworn him to secrecy, Lennie tells Crooks that he and George are planning to buy land. Because he doesn't understand all the nasty currents of the adult world, Lennie is an innocent. And his obsession with rabbits is—we'll say it—a little creepy. In the beginning of the novel, Lennie kept asking George where they were going Steinbeck When the book begins, George and Lennie have just arrived at a new ranch; there, George and Lennie—and, through them, the readers—meet a fascinating cast of characters. A large man with enormous strength, yet kind and childlike, he seems to find joy in simple life pleasures like petting a furry animal and making the water ripple. Although he frequently speaks of how much better his life would be without his caretaking responsibilities, George is obviously devoted to Lennie. She has a sweet side, demonstrated when she tells Lennie about her childhood dreams of movie stardom, as well as a cruel streak, as evidenced by the racist verbal attack she launches at Crooks. George keeps the dream out in front of the huge man as a goal: Their farm is a place where they can live together, have animals, grow their own crops and, in general, feel safe. How does lennie small view the world Even when George is yelling at him not to drink too much, he says, " Tha's good … You drink some, George. She has a sweet side, demonstrated when she tells Lennie about her childhood dreams of movie stardom, as well as a cruel streak, as evidenced by the racist verbal attack she launches at Crooks. George also gives him advice and helps Lennie when overwhelming forces, like Curley , scare him. We don't think Lennie is malicious. At the start of the novel he had a different way of living and outlook on life than he did towards the end. They're dead because Lennie retaliated. Even though George has sworn him to secrecy, Lennie tells Crooks that he and George are planning to buy land. Lennie and George Lennie, who had been watching, imitated George exactly. Lennie also adds a daily dose of sunshine to George's life, even if George doesn't seem too grateful. The novels both tell like stories that convey alike ideas, but the books are written differently. Click the character infographic to download. The two men share a vision of a farm that they will own together, a vision that Lennie believes in wholeheartedly. But we're also not sure he's just supposed to be a gentle giant. Unfortunately, that's about all he has going for him—that, and he's got a really good friend. Lennie small quotes Crooks is bitter and cynical, but nevertheless gets along well with Lennie, who doesn't share the other workers' racism. Lennie's prodigious strength combined with his lack of intelligence and conscience make him dangerous, and he needs George to keep him out of trouble. He pulled his hat down a little more over his eyes, the way George's hat was. Lennie has a lot of character and personality traits that define him. John Steinbeck especially excels in this, and therefore is the reason I have chosen this book to describe. Novel Menagerie, The two men grew up together, but George exerts greater authority in the friendship because of Lennie's dependence. Read an in-depth analysis of Curley. Read an in-depth analysis of Slim. We can look at all of these traits through his devoted dependency towards George Like a kid, he mournfully wishes for ketchup to put on his beans; like a kid, he demands a bedtime story—even when he knows it all himself: "No…you tell it. Of mice and men characters But we're also not sure he's just supposed to be a gentle giant. Lennie and George Lennie, who had been watching, imitated George exactly. While he acts with great loyalty to George, he has no comprehension of the idea of "loyalty. However, his reasoning is never clearly explained. George sometimes complains about his care-taking role, but he is clearly committed to looking out for Lennie. After Lennie accidentally kills Curley's wife, George chooses to kill Lennie. He is never named and appears only once, but seems to be a fair-minded man. based on 28 review	1,159	ENGLISH	1
Over the past decade, moral, political and legal philosophers around the world became increasingly interested in understanding the concept of evil. The ascriptions of evil motivated this by journalists as they attempt to comprehend and respond to various atrocities and horrors of the past, Holocaust, and killing sprees by killers. Today, it is difficult to capture the moral significance of these acts, and their perpetrator by calling them ‘wrong.’ A concept of evil is therefore, needed. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Holocaust Diaries" essay for youCreate order In understanding the concept, an emphasis is kept on the actions and words of the wrongdoers of the Holocaust. This is found from the documents in the Third Reich since the victims had a lot to talk about the evil deeds and actions. The paper will, therefore, focus on the Jewish diaries that were written in the midst of the Holocaust to reveal the concept of evil.Our initial focus is on the Holocaust diaries is that of Adolf Guttentag. In his seventies, Adolf lived with his wife Helena in Berlin. He fled to the United States during the onset of war in Germany in 1939. However, there was a deportation program in the country. This was a move by the Nazi authorities who were deporting all the Berlin Jews. Adolf had a diary that recorded his thoughts during the entire period. Adolf wrote the diary with the aim of communicating to his son Otto who was living in San Francisco. Typically, the journal connotes emotional instances of the effects the Nazi authority had on the German Jews during the period. Adolf through the diary condemned the deportation by the Nazi authority as he claims it would take them to an overcrowded and unhygienic ghetto. Adolf was hoping that he was exempted from the deportation that his Jewish friends and families were going through. However, the pressure was too much for Adolf and his wife until when they decided to take their life by committing suicide. His diary dramatically fits into the Holocaust diaries as evil activities prevail all through leading to his death. The log is also related to many of the Holocaust diaries where immoral actions cause individual to make dangerous decisions in life. Another Holocaust diary is of Abraham Frieder. He was born in 1911 and died in 1945. He was an orthodox rabbi in Nove Mesto Nad Vahom, a place that was later named new Slovak. As a leader, Abraham worked hard to improve a lot of the country’s Jews. Abraham in his diary recorded an attempt negotiation and bribe to the Nazi authority to stop the deportation program that was initiated. The diary provides an insight into the early response of Jewish leaders in Slovakia to the first news of the upcoming deportation. The diary also recounts the period in which the working group to deport individuals originated. However, several people, that were mentioned in Abraham’s diary we see them become prominent members of the working group. Despite surviving from the war, Frieder later died after the liberation. During the movement, Abraham indicates in his diary that at least 60, 000 Jews by 1942 had been deported through camps in Slovakia to the Reich where they were later all murdered in cold blood. Comparable to other Holocaust diaries, Abraham Frieder’s logs recorded a live event that occurred. It indicates a historical background full of war and other disputes. Abraham, therefore, wrote the diary to indicate the attempt made in putting to an end the evil act of deporting and killing innocent individuals.Herzl Mazia is another prominent individual who was a Palestinian Jew enrolled in the British army. He was also among the force that occupied Libya in the aftermath of the victory over the axis power in North Africa. Unlike other Jewish diaries, Mazia’s diary is merely a combination of a travelogue and more mundane topics ranging from contemporary cinema to Jewish life post-axis North Africa. He wrote the diary mainly to document the good memories he had during his time in the air force. Herzl Mazia wrote the diary while on his trips under the air force in Libya and North Africa. Compared to other Holocaust diaries, Mazia’s journal was mainly for his memory. From the journal, it has established that Libya was a territory key to the Italian imperial project from its pre-fascists years. Still, the wicked act of deportation still prevails in his diary as he indicates the deportation of Elvira Kohn to the island of Rab found in North Africa. Generally, the primary audience of this journal was his family, where he was trying to show them the memories and experience he had from different places around the world. From the journal, the audience learns the real picture of the Holocaust diaries where the evil activities in the past were not of the concern of many individuals but only to the affected.Moryc Brajtbart was from Poland and together with his family were displaced from the country when Germany invaded Poland. At this time, Moryc Brajtbart was only seventeen years old. During their transportation, together with his uncle and cousin, they managed to jump off the transportation track and established a refuge in the nearby Zelow. According to Moryc Brajtbart, the condition there were much better compared to their native land. While in Zelow hiding, his uncle and cousin were killed and therefore he decided to seek refuge at a different place. He then wrote the diary while a refugee is encompassing the awful events that were happening. The log contained the description of the event, from the invasion of Germany to Poland to his final refuge destination. However, he does not provide the information about his life in hiding, and the audience barely learns about Genia. The most robust motifs in his diary are the different nightmarish dream sequence. From one’s perspective, Moryc Brajtbart wrote the diary to explain to the audience the challenges individuals undergo when faced with different situations and while under refuge. Moryc Brajtbart’s diary depicts a historical background surrounded by war and conflict among communities.Finally, Saartje Wijnberg was Dutch Jewish citizen from Groningen whose diary was documented among the Holocaust diaries. Like any another individual, Saartje Wijnberg was deported from her native land to Sobibor back in 1943 while she was 21 years old. At the moment, Sobibor was regarded as a killing center founded for the operational Reinhardt. The chances of survival were limited, and therefore Saartje Wijnberg and the husband plotted a way to escape. They managed to escape the death and seek refuge in a camp. It is here that Saartje Wijnberg decided to write a diary explaining the challenges one faces while in the camp. Saartje Wijnberg through the diary illustrated the intricacy of authorship and drawing its precise moments. In 1944, Saartje Wijnberg was pregnant and therefore recorded entries in her journal indicating the experience women underwent while in hiding. The diary target women within the society. Finally, the journal fits into the Holocaust Diaries since it was recorded while the writer is in a different situation.In conclusion, every society today is indeed surrounded by evil activities. As documented in the Holocaust Diaries, the actions often cause some psychological torture to the victims. In this concept, the Holocaust diaries help in the understanding of the evil actions with war and challenges faced by refugees prevailing all through. According to the writers mentioned, conflict within the community was the significant hurtful act that was experienced in the past. Majority of the individuals were displaced from their home of a resident. As a result, they were often left with no alternative but to seek refuge in their neighborhood. However, they were still followed and killed while in the camps. This cause some such Adolf Guttentag to commit suicide. The Jewish diaries during the Holocaust period are indeed significant to our understanding of the past events and the effects of the events. The diaries generally convey a similar theme of war in society and challenges of refugees. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:0f774d5a-4e60-49ac-b9dc-d2383f25b1ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/holocaust-diaries/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00456.warc.gz	en	0.981821	1,672	3.328125	3	[ -0.3573386073112488, 0.5520881414413452, -0.31353068351745605, 0.08064711093902588, -0.03734936565160751, 0.1751960963010788, 0.02692791447043419, 0.12886837124824524, 0.23630288243293762, 0.06064046546816826, 0.19714727997779846, 0.09068477153778076, -0.23582445085048676, 0.25021940469741...	2	Over the past decade, moral, political and legal philosophers around the world became increasingly interested in understanding the concept of evil. The ascriptions of evil motivated this by journalists as they attempt to comprehend and respond to various atrocities and horrors of the past, Holocaust, and killing sprees by killers. Today, it is difficult to capture the moral significance of these acts, and their perpetrator by calling them ‘wrong.’ A concept of evil is therefore, needed. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Holocaust Diaries" essay for youCreate order In understanding the concept, an emphasis is kept on the actions and words of the wrongdoers of the Holocaust. This is found from the documents in the Third Reich since the victims had a lot to talk about the evil deeds and actions. The paper will, therefore, focus on the Jewish diaries that were written in the midst of the Holocaust to reveal the concept of evil.Our initial focus is on the Holocaust diaries is that of Adolf Guttentag. In his seventies, Adolf lived with his wife Helena in Berlin. He fled to the United States during the onset of war in Germany in 1939. However, there was a deportation program in the country. This was a move by the Nazi authorities who were deporting all the Berlin Jews. Adolf had a diary that recorded his thoughts during the entire period. Adolf wrote the diary with the aim of communicating to his son Otto who was living in San Francisco. Typically, the journal connotes emotional instances of the effects the Nazi authority had on the German Jews during the period. Adolf through the diary condemned the deportation by the Nazi authority as he claims it would take them to an overcrowded and unhygienic ghetto. Adolf was hoping that he was exempted from the deportation that his Jewish friends and families were going through. However, the pressure was too much for Adolf and his wife until when they decided to take their life by committing suicide. His diary dramatically fits into the Holocaust diaries as evil activities prevail all through leading to his death. The log is also related to many of the Holocaust diaries where immoral actions cause individual to make dangerous decisions in life. Another Holocaust diary is of Abraham Frieder. He was born in 1911 and died in 1945. He was an orthodox rabbi in Nove Mesto Nad Vahom, a place that was later named new Slovak. As a leader, Abraham worked hard to improve a lot of the country’s Jews. Abraham in his diary recorded an attempt negotiation and bribe to the Nazi authority to stop the deportation program that was initiated. The diary provides an insight into the early response of Jewish leaders in Slovakia to the first news of the upcoming deportation. The diary also recounts the period in which the working group to deport individuals originated. However, several people, that were mentioned in Abraham’s diary we see them become prominent members of the working group. Despite surviving from the war, Frieder later died after the liberation. During the movement, Abraham indicates in his diary that at least 60, 000 Jews by 1942 had been deported through camps in Slovakia to the Reich where they were later all murdered in cold blood. Comparable to other Holocaust diaries, Abraham Frieder’s logs recorded a live event that occurred. It indicates a historical background full of war and other disputes. Abraham, therefore, wrote the diary to indicate the attempt made in putting to an end the evil act of deporting and killing innocent individuals.Herzl Mazia is another prominent individual who was a Palestinian Jew enrolled in the British army. He was also among the force that occupied Libya in the aftermath of the victory over the axis power in North Africa. Unlike other Jewish diaries, Mazia’s diary is merely a combination of a travelogue and more mundane topics ranging from contemporary cinema to Jewish life post-axis North Africa. He wrote the diary mainly to document the good memories he had during his time in the air force. Herzl Mazia wrote the diary while on his trips under the air force in Libya and North Africa. Compared to other Holocaust diaries, Mazia’s journal was mainly for his memory. From the journal, it has established that Libya was a territory key to the Italian imperial project from its pre-fascists years. Still, the wicked act of deportation still prevails in his diary as he indicates the deportation of Elvira Kohn to the island of Rab found in North Africa. Generally, the primary audience of this journal was his family, where he was trying to show them the memories and experience he had from different places around the world. From the journal, the audience learns the real picture of the Holocaust diaries where the evil activities in the past were not of the concern of many individuals but only to the affected.Moryc Brajtbart was from Poland and together with his family were displaced from the country when Germany invaded Poland. At this time, Moryc Brajtbart was only seventeen years old. During their transportation, together with his uncle and cousin, they managed to jump off the transportation track and established a refuge in the nearby Zelow. According to Moryc Brajtbart, the condition there were much better compared to their native land. While in Zelow hiding, his uncle and cousin were killed and therefore he decided to seek refuge at a different place. He then wrote the diary while a refugee is encompassing the awful events that were happening. The log contained the description of the event, from the invasion of Germany to Poland to his final refuge destination. However, he does not provide the information about his life in hiding, and the audience barely learns about Genia. The most robust motifs in his diary are the different nightmarish dream sequence. From one’s perspective, Moryc Brajtbart wrote the diary to explain to the audience the challenges individuals undergo when faced with different situations and while under refuge. Moryc Brajtbart’s diary depicts a historical background surrounded by war and conflict among communities.Finally, Saartje Wijnberg was Dutch Jewish citizen from Groningen whose diary was documented among the Holocaust diaries. Like any another individual, Saartje Wijnberg was deported from her native land to Sobibor back in 1943 while she was 21 years old. At the moment, Sobibor was regarded as a killing center founded for the operational Reinhardt. The chances of survival were limited, and therefore Saartje Wijnberg and the husband plotted a way to escape. They managed to escape the death and seek refuge in a camp. It is here that Saartje Wijnberg decided to write a diary explaining the challenges one faces while in the camp. Saartje Wijnberg through the diary illustrated the intricacy of authorship and drawing its precise moments. In 1944, Saartje Wijnberg was pregnant and therefore recorded entries in her journal indicating the experience women underwent while in hiding. The diary target women within the society. Finally, the journal fits into the Holocaust Diaries since it was recorded while the writer is in a different situation.In conclusion, every society today is indeed surrounded by evil activities. As documented in the Holocaust Diaries, the actions often cause some psychological torture to the victims. In this concept, the Holocaust diaries help in the understanding of the evil actions with war and challenges faced by refugees prevailing all through. According to the writers mentioned, conflict within the community was the significant hurtful act that was experienced in the past. Majority of the individuals were displaced from their home of a resident. As a result, they were often left with no alternative but to seek refuge in their neighborhood. However, they were still followed and killed while in the camps. This cause some such Adolf Guttentag to commit suicide. The Jewish diaries during the Holocaust period are indeed significant to our understanding of the past events and the effects of the events. The diaries generally convey a similar theme of war in society and challenges of refugees. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,669	ENGLISH	1
William McKinley Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Childhood and Early Life William McKinley was born in Niles, Ohio in 1843. When William McKinley was nine years old, his family moved to Poland, Ohio. He was the son of William McKinley Sr and Nancy Allison, their seventh child. The family was of English and Scots-Irish ancestry. The McKinley’s traced their genealogy back to David McKinley who immigrated to Pennsylvania from Country Antrim, Northern Ireland in the 18th century. William McKinley was enrolled at Poland Union Seminary, after which he attended Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania. Rise To Fame William McKinley was working as a teacher until the Civil War broke out. He joined the Union Army as a private and left at the end of the conflict with the rank of major. After the war, he studied law and practiced in Canton Ohio. By this time, his attention was turning to politics. He supported the Republican party. He assisted Hayes in the gubernatorial campaign (1867) and Grant in his run for president (1868). In 1869, he was elected as Stark County’s prosecuting attorney. He lost his bid for reelection in 1871. Tuscarawas Valley Coal Miners Strike: March 1876 There were riots in March 1876. Coal miners in the Tuscarawas Valley were striking for improved working conditions and pay when mine owners brought in strikebreakers. This led to rioting. Governor Hayes sent the militia, and some of the miners were arrested. As a young attorney, William McKinley heard of the plight of the miners and represented them free of charge. His legal argument won. The workers of Ohio never forgot this act In 1876, when he was thirty-four years old, William McKinley won a seat in Congress. He initially served on the Ways and Means Committee and was perceived as a politician who was on the side of the general public and against private interests. With his legal training, he became the Republican expert on the protective tariff. He was convinced that the tariff would bring prosperity, but by 1890 his Mckinley Tariff had brought him a lot of criticism. William McKinley lost his seat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. The McKinley Tariff was controversial. Business mainly supported it. American consumers feared it, disliking the idea of price hikes. 39th Governor of Ohio: January 1892 – January 1896 The Ohio Republican Party nominated William McKinley for governor of the state in 1891. William McKinley won by a narrow margin of three percentage points. McKinley’s first term as governor was moderately quiet, and he easily won reelection in 1893. Then, the Panic of 1893 occurred, and this led to fifty percent of the state’s factory workers losing their jobs. Workers strike ensued and McKinley, mindful of business owners, had to order the state militia to restore order. Republicans were impressed with the way McKinley handled the Panic of 1893 in Ohio. This set the stage for him winning the 1896 Republican nomination for President. President McKinley: Served from the 4 March 1987 until his assassination on the 14 September 1901. William McKinley defeated Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan on a platform of economic management; which including high tariffs. His administration was also focused on foreign policy. The situation in Cuba was on the ongoing issue, and public pressure forced his decision regarding what became known as a neutral intervention in Cuba in April 1888. During this period of what would be called the 100-day war, the United States attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet in Cuba, occupied Puerto Rico and temporarily took control of Manila. The United States then annexed Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. In 1900, US election, William McKinley won a second term. His presidential term came to a terrible end. In September 1901, he was at the Buffalo Pan-American Exposition when a deranged person shot him. He died just over a week later. Awards And Achievements William McKinley was the 25th President of the United States. He served from the 4 March 1987 until his assassination on the 14 September 1901. The McKinley Tariff. William McKinley put a lot of his energy into protecting the local business against foreign competition. He went down in history as a capable, kind and much loved President. Personal Life And Legacy William McKinley met his wife-to-be in 1867 when he moved to Canton to establish his legal practice. Ida Saxton was the eldest daughter of a prominent family. Her father was a banker, and he sent his two daughters to the best schools. Ida enjoyed working in his father’s bank, and it was there that she met William McKinley. They fell in love and married. Their first child was Katherine (b.1871), and they had a second child Ida (b.1873). Ida died in infancy, and Ida entered into a deep depressed which exacerbated her already weak health. When Katherine died in 1875 of typhoid, Ida’s health grew even worse. She started having epileptic seizures and became an invalid. The couple remained devoted to each other and Ida tried hard to be a perfect First Lady at the White House, greeting visitors whilst sitting in her wheelchair. After McKinley’s assassination, Ida lived with her sister. She is said to have visited her husband’s grave daily until she died in 1907. The McKinley family belonged to the Methodist church. More People From Ohio Charles F. Kettering Granville T. Woods John D. Rockefeller Jr.	<urn:uuid:7b9a0a3e-e86a-4755-bd55-43e9d4e641b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/william-mckinley/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00242.warc.gz	en	0.985823	1,169	3.875	4	[ -0.3540230393409729, 0.25533950328826904, 0.4687596559524536, 0.12859708070755005, -0.1768265813589096, -0.020473647862672806, 0.25351959466934204, -0.2833748757839203, -0.2812356948852539, -0.2976139187812805, 0.1602131426334381, -0.1758505403995514, -0.10314678400754929, 0.32255852222442...	1	William McKinley Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Childhood and Early Life William McKinley was born in Niles, Ohio in 1843. When William McKinley was nine years old, his family moved to Poland, Ohio. He was the son of William McKinley Sr and Nancy Allison, their seventh child. The family was of English and Scots-Irish ancestry. The McKinley’s traced their genealogy back to David McKinley who immigrated to Pennsylvania from Country Antrim, Northern Ireland in the 18th century. William McKinley was enrolled at Poland Union Seminary, after which he attended Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania. Rise To Fame William McKinley was working as a teacher until the Civil War broke out. He joined the Union Army as a private and left at the end of the conflict with the rank of major. After the war, he studied law and practiced in Canton Ohio. By this time, his attention was turning to politics. He supported the Republican party. He assisted Hayes in the gubernatorial campaign (1867) and Grant in his run for president (1868). In 1869, he was elected as Stark County’s prosecuting attorney. He lost his bid for reelection in 1871. Tuscarawas Valley Coal Miners Strike: March 1876 There were riots in March 1876. Coal miners in the Tuscarawas Valley were striking for improved working conditions and pay when mine owners brought in strikebreakers. This led to rioting. Governor Hayes sent the militia, and some of the miners were arrested. As a young attorney, William McKinley heard of the plight of the miners and represented them free of charge. His legal argument won. The workers of Ohio never forgot this act In 1876, when he was thirty-four years old, William McKinley won a seat in Congress. He initially served on the Ways and Means Committee and was perceived as a politician who was on the side of the general public and against private interests. With his legal training, he became the Republican expert on the protective tariff. He was convinced that the tariff would bring prosperity, but by 1890 his Mckinley Tariff had brought him a lot of criticism. William McKinley lost his seat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. The McKinley Tariff was controversial. Business mainly supported it. American consumers feared it, disliking the idea of price hikes. 39th Governor of Ohio: January 1892 – January 1896 The Ohio Republican Party nominated William McKinley for governor of the state in 1891. William McKinley won by a narrow margin of three percentage points. McKinley’s first term as governor was moderately quiet, and he easily won reelection in 1893. Then, the Panic of 1893 occurred, and this led to fifty percent of the state’s factory workers losing their jobs. Workers strike ensued and McKinley, mindful of business owners, had to order the state militia to restore order. Republicans were impressed with the way McKinley handled the Panic of 1893 in Ohio. This set the stage for him winning the 1896 Republican nomination for President. President McKinley: Served from the 4 March 1987 until his assassination on the 14 September 1901. William McKinley defeated Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan on a platform of economic management; which including high tariffs. His administration was also focused on foreign policy. The situation in Cuba was on the ongoing issue, and public pressure forced his decision regarding what became known as a neutral intervention in Cuba in April 1888. During this period of what would be called the 100-day war, the United States attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet in Cuba, occupied Puerto Rico and temporarily took control of Manila. The United States then annexed Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. In 1900, US election, William McKinley won a second term. His presidential term came to a terrible end. In September 1901, he was at the Buffalo Pan-American Exposition when a deranged person shot him. He died just over a week later. Awards And Achievements William McKinley was the 25th President of the United States. He served from the 4 March 1987 until his assassination on the 14 September 1901. The McKinley Tariff. William McKinley put a lot of his energy into protecting the local business against foreign competition. He went down in history as a capable, kind and much loved President. Personal Life And Legacy William McKinley met his wife-to-be in 1867 when he moved to Canton to establish his legal practice. Ida Saxton was the eldest daughter of a prominent family. Her father was a banker, and he sent his two daughters to the best schools. Ida enjoyed working in his father’s bank, and it was there that she met William McKinley. They fell in love and married. Their first child was Katherine (b.1871), and they had a second child Ida (b.1873). Ida died in infancy, and Ida entered into a deep depressed which exacerbated her already weak health. When Katherine died in 1875 of typhoid, Ida’s health grew even worse. She started having epileptic seizures and became an invalid. The couple remained devoted to each other and Ida tried hard to be a perfect First Lady at the White House, greeting visitors whilst sitting in her wheelchair. After McKinley’s assassination, Ida lived with her sister. She is said to have visited her husband’s grave daily until she died in 1907. The McKinley family belonged to the Methodist church. More People From Ohio Charles F. Kettering Granville T. Woods John D. Rockefeller Jr.	1,251	ENGLISH	1
Carl Jung once said, “One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with gratitude to those who touched our human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary raw material, but warmth is the vital element for growing plant and for the soul of the child.” Siddhartha, a novel by Hermann Hesse, follows Siddhartha through his life stages. While Siddhartha searches for enlightenment and Nirvana; going from Brahmin, to the rich, then to having nothing. The audience can read about his struggles and sufferings that guide him to enlightenment. Siddhartha’s journey gives him several teachers and mentors; some were conventional and some more symbolic. All of them though were important and help Siddhartha to his enlightenment. The first teachers that Siddhartha has are the Brahmins and the Samanas. They are important though they do not lead him to his goal, but guide him to a path of enlightenment. “He had begun to suspect that his worthy father and his other teachers, the wise Brahmins, had already passed on to him the bulk and best of their knowledge.” (3) The Brahmins were important to Siddhartha, because they give Siddhartha a religious foundation. At the same time though Siddhartha knows if he stays with the Brahmin he will not grow spiritually. The audience comes to this solution when Siddhartha says, “And the vessel was not full.” (3) “Then the father realized that Siddhartha could no longer remain with him at home – that he had already left him.” (9) The realization that Siddhartha’s father teaches him everything he knows, helps him let go of Siddhartha. His father understands that Siddhartha hasn’t filled his thirst, therefore he hands him over to the next teacher, the Samana, hoping to help Siddhartha’s goals of . . er, which is really Siddhartha himself, are the true mentors that lead him to his true enlightenment. They are the ones that had the most influence in Siddhartha’s life. Jung mentions gratitude for teachers who touch oneselves feelings, and that’s exactly how Siddhartha feels towards his mentors. There are always those teachers who change one’s perspective and thinking. Siddhartha is lucky to have a couple of those teaches on his journey. Siddhartha reaches enlightenment after his life-long journey, and through his life he had several teachers that get him there. His mentors are different from each other, but they are all helpful to Siddhartha’s journey in their own way. The most important teacher is himself though, because it’s Siddhartha that always gets back on track to enlightenment. Hesse, Hermann, Siddhartha, New Delhi: Rupa Publications, 2003	<urn:uuid:c73ff4e1-13ec-48c1-aa65-60fe2ccf78da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/gratitude-for-the-mentors-in-hermann-hesses-siddhartha-example-essay-109307/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00188.warc.gz	en	0.985095	604	3.359375	3	[ -0.05355443060398102, 0.33628666400909424, -0.08513374626636505, -0.2510520815849304, -0.36276736855506897, 0.4145086109638214, 0.2394724190235138, -0.18835687637329102, -0.09663504362106323, -0.23060965538024902, 0.19342152774333954, 0.016637425869703293, 0.11547257006168365, 0.4331236481...	3	Carl Jung once said, “One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with gratitude to those who touched our human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary raw material, but warmth is the vital element for growing plant and for the soul of the child.” Siddhartha, a novel by Hermann Hesse, follows Siddhartha through his life stages. While Siddhartha searches for enlightenment and Nirvana; going from Brahmin, to the rich, then to having nothing. The audience can read about his struggles and sufferings that guide him to enlightenment. Siddhartha’s journey gives him several teachers and mentors; some were conventional and some more symbolic. All of them though were important and help Siddhartha to his enlightenment. The first teachers that Siddhartha has are the Brahmins and the Samanas. They are important though they do not lead him to his goal, but guide him to a path of enlightenment. “He had begun to suspect that his worthy father and his other teachers, the wise Brahmins, had already passed on to him the bulk and best of their knowledge.” (3) The Brahmins were important to Siddhartha, because they give Siddhartha a religious foundation. At the same time though Siddhartha knows if he stays with the Brahmin he will not grow spiritually. The audience comes to this solution when Siddhartha says, “And the vessel was not full.” (3) “Then the father realized that Siddhartha could no longer remain with him at home – that he had already left him.” (9) The realization that Siddhartha’s father teaches him everything he knows, helps him let go of Siddhartha. His father understands that Siddhartha hasn’t filled his thirst, therefore he hands him over to the next teacher, the Samana, hoping to help Siddhartha’s goals of . . er, which is really Siddhartha himself, are the true mentors that lead him to his true enlightenment. They are the ones that had the most influence in Siddhartha’s life. Jung mentions gratitude for teachers who touch oneselves feelings, and that’s exactly how Siddhartha feels towards his mentors. There are always those teachers who change one’s perspective and thinking. Siddhartha is lucky to have a couple of those teaches on his journey. Siddhartha reaches enlightenment after his life-long journey, and through his life he had several teachers that get him there. His mentors are different from each other, but they are all helpful to Siddhartha’s journey in their own way. The most important teacher is himself though, because it’s Siddhartha that always gets back on track to enlightenment. Hesse, Hermann, Siddhartha, New Delhi: Rupa Publications, 2003	566	ENGLISH	1
While the western world has cut back on paper usage with the development of technology, toilet paper is one area that cannot be improved – or can it? Before toilet paper was mass-produced, rich people would use hemp, wool or lace for wiping. Poor people used leaves, hay, rocks, seaweed, husks, or anything else that they could find lying around. Sometimes they would revert to stepping into the river where going and washing was all wrapped up into one. In 1857, Joseph C. Gayetty invented the first commercial toilet paper in the United States. His product was made from Manila hemp and the sheets were moistened and soaked in aloe. Sold as medicated toilet paper, they were sold in flat sheets in a 500-pack, priced at 50 cents. For the next 10 years, Gayetty marketed his product as an alternative to using scratchy paper from leaves and catalogs. In 1867, the Scott brothers took this idea and began manufacturing dry toilet paper from wood chips, a cheaper alternative.	<urn:uuid:efc83820-bd9f-446f-a19b-b517eed3a1a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.freedomsphoenix.com/News/271450-2019-11-09-hemp-toilet-paper-could-change-the-world.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00315.warc.gz	en	0.982144	212	3.359375	3	[ -0.30732882022857666, -0.12298975884914398, 0.11958997696638107, -0.2264167219400406, -0.08397098630666733, 0.2638717293739319, -0.07969572395086288, 0.5095604062080383, -0.20324046909809113, -0.07781624048948288, -0.00836172979325056, 0.2066519856452942, 0.27307912707328796, -0.1412633210...	1	While the western world has cut back on paper usage with the development of technology, toilet paper is one area that cannot be improved – or can it? Before toilet paper was mass-produced, rich people would use hemp, wool or lace for wiping. Poor people used leaves, hay, rocks, seaweed, husks, or anything else that they could find lying around. Sometimes they would revert to stepping into the river where going and washing was all wrapped up into one. In 1857, Joseph C. Gayetty invented the first commercial toilet paper in the United States. His product was made from Manila hemp and the sheets were moistened and soaked in aloe. Sold as medicated toilet paper, they were sold in flat sheets in a 500-pack, priced at 50 cents. For the next 10 years, Gayetty marketed his product as an alternative to using scratchy paper from leaves and catalogs. In 1867, the Scott brothers took this idea and began manufacturing dry toilet paper from wood chips, a cheaper alternative.	217	ENGLISH	1
African-Americans have had a tumultuous history in the United States, to say the least. From slavery to discrimination to the systematic racism rampant today, Blacks have and are being disenfranchised. It has taken unique and bold individuals to step out and pursue positions of power – thereby changing the course of the Black plight. Here are the passionate individuals who risked having a life of discomfort for the advancement of African-Americans. Barack Hussein Obama II – First Black President of the U. S. Born on August 4, 1961, and raised mostly in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama served as the first African-American president from 2009-2017. In 1983 after earning a degree from Columbia University in New York, he relocated back to Chicago to work as a community organizer. 1988 he enrolled at Harvard Law School and became the first African-American president of the Harvard Law Review. After earning his degree from Harvard University, Obama became a civil rights attorney and professor teaching constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992-2004. From 1997-2004 Obama served as the Illinois Senator representing the 13th district subsequently running for U.S. Senate in which he won. After serving in the U.S. Senate for four years in 2008, Obama was nominated for president and took the seat in 2009. Also in 2009, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate. During Obama’s first administration he signed many groundbreaking laws into fruition including the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act of 2010 and the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act commonly referred to as “Obamacare.” 2013 signaled another win for Obama as he was re-elected as president of the U.S. During his second tenure, Obama fought for gun control laws, issued executive actions against climate control and immigration, ended the U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan, and stabilized U.S. relations with Cuba ending the long instated embargo. Obama left office with a 60% approval rating and a C-SPAN conducted a poll that concluded Obama ranked 12th best president. These men helped paved the way for the equality of African-Americans and are sure to usher in even more progression with the passing of time. Lawrence Douglas Wilder – First elected Black Governor in the U.S. Wilder was born on January 17, 2018, in Richmond, Virginia. His grandparents were slaves and his parents were not. Although not poor, he does describe experiencing some poverty during the Great Depression. Wilder financed his college education while attending Virginia Union University by waiting tables and shining shoes. In 1951 he earned his degree in chemistry. He joined the Army also in 1951 and served in a combat role during the battle of Pork Chop Hill persuading 19 Chinese Soldiers into a concession for which he was awarded a Bronze Star Medal. In 1953 after his enlistment, Wilder began pursuing his master’s degree in chemistry but in 1956 redirected his efforts and enrolled in law school at Howard University Law School. In 1959 he instituted his own law practice in Richmond, Virginia. The commencement of his political career was in 1969 when he was elected to Virginia State Senate during a special election. This enabled him to become the first African-American elected to Virginia Senate since Reconstruction. In 1985 Wilder was elected for Lieutenant Governor of Virginia and in 1989 won the seat for Governor being the first African-American to do so; he was awarded the Spingarn Medal by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People for this achievement. Wilder’s focus during his reign as governor was gun control, crime, and transportation initiatives successfully lobbying for the allocation of funds to state transportation programs. He spearheaded a stand against apartheid in South Africa by formulating an order that forced state agencies and universities to dissociate themselves in any investment programs with South Africa. In 1992 Wilder briefly ran for president before dropping out of the race and in 1994 briefly ran for U.S. Senate as an independent. In 1994, Wilder became the mayor of Richmond nevertheless didn’t run for a second term. After his political career, Wilder became the adjunct professor of public policy at Virginia Commonwealth University and occasionally writes for various Virginia newspapers. He founded the United States National Slavery Museum. Wilder has been honored by having buildings at Virginia Commonwealth University, Virginia State University and Hampton University respectively named after him. Wilder has received an honorary degree from Arizona State University and has a middle school named after him. Wilder’s collection of papers and a gallery can be found at the L. Douglas Wilder Library and Resource Center at Virginia Union University. Carl Stokes – First Black mayor of a major U.S. city (Cleveland, Ohio) Carl Stokes was born in Cleveland, Ohio on June 21, 1927. Stokes was reared with his brother by their single mother in a housing project named Outhwaite Homes. Stokes was a good student yet, he dropped out of school in 1944 and briefly worked for a company called Thompson Products. He later joined the Army at the age of 18. After his discharge in 1946, he returned to Cleveland and earned his high school diploma in 1947. In 1954 he earned his Bachelor’s degree and then proceeded to law school earning his law degree in 1956 while working as a probation officer. In 1957 he was admitted to the Ohio bar. From 1958-1961, he served as assistant prosecutor and partner at the law firm Stokes & Stokes. 1962 marked the start of Strokes’ political career as an Ohio Representative where he served for three terms. In 1965 Stokes lost his first attempt to be instituted as Mayor. He won the bid in 1967. His tenure as mayor afforded Blacks the opportunity to obtain city hall jobs. He commenced Cleveland Now! – a neighborhood regeneration program aimed at public and private funding. After his political career Stokes lectured at colleges nationwide and in 1972 gained a position as the first Black news anchor at WNBC – TV in New York City. In 1980 he returned to Cleveland and served as general legal counsel for the United Auto Workers. From 1983-1994 Stokes served as municipal judge in Cleveland. His last political roles came as the U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Seychelles. In 1970, Stokes was voted as the first African-American president of the National League of Cities. During his lifetime, Stokes was bestowed with 12 honorary degrees, several civic awards, and represented the U.S. by special request of the White House on goodwill trips abroad. Stokes died of cancer on April 3, 1996. He was 68 years old. Hiram Rhodes Revels – First Black and Native American Senator Revels was born in Fayetteville, North Carolina on September 27, 1827, as a free man. He received his education in the form of tutoring from an unidentified Black woman. In 1841 he attended the Union County Quaker Seminary in Indiana and Darke County Seminary in Ohio. In 1845 Revels was ordained as a minister and proceeded with preaching and became a religious teacher. Interestingly enough, Revels was imprisoned in 1854 for preaching to Blacks. From 1855 to 1857 he studied religion at Knox College in Illinois. He later became a minister in an Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland and served as a principal in an all-Black high school. Revels served as a chaplain in the United States Army and during his enlistment formulated two Black union regiments during the Civil War in Maryland and Missouri; he also fought at the battle of Vicksburg in Mississippi. In 1865 Revels joined the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1866, he became the permanent pastor at a church in Natchez, Mississippi all the while founding schools for the Black youth. In 1868, Revels was elected as the alderman in Natchez. In 1869 he was elected to represent Adams County in the Mississippi Senate. Then in 1870, Revels was elected as a Senate member by a vote of 81 to 15. Finally, on February 25, 1870, Revels was elected as the first African-American member of United States Senate. As a senator, he strongly advocated for racial equality though was unsuccessful in formulating substantial change for Blacks. After his one-year Senate appointment, Revels served as the president of Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College now Alcorn State University while being an instructor of philosophy, served as Mississippi secretary of state ad interim, remained active in church ministry, served briefly as an editor for the Southwestern Christian Advocate, and taught Theology at Shaw College renamed Rust College. Revels died on January 16, 1901, while attending a church conference at Aberdeen, Mississippi. He was 73 years old.	<urn:uuid:5f5d56e6-c9ef-44c8-a33c-2661ab2a050f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://howafrica.com/here-are-the-first-black-men-in-leadership-roles-in-u-s-politics/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00454.warc.gz	en	0.985595	1,800	3.53125	4	[ -0.33141133189201355, 0.5809009075164795, -0.11972492933273315, 0.1667763888835907, -0.22535380721092224, 0.31892356276512146, -0.028608253225684166, -0.31990787386894226, -0.1345028281211853, 0.39539384841918945, 0.4079471528530121, -0.11896812915802002, -0.2777573764324188, 0.25832477211...	4	African-Americans have had a tumultuous history in the United States, to say the least. From slavery to discrimination to the systematic racism rampant today, Blacks have and are being disenfranchised. It has taken unique and bold individuals to step out and pursue positions of power – thereby changing the course of the Black plight. Here are the passionate individuals who risked having a life of discomfort for the advancement of African-Americans. Barack Hussein Obama II – First Black President of the U. S. Born on August 4, 1961, and raised mostly in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama served as the first African-American president from 2009-2017. In 1983 after earning a degree from Columbia University in New York, he relocated back to Chicago to work as a community organizer. 1988 he enrolled at Harvard Law School and became the first African-American president of the Harvard Law Review. After earning his degree from Harvard University, Obama became a civil rights attorney and professor teaching constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992-2004. From 1997-2004 Obama served as the Illinois Senator representing the 13th district subsequently running for U.S. Senate in which he won. After serving in the U.S. Senate for four years in 2008, Obama was nominated for president and took the seat in 2009. Also in 2009, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate. During Obama’s first administration he signed many groundbreaking laws into fruition including the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act of 2010 and the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act commonly referred to as “Obamacare.” 2013 signaled another win for Obama as he was re-elected as president of the U.S. During his second tenure, Obama fought for gun control laws, issued executive actions against climate control and immigration, ended the U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan, and stabilized U.S. relations with Cuba ending the long instated embargo. Obama left office with a 60% approval rating and a C-SPAN conducted a poll that concluded Obama ranked 12th best president. These men helped paved the way for the equality of African-Americans and are sure to usher in even more progression with the passing of time. Lawrence Douglas Wilder – First elected Black Governor in the U.S. Wilder was born on January 17, 2018, in Richmond, Virginia. His grandparents were slaves and his parents were not. Although not poor, he does describe experiencing some poverty during the Great Depression. Wilder financed his college education while attending Virginia Union University by waiting tables and shining shoes. In 1951 he earned his degree in chemistry. He joined the Army also in 1951 and served in a combat role during the battle of Pork Chop Hill persuading 19 Chinese Soldiers into a concession for which he was awarded a Bronze Star Medal. In 1953 after his enlistment, Wilder began pursuing his master’s degree in chemistry but in 1956 redirected his efforts and enrolled in law school at Howard University Law School. In 1959 he instituted his own law practice in Richmond, Virginia. The commencement of his political career was in 1969 when he was elected to Virginia State Senate during a special election. This enabled him to become the first African-American elected to Virginia Senate since Reconstruction. In 1985 Wilder was elected for Lieutenant Governor of Virginia and in 1989 won the seat for Governor being the first African-American to do so; he was awarded the Spingarn Medal by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People for this achievement. Wilder’s focus during his reign as governor was gun control, crime, and transportation initiatives successfully lobbying for the allocation of funds to state transportation programs. He spearheaded a stand against apartheid in South Africa by formulating an order that forced state agencies and universities to dissociate themselves in any investment programs with South Africa. In 1992 Wilder briefly ran for president before dropping out of the race and in 1994 briefly ran for U.S. Senate as an independent. In 1994, Wilder became the mayor of Richmond nevertheless didn’t run for a second term. After his political career, Wilder became the adjunct professor of public policy at Virginia Commonwealth University and occasionally writes for various Virginia newspapers. He founded the United States National Slavery Museum. Wilder has been honored by having buildings at Virginia Commonwealth University, Virginia State University and Hampton University respectively named after him. Wilder has received an honorary degree from Arizona State University and has a middle school named after him. Wilder’s collection of papers and a gallery can be found at the L. Douglas Wilder Library and Resource Center at Virginia Union University. Carl Stokes – First Black mayor of a major U.S. city (Cleveland, Ohio) Carl Stokes was born in Cleveland, Ohio on June 21, 1927. Stokes was reared with his brother by their single mother in a housing project named Outhwaite Homes. Stokes was a good student yet, he dropped out of school in 1944 and briefly worked for a company called Thompson Products. He later joined the Army at the age of 18. After his discharge in 1946, he returned to Cleveland and earned his high school diploma in 1947. In 1954 he earned his Bachelor’s degree and then proceeded to law school earning his law degree in 1956 while working as a probation officer. In 1957 he was admitted to the Ohio bar. From 1958-1961, he served as assistant prosecutor and partner at the law firm Stokes & Stokes. 1962 marked the start of Strokes’ political career as an Ohio Representative where he served for three terms. In 1965 Stokes lost his first attempt to be instituted as Mayor. He won the bid in 1967. His tenure as mayor afforded Blacks the opportunity to obtain city hall jobs. He commenced Cleveland Now! – a neighborhood regeneration program aimed at public and private funding. After his political career Stokes lectured at colleges nationwide and in 1972 gained a position as the first Black news anchor at WNBC – TV in New York City. In 1980 he returned to Cleveland and served as general legal counsel for the United Auto Workers. From 1983-1994 Stokes served as municipal judge in Cleveland. His last political roles came as the U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Seychelles. In 1970, Stokes was voted as the first African-American president of the National League of Cities. During his lifetime, Stokes was bestowed with 12 honorary degrees, several civic awards, and represented the U.S. by special request of the White House on goodwill trips abroad. Stokes died of cancer on April 3, 1996. He was 68 years old. Hiram Rhodes Revels – First Black and Native American Senator Revels was born in Fayetteville, North Carolina on September 27, 1827, as a free man. He received his education in the form of tutoring from an unidentified Black woman. In 1841 he attended the Union County Quaker Seminary in Indiana and Darke County Seminary in Ohio. In 1845 Revels was ordained as a minister and proceeded with preaching and became a religious teacher. Interestingly enough, Revels was imprisoned in 1854 for preaching to Blacks. From 1855 to 1857 he studied religion at Knox College in Illinois. He later became a minister in an Episcopal Church in Baltimore, Maryland and served as a principal in an all-Black high school. Revels served as a chaplain in the United States Army and during his enlistment formulated two Black union regiments during the Civil War in Maryland and Missouri; he also fought at the battle of Vicksburg in Mississippi. In 1865 Revels joined the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1866, he became the permanent pastor at a church in Natchez, Mississippi all the while founding schools for the Black youth. In 1868, Revels was elected as the alderman in Natchez. In 1869 he was elected to represent Adams County in the Mississippi Senate. Then in 1870, Revels was elected as a Senate member by a vote of 81 to 15. Finally, on February 25, 1870, Revels was elected as the first African-American member of United States Senate. As a senator, he strongly advocated for racial equality though was unsuccessful in formulating substantial change for Blacks. After his one-year Senate appointment, Revels served as the president of Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College now Alcorn State University while being an instructor of philosophy, served as Mississippi secretary of state ad interim, remained active in church ministry, served briefly as an editor for the Southwestern Christian Advocate, and taught Theology at Shaw College renamed Rust College. Revels died on January 16, 1901, while attending a church conference at Aberdeen, Mississippi. He was 73 years old.	1,969	ENGLISH	1
Amate is a type of bark paper that has been manufactured in Mexico since the pre-contact times. It was used primarily to create codices. Amate paper was extensively produced and used for both communication, records, and ritual during the Aztec Empire; however, after the Spanish conquest, its production was mostly banned and replaced by European paper. Amate paper production never completely died, it was revived in the mid-20th Century as an example of Folk Art. Amate paper is still made using the same basic process that was used in the pre Hispanic period. The process begins with obtaining the bark for its fiber. Traditionally, these are from trees of the fig. The softer inner bark is preferred but other parts are used as well. Bark is best cut in the spring when it is new, which does less damage.The bark is then boiled for several hours to soften it. The fibers are arranged on wooden boards and beaten together into a thin flat mass. The best paper is made with long fibers arranged in a grid pattern to fit the board. The fibers are beaten to smash them together, then smoothed out and taken outside to dry into paper. When dry the paper is then drawn or painted on and sold.	<urn:uuid:b91b6e5c-913f-45b7-9c5f-c1d00f980010>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pochtecagallery.com/collections/paintings-posters-prints	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00194.warc.gz	en	0.986074	252	3.65625	4	[ -0.26079291105270386, 0.2480996996164322, 0.06544912606477737, -0.08001937717199326, 0.34778448939323425, -0.1606152355670929, -0.3186837136745453, 0.26152148842811584, -0.09545614570379257, -0.2810755670070648, 0.10829155892133713, -0.011691712774336338, -0.032827477902173996, 0.409823656...	8	Amate is a type of bark paper that has been manufactured in Mexico since the pre-contact times. It was used primarily to create codices. Amate paper was extensively produced and used for both communication, records, and ritual during the Aztec Empire; however, after the Spanish conquest, its production was mostly banned and replaced by European paper. Amate paper production never completely died, it was revived in the mid-20th Century as an example of Folk Art. Amate paper is still made using the same basic process that was used in the pre Hispanic period. The process begins with obtaining the bark for its fiber. Traditionally, these are from trees of the fig. The softer inner bark is preferred but other parts are used as well. Bark is best cut in the spring when it is new, which does less damage.The bark is then boiled for several hours to soften it. The fibers are arranged on wooden boards and beaten together into a thin flat mass. The best paper is made with long fibers arranged in a grid pattern to fit the board. The fibers are beaten to smash them together, then smoothed out and taken outside to dry into paper. When dry the paper is then drawn or painted on and sold.	247	ENGLISH	1
India and Pakistan gained independence amidst population displacement and violence. Kashmir became the major bone of contention during the Partition. War with Pakistan in August 1947 led to the signing of instrument of accession between Maharaja Hari Singh and Government of India on 26th October 1947. This further caused tensions in Pakistan and it sent its troops and Mujahideens to take over Kashmir. War of 1947 was the first of the many wars between India and Pakistan. Two other states were Army under took operations to ensure national integration, were Hyderabad where operation Polo was launched. Other one was in Goa, the Portuguese and their sympathisers were driven out by the combined action of Navy, Air Force and the Army and the operation was called Vijay. In August 1947 when the Indian subcontinent became independent, rulers of the 565 princely states, whose lands comprised two-fifths of India and a population of 99 million, had to decide which of the two new countries to join, India or Pakistan. This is how India looked like before 1947. The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, whose state was situated between the two new countries, could not decide which country to join. The King, Maharaja Hari Singh was a Hindu but his population was predominantly Muslim. Instead he signed a "standstill" agreement with Pakistan in order that services such as trade, travel and communication would be uninterrupted. India did not sign a similar agreement. Pakistan violated this agreement as soon as it was signed and started applying economic and other pressures to force it to accede to Pakistan. The only rail link with Jammu & Kashmir was cut off and the traffic along the main road Srinagar-Rawalpindi was also interfered with. When these pressures failed, tribal raids were organized from Pakistan into various parts of Jammu & Kashmir. This became the beginning of the Kashmir problem. Invasion of Kashmir Valley The invasion of the valley was carried out from across the Pakistan border. The invasion was well planned and carried out in two phases. When first phase commenced thousands of raiders came across the border and carried out several border raids along the Pakistan - Kashmir border. This phase started on 20th October 1947. These raiders mostly comprised of Hazara and Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province. The invaders came into Kashmir in two lots. One from Muzaffarabad towards Srinagar and the other came from Nowshera-Poonch area. They quickly captured towns and villages and came up to Srinagar town. On 24th October the ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, sent an urgent message to Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten, seeking immediate India's help to stop the invaders. When Pakistan launched a large-scale offensive, Kashmir accepted to merge with India by signing the Instrument of Accession on 26th October 1947. Indian army was quickly deployed in Srinagar and Poonch and defeated the invaders. Major Battles During the War in 1947-48 During the war of 1947-48, the Indian Army took part in several battles at different areas. It happened during the winter and summer seasons. Operation Gulmarg: Battle in Srinagar Three hundred men of 1 Sikh, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Dewan Ranjit Rai, were flown to Srinagar on the morning of 27th October. Colonel Rai's task was to secure the airfield as well as Srinagar town. The raiders were delayed for nearly two days by Col Rai's gallantry efforts. This valuable time enabled our army to rush more troops to Srinagar airfield. Colonel Rai had played a vital role in the defence of Srinagar and was awarded Maha Vir Chakra, posthumously. Battle of Shelatang Airplanes of the Indian Air Force brought in more troops, guns and ammunition at Srinagar airfield. The next task was to throw out the invaders from the Kashmir valley. This was done by one brigade sized force of the Indian Army. The main attack took place in a place called Shelatang. The attack was so quick and fierce that the enemy was defeated within 20 minutes. All the raiders panicked and ran towards Muzaffarabad. The Indian Air Force bombed and fired at the raiders causing huge casualities. Baramula town and Uri were captured quickly thus ending the war in Kashmir valley. Attack on Naushera The winter months meant hardly any operations in the north and action was confined to the south, in Jammu area. Enemy was concentrating his troops for an attack on Naushera which was an important place between Jammu and Poonch. The enemy attacked Naushera on the night of 5th and 6th February from three sides. After a bitter battle, the attack was repulsed with heavy losses to the enemy. It was also the biggest battle of the Kashmir War. Enemy was defeated because of our very effective Artillery. Attack on Poonch The raiders attacked Poonch town in October 1947 and surrounded it. Indian Army led by Lieutenant Colonel Pritam Singh was already inside the Poonch and he started defended the town. The army went on patrols by night and fought and killed the raiders. This action did not allow the enemy to enter Poonch town. Later in December 1947, Air Force landed their aircraft carrying more troops and guns. Similar to what was done in Srinagar. Because of the attacks by raiders, the area faced problem of refugees & their settlement. The Air Force aircraft after dropping the army soldiers carried the refugees to Jammu and other safe areas. The daring attacks by Indian Army stopped the raiders from coming any further. Attack on Kargil: Operation Bison Pakistani invaders had come to Kargil also. An operation was launched on 01 November 1948 through Zoji La pass to capture Kargil. It was a daring attack led by General Thimayya. He used tanks, artillery and Air Force to defeat the Pakistanis. By 22 November 1947 all areas upto Kargil were free of the invaders. At this time Colonel Sher Jung Thapa defended Skardu. He defeated all attacks by the enemy for one long year without any additional troops or ammunition. Finally he had to surrender to the Pakistanis as no reinforcement could be provided to him and Skardu is now in Pak occupied Kashmir (POK). The Kashmir dispute was referred to the U.N. on the advice of Lord Mountbatten by the then Prime Minster, Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru. In December 1947, India had complained with the United Nations Organisation about the attack on Kashmir, by regular and irregular troops from across Pakistan. In the early stages Pakistan kept denying that her troops were involved in the fighting, and was saying that it was a revolt by the local tribes; later on, however, Pakistan accepted her direct involvement. The United Nations Security Council, by a resolution of 13th August 1948, called for an immediate cease-fire between the two sides and for setting up of a commission to supervise the cease-fire. Both sides agreed to the cease-fire and it came into being on 1st January 1949. And a commission known as United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) was set up to supervise the ceasefire. United Nations Military Observers Group for India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was made responsible to ensure that either side did not violate the ceasefire line.	<urn:uuid:3a69fc50-8c00-48b2-aa11-bd3c524e225b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studypage.in/military/genesis-of-the-kashmir-problem	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00309.warc.gz	en	0.98355	1,545	4.1875	4	[ -0.04957827553153038, -0.10098650306463242, 0.3078523874282837, -0.04469408839941025, -0.29833951592445374, -0.014350139535963535, 0.1793082058429718, 0.004042504355311394, 0.04105931892991066, -0.14934048056602478, 0.4375234842300415, -0.3538067936897278, 0.17874549329280853, 0.0122251082...	2	India and Pakistan gained independence amidst population displacement and violence. Kashmir became the major bone of contention during the Partition. War with Pakistan in August 1947 led to the signing of instrument of accession between Maharaja Hari Singh and Government of India on 26th October 1947. This further caused tensions in Pakistan and it sent its troops and Mujahideens to take over Kashmir. War of 1947 was the first of the many wars between India and Pakistan. Two other states were Army under took operations to ensure national integration, were Hyderabad where operation Polo was launched. Other one was in Goa, the Portuguese and their sympathisers were driven out by the combined action of Navy, Air Force and the Army and the operation was called Vijay. In August 1947 when the Indian subcontinent became independent, rulers of the 565 princely states, whose lands comprised two-fifths of India and a population of 99 million, had to decide which of the two new countries to join, India or Pakistan. This is how India looked like before 1947. The ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, whose state was situated between the two new countries, could not decide which country to join. The King, Maharaja Hari Singh was a Hindu but his population was predominantly Muslim. Instead he signed a "standstill" agreement with Pakistan in order that services such as trade, travel and communication would be uninterrupted. India did not sign a similar agreement. Pakistan violated this agreement as soon as it was signed and started applying economic and other pressures to force it to accede to Pakistan. The only rail link with Jammu & Kashmir was cut off and the traffic along the main road Srinagar-Rawalpindi was also interfered with. When these pressures failed, tribal raids were organized from Pakistan into various parts of Jammu & Kashmir. This became the beginning of the Kashmir problem. Invasion of Kashmir Valley The invasion of the valley was carried out from across the Pakistan border. The invasion was well planned and carried out in two phases. When first phase commenced thousands of raiders came across the border and carried out several border raids along the Pakistan - Kashmir border. This phase started on 20th October 1947. These raiders mostly comprised of Hazara and Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province. The invaders came into Kashmir in two lots. One from Muzaffarabad towards Srinagar and the other came from Nowshera-Poonch area. They quickly captured towns and villages and came up to Srinagar town. On 24th October the ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, sent an urgent message to Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten, seeking immediate India's help to stop the invaders. When Pakistan launched a large-scale offensive, Kashmir accepted to merge with India by signing the Instrument of Accession on 26th October 1947. Indian army was quickly deployed in Srinagar and Poonch and defeated the invaders. Major Battles During the War in 1947-48 During the war of 1947-48, the Indian Army took part in several battles at different areas. It happened during the winter and summer seasons. Operation Gulmarg: Battle in Srinagar Three hundred men of 1 Sikh, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Dewan Ranjit Rai, were flown to Srinagar on the morning of 27th October. Colonel Rai's task was to secure the airfield as well as Srinagar town. The raiders were delayed for nearly two days by Col Rai's gallantry efforts. This valuable time enabled our army to rush more troops to Srinagar airfield. Colonel Rai had played a vital role in the defence of Srinagar and was awarded Maha Vir Chakra, posthumously. Battle of Shelatang Airplanes of the Indian Air Force brought in more troops, guns and ammunition at Srinagar airfield. The next task was to throw out the invaders from the Kashmir valley. This was done by one brigade sized force of the Indian Army. The main attack took place in a place called Shelatang. The attack was so quick and fierce that the enemy was defeated within 20 minutes. All the raiders panicked and ran towards Muzaffarabad. The Indian Air Force bombed and fired at the raiders causing huge casualities. Baramula town and Uri were captured quickly thus ending the war in Kashmir valley. Attack on Naushera The winter months meant hardly any operations in the north and action was confined to the south, in Jammu area. Enemy was concentrating his troops for an attack on Naushera which was an important place between Jammu and Poonch. The enemy attacked Naushera on the night of 5th and 6th February from three sides. After a bitter battle, the attack was repulsed with heavy losses to the enemy. It was also the biggest battle of the Kashmir War. Enemy was defeated because of our very effective Artillery. Attack on Poonch The raiders attacked Poonch town in October 1947 and surrounded it. Indian Army led by Lieutenant Colonel Pritam Singh was already inside the Poonch and he started defended the town. The army went on patrols by night and fought and killed the raiders. This action did not allow the enemy to enter Poonch town. Later in December 1947, Air Force landed their aircraft carrying more troops and guns. Similar to what was done in Srinagar. Because of the attacks by raiders, the area faced problem of refugees & their settlement. The Air Force aircraft after dropping the army soldiers carried the refugees to Jammu and other safe areas. The daring attacks by Indian Army stopped the raiders from coming any further. Attack on Kargil: Operation Bison Pakistani invaders had come to Kargil also. An operation was launched on 01 November 1948 through Zoji La pass to capture Kargil. It was a daring attack led by General Thimayya. He used tanks, artillery and Air Force to defeat the Pakistanis. By 22 November 1947 all areas upto Kargil were free of the invaders. At this time Colonel Sher Jung Thapa defended Skardu. He defeated all attacks by the enemy for one long year without any additional troops or ammunition. Finally he had to surrender to the Pakistanis as no reinforcement could be provided to him and Skardu is now in Pak occupied Kashmir (POK). The Kashmir dispute was referred to the U.N. on the advice of Lord Mountbatten by the then Prime Minster, Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru. In December 1947, India had complained with the United Nations Organisation about the attack on Kashmir, by regular and irregular troops from across Pakistan. In the early stages Pakistan kept denying that her troops were involved in the fighting, and was saying that it was a revolt by the local tribes; later on, however, Pakistan accepted her direct involvement. The United Nations Security Council, by a resolution of 13th August 1948, called for an immediate cease-fire between the two sides and for setting up of a commission to supervise the cease-fire. Both sides agreed to the cease-fire and it came into being on 1st January 1949. And a commission known as United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) was set up to supervise the ceasefire. United Nations Military Observers Group for India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was made responsible to ensure that either side did not violate the ceasefire line.	1,594	ENGLISH	1
Sample Term Paper Term Paper: Furthermore the white privilege was established and it was promoted with the exercise of using personal power over the blacks. They were settled for being white means that a mindset was created that whites are superior and it is the whites that are controlling the economics system, the political system, and the judicial system and ultimately they have to protect the benefits of being white. Another shameful indenture that showed the culture of white privilege at that time was that the whites were given the authority to beat any black if they fail to show proper respect to them, and this also included those blacks also who the whites didn’t own. The white servants were given relaxation at work like they were given lighter tasks and some time to rest. Also the blacks were deprived to own their families and rather than slave husbands the owners controlled the slaves’ wives. In that situation the landless whites were little satisfied as they had the privilege over the blacks but the satisfaction was not there and the primary reason for that was that they were facing landlessness and hunger. Rebellion and rebellions attempts came common every after many years of the Bacon’s rebellion which were manly lead by the landless Europeans (Wellman, 1993). This mindset still prevailed for decades where the basic rights of the blacks were exploited by their owners. Frantz Fanon in his book The wretched of the earth writes “ Because it is a systematized negation of the other, a frenzied determination to deny the other any attribute of humanity, colonialism forces the colonized to constantly ask the question: “Who am I in reality? (Fanon, 2005, p. 182)” The above mentioned lines tell the whole story of what was the ground reality as far as the rights of the blacks were concerned. The whites used to take advantage of their whiteness and blacks were considered as inhuman. They use to degrade them at such an extent that the blacks used to question themselves about their creation or reason of existence (Fanon, 2005). In short it could be said that Racism is seen as a system of exclusion of one set of people and privilege of another set of people that are living in the same society. It also means providing social advantage to one class of the society over the other class. History tells us that racism has laid the foundation of numerous rebellions against the ruling class and what could prevent them from unity to fight them is the end of racial slavery. This is just a sample term paper for marketing purposes. If you want to order term papers, essays, research papers, dissertations, case study, book reports, reviews etc. Please access the order form.	<urn:uuid:106b30de-066d-4792-a0b0-2dcffb920f2e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://termpaperqueen.com/term-paper-white-privileges/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00265.warc.gz	en	0.986619	544	3.5	4	[ -0.2670152187347412, 0.3164372444152832, -0.23860597610473633, -0.13315370678901672, -0.1663670837879181, 0.5071296691894531, 0.15933102369308472, 0.08699675649404526, 0.33056002855300903, 0.40457382798194885, 0.1026175320148468, 0.35727083683013916, 0.20939317345619202, 0.1525893062353134...	4	Sample Term Paper Term Paper: Furthermore the white privilege was established and it was promoted with the exercise of using personal power over the blacks. They were settled for being white means that a mindset was created that whites are superior and it is the whites that are controlling the economics system, the political system, and the judicial system and ultimately they have to protect the benefits of being white. Another shameful indenture that showed the culture of white privilege at that time was that the whites were given the authority to beat any black if they fail to show proper respect to them, and this also included those blacks also who the whites didn’t own. The white servants were given relaxation at work like they were given lighter tasks and some time to rest. Also the blacks were deprived to own their families and rather than slave husbands the owners controlled the slaves’ wives. In that situation the landless whites were little satisfied as they had the privilege over the blacks but the satisfaction was not there and the primary reason for that was that they were facing landlessness and hunger. Rebellion and rebellions attempts came common every after many years of the Bacon’s rebellion which were manly lead by the landless Europeans (Wellman, 1993). This mindset still prevailed for decades where the basic rights of the blacks were exploited by their owners. Frantz Fanon in his book The wretched of the earth writes “ Because it is a systematized negation of the other, a frenzied determination to deny the other any attribute of humanity, colonialism forces the colonized to constantly ask the question: “Who am I in reality? (Fanon, 2005, p. 182)” The above mentioned lines tell the whole story of what was the ground reality as far as the rights of the blacks were concerned. The whites used to take advantage of their whiteness and blacks were considered as inhuman. They use to degrade them at such an extent that the blacks used to question themselves about their creation or reason of existence (Fanon, 2005). In short it could be said that Racism is seen as a system of exclusion of one set of people and privilege of another set of people that are living in the same society. It also means providing social advantage to one class of the society over the other class. History tells us that racism has laid the foundation of numerous rebellions against the ruling class and what could prevent them from unity to fight them is the end of racial slavery. This is just a sample term paper for marketing purposes. If you want to order term papers, essays, research papers, dissertations, case study, book reports, reviews etc. Please access the order form.	548	ENGLISH	1
This was the first African Baptist church founded in America. It was established in 1773 by George Leile, a slave whose master allowed him to preach to other slaves when they made visits to plantations along the Savannah River. Leile was granted his freedom some time before the Revolutionary War began, and in 1782 he sailed to Jamaica with the British. Andrew Bryan, another former slave who purchased his freedom, took over the congregation and built the first, simple wooden church in 1794. In 1832 the congregation purchased the newly vacated First Baptist Church on Franklin Square, rebuilding the current, relatively plain church over it brick by brick, completing it in 1859. It became the first brick building in Georgia to be owned by African Americans. The pews located in the balcony are original and were made by slaves. Before the Civil War, a hidden basement served as part of the Underground Railroad for escaped slaves. - Frommer's Staff	<urn:uuid:2b8162c4-5d4b-4c35-84ad-62aea1e9e229>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.frommers.com/destinations/savannah/attractions/first-african-baptist-church	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00429.warc.gz	en	0.985703	187	3.34375	3	[ -0.0031267236918210983, 0.3447737395763397, -0.10498124361038208, -0.10089892894029617, -0.29940730333328247, -0.0053258417174220085, -0.18685096502304077, -0.06316695362329483, 0.01601584628224373, 0.2991938292980194, -0.01864774338901043, 0.17931602895259857, 0.027520159259438515, 0.2192...	4	This was the first African Baptist church founded in America. It was established in 1773 by George Leile, a slave whose master allowed him to preach to other slaves when they made visits to plantations along the Savannah River. Leile was granted his freedom some time before the Revolutionary War began, and in 1782 he sailed to Jamaica with the British. Andrew Bryan, another former slave who purchased his freedom, took over the congregation and built the first, simple wooden church in 1794. In 1832 the congregation purchased the newly vacated First Baptist Church on Franklin Square, rebuilding the current, relatively plain church over it brick by brick, completing it in 1859. It became the first brick building in Georgia to be owned by African Americans. The pews located in the balcony are original and were made by slaves. Before the Civil War, a hidden basement served as part of the Underground Railroad for escaped slaves. - Frommer's Staff	203	ENGLISH	1
In a nutshell, what events, occurrences, or mishaps took place that allowed the Irish to win the war of Independence over what could arguably be the most powerful nation of the time, when they were unsuccessful in their multitude of attempts previously? One of the factors of Irish independence in 1918 was U.S. President Wilson's Fourteen Points declaration, which included national self-determination. Used as a weapon against Germany and her allies in favor of central European peoples, it was also held against the British in favor of the Irish. Also, Britain had been weakened and sickened by the carnage of World War I. It did not have the stomach for another one, even a "small" war. The one other time an Irish independence movement received outside help was in 1798 from 1100 French soldiers in "the year of the French." But that was too little aid to secure the country's independence. The Irish War of Independence is usually viewed at starting in 1916, with the Easter Rising. It was militarily a disaster, since they surrendered after a few days. The British government executed most of the the ring leaders, and turned them into martyrs, further helping the Irish Independence movement.	<urn:uuid:d914aae9-46bd-4176-800e-d40e4d0ba844>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/68/why-was-the-irish-war-of-independence-in-1918-successful-when-other-revolts-fail/412	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00322.warc.gz	en	0.987979	242	3.890625	4	[ -0.1764926314353943, 0.05696805566549301, 0.06700305640697479, -0.14925913512706757, 0.096736378967762, 0.03463578596711159, 0.4968591034412384, -0.09549304842948914, -0.11452995985746384, -0.3629448413848877, 0.039356451481580734, -0.06442040205001831, 0.026919102296233177, 0.461358994245...	8	In a nutshell, what events, occurrences, or mishaps took place that allowed the Irish to win the war of Independence over what could arguably be the most powerful nation of the time, when they were unsuccessful in their multitude of attempts previously? One of the factors of Irish independence in 1918 was U.S. President Wilson's Fourteen Points declaration, which included national self-determination. Used as a weapon against Germany and her allies in favor of central European peoples, it was also held against the British in favor of the Irish. Also, Britain had been weakened and sickened by the carnage of World War I. It did not have the stomach for another one, even a "small" war. The one other time an Irish independence movement received outside help was in 1798 from 1100 French soldiers in "the year of the French." But that was too little aid to secure the country's independence. The Irish War of Independence is usually viewed at starting in 1916, with the Easter Rising. It was militarily a disaster, since they surrendered after a few days. The British government executed most of the the ring leaders, and turned them into martyrs, further helping the Irish Independence movement.	253	ENGLISH	1
Daily reading assignment: Genesis 27-29 “Esau the Carnal; Jacob the Conniver” (Genesis 27) The strife between Jacob and Esau continues in our study of Genesis with Jacob and his mother scheming to steal his brother’s birthright (Genesis 27). Benefiting from his father’s blindness, Jacob posed as Esau and successfully stole his brother’s birthright (27:18-29). Learning his birthright was mistakenly given to Jacob, Esau vowed vengeance and determined to murder him (27:41). Before Esau was able to make good on this threat, Rebekah interceded with Isaac and requested that Jacob be sent away to seek safety and find a wife among her people (27:42-46). Jacob’s flight from home is recorded in Genesis 28. Cut off from his parents, family, and land (28:1-5); Jacob is at the end of himself. In his flight to Haran, the ancestral home of Abraham (11:31; 28:10), the LORD appeared to Jacob in a dream and assured him he was heir to the covenant promises God made to his grandfather Abraham and his father Isaac (28:11-15). Traveling east, Jacob came to Haran, and there he met Rachel, the beautiful young woman who would become his wife (29:9-12). [As a side note, Rachel was Jacob’s cousin and their marriage in our day would be genetically ill advised; however, nearly 4,000 years ago the bloodlines of humanity were free from many of the genetic disorders that plague our day]. Falling in love with Rachel, Jacob soon realized he had met his match in her father Laban who was a notorious schemer in his own right! Laban required Jacob labor seven years for the right to take Rachel as his wife (29:15-20). In a beautiful poetic portrait of love, Jacob agreed to the father’s terms and we read the seven years he labored for Rachel’s hand “seemed unto him but a few days, for the love he had to her” (29:20). The seven years being ended, Jacob demanded his right to marry Rachel (29:21), but was beguiled by Laban into marrying her elder sister Leah (29:17). Veiled as a bride, Jacob discovered the morning after his wedding that he had been deceived and had married Leah and not his beloved Rachel (29:24-25). Demanding his right to marry Rachel, Laban forced Jacob to agree to another seven years of labor for her hand (29:26-30). A passing phrase in this story forewarns us to the troubles that will follow Jacob’s household in the years ahead: Jacob “loved also Rachel more than Leah” (29:30). An old idiom reads, “Chickens come home to roost!” As it is the nature of chickens to roost in their coop each night, it is also true that sinful choices invariably catch up with us all. Although he was hundreds of miles from home, Jacob fell victim to his father-in-law’s schemes and was reminded of the consequences of his own scheming ways; Be sure your sins will find you out! Copyright 2020 – Travis D. Smith	<urn:uuid:db736f62-1f88-41d6-aca7-7e7656700206>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://heartofashepherd.com/tag/promises/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00297.warc.gz	en	0.983293	706	3.28125	3	[ -0.14624953269958496, 0.5175964832305908, -0.3895800709724426, -0.16078628599643707, -0.06874413788318634, -0.05601552873849869, -0.11159856617450714, 0.2990180253982544, 0.05674557760357857, 0.025339988991618156, -0.38550180196762085, -0.4457143247127533, 0.16712436079978943, 0.5812362432...	11	Daily reading assignment: Genesis 27-29 “Esau the Carnal; Jacob the Conniver” (Genesis 27) The strife between Jacob and Esau continues in our study of Genesis with Jacob and his mother scheming to steal his brother’s birthright (Genesis 27). Benefiting from his father’s blindness, Jacob posed as Esau and successfully stole his brother’s birthright (27:18-29). Learning his birthright was mistakenly given to Jacob, Esau vowed vengeance and determined to murder him (27:41). Before Esau was able to make good on this threat, Rebekah interceded with Isaac and requested that Jacob be sent away to seek safety and find a wife among her people (27:42-46). Jacob’s flight from home is recorded in Genesis 28. Cut off from his parents, family, and land (28:1-5); Jacob is at the end of himself. In his flight to Haran, the ancestral home of Abraham (11:31; 28:10), the LORD appeared to Jacob in a dream and assured him he was heir to the covenant promises God made to his grandfather Abraham and his father Isaac (28:11-15). Traveling east, Jacob came to Haran, and there he met Rachel, the beautiful young woman who would become his wife (29:9-12). [As a side note, Rachel was Jacob’s cousin and their marriage in our day would be genetically ill advised; however, nearly 4,000 years ago the bloodlines of humanity were free from many of the genetic disorders that plague our day]. Falling in love with Rachel, Jacob soon realized he had met his match in her father Laban who was a notorious schemer in his own right! Laban required Jacob labor seven years for the right to take Rachel as his wife (29:15-20). In a beautiful poetic portrait of love, Jacob agreed to the father’s terms and we read the seven years he labored for Rachel’s hand “seemed unto him but a few days, for the love he had to her” (29:20). The seven years being ended, Jacob demanded his right to marry Rachel (29:21), but was beguiled by Laban into marrying her elder sister Leah (29:17). Veiled as a bride, Jacob discovered the morning after his wedding that he had been deceived and had married Leah and not his beloved Rachel (29:24-25). Demanding his right to marry Rachel, Laban forced Jacob to agree to another seven years of labor for her hand (29:26-30). A passing phrase in this story forewarns us to the troubles that will follow Jacob’s household in the years ahead: Jacob “loved also Rachel more than Leah” (29:30). An old idiom reads, “Chickens come home to roost!” As it is the nature of chickens to roost in their coop each night, it is also true that sinful choices invariably catch up with us all. Although he was hundreds of miles from home, Jacob fell victim to his father-in-law’s schemes and was reminded of the consequences of his own scheming ways; Be sure your sins will find you out! Copyright 2020 – Travis D. Smith	716	ENGLISH	1
Human beings are infamous for stereotyping. A first impression when meeting a new person takes only seven seconds. According to Pitts (2013), smiling, shaking hands, introductions, speaking clearly, maintaining eye contact, looking smart, and not sitting down, are sure-fire ways to ensure a more positive stereotype; however regardless, the seven seconds is irrefutable. Stereotyping in policing is almost a foregone conclusion. Citizens expect their police to protect them by being not only reactive but proactive. One of the most popular policing methods is to view a situation and proactively make a quick decision on whether or not a crime is about to occur, and if it is, stop it from happening. One of the ways police proactively operate is through stereotyping. “Police officers spend a great deal of time working their beats…one thing is common to all police officer working personalities: in an effort to know who or what is ‘wrong’ on their beat, police officers must know who is ‘right’ or who belongs.” When officers cross over the line is when they leave out the step of asking the who, what, where, when, why, and how after the stereotyping occurs, to confirm their thoughts. It is at this point that the officer is engaging in a type of implicit bias policing and this opens many doors to corruption. It is another slippery slope that officers must always be aware of while performing their many duties. “Stereotyping or Terry Stop” Example No matter how controversial policing is today, one common thread is that citizens want police to be proactive, not reactive to violent crime. Whether it is stopping an active shooter in a school, a burglary, or even a robbery, proactivity in policing is necessary to halt horrendous crimes from occurring. In 1968 the United States Supreme Court decided Terry v. Ohio, which further explained reasonable searches under the 4th amendment and played a vital role in the below story. I was one of six officers with my department, chosen to work in our first ever problem-solving unit (PSU). Our substation was placed in a neighborhood where 21 murders had occurred in just a few months. We were tasked with being proactive and working with the community to stop the bloodshed. The two-mile radius neighborhood were composed predominantly of minority residents, and their distrust of our presence was apparent immediately. The residents had stereotyped us as rotten apple police officers and at first, did not want our assistance, they did not trust us. This was further agitated by the fact that we were there to be proactive and stop any future murders from occurring. Plus, we had the Terry v. Ohio decision to assist with our proactive actions. The citizens did not understand what that meant. They also did not understand that as one of the officers pledged to protect the area, I was feeling like an unwanted officer in their neighborhood. They did not know that I got into policing to change the world, if even just a little. They did not know how frustrated it made me feel when no matter how hard I tried, no one would not trust me. One day, as a four-year-old child approached me for a police sticker, the mom grabbed the child by the arm and said, “Get away from that Po-Po, she is a Bi***, and don’t you dare talk to her, ever, or you’ll get it!” I cried that night when I got home from work, wondering how I could help this neighborhood if I couldn’t even get one mom to trust me? Whether or not it was true, stereotyping had occurred in this neighborhood. Then on top of it, I had to utilize the Terry v. Ohio decision to be proactive, to keep the murders from occurring. It felt like a Catch-22 with no solution. The answer did not come to me instantly. All I could think to do was my job and stop the murders (as I was directed to do). I remembered that four-year-old in my everyday actions. I knew my efforts could make him safer, but would he ever understand? I utilized Terry v. Ohio, by learning the neighborhood, recognizing the residents, and learning who belonged, and who did not. I was either on foot or on a bicycle in this neighborhood due to the small size. This allowed for a lot of interaction with the residents. If I had reasonable suspicion to think a citizen was about to commit a crime or had evidence of a crime, Terry v. Ohio gave me the right to investigate further. At first, this angered the neighborhood. They felt we were harassing them, stereotyping them. I could understand how they felt that way, and instead of trying to make this neighborhood safe overnight, I decided to begin to change how the neighborhood perceived us, slowly. The way I did this was through education. Through my daily interactions, I talked to the citizens in the neighborhood about what I was doing and why. Instead of speaking in ‘general’ I spoke about only one incident at a time. One night, at 2:00 a.m., I was walking with my partner through the neighborhood. I had to head back to the sub-station and as I rounded one building, I saw two citizens looking through a window of an apartment. I stopped and just watched. Everything ran through my mind. Had they lost their keys? Was this their apartment? Or, were they looking to break-in and burglarize the apartment, possibly even commit a home invasion and hurt those inside? All of this happened in seconds, not minutes. Because of Terry v. Ohio, I legally investigated. The two citizens did not live in the apartment and they were trying to burglarize it. One of the suspects had a gun. Because of Terry v. Ohio, I was able to be pro-active and stop this from occurring. A single mom and three children under six years of age lived in that apartment and were home. The mom did not trust banks and kept her savings in between her mattresses. I do not know what I stopped that night. I do not know if the suspects would have used the gun, or if they would have found the mom’s large cash savings or what else they might have taken; however, I did stop a burglary from occurring and that felt good. The next day while speaking to some of the citizens in the neighborhood, I explained this. I used this one example to explain why my unit was there. How we stopped this crime and how we all wanted to make a difference. This one story did not change how the neighborhood saw us; however, after many more stories such as this, I began to see a change. Michelle, one of the citizens in the neighborhood got my cellular telephone number (yes we had cell phones back in the day!). She began calling me when she heard talk about a possible crime occurring. We hosted many events in the neighborhood as well. From ice cream socials, back-to-school fairs, and we even worked hard to find donations and get every child in the neighborhood a bicycle (or scooter). After three years, our substation closed. We had gone a year without a murder and the crime rate dropped 98%. To this day Michelle still calls me and we chat about what is currently occurring in our lives. Michelle is my friend and I dare say I think she thinks of me as her friend too. There was a lot of stereotyping that went on in that neighborhood during those years. I found my way through it all and I think the neighborhood did as well. In the end, we worked together through good ole community policing and made the area safe again. - Perez, D.W. (2011). The paradoxes of police work. Florence, KY: Cengage Publ. ↵	<urn:uuid:780ceb30-df15-445b-92f3-a94764a254f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://biz.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Law/Book%3A_Introduction_to_the_American_Criminal_Justice_System/06%3A_Policing/6.10%3A_Current_Issues-_Stereotypes_in_Policing	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00084.warc.gz	en	0.989408	1,611	3.3125	3	[ -0.383655309677124, -0.07073645293712616, 0.0905381292104721, -0.366879403591156, 0.32439500093460083, 0.5396629571914673, 0.6918536424636841, -0.3487240672111511, 0.07533174753189087, 0.35497236251831055, 0.3754260540008545, 0.23212365806102753, -0.19670544564723969, -0.24017739295959473,...	8	Human beings are infamous for stereotyping. A first impression when meeting a new person takes only seven seconds. According to Pitts (2013), smiling, shaking hands, introductions, speaking clearly, maintaining eye contact, looking smart, and not sitting down, are sure-fire ways to ensure a more positive stereotype; however regardless, the seven seconds is irrefutable. Stereotyping in policing is almost a foregone conclusion. Citizens expect their police to protect them by being not only reactive but proactive. One of the most popular policing methods is to view a situation and proactively make a quick decision on whether or not a crime is about to occur, and if it is, stop it from happening. One of the ways police proactively operate is through stereotyping. “Police officers spend a great deal of time working their beats…one thing is common to all police officer working personalities: in an effort to know who or what is ‘wrong’ on their beat, police officers must know who is ‘right’ or who belongs.” When officers cross over the line is when they leave out the step of asking the who, what, where, when, why, and how after the stereotyping occurs, to confirm their thoughts. It is at this point that the officer is engaging in a type of implicit bias policing and this opens many doors to corruption. It is another slippery slope that officers must always be aware of while performing their many duties. “Stereotyping or Terry Stop” Example No matter how controversial policing is today, one common thread is that citizens want police to be proactive, not reactive to violent crime. Whether it is stopping an active shooter in a school, a burglary, or even a robbery, proactivity in policing is necessary to halt horrendous crimes from occurring. In 1968 the United States Supreme Court decided Terry v. Ohio, which further explained reasonable searches under the 4th amendment and played a vital role in the below story. I was one of six officers with my department, chosen to work in our first ever problem-solving unit (PSU). Our substation was placed in a neighborhood where 21 murders had occurred in just a few months. We were tasked with being proactive and working with the community to stop the bloodshed. The two-mile radius neighborhood were composed predominantly of minority residents, and their distrust of our presence was apparent immediately. The residents had stereotyped us as rotten apple police officers and at first, did not want our assistance, they did not trust us. This was further agitated by the fact that we were there to be proactive and stop any future murders from occurring. Plus, we had the Terry v. Ohio decision to assist with our proactive actions. The citizens did not understand what that meant. They also did not understand that as one of the officers pledged to protect the area, I was feeling like an unwanted officer in their neighborhood. They did not know that I got into policing to change the world, if even just a little. They did not know how frustrated it made me feel when no matter how hard I tried, no one would not trust me. One day, as a four-year-old child approached me for a police sticker, the mom grabbed the child by the arm and said, “Get away from that Po-Po, she is a Bi***, and don’t you dare talk to her, ever, or you’ll get it!” I cried that night when I got home from work, wondering how I could help this neighborhood if I couldn’t even get one mom to trust me? Whether or not it was true, stereotyping had occurred in this neighborhood. Then on top of it, I had to utilize the Terry v. Ohio decision to be proactive, to keep the murders from occurring. It felt like a Catch-22 with no solution. The answer did not come to me instantly. All I could think to do was my job and stop the murders (as I was directed to do). I remembered that four-year-old in my everyday actions. I knew my efforts could make him safer, but would he ever understand? I utilized Terry v. Ohio, by learning the neighborhood, recognizing the residents, and learning who belonged, and who did not. I was either on foot or on a bicycle in this neighborhood due to the small size. This allowed for a lot of interaction with the residents. If I had reasonable suspicion to think a citizen was about to commit a crime or had evidence of a crime, Terry v. Ohio gave me the right to investigate further. At first, this angered the neighborhood. They felt we were harassing them, stereotyping them. I could understand how they felt that way, and instead of trying to make this neighborhood safe overnight, I decided to begin to change how the neighborhood perceived us, slowly. The way I did this was through education. Through my daily interactions, I talked to the citizens in the neighborhood about what I was doing and why. Instead of speaking in ‘general’ I spoke about only one incident at a time. One night, at 2:00 a.m., I was walking with my partner through the neighborhood. I had to head back to the sub-station and as I rounded one building, I saw two citizens looking through a window of an apartment. I stopped and just watched. Everything ran through my mind. Had they lost their keys? Was this their apartment? Or, were they looking to break-in and burglarize the apartment, possibly even commit a home invasion and hurt those inside? All of this happened in seconds, not minutes. Because of Terry v. Ohio, I legally investigated. The two citizens did not live in the apartment and they were trying to burglarize it. One of the suspects had a gun. Because of Terry v. Ohio, I was able to be pro-active and stop this from occurring. A single mom and three children under six years of age lived in that apartment and were home. The mom did not trust banks and kept her savings in between her mattresses. I do not know what I stopped that night. I do not know if the suspects would have used the gun, or if they would have found the mom’s large cash savings or what else they might have taken; however, I did stop a burglary from occurring and that felt good. The next day while speaking to some of the citizens in the neighborhood, I explained this. I used this one example to explain why my unit was there. How we stopped this crime and how we all wanted to make a difference. This one story did not change how the neighborhood saw us; however, after many more stories such as this, I began to see a change. Michelle, one of the citizens in the neighborhood got my cellular telephone number (yes we had cell phones back in the day!). She began calling me when she heard talk about a possible crime occurring. We hosted many events in the neighborhood as well. From ice cream socials, back-to-school fairs, and we even worked hard to find donations and get every child in the neighborhood a bicycle (or scooter). After three years, our substation closed. We had gone a year without a murder and the crime rate dropped 98%. To this day Michelle still calls me and we chat about what is currently occurring in our lives. Michelle is my friend and I dare say I think she thinks of me as her friend too. There was a lot of stereotyping that went on in that neighborhood during those years. I found my way through it all and I think the neighborhood did as well. In the end, we worked together through good ole community policing and made the area safe again. - Perez, D.W. (2011). The paradoxes of police work. Florence, KY: Cengage Publ. ↵	1,584	ENGLISH	1
The legendary frost fairs on the River Thames are depicted in a number of works of art that show just how cold, icy and severe the weather became during winter, in comparison to the weather experienced in London in modern times. The idea of a frost fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears, or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favourite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames frost fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames frost fairs are also featured in two tracks on Snow on Snow, by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainments and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal, but it did happen several times in the past. Here we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners; what they did and how they coped in those frigid times. The Little Ice Age The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many kinds of businesses, large and small, flourished around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats, manned by watermen who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked and died around the river and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which remains today. With the great river of such importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it? Although it is written in legends and folklore, it is also historic fact that the River Thames has frozen over a number of times, hard enough for the usual daily commerce to be brought to a halt. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the ‘Little Ice Age’ that some people believe lasted from 1300 to 1870. (Expert opinion varies on this subject, and is not dealt with here.) During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the centre of London on the Thames ice and in 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river. The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750. During the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. When it did freeze over it not only brought the river to an abrupt halt, it brought the every day business of the city and its people to a standstill too. However, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, adapted. In its frozen state, the river effectively became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension to the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun. Londoners like to have fun. The First Frost Fair (1607-08) In 1608, the first recorded London frost fair took place on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December, 1607, the ice was thick enough to walk upon from Southwark to the City, and by January 1608 the ice was thick and strong enough for a whole host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up selling many different kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking. Among them, skittles and bowling and many other sports and activities took place to the enjoyment of the people, including “folk“ football. This was not like the modern game of football where two teams compete and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with virtually no rules and they often became free-for-all, no holds barred, riotous events. The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84 The diarist, writer and fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on the spot, eye-witness, account of the event often called the “Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84“. On 6th January, 1684, he wrote in his diary: “The frost continues more and more severe, the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this humor took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc. Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple, and from several other stairs to and fro, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, a bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph, or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in.” (1) Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One named Croom, came up with the idea of cashing in on the novelty of the event by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name, the date, and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular and Croom was said to be making five pounds a day. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. It was this impromptu frost fair that began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment. It seems for many Londoners the sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired the enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the bad weather while making money and having some fun at the same time. Despite the cold, folk, young and old flocked on to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the wide variety of activities and events that suddenly sprang up. From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684 we learn that hackney carriages and horse and carts used the frozen river as if it was a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments. There were booths that sold hot coffee and food. “Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack, Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack. In this same Street before the Temple made, There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade: There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe, And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox; Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise, The like before ue’r seen beneath the Skies;“ (2) Events such as blood-sports and folk football took place and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more and more people flocked on to the frozen Thames there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example, “Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign, As seldome hath been seen in former time; The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same, The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name:“ (3) As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. However, not everyone approved of what was happening, nor of the behaviour that was being displayed by many people on the ice. Not just the drunkenness and debauchery but the philosophy of how the money was being made and how it was bringing out the worst in people caused concern in some quarters. The Frost Fair of 1715-16 Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when a number of heavy snow falls clogged up the city, and it was so cold the Thames froze over for almost three months. Once again entrepreneurs took to the ice erecting booths, tents and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked on to the frozen river to have fun and on 19th January two oxen were roasted over fires set upon the ice. The activities on the ice drew people away from the theatres and even the Prince of Wales visited the frost fair. Once again entrepreneurial printers set up on the ice publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawk’s Newsletter and on the 14th of January the news was: “The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there, as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4) Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with a passionate sermon. The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormal high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revellers out of their stride. On 15th February the ice began to thaw and split, breaking up the party. The Great Frost of 1739-40 The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event that was remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames frost fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year, before finally beginning to slowly thaw on 17th February, and became known as “The Great Frost“. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The poor and working class struggled to find food, fuel and water. With the weather so bad there was little or no work for many trades such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, as well as fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers and many other trades. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city who granted some relief to the suffering people. A few days after the arrival of “The Great Frost“ a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary causing great damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river and turning it into an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice with icebergs protruding through the icy white surface. When the weather settled another frost fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames selling all sorts of goods and services. Again the printers were there and there was the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a great variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties brought on by the severe weather. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up. The Frost Fair of 1767-68 At the end of December, 1767, a severe frost began and continued to strengthen until 16th January, causing the River Thames to freeze over again. Ships, boats and river vessels became trapped in the ice and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flows moving with the tides. During this period many lives were lost and the price of meat and food went up so much the poor could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies on bringing fish to Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. The poor continued to suffer great hardship both in London and out in the countryside where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel and food became scarce and expensive because it could not be moved and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city amounting to £50,000. The Frost Fair of 1788-89 A severe frost began on 25th November, 1788, and lasted for seven weeks. On 5th January, the Thames froze over and once again a fair and market with puppets shows, drinking and eating booths and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice. The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on 10th January, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. They were paid four guineas by the clerk of the cellars, but when his Highness heard of their feat he ordered they be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On 13th January, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 for the relief of the poor during the severe weather. On Saturday 17th January, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his ship to his premises which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast, and a cable attached to a beam of the building. In the night the weather and currents took hold of the ship causing the publican’s building to be destroyed and five people killed. (5) The magazine also reports that in February, 1789, all manner of entertainments and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames. All kind of food and drinks were sold, with fires roasting oxen, sheep and pigs. Once again the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, but despite the merriment the poor suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money and the City of London raise £1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6) The Last Frost Fair (1814) The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames to date began on 1st February, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous frost fairs an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed and published a 124 page book titled, Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again there were stalls and booths selling all kinds of goods, wares and services. The watermen, being unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread. While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were available, it was the gin, beer and wine that was most popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents” which were temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry on to the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. These services were often provided by the same families whose ancestors had provided for previous Frost Fairs. The atmosphere was very raucous and boisterous with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There was no police force in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. One of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, which must have created an extraordinary scene. Problems and Hardship Frost fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolics, they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us: “The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7) There were treacherous times ahead when the ice started to melt and break up, often bringing death to people and animals alike, damaging property and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people living in the countryside and other parts of the UK and across Europe. Future Frost Fairs The Old London Bridge (1176-1825), was one of the most iconic images of London and was partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water down and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower and wider and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow through much more easily. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London with the same intensity of the past. Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete and heated buildings. This helps keep London considerably warmer in winter than areas outside the capital but in the summer can make it uncomfortably so. That being said, no one really knows what the future will bring with global warming, which may cause a few surprises. The Thames frost fairs became a part of the rich bank of London history. Works of art and literature of the time gave future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these special events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The frost fairs were a testament of the endurance and entrepreneurial spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what really must have been very hard times for many people. References and Further Reading (2), (3) Print of The Frost Fair, 1684 Cahal Milmo, 2014, ‘When winter really was winter: the last of the London Frost Fairs’, The Independent, Friday 31 January 2014. The Thames Frozen Over, Humours Upon The Ice – The Christmas Albion Band Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all) - Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019 - The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd and the Oldest Animals in the World - November 28, 2019 - Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019	<urn:uuid:915ebbac-4b0b-4bc8-955f-ce43ab8c6a14>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://folklorethursday.com/folklife/london-folklore-the-legendary-frost-fairs-of-the-river-thames/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00004.warc.gz	en	0.980142	4,286	3.4375	3	[ -0.3344764709472656, -0.122590571641922, 0.5522435307502747, -0.23507127165794373, 0.2830166816711426, -0.09449943155050278, 0.35861852765083313, 0.00000706803984940052, -0.36261025071144104, -0.05494033917784691, -0.096944659948349, -0.48996928334236145, -0.008478180505335331, 0.357214331...	1	The legendary frost fairs on the River Thames are depicted in a number of works of art that show just how cold, icy and severe the weather became during winter, in comparison to the weather experienced in London in modern times. The idea of a frost fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears, or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favourite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames frost fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames frost fairs are also featured in two tracks on Snow on Snow, by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainments and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal, but it did happen several times in the past. Here we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners; what they did and how they coped in those frigid times. The Little Ice Age The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many kinds of businesses, large and small, flourished around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats, manned by watermen who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked and died around the river and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which remains today. With the great river of such importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it? Although it is written in legends and folklore, it is also historic fact that the River Thames has frozen over a number of times, hard enough for the usual daily commerce to be brought to a halt. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the ‘Little Ice Age’ that some people believe lasted from 1300 to 1870. (Expert opinion varies on this subject, and is not dealt with here.) During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the centre of London on the Thames ice and in 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river. The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750. During the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. When it did freeze over it not only brought the river to an abrupt halt, it brought the every day business of the city and its people to a standstill too. However, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, adapted. In its frozen state, the river effectively became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension to the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun. Londoners like to have fun. The First Frost Fair (1607-08) In 1608, the first recorded London frost fair took place on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December, 1607, the ice was thick enough to walk upon from Southwark to the City, and by January 1608 the ice was thick and strong enough for a whole host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up selling many different kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking. Among them, skittles and bowling and many other sports and activities took place to the enjoyment of the people, including “folk“ football. This was not like the modern game of football where two teams compete and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with virtually no rules and they often became free-for-all, no holds barred, riotous events. The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84 The diarist, writer and fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on the spot, eye-witness, account of the event often called the “Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84“. On 6th January, 1684, he wrote in his diary: “The frost continues more and more severe, the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this humor took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc. Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple, and from several other stairs to and fro, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, a bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph, or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in.” (1) Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One named Croom, came up with the idea of cashing in on the novelty of the event by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name, the date, and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular and Croom was said to be making five pounds a day. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. It was this impromptu frost fair that began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment. It seems for many Londoners the sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired the enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the bad weather while making money and having some fun at the same time. Despite the cold, folk, young and old flocked on to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the wide variety of activities and events that suddenly sprang up. From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684 we learn that hackney carriages and horse and carts used the frozen river as if it was a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments. There were booths that sold hot coffee and food. “Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack, Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack. In this same Street before the Temple made, There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade: There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe, And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox; Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise, The like before ue’r seen beneath the Skies;“ (2) Events such as blood-sports and folk football took place and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more and more people flocked on to the frozen Thames there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example, “Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign, As seldome hath been seen in former time; The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same, The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name:“ (3) As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. However, not everyone approved of what was happening, nor of the behaviour that was being displayed by many people on the ice. Not just the drunkenness and debauchery but the philosophy of how the money was being made and how it was bringing out the worst in people caused concern in some quarters. The Frost Fair of 1715-16 Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when a number of heavy snow falls clogged up the city, and it was so cold the Thames froze over for almost three months. Once again entrepreneurs took to the ice erecting booths, tents and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked on to the frozen river to have fun and on 19th January two oxen were roasted over fires set upon the ice. The activities on the ice drew people away from the theatres and even the Prince of Wales visited the frost fair. Once again entrepreneurial printers set up on the ice publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawk’s Newsletter and on the 14th of January the news was: “The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there, as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4) Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with a passionate sermon. The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormal high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revellers out of their stride. On 15th February the ice began to thaw and split, breaking up the party. The Great Frost of 1739-40 The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event that was remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames frost fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year, before finally beginning to slowly thaw on 17th February, and became known as “The Great Frost“. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The poor and working class struggled to find food, fuel and water. With the weather so bad there was little or no work for many trades such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, as well as fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers and many other trades. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city who granted some relief to the suffering people. A few days after the arrival of “The Great Frost“ a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary causing great damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river and turning it into an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice with icebergs protruding through the icy white surface. When the weather settled another frost fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames selling all sorts of goods and services. Again the printers were there and there was the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a great variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties brought on by the severe weather. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up. The Frost Fair of 1767-68 At the end of December, 1767, a severe frost began and continued to strengthen until 16th January, causing the River Thames to freeze over again. Ships, boats and river vessels became trapped in the ice and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flows moving with the tides. During this period many lives were lost and the price of meat and food went up so much the poor could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies on bringing fish to Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. The poor continued to suffer great hardship both in London and out in the countryside where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel and food became scarce and expensive because it could not be moved and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city amounting to £50,000. The Frost Fair of 1788-89 A severe frost began on 25th November, 1788, and lasted for seven weeks. On 5th January, the Thames froze over and once again a fair and market with puppets shows, drinking and eating booths and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice. The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on 10th January, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. They were paid four guineas by the clerk of the cellars, but when his Highness heard of their feat he ordered they be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On 13th January, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 for the relief of the poor during the severe weather. On Saturday 17th January, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his ship to his premises which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast, and a cable attached to a beam of the building. In the night the weather and currents took hold of the ship causing the publican’s building to be destroyed and five people killed. (5) The magazine also reports that in February, 1789, all manner of entertainments and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames. All kind of food and drinks were sold, with fires roasting oxen, sheep and pigs. Once again the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, but despite the merriment the poor suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money and the City of London raise £1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6) The Last Frost Fair (1814) The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames to date began on 1st February, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous frost fairs an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed and published a 124 page book titled, Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again there were stalls and booths selling all kinds of goods, wares and services. The watermen, being unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread. While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were available, it was the gin, beer and wine that was most popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents” which were temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry on to the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. These services were often provided by the same families whose ancestors had provided for previous Frost Fairs. The atmosphere was very raucous and boisterous with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There was no police force in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. One of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, which must have created an extraordinary scene. Problems and Hardship Frost fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolics, they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us: “The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7) There were treacherous times ahead when the ice started to melt and break up, often bringing death to people and animals alike, damaging property and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people living in the countryside and other parts of the UK and across Europe. Future Frost Fairs The Old London Bridge (1176-1825), was one of the most iconic images of London and was partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water down and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower and wider and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow through much more easily. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London with the same intensity of the past. Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete and heated buildings. This helps keep London considerably warmer in winter than areas outside the capital but in the summer can make it uncomfortably so. That being said, no one really knows what the future will bring with global warming, which may cause a few surprises. The Thames frost fairs became a part of the rich bank of London history. Works of art and literature of the time gave future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these special events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The frost fairs were a testament of the endurance and entrepreneurial spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what really must have been very hard times for many people. References and Further Reading (2), (3) Print of The Frost Fair, 1684 Cahal Milmo, 2014, ‘When winter really was winter: the last of the London Frost Fairs’, The Independent, Friday 31 January 2014. The Thames Frozen Over, Humours Upon The Ice – The Christmas Albion Band Latest posts by zteve t evans (see all) - Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World - December 19, 2019 - The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd and the Oldest Animals in the World - November 28, 2019 - Bat Myths and Folktales from Around the World - October 31, 2019	4,353	ENGLISH	1
And Neolithic man was counting, and falling under the spell of numbers. There are savage languages that have no word for any number above five. Some peoples cannot go above two. But Neolithic man in the lands of his origin in Asia and Africa even more than in Europe was already counting his accumulating possessions. He was beginning to use tallies, and wondering at the triangularity of three and the squareness of four, and why some quantities like twelve were easy to divide in all sorts of ways, and others, like thirteen, impossible. Twelve became a noble, generous, and familiar number to him, and thirteen rather an outcast and disreputable one. Probably man began reckoning time by the clock of the full and new moons. Moonlight is an important thing to herdsmen who no longer merely hunt their herds, but watch and guard them. Moonlight, too, was perhaps his time for love-making, as indeed it may have been for primordial man and the ground ape ancestor before him. But from the phases of the moon, as his tillage increased, man's attitude would go on to the greater cycle of the seasons. Primordial man probably only drifted before the winter as the days grew cold. Neolithic man knew surely that the winter would come, and stored his fodder and	<urn:uuid:b62563d4-741a-435e-836f-70ce0ac7043b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/152	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00448.warc.gz	en	0.985545	261	3.359375	3	[ -0.2643064260482788, 0.3083299994468689, -0.01114550232887268, 0.054555363953113556, -0.03928549960255623, -0.11560901999473572, 0.23548544943332672, 0.00539448531344533, 0.11954828351736069, -0.15266771614551544, -0.13215844333171844, -0.4695867598056793, 0.20704413950443268, 0.5117847919...	1	And Neolithic man was counting, and falling under the spell of numbers. There are savage languages that have no word for any number above five. Some peoples cannot go above two. But Neolithic man in the lands of his origin in Asia and Africa even more than in Europe was already counting his accumulating possessions. He was beginning to use tallies, and wondering at the triangularity of three and the squareness of four, and why some quantities like twelve were easy to divide in all sorts of ways, and others, like thirteen, impossible. Twelve became a noble, generous, and familiar number to him, and thirteen rather an outcast and disreputable one. Probably man began reckoning time by the clock of the full and new moons. Moonlight is an important thing to herdsmen who no longer merely hunt their herds, but watch and guard them. Moonlight, too, was perhaps his time for love-making, as indeed it may have been for primordial man and the ground ape ancestor before him. But from the phases of the moon, as his tillage increased, man's attitude would go on to the greater cycle of the seasons. Primordial man probably only drifted before the winter as the days grew cold. Neolithic man knew surely that the winter would come, and stored his fodder and	266	ENGLISH	1
The group of astronauts NASA selected to take America into space would become national heroes - but they would also be subjected to a tough training regime to prepare them for orbit. President Eisenhower made the decision over Christmas 1958 that only military test pilots should be considered for the first phase of the astronaut programme. Despite his military background, he was keen on maintaining a civilian aspect to the space programme (hence the formation of NASA), but in this case he saw that test pilots would have many of the characteristics needed. So in early January 1959, NASA's selection committee began sifting through the records of 508 potential candidates. Some 110 of these were called for interviews and written tests, and by The silver spacesuits designed 1or NASA by the B.F. Goodrich Company, and modelled here by John Glenn, became an iconic image of the Mercury programme. February the number had been reduced to just 32. All these candidates were then subjected to a battery of medical tests, and 14 were dismissed due to various concerns, leaving 18 that were considered potential astronauts. Politics came into play with the final choice - seven launches were planned for the first phase of the programme, and when Gilruth sat down with the selection committee on 1 April 1959, they were careful to choose three astronauts each from the Navy and the Air Force. The seventh was to come from the Marines. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:34b949c6-3ef0-4b2b-9648-07b3417f18ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.astronomyclub.xyz/soviet-union/the-mercury-seven.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00296.warc.gz	en	0.983112	283	3.328125	3	[ -0.449772447347641, 0.38984227180480957, 0.060098566114902496, -0.2644274830818176, -0.35743728280067444, 0.5570194721221924, -0.10749176144599915, 0.2110990434885025, -0.10549242049455643, -0.0721079409122467, 0.17410610616207123, -0.047302357852458954, 0.1239527091383934, 0.6684547662734...	1	The group of astronauts NASA selected to take America into space would become national heroes - but they would also be subjected to a tough training regime to prepare them for orbit. President Eisenhower made the decision over Christmas 1958 that only military test pilots should be considered for the first phase of the astronaut programme. Despite his military background, he was keen on maintaining a civilian aspect to the space programme (hence the formation of NASA), but in this case he saw that test pilots would have many of the characteristics needed. So in early January 1959, NASA's selection committee began sifting through the records of 508 potential candidates. Some 110 of these were called for interviews and written tests, and by The silver spacesuits designed 1or NASA by the B.F. Goodrich Company, and modelled here by John Glenn, became an iconic image of the Mercury programme. February the number had been reduced to just 32. All these candidates were then subjected to a battery of medical tests, and 14 were dismissed due to various concerns, leaving 18 that were considered potential astronauts. Politics came into play with the final choice - seven launches were planned for the first phase of the programme, and when Gilruth sat down with the selection committee on 1 April 1959, they were careful to choose three astronauts each from the Navy and the Air Force. The seventh was to come from the Marines. Was this article helpful?	303	ENGLISH	1
146 years ago on the Sunday evening of July 27, 1862 this beautiful beach provided a much different scene. The surf was up that afternoon, viciously beating the shores. Reflected in the violent waters was the inferno of flames pouring out of a nearby wrecked ship. The very waves that surfers now carve were strewn with the battered bodies, wreckage, and gold that had fallen overboard. The screams of the drowning burning men must have been terrible, covered over only by the roar of the unrelenting surf and explosions from the nearby shipwreck. How did this happen ? It was the middle of the American Civil War. The boat was the S.S. Golden Gate, one of the fastest paddle steam ships on the West Coast. 338 passengers and crew, along with a reported $1.4 million in gold were sailing on a voyage from San Francisco to Panama. They never made it. When the S.S. Golden Gate was just 15 miles off the shore of Manzanillo Mexico it was reported that there was a fire in the engine room. Since they were only a short distance away from the safety of shore the ship headed towards the beach. The spot where they landed was at a rock called Pena Blanca. The passengers were ordered off into lifeboats, but many never made it. The fire spread rapidly, quickly engulfed the entire ship in an inferno of flames. The survivors were forced to jump overboard, putting themselves at the mercy of the currents and violent waves. Many died in the relentless surf, too weak and injured to make it to shore. When help finally arrived 204 of the passengers and crew of the S.S. Golden Gate had already died. The ship itself was completely destroyed by the flames and pounding seas. The massive iron boxes that had contained the golden treasure sunk down into the sand were quickly buried.	<urn:uuid:506fa6fb-4700-43cc-96ad-181399e4aee6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.oceantreasures.org/blog/do/tag/american-civil-war/4/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00050.warc.gz	en	0.987951	382	3.703125	4	[ 0.17205139994621277, 0.30178335309028625, -0.04950287193059921, -0.15922106802463531, 0.26516827940940857, 0.17168933153152466, 0.05894080549478531, 0.09057624638080597, -0.005498197395354509, -0.2290821522474289, 0.23057304322719574, -0.22379814088344574, -0.08650494366884232, 0.491633057...	5	146 years ago on the Sunday evening of July 27, 1862 this beautiful beach provided a much different scene. The surf was up that afternoon, viciously beating the shores. Reflected in the violent waters was the inferno of flames pouring out of a nearby wrecked ship. The very waves that surfers now carve were strewn with the battered bodies, wreckage, and gold that had fallen overboard. The screams of the drowning burning men must have been terrible, covered over only by the roar of the unrelenting surf and explosions from the nearby shipwreck. How did this happen ? It was the middle of the American Civil War. The boat was the S.S. Golden Gate, one of the fastest paddle steam ships on the West Coast. 338 passengers and crew, along with a reported $1.4 million in gold were sailing on a voyage from San Francisco to Panama. They never made it. When the S.S. Golden Gate was just 15 miles off the shore of Manzanillo Mexico it was reported that there was a fire in the engine room. Since they were only a short distance away from the safety of shore the ship headed towards the beach. The spot where they landed was at a rock called Pena Blanca. The passengers were ordered off into lifeboats, but many never made it. The fire spread rapidly, quickly engulfed the entire ship in an inferno of flames. The survivors were forced to jump overboard, putting themselves at the mercy of the currents and violent waves. Many died in the relentless surf, too weak and injured to make it to shore. When help finally arrived 204 of the passengers and crew of the S.S. Golden Gate had already died. The ship itself was completely destroyed by the flames and pounding seas. The massive iron boxes that had contained the golden treasure sunk down into the sand were quickly buried.	389	ENGLISH	1
Campagna internment camp, located in Campagna, a town near Salerno in Southern Italy, was an internment camp for Jews and foreigners established by Benito Mussolini in 1940. The first internees were 430 men captured in different parts of Italy. Most of them were Jewish refugees came from Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Dalmatia, there were also some British citizens and a group of 40 French and Italian Jews. The number of inmates, during the three years varied considerably, ranging between 230 (February 1941) and 150 (September 1943). The camp was never a concentration camp in the German sense of the term. Internees were allowed to receive food parcels and visit sick relatives. In addition, there were no mail restrictions. None of the internees were killed or subjected to violence. In fact, the internees were constantly protected from deportation to Germany, as the Nazis requested. Prisoners were allowed to organize a library, school, theater and a synagogue. In September 1943 Italy capitulated and the Allied troops invaded South Italy. In response the German troops invaded Italy from the North. However, by the time they got to the Campagna concentration camp, all the inmates had already fled to the mountains with the help of the local inhabitants.	<urn:uuid:d06ff3ce-3436-4a50-9ec1-b7fdf1d5ab16>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Campagna-internment-camp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00053.warc.gz	en	0.989236	262	3.984375	4	[ 0.05666271969676018, 0.5669381022453308, 0.1746349185705185, -0.06394258141517639, 0.0028957619797438383, 0.3902330696582794, 0.21013964712619781, 0.04830799251794815, -0.20232239365577698, -0.16843551397323608, 0.12091149389743805, -0.45784443616867065, 0.2496461719274521, 0.7896214127540...	1	Campagna internment camp, located in Campagna, a town near Salerno in Southern Italy, was an internment camp for Jews and foreigners established by Benito Mussolini in 1940. The first internees were 430 men captured in different parts of Italy. Most of them were Jewish refugees came from Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Dalmatia, there were also some British citizens and a group of 40 French and Italian Jews. The number of inmates, during the three years varied considerably, ranging between 230 (February 1941) and 150 (September 1943). The camp was never a concentration camp in the German sense of the term. Internees were allowed to receive food parcels and visit sick relatives. In addition, there were no mail restrictions. None of the internees were killed or subjected to violence. In fact, the internees were constantly protected from deportation to Germany, as the Nazis requested. Prisoners were allowed to organize a library, school, theater and a synagogue. In September 1943 Italy capitulated and the Allied troops invaded South Italy. In response the German troops invaded Italy from the North. However, by the time they got to the Campagna concentration camp, all the inmates had already fled to the mountains with the help of the local inhabitants.	284	ENGLISH	1
EXAMPLES FROM THE WEB FOR BUCKETS We could water the horses with buckets, but not the bullocks. Such was the penalty for landing two buckets of Liverpool salt at Liverpool! Boyce dropped the buckets of water and, drawing his pistol, “Boys!” He knew how to make good barrels, tubs, and buckets, but had no mind of his own. They smothered them with clods of earth and buckets of sand. By night, with all hands at work, the buckets are washed and distributed. After the spouts have been driven in, the buckets must be put in place and fastened there. With wet blankets, and buckets of water, they began to fight the flames. This was made by means of heavy cables to which the buckets were suspended. You carried two buckets of water down to him, and he thanked you when he drank it.	<urn:uuid:ac45252b-779e-40cc-8b8c-df1683975a01>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thesaurus.com/browse/buckets	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00541.warc.gz	en	0.985429	194	3.4375	3	[ -0.16065718233585358, 0.07349078357219696, 0.08555422723293304, 0.00500191655009985, -0.10566311329603195, -0.16605332493782043, 0.4747539758682251, 0.2754473388195038, 0.05578147619962692, 0.12938037514686584, -0.20251072943210602, -0.5459586381912231, 0.1678534746170044, -0.2612660527229...	1	EXAMPLES FROM THE WEB FOR BUCKETS We could water the horses with buckets, but not the bullocks. Such was the penalty for landing two buckets of Liverpool salt at Liverpool! Boyce dropped the buckets of water and, drawing his pistol, “Boys!” He knew how to make good barrels, tubs, and buckets, but had no mind of his own. They smothered them with clods of earth and buckets of sand. By night, with all hands at work, the buckets are washed and distributed. After the spouts have been driven in, the buckets must be put in place and fastened there. With wet blankets, and buckets of water, they began to fight the flames. This was made by means of heavy cables to which the buckets were suspended. You carried two buckets of water down to him, and he thanked you when he drank it.	180	ENGLISH	1
On the pages of the Journal of the American Revolution there have been articles on the best and worst generals of the Revolutionary War. It is not a question of the best or worst but rather how could a group of amateur generals leading a force of civilians abruptly turned into fighting men defeat a professional army led by professional officers? This leads to a further question, who were these generals and what were the backgrounds that allowed them to lead the successful military effort against Great Britain? Where were they from? How old were they? What did they do before their Continental service? What was their educational background? What was their fate as an officer in the army? There were eighty-six general officers commissioned in the Continental Army, including three that were brevetted, a military commission rewarding outstanding service by which an officer was temporarily promoted to a higher rank without the corresponding pay. This does not include twenty-six brevetted in September, one in October and four in November of 1783, too late to serve as general officers in the field. Initially, there were four major generals, nine brigadier generals, and George Washington, the “Commander in Chief” or “Commanding General.” During the course of the conflict, additional officers were selected as brigadier generals and some brigadier generals were promoted to major general. Five officers skipped the initial rank of brigadier general and were promoted directly to the rank of major general: Benjamin Lincoln, Marquis de Lafayette, Baron de Kalb, Philippe DuCoudray, and Baron Von Steuben. The average age of these men was forty-two. The youngest was the “boy general,” Marquis De Lafayette, who was nineteen when given a commission by Silas Deane in France. The youngest general born in the thirteen colonies was Henry Knox, twenty-six when commissioned in December of 1776. The oldest was Seth Pomeroy, commissioned at age sixty-nine, who declined the honor and remained an officer in the Massachusetts militia. Four others were over sixty when they made brigadier general. James Hogun is a mystery, his date of birth unknown. The generals chosen by Congress were not total amateurs; forty-seven served during the French and Indian War or Seven Years War. Two served in the Cherokee War. Nine served in the French Army, primarily the volunteers from France who joined the Continental Army after the Revolution began. Two served in the Regulators War in North Carolina. Despite the large number who served during wartime, some had minimal combat service. Benedict Arnold served only thirteen days with his militia before it was disbanded, or he deserted, depending on the source. Philip Schuyler served in the French and Indian War as a staff officer, an asset in the Revolution as his combat career was checkered but his experience in logistics paved the way for other generals’ success in battle. The generals appointed later in the war gained their experience commanding companies, battalions, and regiments in the early engagements of the war. By the time men like Enoch Poor and Anthony Wayne were appointed in February of 1777, they had fought the British throughout the colonies and in Canada. Identifying the occupations of generals before the war is complicated by the times when men had several occupations or skills. Most of them, including skilled tradesmen and physicians, owned land but at least twenty-three lived primarily as planters or farmers. Nine were lawyers. Six were in the medical field. Thirteen were merchants of some kind. Five were surveyors. One was a bookseller and another a gunsmith. Thirteen, mostly the foreign volunteers, were soldiers before the Revolution. Horatio Gates and Charles Lee both purchased farms before the war but were more soldiers than planters. Among the more unusual occupations was that of Peter Muhlenberg, a minister. Most of the generals, nineteen, were born in Massachusetts, which is no surprise as Massachusetts had one of the largest free populations. The next most numerous by state were eight from Virginia, and six from Connecticut. Many were foreign born, nine from Ireland, five from Scotland, seven from France and three from different parts of Germany. When the generals commissioned by Congress are broken down by place of residence at the start of the war, it is still Massachusetts that gave us the majority of generals, fifteen. Twelve lived in Pennsylvania. Eleven resided in Virginia, including the recent immigrants Charles Lee and Horatio Gates. Six were from Connecticut and five each were living in New York and North Carolina. Of those residing in Europe, ten were in France, two in parts of Germany, and one in Poland. Moses Hazen was living in Canada. Nineteen of the officers attended college or a military school. Three attended Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the same number attended Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland. Many of the college attendees were those who had medical backgrounds, including Arthur St. Clair who went to Edinburgh in Scotland. Many of the Continental Army’s general officers became casualties, paying the price for the young army to learn its lessons. Six generals were killed in action, the first Richard Montgomery in 1776 and the last Baron De Kalb in 1780. Eight were wounded, Benedict Arnold in two separate campaigns. Twelve generals died during the war from various other causes, mostly disease. The most inglorious was the death of Frenchman Philipe Tronson du Coudray, who drowned crossing the Schuylkill River. Ten generals were captured but most were exchanged, with the notable exceptions of Virginian William Woodford, who died aboard a British prison hulk in New York Harbor, and James Hogun, fatally maltreated in captivity. Not all of the officers commissioned by Congress served throughout the war. Of the four major generals commissioned at the start of the conflict, none were serving at the end. Three other men, John Cadwalader, Seth Pomeroy, and John Whitcomb, were never actually general officers as they refused to accept their commissions. Nineteen officers resigned before the war ended. Benedict Arnold deserted, Adam Stephen and Charles Lee were dismissed from the service. John Glover and Otho Williams retired before the war ended. In the end, some general officers proved incompetent, some took to the service and performed admirably. Whatever their military experience, age, or educational background, most of the men commissioned by the Continental Congress performed well enough, with the help of France, a little luck, and Divine Providence, to defeat the British Empire. Mark Boatner, Cassell’s Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763-1783 (London: Cassell & Company LTD, 1966) Francis B. Heitman, Historical Register of Officers of the Continental Army during the War of the Revolution, April, 1775, to December, 1783 (Genealogical Publishing Co.Inc., 1982) Mary Theresa Leiter, Biographical Sketches of the Generals of the Continental Army of the Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1889). Lynn Montross, Rag, Tag and Bobtail: The Story of The Continental Army, 1775-1783 (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1952)	<urn:uuid:5982e9a3-cff8-4fa9-a9fd-70f27941b12a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allthingsliberty.com/2016/10/continental-generals-backgrounds-fates/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00229.warc.gz	en	0.982512	1,471	3.609375	4	[ -0.1931750625371933, 0.6260548233985901, 0.34602856636047363, -0.3881060481071472, -0.17126736044883728, 0.0030332535970956087, -0.13967572152614594, 0.08698517829179764, -0.3285693824291229, 0.012109147384762764, 0.2579336166381836, 0.2024141550064087, 0.2743167281150818, 0.30065569281578...	11	On the pages of the Journal of the American Revolution there have been articles on the best and worst generals of the Revolutionary War. It is not a question of the best or worst but rather how could a group of amateur generals leading a force of civilians abruptly turned into fighting men defeat a professional army led by professional officers? This leads to a further question, who were these generals and what were the backgrounds that allowed them to lead the successful military effort against Great Britain? Where were they from? How old were they? What did they do before their Continental service? What was their educational background? What was their fate as an officer in the army? There were eighty-six general officers commissioned in the Continental Army, including three that were brevetted, a military commission rewarding outstanding service by which an officer was temporarily promoted to a higher rank without the corresponding pay. This does not include twenty-six brevetted in September, one in October and four in November of 1783, too late to serve as general officers in the field. Initially, there were four major generals, nine brigadier generals, and George Washington, the “Commander in Chief” or “Commanding General.” During the course of the conflict, additional officers were selected as brigadier generals and some brigadier generals were promoted to major general. Five officers skipped the initial rank of brigadier general and were promoted directly to the rank of major general: Benjamin Lincoln, Marquis de Lafayette, Baron de Kalb, Philippe DuCoudray, and Baron Von Steuben. The average age of these men was forty-two. The youngest was the “boy general,” Marquis De Lafayette, who was nineteen when given a commission by Silas Deane in France. The youngest general born in the thirteen colonies was Henry Knox, twenty-six when commissioned in December of 1776. The oldest was Seth Pomeroy, commissioned at age sixty-nine, who declined the honor and remained an officer in the Massachusetts militia. Four others were over sixty when they made brigadier general. James Hogun is a mystery, his date of birth unknown. The generals chosen by Congress were not total amateurs; forty-seven served during the French and Indian War or Seven Years War. Two served in the Cherokee War. Nine served in the French Army, primarily the volunteers from France who joined the Continental Army after the Revolution began. Two served in the Regulators War in North Carolina. Despite the large number who served during wartime, some had minimal combat service. Benedict Arnold served only thirteen days with his militia before it was disbanded, or he deserted, depending on the source. Philip Schuyler served in the French and Indian War as a staff officer, an asset in the Revolution as his combat career was checkered but his experience in logistics paved the way for other generals’ success in battle. The generals appointed later in the war gained their experience commanding companies, battalions, and regiments in the early engagements of the war. By the time men like Enoch Poor and Anthony Wayne were appointed in February of 1777, they had fought the British throughout the colonies and in Canada. Identifying the occupations of generals before the war is complicated by the times when men had several occupations or skills. Most of them, including skilled tradesmen and physicians, owned land but at least twenty-three lived primarily as planters or farmers. Nine were lawyers. Six were in the medical field. Thirteen were merchants of some kind. Five were surveyors. One was a bookseller and another a gunsmith. Thirteen, mostly the foreign volunteers, were soldiers before the Revolution. Horatio Gates and Charles Lee both purchased farms before the war but were more soldiers than planters. Among the more unusual occupations was that of Peter Muhlenberg, a minister. Most of the generals, nineteen, were born in Massachusetts, which is no surprise as Massachusetts had one of the largest free populations. The next most numerous by state were eight from Virginia, and six from Connecticut. Many were foreign born, nine from Ireland, five from Scotland, seven from France and three from different parts of Germany. When the generals commissioned by Congress are broken down by place of residence at the start of the war, it is still Massachusetts that gave us the majority of generals, fifteen. Twelve lived in Pennsylvania. Eleven resided in Virginia, including the recent immigrants Charles Lee and Horatio Gates. Six were from Connecticut and five each were living in New York and North Carolina. Of those residing in Europe, ten were in France, two in parts of Germany, and one in Poland. Moses Hazen was living in Canada. Nineteen of the officers attended college or a military school. Three attended Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the same number attended Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland. Many of the college attendees were those who had medical backgrounds, including Arthur St. Clair who went to Edinburgh in Scotland. Many of the Continental Army’s general officers became casualties, paying the price for the young army to learn its lessons. Six generals were killed in action, the first Richard Montgomery in 1776 and the last Baron De Kalb in 1780. Eight were wounded, Benedict Arnold in two separate campaigns. Twelve generals died during the war from various other causes, mostly disease. The most inglorious was the death of Frenchman Philipe Tronson du Coudray, who drowned crossing the Schuylkill River. Ten generals were captured but most were exchanged, with the notable exceptions of Virginian William Woodford, who died aboard a British prison hulk in New York Harbor, and James Hogun, fatally maltreated in captivity. Not all of the officers commissioned by Congress served throughout the war. Of the four major generals commissioned at the start of the conflict, none were serving at the end. Three other men, John Cadwalader, Seth Pomeroy, and John Whitcomb, were never actually general officers as they refused to accept their commissions. Nineteen officers resigned before the war ended. Benedict Arnold deserted, Adam Stephen and Charles Lee were dismissed from the service. John Glover and Otho Williams retired before the war ended. In the end, some general officers proved incompetent, some took to the service and performed admirably. Whatever their military experience, age, or educational background, most of the men commissioned by the Continental Congress performed well enough, with the help of France, a little luck, and Divine Providence, to defeat the British Empire. Mark Boatner, Cassell’s Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763-1783 (London: Cassell & Company LTD, 1966) Francis B. Heitman, Historical Register of Officers of the Continental Army during the War of the Revolution, April, 1775, to December, 1783 (Genealogical Publishing Co.Inc., 1982) Mary Theresa Leiter, Biographical Sketches of the Generals of the Continental Army of the Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1889). Lynn Montross, Rag, Tag and Bobtail: The Story of The Continental Army, 1775-1783 (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1952)	1,487	ENGLISH	1
Change isn’t easy. For women, it took lobbying, protests, campaigns, and even jail time to receive the right to vote. It wasn’t until August 26, 1920, when women’s fight for change finally paid off. The Nineteenth Amendment was added to the United States Constitution, giving women the right to vote as citizens of the United States, regardless of their sex. Today, we celebrate women, their achievements, and the continued need for change. One of the pioneers for women in engineering, Jan Talbot retired from the University of California San Diego on July 1, 2018. Talbot was one of two women in her chemical engineering class at Penn State University. In 1970, when she started her program, there were only seven women and nearly 3,000 men in engineering. According to the National Science Foundation, in 1973, 576 women in the U.S. graduated with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. Two years later, Talbot was one of the 372 women that earned a master’s. After completing her degrees at Penn State, she became one of two women in her class to graduate from the University of Minnesota in 1986 with a doctorate in engineering and one of 225 women to earn that degree in the whole country.	<urn:uuid:03dbd411-7aa0-4115-85fa-20074d56aae7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.electrochem.org/ecs-blog/tag/jan-talbot/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00510.warc.gz	en	0.982317	264	3.890625	4	[ -0.6453627347946167, 0.05680035799741745, 0.30095425248146057, 0.1354200541973114, -0.306829571723938, 0.3694738447666168, 0.1478695124387741, 0.3946988880634308, -0.36025023460388184, 0.33144187927246094, 0.13630585372447968, 0.10235404968261719, 0.0539361834526062, -0.3371642827987671, ...	1	Change isn’t easy. For women, it took lobbying, protests, campaigns, and even jail time to receive the right to vote. It wasn’t until August 26, 1920, when women’s fight for change finally paid off. The Nineteenth Amendment was added to the United States Constitution, giving women the right to vote as citizens of the United States, regardless of their sex. Today, we celebrate women, their achievements, and the continued need for change. One of the pioneers for women in engineering, Jan Talbot retired from the University of California San Diego on July 1, 2018. Talbot was one of two women in her chemical engineering class at Penn State University. In 1970, when she started her program, there were only seven women and nearly 3,000 men in engineering. According to the National Science Foundation, in 1973, 576 women in the U.S. graduated with a bachelor’s degree in engineering. Two years later, Talbot was one of the 372 women that earned a master’s. After completing her degrees at Penn State, she became one of two women in her class to graduate from the University of Minnesota in 1986 with a doctorate in engineering and one of 225 women to earn that degree in the whole country.	285	ENGLISH	1
The military is involved in public health because diseases do not respect a uniform. The mosquito cannot tell whether the arm is in a uniform or not. The military has to protect itself-campaigns have been affected (even lost) because a force was unhealthy due to communicable disease. The military also has to protect the people on its bases or communities. It must keep its forces force healthy, and- when it provides housing- it takes on responsibility that the housing be healthy. The U.S. government has a responsibility to the population they are overseeing. Specifically, the Army does not want to bring diseases back to the United States and cause a problem. For instance, malaria was brought back to the United States during the Vietnam War because patients had not taken their anti-malarials. When they were flown back to the United States, mosquitoes bit them and then bit other people, spreading malaria. So the military gets involved with research. Generally, this is identical to civilian research (the medicine is the same, and military-specific work benefits everyone) although there are different interests. For example, malaria is not a major concern in the United States, but the military is definitely interested. Implementation is a very different matter. Civilian public health departments have far fewer tools available-shutting down restaurants, declaring quarantines, denying children access to school for not being vaccinated, but not a great deal more. The military, on the other hand, can order vaccinations, order bug nets/bug spray, order trash removal, and back up initiatives with threats of punishment. The History of Military Medical Research Before the Germ Theory of Disease, there was little understanding of what caused disease. The Army tried to reduce disease, largely through better sanitation. Clean quarters, clean latrines, clean water-these were recommended from the earliest days of the United States. However, these were merely empirical rather than having a strong chain of If-Then. There were few active measures to take. In January 1777, a multi-colony smallpox epidemic broke out. George Washington had some tough choices: he could hope that it missed his army and do nothing, or hope that inoculation would not cause a general outbreak-and that the British didn’t attack while his troops recuperated. In February (with the epidemic spreading), Washington went ahead with inoculations, deciding that was the lesser risk. It paid off: only 8 per 1,000 died, and the smallpox death rate in the population fell from 160 per 1,000 in 1777 to 3 per 1,000 in 1778. When Edward Jenner introduced vaccination rather than variolation, the Army seized upon it almost immediately. All troops were ordered to be vaccinated. This measure prevented soldiers from developing smallpox and, consequently, it did not spread around the country. The first Surgeon General, James Lovell, had a strong interest in reducing disease in the Army. He directed the post surgeons (the physicians in charge of medical care at posts) to record not only what their patients suffered from, but also the weather conditions. He hoped to find what climatic conditions caused particular diseases-an attempt to put science into the miasmatic theory of disease. He also oversaw the (long held) sanitary precautions. But there was nothing more to be done. By the 1840s, the “Sanitary Reform Movement” was underway. It ran through the Victorian Era, influencing matters as varied as medicine and city planning. It started with Edwin Chadwick’s report on the health conditions of the poor, “General Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain.” Bad housing, bad water, and lack of baths led to bad health results. Chadwick’s findings led to projects for providing clean water, building sewers instead of having cesspools, establishing public baths to let people wash, and tearing down slums to build better housing. All of these ideas were compatible with both miasmatic theory and Germ Theory. And they spread to the United States. Lemuel Shattuck did much the same work in Massachusetts. Though these new ideas took shape before the Civil War, they had little effect because it was too early. Means of cleaning the water were not yet developed and implemented. The Germ Theory developed during the 1860s and 1870s, but it would take a couple of decades to gain wide acceptance. However, the Army plunged in. Doctors at dusty frontier posts could get microscopes and explore for bugs. As post surgeons, they were also responsible to the Commanding Officer (CO) for overall health on post, e.g. the water supply or adequacy of housing. From 1889 onwards, when the surgeon made a recommendation on health, the post commander had to commit to paper his “yes” or “no.” Now the CO would have to go on record about science and progress. In fact, Henrik Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People is about the issues that civilian physicians faced on these topics. In 1893, George Sternberg, an excellent researcher, was appointed Surgeon General of the Army. Three weeks later, he established an Army Medical School (AMS) from the belief that “a special education is needful to prepare a military man to undertake the protection of the public health.” It was not a normal medical school; it was a post-graduate (i.e. post-MD) institution that taught some Army topics (uniforms, saluting, and equestrian skills) and some Army medical topics, such as surgery. It also taught public health-because the Army was responsible for it. There was a Professor of Military Hygiene (John Billings, already a past president of the American Public Health Association) and a Professor of Bacteriology, one Walter Reed. As the civilian medical world would recognize, the Army had the first preventive medicine/public health school in the country. And that’s because the Army has broader responsibilities: civilian medical schools trained general practitioners who did retail care in both senses of retail. They provided care in small numbers and for money while the Army had an interest in doing it wholesale (for larger numbers). The Army Medical School also conducted research. Typhoid was a major problem in the Spanish American War. More soldiers died of typhoid in training camps than died from battle, and that was bad for public relations. So Sternberg appointed a Board to investigate. They made important contributions in science- they identified a carrier stage, proved that typhoid was not bad water but an infection (brought by the soldiers from civilian life, such was the state of American water supplies), and showed that flies spread it. By 1908, the AMS had developed an experimental vaccine, and in 1911 the Army made it mandatory. A few years later, World War I erupted and the Army ramped up vaccine production to 18 million doses, with obvious and excellent results. The Spanish American War The United States also faced new tropical medicine problems-it controlled Puerto Rico and the Philippines, and had a major interest in Cuba. Bailey Ashford investigated anemia in Puerto Rico to determine if the Army was at risk. It wasn’t-unless soldiers walked around barefoot and got hookworms. This research, resulting from a concern for soldiers, mainly benefited civilians. Ashford’s work also interested John Rockefeller in public health, and in 1913 that led to the creation of the International Health Commission. Between the world wars, $25 million was spent on schools of public health. A more famous outcome of the Spanish American War was yellow fever research. Yellow fever was a problem in Cuba during the war, and afterwards. (In 1885 there had also been a devastating yellow fever epidemic in the Mississippi Valley, so yellow fever was America’s problem also.) The initial effort was focused on clean up-the sanitary engineering approach. Sewers, fumigation, hand washing, and better water supplies were implemented, but with no results. So Sternberg appointed another Board with Walter Reed at the helm. His Board determined how yellow fever spread: mosquitoes. If the relevant mosquitoes were killed, the yellow fever endemic could be controlled. The Army had the tools to compel civilians to change in ways an elected government in the United States could not. Such requirement included: covering and screening water cisterns, implementing anti-mosquito patrols, oiling puddles, and digging ditches to drain marshes-literally draining disease out of the swamp. William Gorgas had earned enough of a reputation in Cuba- as an implementer of control measures -that he was sent to Panama to head up the medical side of building the Panama Canal. With much labor and political support (he was backed by the President when the overall director of the canal effort wanted to sack him for demanding too many resources), Gorgas accomplished his task. In 1900, the Army also set up a Tropical Disease Board in Manila. This board lasted until 1933, and was revived in Panama in 1936. It drew in local expertise and experience, but also dealt with a variety of diseases because they were endemic where the Army would be operating. Medical concerns studied included beri-beri (the first deficiency disease, though nobody knew it was a deficiency disease), plague, malaria, dengue, rinderpest (the Army had animals) and surra. During World War I, the Army faced different problems. Physicians could not undertake all the necessary work so the Army brought in other peri-medical specialists; then created a new organization, the Sanitary Corps. Relevant here are the Sanitation and Laboratory officers. Their employment by the Army gave them more prestige after the war-the Army commissioned these men; their work was serious and professional. The Army’s biggest public health topic during the war was a disaster: the 1918-19 influenza pandemic. It likely began in Haskell County, KS, and the Army inadvertently spread it around the country. Draftees from Haskell County went to Camp Funston, at Fort Riley, where they were packed into barracks. The Surgeon General had asked for the normal amount of space per man (72 square feet) to put more space between coughs and sneezes. However, the Army needed to mobilize quickly, and the Chief of Staff, accepting the risk, decided to pack the troops into 40 square feet. These conditions helped the flu spread, so that hospitals were equally packed. When crowded troop ships took troops to France they took the virus there, as well. Given that the first viruses were not isolated until the 1930s, there was no treatment in 1918. Prevention was the only option. All kinds of activities spread the virus-war bonds rallies, working in war factories, packed trains. Many people died, partly because the virus killed the healthy people. A V-shaped graph is more common, with old and young dying, but the immune system over-reacted so the strong, healthy people died, too. Another issue the Army encountered for the first time was mental problems. When the United States went to war, the Army had heard about “shell shock” and wanted to do everything possible to avoid it. Prevention is, after all, better than curing. The prevailing idea was that smarter people were more psychologically resilient. So the Army screened recruits for intelligence. Psychologists volunteered their services to the Army, and the Army Medical Department happily accepted them. Since there were many illiterates (immigrants who didn’t know enough English, people who’d left school to work, African-Americans who received a segregated education, and others) the Army developed literacy tests. There were issues with the tests, however, because they were skewed. In some tests, a knowledge of tennis was necessary to identify missing objects. So the data was skewed. (In the 1920s this data was used by others to argue (successfully) for limits on immigration.) After World War I, there was a slight increase in the number of schools for Public Health. Sternberg, in retirement, established one in Washington, DC, but only 4 or 5 were operational by the 1920s. Jurisdictions start adding Public Health officers–doctors and nurses. But the positions were poorly paid (especially in comparison with private practice) and had few benefits. The American Medical Association (AMA) lobbied against Public Health. Public Health jobs were typically low-paying (government) jobs, and there was rarely the satisfaction of seeing patients respond to treatment. The AMA also worked to keep instruction out of medical schools. So the Army was one of the few areas where there was long-term growth. The Army expanded its course to 14 weeks and built new facilities. From 1921, the American Journal of Tropical Medicine was edited by various officers in the Army Medical School-the Army was the only organization in the United States that had a long-running interest in tropical medicine. By World War II, the Army was entering some new areas. Issues, like industrial hygiene and occupational health were studied by the Army because it was running industrial plants and wanted to keep its employees as healthy as possible. The chief of Preventive Medicine also reached into the civilian world for expertise. Not only would doctors be putting on uniforms, he created a board (ultimately titled the Army Epidemiology Board) that would have 100 eminent civilians on 10 sub-committees. This board helped both the military and the Public Health world. The military profited from the expertise of the medical elite (who were draft exempt), while the Public Health world had the aura of helping national defense. For the boys in uniform, there were plenty of vaccines required, but none helped with malaria. Thanks to the war in the South Pacific, malaria was a huge problem. A major effort was initiated to find better drugs, and Atabrine was a key. But malaria discipline broke down early in the war. Inadequately equipped troops went into action in the South Pacific, they couldn’t get enough bug dope or bed nets. They wouldn’t take their pills properly-and disease rates skyrocketed. Douglas MacArthur commented that it would be a slow war if he had a division in the hospital and another recuperating for each one in action. The Army created a School of Malariaology training units in two areas. First, they supervised malaria control, and second, they dug the ditches and sprayed the oil. There were also campaigns directed at encouraging troop compliance, and new tools (the pyrethrum ‘bomb’) to zap bugs in buildings. In late 1943 an epidemic started in Naples, Italy-refugees, a collapsing local health system, and a crowded and dirty population set the stage. Enter DDT. A five percent powder, puffed out of a duster, killed the lice-and the effects lasted for weeks. The epidemic was quickly broken. Since DDT was wonderfully effective against other bugs-including mosquitoes that spread malaria and other diseases-it was widely used after the war. The World Health Organization (WHO) initiated a major campaign, thinking that malaria might be eradicated by wiping out the relevant mosquitoes. There were significant -side effects, however. Wartime Efforts to Control Malaria Malaria was a problem throughout much of the United States; prompting the creation of the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas (OMCWA). Since mosquitoes could fly from off-post to bite soldiers, and the Army lacked authority off post, someone had to coordinate the dozens of local and state health departments with the Army. It involved lots of committee meetings, but it worked. OMCWA was located in Atlanta, because that’s where Third Service Command was based. There was a high volume of malaria in the southeast. After the war, it was one more government program that never went away. In fact, it expanded from covering only malaria to covering other civil-military problems. America has had a complicated history with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and the Army is no different. There are problems with virtually all options (abstinence-only, punishment for contracting disease, treating contraction of diseases as immoral and/or illegal, etc). The Army has vacillated on treatment policy. However, it had always discouraged Venereal Disease (VD) because it kept soldiers from duty. At times, VD was one of the leading causes of medical discharges. For instance, advanced syphilis can kill, and soldiers were discharged once they had nerve damage. Until 1910, mercury was the only effective treatment, and it has massive side effects. There was still nothing to treat gonorrhea, and condoms were not popular a century ago. By World War II, penicillin could quickly cure most VD. Just before D-Day, the Army was accused, by civilians, of hoarding penicillin for VD cases. However, it was actually stockpiling it for anticipated invasion casualties. The Army was unable to say anything for fear that the Germans would hear about it. The occupation of Germany and Japan after WWII proved a major public health problem for the Army. Food was short, there were millions of displaced persons (refugees); Prisoners of War, Recovered Allied Military Personnel; and concentration camp survivors. In both countries, infrastructure was badly damaged and sanitation was a mess. The “former regime elements” had to be removed from office while the Army attempted to run as many public health programs as possible through locals. The Army did not want to get involved with retail patient care. The objective was to get the locals back on their feet and brought to good standards. The problems were daunting-and took years to fully solve. The efforts were helped by: identifying the problem early (before occupation of enemy soil); the front gradually advancing rather than having to do everything at once, and by bringing in civilian sector experts (public health officers and nurses from civilian life). The efforts were also aided by the lack of resistance. In other words, the Italians, Germans, and Japanese accepted their defeat. After the war, public health was accepted by the medical community-with a board established in 1948, and state recognition quickly spreading. The Army’s role during the war-training doctors in public health and persuading medical schools to teach some public health (and tropical medicine)-probably nudged the AMA towards accepting public health. The Army Medical School became the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research and continued doing good work. Joe Smadel discovered what chloramphenicol could do against scrub typhus, the first specific treatment for a rickettsial disease. Ed Buescher and Maurice Hillman isolated the Asian influenza virus and another team isolated rubella. Both led to new vaccines. But civilians were also providing marvelous research. Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin found ways to prevent polio. The focus had changed from the environment (getting rid of mosquitoes, for instance) to protecting the individual. Vaccination was still the preferred route, but taking pills proved easier and was cheaper for the United States in foreign countries. Whether the results were lasting for the locals was not necessarily the Army’s problem. Vietnam created a different dynamic than that of Germany or Japan. The United States was trying to build up an allied government, not impose American ways of doing things. This was in part because that could have been grounds for anti-imperialist rhetoric. But there were lots of endemic diseases, and the indigenous standards of sanitation and health were not high. But the Army’s focus was on individual protection and treatment (whether it was insect repellant against mosquitoes, or treatments for skin diseases and plague), rather than on collective protection. Public Health Today In recent decades, public health (at least in the United States) has changed to education. This education includes diet and exercise, risk awareness, and trying to steer people away from high-risk endeavors. And of course the United States, generally, has the infrastructure (sewers, water supplies, etc.) for good public health. In many ways, the Army now runs a pretty normal public health campaign. Yet, there are still military-specific problems. The military mostly operates outside the United States, so tropical diseases such as malaria need research. While organizations like the National Institute of Health (NIH) research AIDS in the United States, the Army is involved in clinical trials of a multi-strain HIV vaccine in Thailand. And the military faces biological weapons threats. In summary, the Army has been interested in public health because it needs to be healthy to do its job, and to protect those for whom it is responsible. It played a useful role in advancing public health, in general, when the general medical community was not interested; it has made key advances at times, but has also taken advantage of civilian advances. The Army’s requirements are different than those of American society, and so are the military’s tools. But science and command authority have to come together to prevent disease. The views expressed in this essay are the author’s alone and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. government.	<urn:uuid:06f78029-d3e2-4af8-a202-fbbdd59aa335>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.fpri.org/article/2010/07/why-the-military-makes-public-health-a-priority/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00491.warc.gz	en	0.98228	4,349	3.265625	3	[ -0.1955067366361618, 0.5290725231170654, 0.5515338778495789, -0.3129884898662567, 0.5717368125915527, -0.07736629247665405, 0.48234793543815613, 0.5583106875419617, -0.2324337512254715, -0.03577004373073578, 0.35988613963127136, -0.19912587106227875, 0.31148192286491394, 0.2575251460075378...	1	The military is involved in public health because diseases do not respect a uniform. The mosquito cannot tell whether the arm is in a uniform or not. The military has to protect itself-campaigns have been affected (even lost) because a force was unhealthy due to communicable disease. The military also has to protect the people on its bases or communities. It must keep its forces force healthy, and- when it provides housing- it takes on responsibility that the housing be healthy. The U.S. government has a responsibility to the population they are overseeing. Specifically, the Army does not want to bring diseases back to the United States and cause a problem. For instance, malaria was brought back to the United States during the Vietnam War because patients had not taken their anti-malarials. When they were flown back to the United States, mosquitoes bit them and then bit other people, spreading malaria. So the military gets involved with research. Generally, this is identical to civilian research (the medicine is the same, and military-specific work benefits everyone) although there are different interests. For example, malaria is not a major concern in the United States, but the military is definitely interested. Implementation is a very different matter. Civilian public health departments have far fewer tools available-shutting down restaurants, declaring quarantines, denying children access to school for not being vaccinated, but not a great deal more. The military, on the other hand, can order vaccinations, order bug nets/bug spray, order trash removal, and back up initiatives with threats of punishment. The History of Military Medical Research Before the Germ Theory of Disease, there was little understanding of what caused disease. The Army tried to reduce disease, largely through better sanitation. Clean quarters, clean latrines, clean water-these were recommended from the earliest days of the United States. However, these were merely empirical rather than having a strong chain of If-Then. There were few active measures to take. In January 1777, a multi-colony smallpox epidemic broke out. George Washington had some tough choices: he could hope that it missed his army and do nothing, or hope that inoculation would not cause a general outbreak-and that the British didn’t attack while his troops recuperated. In February (with the epidemic spreading), Washington went ahead with inoculations, deciding that was the lesser risk. It paid off: only 8 per 1,000 died, and the smallpox death rate in the population fell from 160 per 1,000 in 1777 to 3 per 1,000 in 1778. When Edward Jenner introduced vaccination rather than variolation, the Army seized upon it almost immediately. All troops were ordered to be vaccinated. This measure prevented soldiers from developing smallpox and, consequently, it did not spread around the country. The first Surgeon General, James Lovell, had a strong interest in reducing disease in the Army. He directed the post surgeons (the physicians in charge of medical care at posts) to record not only what their patients suffered from, but also the weather conditions. He hoped to find what climatic conditions caused particular diseases-an attempt to put science into the miasmatic theory of disease. He also oversaw the (long held) sanitary precautions. But there was nothing more to be done. By the 1840s, the “Sanitary Reform Movement” was underway. It ran through the Victorian Era, influencing matters as varied as medicine and city planning. It started with Edwin Chadwick’s report on the health conditions of the poor, “General Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain.” Bad housing, bad water, and lack of baths led to bad health results. Chadwick’s findings led to projects for providing clean water, building sewers instead of having cesspools, establishing public baths to let people wash, and tearing down slums to build better housing. All of these ideas were compatible with both miasmatic theory and Germ Theory. And they spread to the United States. Lemuel Shattuck did much the same work in Massachusetts. Though these new ideas took shape before the Civil War, they had little effect because it was too early. Means of cleaning the water were not yet developed and implemented. The Germ Theory developed during the 1860s and 1870s, but it would take a couple of decades to gain wide acceptance. However, the Army plunged in. Doctors at dusty frontier posts could get microscopes and explore for bugs. As post surgeons, they were also responsible to the Commanding Officer (CO) for overall health on post, e.g. the water supply or adequacy of housing. From 1889 onwards, when the surgeon made a recommendation on health, the post commander had to commit to paper his “yes” or “no.” Now the CO would have to go on record about science and progress. In fact, Henrik Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People is about the issues that civilian physicians faced on these topics. In 1893, George Sternberg, an excellent researcher, was appointed Surgeon General of the Army. Three weeks later, he established an Army Medical School (AMS) from the belief that “a special education is needful to prepare a military man to undertake the protection of the public health.” It was not a normal medical school; it was a post-graduate (i.e. post-MD) institution that taught some Army topics (uniforms, saluting, and equestrian skills) and some Army medical topics, such as surgery. It also taught public health-because the Army was responsible for it. There was a Professor of Military Hygiene (John Billings, already a past president of the American Public Health Association) and a Professor of Bacteriology, one Walter Reed. As the civilian medical world would recognize, the Army had the first preventive medicine/public health school in the country. And that’s because the Army has broader responsibilities: civilian medical schools trained general practitioners who did retail care in both senses of retail. They provided care in small numbers and for money while the Army had an interest in doing it wholesale (for larger numbers). The Army Medical School also conducted research. Typhoid was a major problem in the Spanish American War. More soldiers died of typhoid in training camps than died from battle, and that was bad for public relations. So Sternberg appointed a Board to investigate. They made important contributions in science- they identified a carrier stage, proved that typhoid was not bad water but an infection (brought by the soldiers from civilian life, such was the state of American water supplies), and showed that flies spread it. By 1908, the AMS had developed an experimental vaccine, and in 1911 the Army made it mandatory. A few years later, World War I erupted and the Army ramped up vaccine production to 18 million doses, with obvious and excellent results. The Spanish American War The United States also faced new tropical medicine problems-it controlled Puerto Rico and the Philippines, and had a major interest in Cuba. Bailey Ashford investigated anemia in Puerto Rico to determine if the Army was at risk. It wasn’t-unless soldiers walked around barefoot and got hookworms. This research, resulting from a concern for soldiers, mainly benefited civilians. Ashford’s work also interested John Rockefeller in public health, and in 1913 that led to the creation of the International Health Commission. Between the world wars, $25 million was spent on schools of public health. A more famous outcome of the Spanish American War was yellow fever research. Yellow fever was a problem in Cuba during the war, and afterwards. (In 1885 there had also been a devastating yellow fever epidemic in the Mississippi Valley, so yellow fever was America’s problem also.) The initial effort was focused on clean up-the sanitary engineering approach. Sewers, fumigation, hand washing, and better water supplies were implemented, but with no results. So Sternberg appointed another Board with Walter Reed at the helm. His Board determined how yellow fever spread: mosquitoes. If the relevant mosquitoes were killed, the yellow fever endemic could be controlled. The Army had the tools to compel civilians to change in ways an elected government in the United States could not. Such requirement included: covering and screening water cisterns, implementing anti-mosquito patrols, oiling puddles, and digging ditches to drain marshes-literally draining disease out of the swamp. William Gorgas had earned enough of a reputation in Cuba- as an implementer of control measures -that he was sent to Panama to head up the medical side of building the Panama Canal. With much labor and political support (he was backed by the President when the overall director of the canal effort wanted to sack him for demanding too many resources), Gorgas accomplished his task. In 1900, the Army also set up a Tropical Disease Board in Manila. This board lasted until 1933, and was revived in Panama in 1936. It drew in local expertise and experience, but also dealt with a variety of diseases because they were endemic where the Army would be operating. Medical concerns studied included beri-beri (the first deficiency disease, though nobody knew it was a deficiency disease), plague, malaria, dengue, rinderpest (the Army had animals) and surra. During World War I, the Army faced different problems. Physicians could not undertake all the necessary work so the Army brought in other peri-medical specialists; then created a new organization, the Sanitary Corps. Relevant here are the Sanitation and Laboratory officers. Their employment by the Army gave them more prestige after the war-the Army commissioned these men; their work was serious and professional. The Army’s biggest public health topic during the war was a disaster: the 1918-19 influenza pandemic. It likely began in Haskell County, KS, and the Army inadvertently spread it around the country. Draftees from Haskell County went to Camp Funston, at Fort Riley, where they were packed into barracks. The Surgeon General had asked for the normal amount of space per man (72 square feet) to put more space between coughs and sneezes. However, the Army needed to mobilize quickly, and the Chief of Staff, accepting the risk, decided to pack the troops into 40 square feet. These conditions helped the flu spread, so that hospitals were equally packed. When crowded troop ships took troops to France they took the virus there, as well. Given that the first viruses were not isolated until the 1930s, there was no treatment in 1918. Prevention was the only option. All kinds of activities spread the virus-war bonds rallies, working in war factories, packed trains. Many people died, partly because the virus killed the healthy people. A V-shaped graph is more common, with old and young dying, but the immune system over-reacted so the strong, healthy people died, too. Another issue the Army encountered for the first time was mental problems. When the United States went to war, the Army had heard about “shell shock” and wanted to do everything possible to avoid it. Prevention is, after all, better than curing. The prevailing idea was that smarter people were more psychologically resilient. So the Army screened recruits for intelligence. Psychologists volunteered their services to the Army, and the Army Medical Department happily accepted them. Since there were many illiterates (immigrants who didn’t know enough English, people who’d left school to work, African-Americans who received a segregated education, and others) the Army developed literacy tests. There were issues with the tests, however, because they were skewed. In some tests, a knowledge of tennis was necessary to identify missing objects. So the data was skewed. (In the 1920s this data was used by others to argue (successfully) for limits on immigration.) After World War I, there was a slight increase in the number of schools for Public Health. Sternberg, in retirement, established one in Washington, DC, but only 4 or 5 were operational by the 1920s. Jurisdictions start adding Public Health officers–doctors and nurses. But the positions were poorly paid (especially in comparison with private practice) and had few benefits. The American Medical Association (AMA) lobbied against Public Health. Public Health jobs were typically low-paying (government) jobs, and there was rarely the satisfaction of seeing patients respond to treatment. The AMA also worked to keep instruction out of medical schools. So the Army was one of the few areas where there was long-term growth. The Army expanded its course to 14 weeks and built new facilities. From 1921, the American Journal of Tropical Medicine was edited by various officers in the Army Medical School-the Army was the only organization in the United States that had a long-running interest in tropical medicine. By World War II, the Army was entering some new areas. Issues, like industrial hygiene and occupational health were studied by the Army because it was running industrial plants and wanted to keep its employees as healthy as possible. The chief of Preventive Medicine also reached into the civilian world for expertise. Not only would doctors be putting on uniforms, he created a board (ultimately titled the Army Epidemiology Board) that would have 100 eminent civilians on 10 sub-committees. This board helped both the military and the Public Health world. The military profited from the expertise of the medical elite (who were draft exempt), while the Public Health world had the aura of helping national defense. For the boys in uniform, there were plenty of vaccines required, but none helped with malaria. Thanks to the war in the South Pacific, malaria was a huge problem. A major effort was initiated to find better drugs, and Atabrine was a key. But malaria discipline broke down early in the war. Inadequately equipped troops went into action in the South Pacific, they couldn’t get enough bug dope or bed nets. They wouldn’t take their pills properly-and disease rates skyrocketed. Douglas MacArthur commented that it would be a slow war if he had a division in the hospital and another recuperating for each one in action. The Army created a School of Malariaology training units in two areas. First, they supervised malaria control, and second, they dug the ditches and sprayed the oil. There were also campaigns directed at encouraging troop compliance, and new tools (the pyrethrum ‘bomb’) to zap bugs in buildings. In late 1943 an epidemic started in Naples, Italy-refugees, a collapsing local health system, and a crowded and dirty population set the stage. Enter DDT. A five percent powder, puffed out of a duster, killed the lice-and the effects lasted for weeks. The epidemic was quickly broken. Since DDT was wonderfully effective against other bugs-including mosquitoes that spread malaria and other diseases-it was widely used after the war. The World Health Organization (WHO) initiated a major campaign, thinking that malaria might be eradicated by wiping out the relevant mosquitoes. There were significant -side effects, however. Wartime Efforts to Control Malaria Malaria was a problem throughout much of the United States; prompting the creation of the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas (OMCWA). Since mosquitoes could fly from off-post to bite soldiers, and the Army lacked authority off post, someone had to coordinate the dozens of local and state health departments with the Army. It involved lots of committee meetings, but it worked. OMCWA was located in Atlanta, because that’s where Third Service Command was based. There was a high volume of malaria in the southeast. After the war, it was one more government program that never went away. In fact, it expanded from covering only malaria to covering other civil-military problems. America has had a complicated history with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and the Army is no different. There are problems with virtually all options (abstinence-only, punishment for contracting disease, treating contraction of diseases as immoral and/or illegal, etc). The Army has vacillated on treatment policy. However, it had always discouraged Venereal Disease (VD) because it kept soldiers from duty. At times, VD was one of the leading causes of medical discharges. For instance, advanced syphilis can kill, and soldiers were discharged once they had nerve damage. Until 1910, mercury was the only effective treatment, and it has massive side effects. There was still nothing to treat gonorrhea, and condoms were not popular a century ago. By World War II, penicillin could quickly cure most VD. Just before D-Day, the Army was accused, by civilians, of hoarding penicillin for VD cases. However, it was actually stockpiling it for anticipated invasion casualties. The Army was unable to say anything for fear that the Germans would hear about it. The occupation of Germany and Japan after WWII proved a major public health problem for the Army. Food was short, there were millions of displaced persons (refugees); Prisoners of War, Recovered Allied Military Personnel; and concentration camp survivors. In both countries, infrastructure was badly damaged and sanitation was a mess. The “former regime elements” had to be removed from office while the Army attempted to run as many public health programs as possible through locals. The Army did not want to get involved with retail patient care. The objective was to get the locals back on their feet and brought to good standards. The problems were daunting-and took years to fully solve. The efforts were helped by: identifying the problem early (before occupation of enemy soil); the front gradually advancing rather than having to do everything at once, and by bringing in civilian sector experts (public health officers and nurses from civilian life). The efforts were also aided by the lack of resistance. In other words, the Italians, Germans, and Japanese accepted their defeat. After the war, public health was accepted by the medical community-with a board established in 1948, and state recognition quickly spreading. The Army’s role during the war-training doctors in public health and persuading medical schools to teach some public health (and tropical medicine)-probably nudged the AMA towards accepting public health. The Army Medical School became the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research and continued doing good work. Joe Smadel discovered what chloramphenicol could do against scrub typhus, the first specific treatment for a rickettsial disease. Ed Buescher and Maurice Hillman isolated the Asian influenza virus and another team isolated rubella. Both led to new vaccines. But civilians were also providing marvelous research. Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin found ways to prevent polio. The focus had changed from the environment (getting rid of mosquitoes, for instance) to protecting the individual. Vaccination was still the preferred route, but taking pills proved easier and was cheaper for the United States in foreign countries. Whether the results were lasting for the locals was not necessarily the Army’s problem. Vietnam created a different dynamic than that of Germany or Japan. The United States was trying to build up an allied government, not impose American ways of doing things. This was in part because that could have been grounds for anti-imperialist rhetoric. But there were lots of endemic diseases, and the indigenous standards of sanitation and health were not high. But the Army’s focus was on individual protection and treatment (whether it was insect repellant against mosquitoes, or treatments for skin diseases and plague), rather than on collective protection. Public Health Today In recent decades, public health (at least in the United States) has changed to education. This education includes diet and exercise, risk awareness, and trying to steer people away from high-risk endeavors. And of course the United States, generally, has the infrastructure (sewers, water supplies, etc.) for good public health. In many ways, the Army now runs a pretty normal public health campaign. Yet, there are still military-specific problems. The military mostly operates outside the United States, so tropical diseases such as malaria need research. While organizations like the National Institute of Health (NIH) research AIDS in the United States, the Army is involved in clinical trials of a multi-strain HIV vaccine in Thailand. And the military faces biological weapons threats. In summary, the Army has been interested in public health because it needs to be healthy to do its job, and to protect those for whom it is responsible. It played a useful role in advancing public health, in general, when the general medical community was not interested; it has made key advances at times, but has also taken advantage of civilian advances. The Army’s requirements are different than those of American society, and so are the military’s tools. But science and command authority have to come together to prevent disease. The views expressed in this essay are the author’s alone and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. government.	4,331	ENGLISH	1
Although the Tower wasn’t built as a prison, hundreds of people were incarcerated here The Tower of London was built as a secure fortress and a symbol of royal power. Behind the castle's walls were storehouses for weapons and the Royal Mint produced the nation's coins. It was also a royal palace with luxuriously furnished apartments and a menagerie of royal beasts. But the Tower was also used to contain people who posed a serious threat to national security. Despite its fearsome reputation the story of imprisonment at the Tower is not just one of traitors and gruesome executions. It is also a tale of luxury, banquets and daring escapes. Many prisoners did not end their lives there but were released after paying a ransom or when they no longer posed a threat to security. Like the story of the Tower itself, its role as a prison is a varied one. Over the centuries, the Tower was a potent symbol of state authority and an object of fear. The first prisoner of the Tower, Ranulf Flambard, Bishop of Durham was also the Tower's first escapee. In 1101 he climbed through one of the White Tower's windows using a rope smuggled to him in a gallon of wine. Over 800 years later, on 15 August 1941, Josef Jakobs was the last person to be executed by firing squad at the Tower, having been found guilty of spying for Germany during the Second World War. In between, the Tower has held in custody Scottish Kings and French Dukes, young princes and princesses and lords, ladies and archbishops, alongside common thieves, religious conspirators and even a few politicians. Prisoners at the Tower of London had varying experiences, from the luxurious to the lethal. Wealthy, influential inmates could be held in relative comfort, deprived only of their liberty. Some captive kings, such as Scottish king John Balliol, brought in a host of servants. Others were allowed out on hunting or shopping trips! But those suspected or found guilty of treason, which including counterfeiting coins as well as plotting against the monarch, suffered far more. By the Tudor period, the Tower had secured a reputation as the foremost state prison in the country and the Tower itself sought to reinforce its image as an unbreakable prison. John Balliol, King of Scotland (1292-6), by Jacob Jacobsz de Wet II ©Royal Collection Trust The young Princess Elizabeth was one of the most famous inmates at the Tower. She was imprisoned by her half-sister Mary I, who in the early days of her reign feared that Elizabeth was plotting against her. Elizabeth arrived at the Tower on 17 March 1554. Legend has it that she entered through Traitors’ Gate, but it is known she walked over a drawbridge, where some of the more sympathetic guards knelt before her. Held in her mother’s former apartments, Elizabeth was comfortable, but under severe psychological strain. Eventually lack of evidence meant Elizabeth was released into house arrest on 19 May, the anniversary of her mother Anne Boleyn's execution. In January 1559 she returned under happier circumstances - to prepare for her coronation procession. Image: Elizabeth I when a Princess, c1546. Attributed to William Scrots (active 1537-53), Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2017 Other prisoners of noble birth fared less well, however. Among the seven prisoners executed on Tower Green were three queens of England: Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII; Catherine Howard, Henry’s fifth wife and Lady Jane Grey. The others beheaded on the orders of the monarch, during the bloody century of Tudor rule were Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochester (sister-in-law to Anne), Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. In 1483 William Lord Hastings was beheaded, probably on the orders of Richard of Gloucester, later Richard III. In 1743, Black Watch mutiny leaders Farquhar Shaw and cousins Samuel and Malcolm Macpherson were shot at dawn on the Green in front of their regiment. Image: The Execution of Lady Jane Grey, © National Gallery London 2017 Guy Fawkes was brought to the Tower to be interrogated in November 1605 after guards found him hiding in the cellars beneath Parliament, surrounded by barrels of gunpowder. Fawkes was part of a group of conspiritors who intended to assasinate James I during the State Opening of Parliament. He was imprisoned and tortured in the Queen’s House at the Tower of London. Fawkes and the other plotters suffered a grisly traitor’s death: they were hanged, drawn and quartered, with their body parts then displayed throughout London as a warning to others. Image by artist Sue Kerr, Courtesy of St Peter's Foundation, reproduced by kind permission The Duke’s death in the 1470s was perhaps one of the most bizarre at the Tower – if legend is to be believed. Official records state that he was put to death privately at the Tower for high treason against this brother Edward IV. But other contemporary sources allege he was drowned head first in a barrel of his favourite Malmsey wine. In 1483, 12-year-old Edward V and his younger brother Richard were sent to the Tower ‘for safety’ by their uncle, the Duke of Gloucester. They vanished, apparently without trace and the Duke claimed the throne as Richard III. In 1674 two small skeletons were discovered by workmen at the Tower. Assumed to be those of the missing Princes, Charles II had them reburied in Westminster. Then in 1933, a re-examination proved they were of two boys aged about 10 and 12 – the same ages as the Princes when they disappeared. Was Richard III, often thought to be the most likely culprit, really responsible? The debate goes on. The Princes in the Tower (oil on canvas), Northcote, James (1746-1831) / Private Collection / Photo © Christie's Images / Bridgeman Images Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII’s second wife, arrived at the Tower of London in May 1536, accused of adultery and incest. She asked, ‘Shall I go into a dungeon?’ ‘No madam’, came the reply, ‘you shall go into the lodging you lay in at your coronation’. Only three years before, Anne had enjoyed apartments lavishly refurbished by her then adoring husband and king. Anne was found guilty and sentenced to death. As a small mercy, Henry granted her a skilled French swordsman, rather than an axeman. Anne was executed on 19 May with a single blow, and was buried in the Chapel Royal of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower. Anne Boleyn by Unknown English Artist, late 16th century. Primary collection of National Portrait Gallery, NPG 668 Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen in July 1553. She was an innocent pawn in a failed military coup by her father- in-law, the Duke of Northumberland. Instead, rightful heir Mary I was crowned, while would-be queen Jane and her young husband Lord Guildford were condemned as traitors and sent to the Tower. They were initially granted a reprieve, but further rebellion made Jane’s existence more of a threat. Mary could not afford to let her live. On 12 February 1554 Jane’s husband was publicly executed on Tower Hill. Jane, as one of the privileged few, was beheaded within the Tower walls. She was 17 years old. The Last Moments of Lady Jane Grey by Hendrik Jacobus Scholten Physical torture was used at the Tower of London, but only a small number of cases were recorded. It was used mainly during the 16th and 17th centuries. It was predominantly used to elicit information rather than a punishment, but the pain was real. Sometimes, even just the threat of the agony to come was enough to break a prisoner’s resolve. Although prisoners in the Tower could be kept in solitary confinement and deprived of food or sleep, actual physical torture was used as a deliberate programme of interrogation. This was the principle instrument of torture at the Tower. It was a device upon which victims were laid and then pulled slowly by ropes attached to hands and feet. Repeated racking increased the agony. The only woman reputedly tortured at the Tower during the 16th century was Anne Askew. Twenty-five-year-old Anne was accused of being a Protestant heretic. When Anne refused to name others who shared her faith, she was racked repeatedly. She was carried, as she was unable to walk after torture, to be burnt at the stake. Of all the roles that the Tower of London has played, torture has attracted the most myth and legend. A potent mixture of fiction and fact has created a fearsome reputation. Torture was used, but for a relatively short period - the 16th and 17th centuries - and especially during the Tudor period, a time of great political turmoil. Eventually the Tower became used principally as a secure store for documents, armaments and jewels, instead of prisoners. However, it still remained best known as a dark place of execution and torture. This is largely because of the Tower’s growing popularity as a tourist attraction in the 19th century. But this popular image is only part of the story. Victorian crowds, entranced by the gothic tales and exaggerated accounts of torture and suffering, flocked to the fortress to enjoy the chill of the ‘dungeons’. Join us for a member-only guided tour through the Gardens at Hillsborough Castle and Gardens. Saturday 22 February 2020 Saturday 22 February at 11.00 Free (advance booking required)	<urn:uuid:e6e6ec66-81a4-4044-a501-272782fab299>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://staging.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/history-and-stories/tower-of-london-prison/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00221.warc.gz	en	0.980147	2,052	3.5625	4	[ -0.3393584191799164, 0.2876128554344177, 0.07221627235412598, 0.009094813838601112, -0.13490524888038635, -0.07246659696102142, 0.5520144104957581, -0.32516711950302124, 0.39014172554016113, -0.15511900186538696, 0.03158103674650192, 0.13021042943000793, 0.3373231887817383, 0.1122362390160...	1	Although the Tower wasn’t built as a prison, hundreds of people were incarcerated here The Tower of London was built as a secure fortress and a symbol of royal power. Behind the castle's walls were storehouses for weapons and the Royal Mint produced the nation's coins. It was also a royal palace with luxuriously furnished apartments and a menagerie of royal beasts. But the Tower was also used to contain people who posed a serious threat to national security. Despite its fearsome reputation the story of imprisonment at the Tower is not just one of traitors and gruesome executions. It is also a tale of luxury, banquets and daring escapes. Many prisoners did not end their lives there but were released after paying a ransom or when they no longer posed a threat to security. Like the story of the Tower itself, its role as a prison is a varied one. Over the centuries, the Tower was a potent symbol of state authority and an object of fear. The first prisoner of the Tower, Ranulf Flambard, Bishop of Durham was also the Tower's first escapee. In 1101 he climbed through one of the White Tower's windows using a rope smuggled to him in a gallon of wine. Over 800 years later, on 15 August 1941, Josef Jakobs was the last person to be executed by firing squad at the Tower, having been found guilty of spying for Germany during the Second World War. In between, the Tower has held in custody Scottish Kings and French Dukes, young princes and princesses and lords, ladies and archbishops, alongside common thieves, religious conspirators and even a few politicians. Prisoners at the Tower of London had varying experiences, from the luxurious to the lethal. Wealthy, influential inmates could be held in relative comfort, deprived only of their liberty. Some captive kings, such as Scottish king John Balliol, brought in a host of servants. Others were allowed out on hunting or shopping trips! But those suspected or found guilty of treason, which including counterfeiting coins as well as plotting against the monarch, suffered far more. By the Tudor period, the Tower had secured a reputation as the foremost state prison in the country and the Tower itself sought to reinforce its image as an unbreakable prison. John Balliol, King of Scotland (1292-6), by Jacob Jacobsz de Wet II ©Royal Collection Trust The young Princess Elizabeth was one of the most famous inmates at the Tower. She was imprisoned by her half-sister Mary I, who in the early days of her reign feared that Elizabeth was plotting against her. Elizabeth arrived at the Tower on 17 March 1554. Legend has it that she entered through Traitors’ Gate, but it is known she walked over a drawbridge, where some of the more sympathetic guards knelt before her. Held in her mother’s former apartments, Elizabeth was comfortable, but under severe psychological strain. Eventually lack of evidence meant Elizabeth was released into house arrest on 19 May, the anniversary of her mother Anne Boleyn's execution. In January 1559 she returned under happier circumstances - to prepare for her coronation procession. Image: Elizabeth I when a Princess, c1546. Attributed to William Scrots (active 1537-53), Royal Collection Trust/© Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2017 Other prisoners of noble birth fared less well, however. Among the seven prisoners executed on Tower Green were three queens of England: Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII; Catherine Howard, Henry’s fifth wife and Lady Jane Grey. The others beheaded on the orders of the monarch, during the bloody century of Tudor rule were Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochester (sister-in-law to Anne), Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. In 1483 William Lord Hastings was beheaded, probably on the orders of Richard of Gloucester, later Richard III. In 1743, Black Watch mutiny leaders Farquhar Shaw and cousins Samuel and Malcolm Macpherson were shot at dawn on the Green in front of their regiment. Image: The Execution of Lady Jane Grey, © National Gallery London 2017 Guy Fawkes was brought to the Tower to be interrogated in November 1605 after guards found him hiding in the cellars beneath Parliament, surrounded by barrels of gunpowder. Fawkes was part of a group of conspiritors who intended to assasinate James I during the State Opening of Parliament. He was imprisoned and tortured in the Queen’s House at the Tower of London. Fawkes and the other plotters suffered a grisly traitor’s death: they were hanged, drawn and quartered, with their body parts then displayed throughout London as a warning to others. Image by artist Sue Kerr, Courtesy of St Peter's Foundation, reproduced by kind permission The Duke’s death in the 1470s was perhaps one of the most bizarre at the Tower – if legend is to be believed. Official records state that he was put to death privately at the Tower for high treason against this brother Edward IV. But other contemporary sources allege he was drowned head first in a barrel of his favourite Malmsey wine. In 1483, 12-year-old Edward V and his younger brother Richard were sent to the Tower ‘for safety’ by their uncle, the Duke of Gloucester. They vanished, apparently without trace and the Duke claimed the throne as Richard III. In 1674 two small skeletons were discovered by workmen at the Tower. Assumed to be those of the missing Princes, Charles II had them reburied in Westminster. Then in 1933, a re-examination proved they were of two boys aged about 10 and 12 – the same ages as the Princes when they disappeared. Was Richard III, often thought to be the most likely culprit, really responsible? The debate goes on. The Princes in the Tower (oil on canvas), Northcote, James (1746-1831) / Private Collection / Photo © Christie's Images / Bridgeman Images Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII’s second wife, arrived at the Tower of London in May 1536, accused of adultery and incest. She asked, ‘Shall I go into a dungeon?’ ‘No madam’, came the reply, ‘you shall go into the lodging you lay in at your coronation’. Only three years before, Anne had enjoyed apartments lavishly refurbished by her then adoring husband and king. Anne was found guilty and sentenced to death. As a small mercy, Henry granted her a skilled French swordsman, rather than an axeman. Anne was executed on 19 May with a single blow, and was buried in the Chapel Royal of St Peter ad Vincula at the Tower. Anne Boleyn by Unknown English Artist, late 16th century. Primary collection of National Portrait Gallery, NPG 668 Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed queen in July 1553. She was an innocent pawn in a failed military coup by her father- in-law, the Duke of Northumberland. Instead, rightful heir Mary I was crowned, while would-be queen Jane and her young husband Lord Guildford were condemned as traitors and sent to the Tower. They were initially granted a reprieve, but further rebellion made Jane’s existence more of a threat. Mary could not afford to let her live. On 12 February 1554 Jane’s husband was publicly executed on Tower Hill. Jane, as one of the privileged few, was beheaded within the Tower walls. She was 17 years old. The Last Moments of Lady Jane Grey by Hendrik Jacobus Scholten Physical torture was used at the Tower of London, but only a small number of cases were recorded. It was used mainly during the 16th and 17th centuries. It was predominantly used to elicit information rather than a punishment, but the pain was real. Sometimes, even just the threat of the agony to come was enough to break a prisoner’s resolve. Although prisoners in the Tower could be kept in solitary confinement and deprived of food or sleep, actual physical torture was used as a deliberate programme of interrogation. This was the principle instrument of torture at the Tower. It was a device upon which victims were laid and then pulled slowly by ropes attached to hands and feet. Repeated racking increased the agony. The only woman reputedly tortured at the Tower during the 16th century was Anne Askew. Twenty-five-year-old Anne was accused of being a Protestant heretic. When Anne refused to name others who shared her faith, she was racked repeatedly. She was carried, as she was unable to walk after torture, to be burnt at the stake. Of all the roles that the Tower of London has played, torture has attracted the most myth and legend. A potent mixture of fiction and fact has created a fearsome reputation. Torture was used, but for a relatively short period - the 16th and 17th centuries - and especially during the Tudor period, a time of great political turmoil. Eventually the Tower became used principally as a secure store for documents, armaments and jewels, instead of prisoners. However, it still remained best known as a dark place of execution and torture. This is largely because of the Tower’s growing popularity as a tourist attraction in the 19th century. But this popular image is only part of the story. Victorian crowds, entranced by the gothic tales and exaggerated accounts of torture and suffering, flocked to the fortress to enjoy the chill of the ‘dungeons’. Join us for a member-only guided tour through the Gardens at Hillsborough Castle and Gardens. Saturday 22 February 2020 Saturday 22 February at 11.00 Free (advance booking required)	2,084	ENGLISH	1
Neanderthals weren’t as dumb as scientists thought – they could make fire and used resin ‘glue’ to craft their stone tools. It seems as if Neanderthals were not as dumb as scientists thought. Archaeologists rummaging around in a cave in Italy found some of the oldest known evidence of the Neanderthals using glue on their stone tools. The process is called “hafting” and it wasn’t believed the slope-headed cousins of Homo sapiens knew how to do it. The tools the scientists found were dated to about 40 to 50 thousand years ago. Scientists thought Neanderthals lacked intelligence and were surprised to find they could fashion sophisticated weapons. “We continue to find evidence that the Neanderthals were not inferior primitives but were quite capable of doing things that have traditionally only been attributed to modern humans.” More than 1,000 tools were found in the Italian caves. Analysis of the tools showed the “glue” used was pine resin from local pine trees mixed with beeswax. The Neanderthals used the glue to attach stone tools to wooden handles. The find also hinted at something else not considered before. Since pine resin dries in the air, it would have needed to be heated to apply to the tools. This means the Neanderthals knew how to make fire, another skill that scientists did not believe they had the knowledge to do.	<urn:uuid:5bb67740-e8f0-4015-b06b-9bf1f96df927>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.reekoscience.com/science-news/archeology/neanderthals-were-not-dumb-make-fire-use-resin-glue	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00452.warc.gz	en	0.98609	299	3.5	4	[ -0.5811062455177307, 0.5180529952049255, 0.11009903252124786, 0.27293068170547485, -0.11255873739719391, -0.37561848759651184, 0.4856697618961334, 0.30496102571487427, -0.34517595171928406, 0.10111573338508606, 0.12617672979831696, -0.3572167754173279, 0.12630504369735718, 0.55406737327575...	5	Neanderthals weren’t as dumb as scientists thought – they could make fire and used resin ‘glue’ to craft their stone tools. It seems as if Neanderthals were not as dumb as scientists thought. Archaeologists rummaging around in a cave in Italy found some of the oldest known evidence of the Neanderthals using glue on their stone tools. The process is called “hafting” and it wasn’t believed the slope-headed cousins of Homo sapiens knew how to do it. The tools the scientists found were dated to about 40 to 50 thousand years ago. Scientists thought Neanderthals lacked intelligence and were surprised to find they could fashion sophisticated weapons. “We continue to find evidence that the Neanderthals were not inferior primitives but were quite capable of doing things that have traditionally only been attributed to modern humans.” More than 1,000 tools were found in the Italian caves. Analysis of the tools showed the “glue” used was pine resin from local pine trees mixed with beeswax. The Neanderthals used the glue to attach stone tools to wooden handles. The find also hinted at something else not considered before. Since pine resin dries in the air, it would have needed to be heated to apply to the tools. This means the Neanderthals knew how to make fire, another skill that scientists did not believe they had the knowledge to do.	290	ENGLISH	1
It had, after all, been around for 1, years. And yet, following a period of economic and military decline, it fell apart. By CE it was gone. This section contains words approx. Examines the history of the city of Athens. Describes it as the laboratory of democracy and democratic law, however, concludes that it was not a true democracy. Athens was the laboratory of democracy and democratic law. It was the birthplace of the democracy we have in America today. Although the original ideas of democracy came from Athens, it was never a true democracy, as a true democracy gives all people equal rights to live and to participate in the government in which they live. Athens, although many citizens had the ability to participate in the government, was still not a completely democratic state. In fact, slavery is what gave others the time to contribute to the government. These slaves had no political rights or freedom. Also, those not born in Athens that lived there were not considered citizens, henceforth not allowed to play a part in choosing how their home was governed. In a true democracy, all people have equal say, yet in Athens, women were oppressed as well. Women were not allowed to vote on any issues. In fact, they had no share at all in public life. They were expected to stay indoors and run their households, or to tend sheep or weave. Without all citizens participating, there can not be a true democracy. In Athens, no one had freedom of thought and expression either. One instance of this is with Socrates. This shows that Athens was not a true democracy, as people were not allowed to think differently from the majority without getting killed or sent away. Although Athens was the laboratory of democracy and democratic law, it was never truly a democracy. Many people had little to no rights, oppressed because of enslavement, sex, birthplace, or beliefs. Athens itself was not a democracy, but it did set the foundations for the still-evolving democracy that is being carried on today.The history of credit and banking goes back much further than the history of coins. Nevertheless the story of the origins of money goes back even further still. The University of the State of New York REGENTS HIGH SCHOOL EXAMINATION GLOBAL HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY Tuesday, August 16, — to . A history of Epicurus ( B.C. to A.D.) and his ideas, tracing the development of the Epicurean school and the reaction to it in ancient times, and the modern revival of Epicureanism. Essay about Athens, Greece; Essay about Athens, Greece. Words 4 Pages. Athens, Greece Athens was the intellectual center of Greece. It was one of the first city-states of its time, and is still known as one of the most famous cities in the world. It was named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the city's patron. Essay Athens: The. Aeon is a registered charity committed to the spread of knowledge and a cosmopolitan worldview. Our mission is to create a sanctuary online for serious thinking. Socrates' Defense How you have felt, O men of Athens, at hearing the speeches of my accusers, I cannot tell; but I know that their persuasive words almost made me forget who I was - such was the effect of them; and yet they have hardly spoken a word of truth. But many as their falsehoods were, there was one of them which quite amazed me; - I mean when they told you to be upon your guard, and.	<urn:uuid:c55470a4-a7ba-4c13-bb57-29241621e3f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qyfewylakuqav.monstermanfilm.com/athens-the-history-of-the-city-essay-50436eh.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00255.warc.gz	en	0.985996	731	3.71875	4	[ -0.4082176089286804, 0.34579411149024963, 0.043078064918518066, -0.37417787313461304, -0.350219190120697, -0.2731187641620636, -0.060514554381370544, 0.11778846383094788, -0.2252681851387024, 0.25469303131103516, -0.32600313425064087, 0.165269672870636, -0.14392323791980743, 0.161346137523...	1	It had, after all, been around for 1, years. And yet, following a period of economic and military decline, it fell apart. By CE it was gone. This section contains words approx. Examines the history of the city of Athens. Describes it as the laboratory of democracy and democratic law, however, concludes that it was not a true democracy. Athens was the laboratory of democracy and democratic law. It was the birthplace of the democracy we have in America today. Although the original ideas of democracy came from Athens, it was never a true democracy, as a true democracy gives all people equal rights to live and to participate in the government in which they live. Athens, although many citizens had the ability to participate in the government, was still not a completely democratic state. In fact, slavery is what gave others the time to contribute to the government. These slaves had no political rights or freedom. Also, those not born in Athens that lived there were not considered citizens, henceforth not allowed to play a part in choosing how their home was governed. In a true democracy, all people have equal say, yet in Athens, women were oppressed as well. Women were not allowed to vote on any issues. In fact, they had no share at all in public life. They were expected to stay indoors and run their households, or to tend sheep or weave. Without all citizens participating, there can not be a true democracy. In Athens, no one had freedom of thought and expression either. One instance of this is with Socrates. This shows that Athens was not a true democracy, as people were not allowed to think differently from the majority without getting killed or sent away. Although Athens was the laboratory of democracy and democratic law, it was never truly a democracy. Many people had little to no rights, oppressed because of enslavement, sex, birthplace, or beliefs. Athens itself was not a democracy, but it did set the foundations for the still-evolving democracy that is being carried on today.The history of credit and banking goes back much further than the history of coins. Nevertheless the story of the origins of money goes back even further still. The University of the State of New York REGENTS HIGH SCHOOL EXAMINATION GLOBAL HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY Tuesday, August 16, — to . A history of Epicurus ( B.C. to A.D.) and his ideas, tracing the development of the Epicurean school and the reaction to it in ancient times, and the modern revival of Epicureanism. Essay about Athens, Greece; Essay about Athens, Greece. Words 4 Pages. Athens, Greece Athens was the intellectual center of Greece. It was one of the first city-states of its time, and is still known as one of the most famous cities in the world. It was named after Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the city's patron. Essay Athens: The. Aeon is a registered charity committed to the spread of knowledge and a cosmopolitan worldview. Our mission is to create a sanctuary online for serious thinking. Socrates' Defense How you have felt, O men of Athens, at hearing the speeches of my accusers, I cannot tell; but I know that their persuasive words almost made me forget who I was - such was the effect of them; and yet they have hardly spoken a word of truth. But many as their falsehoods were, there was one of them which quite amazed me; - I mean when they told you to be upon your guard, and.	714	ENGLISH	1
Robinson Crusoe flees Britain on a ship after killing his friend over the love of Mary. A fierce ocean storm wrecks his ship and leaves him stranded by himself on an uncharted island. Left to fend for himself, Crusoe seeks out a tentative survival on the island, until he meets Friday, a tribesman whom he saves from being sacrificed. Initially, Crusoe is thrilled to finally have a friend, but he has to defend himself against the tribe who uses the island to sacrifice tribesman to their gods. During time their relationship changes from master-slave to a mutual respected friendship despite their difference in culture and religion. Daniel Defoe lived between 1660 and 1731, a period of much historical change in England. The rapidly changing economic and political circumstances in England helped create a vibrant middle class that was mercantilist, protestant, desirous of political power, and hungry for cultural life. Defoe was born into such a middle class family, the son of a fairly wealthy tallow chandler. He received an excellent education and lived a varied and eventful life. He worked, often at the same time, as a spy, hosier, journalist, political pamphleteer, and businessman. Defoe, however, is best remembered for his literary work. Regarded by many as the father of the English novel, Defoe published his masterpiece, Robinson Crusoe, in 1719. Three years later he cemented his reputation with the novel Moll Flanders.	<urn:uuid:5396d044-6d10-4d9b-99b6-e81ba71518c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bol.com/nl/p/robinson-crusoe/9200000110456499/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00484.warc.gz	en	0.986363	305	4.03125	4	[ -0.07715795189142227, 0.2583071291446686, 0.577423632144928, -0.1442238688468933, -0.10218002647161484, -0.2491198182106018, 0.3671163320541382, 0.2590445578098297, -0.022614240646362305, -0.20733967423439026, 0.3400023281574249, -0.5356683135032654, 0.12094584107398987, 0.2418428063392639...	1	Robinson Crusoe flees Britain on a ship after killing his friend over the love of Mary. A fierce ocean storm wrecks his ship and leaves him stranded by himself on an uncharted island. Left to fend for himself, Crusoe seeks out a tentative survival on the island, until he meets Friday, a tribesman whom he saves from being sacrificed. Initially, Crusoe is thrilled to finally have a friend, but he has to defend himself against the tribe who uses the island to sacrifice tribesman to their gods. During time their relationship changes from master-slave to a mutual respected friendship despite their difference in culture and religion. Daniel Defoe lived between 1660 and 1731, a period of much historical change in England. The rapidly changing economic and political circumstances in England helped create a vibrant middle class that was mercantilist, protestant, desirous of political power, and hungry for cultural life. Defoe was born into such a middle class family, the son of a fairly wealthy tallow chandler. He received an excellent education and lived a varied and eventful life. He worked, often at the same time, as a spy, hosier, journalist, political pamphleteer, and businessman. Defoe, however, is best remembered for his literary work. Regarded by many as the father of the English novel, Defoe published his masterpiece, Robinson Crusoe, in 1719. Three years later he cemented his reputation with the novel Moll Flanders.	311	ENGLISH	1
Last Updated on The music we hear at any given moment is far more than the sound coming through the speakers. We can measure music against everything that has come before it, by the sounds that are familiar and the sounds that are new. Before Louis Armstrong established himself as one of the most influential musicians in history, there was Joseph Nathan Oliver. He was known by his contemporaries—jazz pioneers all—as King Oliver. The cornet-wielding king emerged from the cradle of jazz music: the Louisiana port city, New Orleans. King Oliver & The Origins Of Jazz Oliver was born in late December, in the year 1881. Ragtime, as a means of perspective, was born around the same time, and lived nearly its entire lifespan in American popular music before Oliver moved to Chicago in 1918. In the time between his birth and his migration north, Oliver established himself as a reputable band leader and composer. Louis Armstrong credits much of the origin of jazz music to King Oliver, and that is no small tribute. Armstrong is remembered as one of the most influential musicians of all time, as a founding father of jazz music, and as a pioneer of jazz in not one, but several emergent eras of jazz music. Oliver survives as little more than a footnote on Armstrong’s storied career, but the footnote reads universally: mentor and teacher of Louis Armstrong. It is nearly impossible to picture Armstrong in anyone’s shadow, and yet such was the case for Armstrong during the many years that he played under the King Oliver troupe. Still more astounding is the fall from fame that left King Oliver as a dying, penniless janitor. The interplay between the lives of these two musical pioneers are a symbol of the history of jazz itself: a constant rising and falling of the old and the new. Fighting for the Throne It stands to reason that the better musician wins the fame, but measuring the standards of musicianship is difficult when the music itself is in the process of being established. Perhaps it is for this reason that Oliver rose so quickly to fame. He was the one writing the music that everyone loved. Passing The Torch When Oliver took Armstrong under his wing, it became clear that he favored the young and budding musician. Armstrong considered Oliver a father figure and role model, something that had been lacking in Armstrong’s life up to that point. As a musician, Armstrong emulated his mentor’s performance, and as pupils often do, soon grew to surpass the model that he was following. Armstrong gained a reputation for his intensity and endurance of play. There was an element of sheer physical ability Armstrong possessed that was essentially unmatched as he entered adulthood. This alone would not have threatened Oliver, who called Armstrong to play for him in Chicago after leaving New Orleans in 1918. As a composer, Oliver’s fixation was upon creating the sound and style of music that the American public were only just beginning to understand as jazz music. This is why at first, most likely, Oliver did not think too fondly of Armstrong’s proclivity towards improvisation and creative liberties. Yet it is precisely this creative liberty that struck a chord with the American public. While the sound and style of Oliver’s compositions reigned primarily as the fixed structure of jazz, it was the improvisational, rhythm-bent element of performance that Armstrong brought to the table that ushered jazz into homes and dance halls across the nation. It is for this reason that Armstrong outlived the King of New Orleans, the man who would fade from both memory and record players while he struggled to make ends meet late in life. It is true that jazz would not be what it is today without the composer, without the structure that plays out in the background of every piece. But it is the art of the solo, the act of the individual, and the spirit of the moment that makes Louis Armstrong the enduring King of Jazz.	<urn:uuid:c7faa7d5-afd8-4757-a027-c417b652f45e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://youtubemusicsucks.com/king-oliver-and-louis-armstrong/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00520.warc.gz	en	0.980232	806	3.671875	4	[ -0.13503050804138184, -0.016537677496671677, 0.4872061610221863, -0.5015897750854492, -0.425848126411438, 0.07142394036054611, -0.0025009363889694214, -0.15734273195266724, 0.3597537875175476, -0.265655517578125, 0.5342919826507568, 0.18538792431354523, 0.26674652099609375, -0.137975305318...	1	Last Updated on The music we hear at any given moment is far more than the sound coming through the speakers. We can measure music against everything that has come before it, by the sounds that are familiar and the sounds that are new. Before Louis Armstrong established himself as one of the most influential musicians in history, there was Joseph Nathan Oliver. He was known by his contemporaries—jazz pioneers all—as King Oliver. The cornet-wielding king emerged from the cradle of jazz music: the Louisiana port city, New Orleans. King Oliver & The Origins Of Jazz Oliver was born in late December, in the year 1881. Ragtime, as a means of perspective, was born around the same time, and lived nearly its entire lifespan in American popular music before Oliver moved to Chicago in 1918. In the time between his birth and his migration north, Oliver established himself as a reputable band leader and composer. Louis Armstrong credits much of the origin of jazz music to King Oliver, and that is no small tribute. Armstrong is remembered as one of the most influential musicians of all time, as a founding father of jazz music, and as a pioneer of jazz in not one, but several emergent eras of jazz music. Oliver survives as little more than a footnote on Armstrong’s storied career, but the footnote reads universally: mentor and teacher of Louis Armstrong. It is nearly impossible to picture Armstrong in anyone’s shadow, and yet such was the case for Armstrong during the many years that he played under the King Oliver troupe. Still more astounding is the fall from fame that left King Oliver as a dying, penniless janitor. The interplay between the lives of these two musical pioneers are a symbol of the history of jazz itself: a constant rising and falling of the old and the new. Fighting for the Throne It stands to reason that the better musician wins the fame, but measuring the standards of musicianship is difficult when the music itself is in the process of being established. Perhaps it is for this reason that Oliver rose so quickly to fame. He was the one writing the music that everyone loved. Passing The Torch When Oliver took Armstrong under his wing, it became clear that he favored the young and budding musician. Armstrong considered Oliver a father figure and role model, something that had been lacking in Armstrong’s life up to that point. As a musician, Armstrong emulated his mentor’s performance, and as pupils often do, soon grew to surpass the model that he was following. Armstrong gained a reputation for his intensity and endurance of play. There was an element of sheer physical ability Armstrong possessed that was essentially unmatched as he entered adulthood. This alone would not have threatened Oliver, who called Armstrong to play for him in Chicago after leaving New Orleans in 1918. As a composer, Oliver’s fixation was upon creating the sound and style of music that the American public were only just beginning to understand as jazz music. This is why at first, most likely, Oliver did not think too fondly of Armstrong’s proclivity towards improvisation and creative liberties. Yet it is precisely this creative liberty that struck a chord with the American public. While the sound and style of Oliver’s compositions reigned primarily as the fixed structure of jazz, it was the improvisational, rhythm-bent element of performance that Armstrong brought to the table that ushered jazz into homes and dance halls across the nation. It is for this reason that Armstrong outlived the King of New Orleans, the man who would fade from both memory and record players while he struggled to make ends meet late in life. It is true that jazz would not be what it is today without the composer, without the structure that plays out in the background of every piece. But it is the art of the solo, the act of the individual, and the spirit of the moment that makes Louis Armstrong the enduring King of Jazz.	797	ENGLISH	1
On this day in 1826, which marked the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died within hours of each other. Adams was 90; Jefferson was 83. Both while they worked together to forge the successful American Revolution and, subsequently, as political rivals, they had helped shape the nation’s early years. Adams went on to serve a term as the second U.S. president; Jefferson followed him into the Executive Mansion with two terms. Adams was a New England Federalist who believed in a strong central government. Jefferson was an agrarian Virginia aristocrat. Adams was a political animal to the core. Jefferson remained uncomfortable in the new capital along the Potomac; he would much rather spend his days at Monticello, the classically proportioned mansion that he had designed. And yet, as historian Joseph Ellis has observed, they each in their way “came to embody the American dialogue.” Abagail Adams, who had died in 1818, had intervened to break their estrangement. Now, well into their retirement years, they resumed writing to each other. “You and I ought not to die,” Adams wrote Jefferson, “before we have explained ourselves to each other.” Adams, the more loquacious statesmen of the two, did more explaining, writing two letters to every one of Jefferson’s. Both of them worried about the country’s future, noting the growing divide between the slave-owning South and the commerce-minded North. “I look back with rapture on those golden days when Virginia and Massachusetts lived and acted together like a band of brothers,” Adams had written Jefferson in 1825. Jefferson had been asked to prepare a speech for July 4, 1826, but ill health prevented him from delivering in person what became his valedictory. In the draft, he would observe: “May [the Declaration of Independence] be to the world, what I believe it to be, the signal of arousing men to burst the chains under which monkish ignorance and superstition had persuaded them to bind themselves, and to assume the blessings and security of self-government.” Adams, too, was asked to help celebrate the occasion in Washington, Philadelphia, and New York. Likewise, illness prevented him from traveling. He died at about 5 o'clock in the afternoon on the Fourth. His last words were, “Thomas Jefferson survives.” He was mistaken by about five hours.	<urn:uuid:d014b711-50e5-48ef-ac05-54088884b863>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.politico.com/story/2016/07/two-founding-fathers-die-hours-apart-july-4-1826-224943	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00480.warc.gz	en	0.985135	530	3.8125	4	[ -0.38148027658462524, 0.3951972723007202, 0.39966705441474915, -0.1094411090016365, -0.17872726917266846, 0.06332619488239288, 0.2163529396057129, 0.2828327715396881, 0.16914574801921844, 0.039579566568136215, 0.3134501874446869, 0.42363986372947693, 0.14572565257549286, -0.021506562829017...	7	On this day in 1826, which marked the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died within hours of each other. Adams was 90; Jefferson was 83. Both while they worked together to forge the successful American Revolution and, subsequently, as political rivals, they had helped shape the nation’s early years. Adams went on to serve a term as the second U.S. president; Jefferson followed him into the Executive Mansion with two terms. Adams was a New England Federalist who believed in a strong central government. Jefferson was an agrarian Virginia aristocrat. Adams was a political animal to the core. Jefferson remained uncomfortable in the new capital along the Potomac; he would much rather spend his days at Monticello, the classically proportioned mansion that he had designed. And yet, as historian Joseph Ellis has observed, they each in their way “came to embody the American dialogue.” Abagail Adams, who had died in 1818, had intervened to break their estrangement. Now, well into their retirement years, they resumed writing to each other. “You and I ought not to die,” Adams wrote Jefferson, “before we have explained ourselves to each other.” Adams, the more loquacious statesmen of the two, did more explaining, writing two letters to every one of Jefferson’s. Both of them worried about the country’s future, noting the growing divide between the slave-owning South and the commerce-minded North. “I look back with rapture on those golden days when Virginia and Massachusetts lived and acted together like a band of brothers,” Adams had written Jefferson in 1825. Jefferson had been asked to prepare a speech for July 4, 1826, but ill health prevented him from delivering in person what became his valedictory. In the draft, he would observe: “May [the Declaration of Independence] be to the world, what I believe it to be, the signal of arousing men to burst the chains under which monkish ignorance and superstition had persuaded them to bind themselves, and to assume the blessings and security of self-government.” Adams, too, was asked to help celebrate the occasion in Washington, Philadelphia, and New York. Likewise, illness prevented him from traveling. He died at about 5 o'clock in the afternoon on the Fourth. His last words were, “Thomas Jefferson survives.” He was mistaken by about five hours.	513	ENGLISH	1
Tintype photography falls between the invention of the daguerreotype in 1833 and the introduction of rolled film in 1888. In the mid-19th century, the tintype provided an inexpensive technology for the masses to capture their loved ones on film. Tintypes were wildly popular for just a few decades, but remained in use until the 1950s. What is Tintype? A tintype -- also known as a ferrotype -- is an image produced on a thin metallic sheet that is not actually tin but coated iron. The name "tintype" may refer to the tin snips used to cut the sheets apart. Or the name may have generically referred to a cheap metal -- anything other than silver. A tintype is a form of ambrotype, which is an under-exposed negative that appears as a positive image when placed on top of a dark background. Tintypes were a major step forward from glass plate negatives, which were fragile and more time-consuming to produce. Adolphe Alexandre Martin of France invented the tintype process in 1853. Tintypes were extremely popular among Civil War soldiers, who loved to have their pictures taken in uniform to send back home. Tintypes were also commonly used to photograph the dead, a practice that was popular throughout the 19th century. Itinerant photographers would make tintypes from their tents or horse-drawn wagons. Town photographers used them in their photo parlors. To create a tintype, the photographer coated the metal plate in collodion or gelatin and other chemicals. He would allow the plate to dry until it just became tacky. Next he dipped the plate into silver nitrate. The photographer had to take the picture before the plate dried completely. It took about five seconds of exposure, so photographers often provided a headrest for portrait sittings to help the subject remain still. The tintype was then mounted and coated with varnish before being presented to the customer. The image on a tintype appears "backward" because it is a negative. Objects held in the right hand appear to be held in the left, as if looking into a mirror. Tintypes were sturdier than ambrotypes, so they could be mailed or mounted in an album, yet they were thin enough to be cut into smaller shapes for brooches or lockets. Tintypes were also less expensive to produce than other technologies available at the time, making them more affordable for the working class. Before tintypes, only the wealthy were able to create images of their cherished friends and loved ones. Tintypes were typically produced in a size known as "carte-de-visite" which was 2¼ inches wide and 3½ inches tall. Larger and smaller sizes were also produced. A tiny postage stamp size called "Little Gem" was also popular. Gelatin emulsion dry plates began to replace the tintype in the 1880s. However, the process was still used by some photographers until the 1950s. Later, Polaroid instant film and 35mm film completely transformed the photography industry, and the tintype was no longer used. - Wikimedia Commons	<urn:uuid:09bf88bd-1a18-4258-bd51-4c8b683ee828>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ourpastimes.com/history-of-tintype-portraits-12218396.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00049.warc.gz	en	0.983283	657	3.578125	4	[ -0.08664627373218536, 0.1709689348936081, -0.20678743720054626, 0.11144005507230759, 0.06137378513813019, 0.06742529571056366, 0.21178415417671204, 0.36666086316108704, -0.7441366910934448, -0.2654772102832794, 0.33706074953079224, -0.29433706402778625, 0.3191494345664978, 0.27511775493621...	4	Tintype photography falls between the invention of the daguerreotype in 1833 and the introduction of rolled film in 1888. In the mid-19th century, the tintype provided an inexpensive technology for the masses to capture their loved ones on film. Tintypes were wildly popular for just a few decades, but remained in use until the 1950s. What is Tintype? A tintype -- also known as a ferrotype -- is an image produced on a thin metallic sheet that is not actually tin but coated iron. The name "tintype" may refer to the tin snips used to cut the sheets apart. Or the name may have generically referred to a cheap metal -- anything other than silver. A tintype is a form of ambrotype, which is an under-exposed negative that appears as a positive image when placed on top of a dark background. Tintypes were a major step forward from glass plate negatives, which were fragile and more time-consuming to produce. Adolphe Alexandre Martin of France invented the tintype process in 1853. Tintypes were extremely popular among Civil War soldiers, who loved to have their pictures taken in uniform to send back home. Tintypes were also commonly used to photograph the dead, a practice that was popular throughout the 19th century. Itinerant photographers would make tintypes from their tents or horse-drawn wagons. Town photographers used them in their photo parlors. To create a tintype, the photographer coated the metal plate in collodion or gelatin and other chemicals. He would allow the plate to dry until it just became tacky. Next he dipped the plate into silver nitrate. The photographer had to take the picture before the plate dried completely. It took about five seconds of exposure, so photographers often provided a headrest for portrait sittings to help the subject remain still. The tintype was then mounted and coated with varnish before being presented to the customer. The image on a tintype appears "backward" because it is a negative. Objects held in the right hand appear to be held in the left, as if looking into a mirror. Tintypes were sturdier than ambrotypes, so they could be mailed or mounted in an album, yet they were thin enough to be cut into smaller shapes for brooches or lockets. Tintypes were also less expensive to produce than other technologies available at the time, making them more affordable for the working class. Before tintypes, only the wealthy were able to create images of their cherished friends and loved ones. Tintypes were typically produced in a size known as "carte-de-visite" which was 2¼ inches wide and 3½ inches tall. Larger and smaller sizes were also produced. A tiny postage stamp size called "Little Gem" was also popular. Gelatin emulsion dry plates began to replace the tintype in the 1880s. However, the process was still used by some photographers until the 1950s. Later, Polaroid instant film and 35mm film completely transformed the photography industry, and the tintype was no longer used. - Wikimedia Commons	667	ENGLISH	1
El Greco, or The Greek, was the nickname adopted by Spanish Renaissance artist Domenikos Theotokopoulos. In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco had been described as maestro (master) Domenigo and probably ran his own workplace. He would have trained as a painter of icons at the Cretan Renaissance which thrived from the 15th to the 17th century. El Greco is viewed as the most successful graduate to create an art career in Western Europe in the Cretan style. His style is viewed as unique in the art world, with his elongated figures and combination of Byzantine and Western conventions. His work is sometimes described as pre-dating both Expressionism and Cubism. Fra’ Filippo Lippi was sent with one of his brothers to the Carmelite convent at Santa Maria del Carmine. It was here that he was inspired to create art, by watching the artist Masaccio creating frescoes in the convent. Lippo went on to paint his own frescoes in the church and the cloister. Instead of studying, he spent all his time scrawling pictures on his own books and those of others. The priory recognised his talent and allowed him to pursue his artistic interest. He was a rogue, being featured regularly on court rolls for charges including embezzlement and forgery, which he attempted in order to rescue himself from regular financial predicaments. Pietro Perugino was born Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci. He came to be known as Il Perugino, the man from Perugia. In 1500, he was known as ‘the best master in Italy’. He was one of the first Italian artists to make use of oils, used in frescoes he created for the convent of the Ingessati. Perugino was also noteworthy for his portraits. His star pupil was Raphael. Their work was very similar, but the student eventually outshone the master. Later in life, Perugino had been laughed out of Florence as his style had become stale and repetitive. He returned to Perugia, where he continued to work. Despite a lifetime of painting religious images, he was a non-believer. Luca Signorelli, also known as Luca da Cortona, was probably born sometime between 1445-1450. Although little information is available on his private life, he is reputed to have been a family man, living relatively comfortably. Signorelli was renowned for his use of foreshortening and his aptitude as a draughtsman. His nudes and enormous frescoes also set him aside as an artist of great skill. Michelangelo is said to have used some of these figures for his work on the Sistine Chapel wall. His work, the Last Judgement, is considered to be his greatest accomplishment. Its spectacular composition is regarded as being one of the most important of Italian Renaissance art. Modern art refers to works of art produced roughly from 1850 to 1970. The term is often used ambiguously to refer to artwork created after the said period. After all, the term modern is used to refer to the current time. One could say that modern art is the art of change. It was born in an era that saw the dawn of industrialisation that created a wave of change, affecting everything. Modern artists’ techniques adapted with the changing philosophies and technological advancements that emerged in their time. They focused on and tried to capture what was happening around them, how they saw it, and how it made them feel. Frida Kahlo is known for many things: her passion, her political activism, her numerous self-portraits, and her turbulent marriage with Diego Rivera, whose fiery temperament rivalled hers. Aside from drawing from her personal experiences, Frida’s paintings were also influenced by her Mexican heritage. Above all, Frida should be remembered for her courage to confront her pain and express it through her art. She painted her struggles in a time when any woman who expressed her pain through her art would be labelled a hysteric or even insane. Through her paintings, Frida may have helped others, artists and non-artists to confront their pain and find the courage to carry on. Vincent van Gogh was a Dutch painter who was best known for his post-impressionistic style of painting and his use of bold colours and empathic brushwork, a highly innovative art style during his time. He is the personified image of the struggling and tortured artist. He was a relative unknown who couldn’t even sell his paintings during his lifetime. Van Gogh also suffered from mental illness his whole life, which led to his early death at his own hands. Decades after his tragic end, he is now recognised for what he truly was: an artistic genius and perhaps the greatest artist the world has ever known. Salvador Dali has been more known for his paintings, but he was also a sculptor, filmmaker and writer. Dali experimented with Impressionism and Pointillism when he attended the Fine Arts School in Madrid. On his visit to Picasso’s studio in Paris, Dali was inspired by Cubism. He also became interested in Futurism, as well as studying Freud’s psychoanalytic concepts. Dali explored these concepts and worked to find a way to alter perception and vividly reinterpret reality. His works would feature the strangest of subjects and emotionally charged themes. With his larger-than-life personality and artistic versatility, Dali was among the most famous and prolific artists of the 20th century. Pablo Picasso remains one of the most influential and prolific artists of the 20th century. At the age of seven, he began learning how to draw and do oil paintings under the tutelage of his father. In his lifetime, Picasso created more than 50,000 pieces of art in various mediums. As his final years approached, Picasso became a dervish of creativity. He took elements from his previous styles and repurposed them into stunning pieces. His art is featured in the world’s top galleries and fetches millions at auction. Picasso had a genius for finding beauty in the most mundane objects, and his style continues to have an impact on the art scene until now. Dorrit Black never received the praise she deserved during her lifetime, but she has left us with some beautiful and interesting art. Despite considerable prejudice against her, she was determined not only to produce her own works but also to help other people in Australia enjoy the Modernistic and Cubist styles which were becoming so fashionable in Europe. Dorrit’s skills were wide-ranging. Perhaps, she was best known for her pioneering printing. She also produced some very fine watercolours, oils and was a skilled draughtswoman as well. Although Dorrit never achieved financial success during her lifetime, her paintings are now worth respectable prices. At his young age, Claude Monet was both an artist and an entrepreneur. He would sell his charcoal drawings for 10 to 20 francs apiece. Monet learned how to use oil paints and outdoor or “en plein air” painting techniques from fellow artist Eugène Boudin. Monet’s works were among those that featured the modernisation of Paris in a unique way, with the essence of spontaneity and intuitive feeling visible on the canvas. Later in life, he focused more on the environment and atmosphere in his works while focusing less on modernity. Monet’s paintings were not only sought for locally but was quite popular in England and the United States as well. Sandro Botticelli is the creator of probably two of the most famous paintings in the world. Botticelli was renowned for his numerous works depicting the Madonna but was also widely known for his mythological paintings. It is generally understood that he produced the under-drawings and his apprentices completed the pieces. Drawings that Botticelli himself completed were also copied by his assistants. His style was linear and thus easily imitated, which made identification of his own work extremely problematic. Although Botticelli symbolised the methodology of the Quattrocento period, he did not enhance or influence it with his own work. He had developed his own style, preferring the more Gothic approach. Georgia O’Keeffe was recognised as one of America’s most significant artists with her works commanding high prices. She was a prolific artist who produced about 2000 pieces of art. She influenced early American modernists as a part of the Stieglitz Circle. Flowers were a consistent motif in O’Keeffe’s work. And despite her renunciation of their interpretation of her works, she was also a great influence on the artists of the feminist movement. The deterioration of her health did not mar her will to create. At seventy-three, her work featured more of rivers and clouds in the skies. O’Keeffe’s legacy included 70 years of work and contributions to American modernism’s development. Frederick Williams was noteworthy for not only being a prolific painter but is also celebrated for his etchings. He learned to draw in the traditional manner, copying from plaster casts. Fred became interested in etching from studying prints of Rembrandt and Goya at the British Museum and spent many hours making them. But when Fred returned home, he started to move away from his mainly figure-based work to painting landscapes. One painting sold for, what was at the time, the second-highest recorded price for any work sold at an Australian auction. Fred held more than 70 solo exhibitions both in Australia and abroad. His works can now be found in numerous galleries in Australia. The Italian Renaissance painter known as Titian was born Tiziano Vecellio. Titian commenced his career as an independent artist in Venice in 1510. He was the first artist to utilise the paintbrush as a means of expression in itself. Titian used colour pigments that were both readily available and much rarer. He would use the pigments undiluted and emphasise contrasting colours using light. It is thought that he used his fingers, as well as a brush, to blend and apply the medium, thus creating illusions of movement and chiaroscuro effects. As a master artist, Titian was commissioned by eminent persons of the day, from relatively minor royal and state personages to monarchs. John Perceval had his first exposure to art books when he attended Trinity Grammar and continued his hobby of drawing and painting by copying the old masters. When John was 14, he was disabled by poliomyelitis for more than a year and spent his recuperation by again copying art illustrations from books. In 1941, Perceval’s application for active military service was denied as he was declared unfit, but he was drafted to the Army Survey Corps as a draughtsman with the Cartographic Company. After the war, Perceval’s paintings turned to religious subjects. Despite a troubled life, John Perceval received many awards, took part in a number of exhibitions and influenced a few artists in his lifetime. Martin Ritchie Sharp did not have a close relationship with either of his parents, but his mother still encouraged his early leanings towards art. Martin attended his first art exhibition at age nine. His art teacher recognised his talent and recommended that he study at the National Art School in East Sydney. Sharp’s first solo exhibition was held in 1965 at the Clune Galleries in Sydney and was hugely successful, being almost a sell-out on the first night. Sharp also produced posters for musicians including Bob Dylan and Donovan. Having never married or had children, his will specified that his home Wirian become ‘a hub for art education and that it should foster awareness of his work’. Raphael, also known as Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, was a renowned Italian painter and architect of High Renaissance. He was popularly called The Divine One (‘Il Divino). He was renowned for the spatial geometry and perfect grace of his High Renaissance drawing and painting. He formed the traditional trinity of great masters of that era with Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Quite a lot of his works are deposited in the Vatican Palace. Despite his short life, he contributed immensely to the development of art in Italy and the whole world. Raphael’s works are available and can be seen in the best art museums all over the world.	<urn:uuid:7b6c275e-588a-4d40-a1cc-3d68931ab25e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://learnantiques.com.au/category/read/art/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00220.warc.gz	en	0.992094	2,598	3.265625	3	[ -0.14049632847309113, 0.2083624005317688, 0.3202012777328491, 0.20298172533512115, -0.8732191324234009, -0.1896378993988037, 0.036796268075704575, 0.6789407730102539, -0.16127297282218933, 0.12347888201475143, -0.2840883135795593, -0.42314934730529785, -0.0398501381278038, 0.22044102847576...	1	El Greco, or The Greek, was the nickname adopted by Spanish Renaissance artist Domenikos Theotokopoulos. In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco had been described as maestro (master) Domenigo and probably ran his own workplace. He would have trained as a painter of icons at the Cretan Renaissance which thrived from the 15th to the 17th century. El Greco is viewed as the most successful graduate to create an art career in Western Europe in the Cretan style. His style is viewed as unique in the art world, with his elongated figures and combination of Byzantine and Western conventions. His work is sometimes described as pre-dating both Expressionism and Cubism. Fra’ Filippo Lippi was sent with one of his brothers to the Carmelite convent at Santa Maria del Carmine. It was here that he was inspired to create art, by watching the artist Masaccio creating frescoes in the convent. Lippo went on to paint his own frescoes in the church and the cloister. Instead of studying, he spent all his time scrawling pictures on his own books and those of others. The priory recognised his talent and allowed him to pursue his artistic interest. He was a rogue, being featured regularly on court rolls for charges including embezzlement and forgery, which he attempted in order to rescue himself from regular financial predicaments. Pietro Perugino was born Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci. He came to be known as Il Perugino, the man from Perugia. In 1500, he was known as ‘the best master in Italy’. He was one of the first Italian artists to make use of oils, used in frescoes he created for the convent of the Ingessati. Perugino was also noteworthy for his portraits. His star pupil was Raphael. Their work was very similar, but the student eventually outshone the master. Later in life, Perugino had been laughed out of Florence as his style had become stale and repetitive. He returned to Perugia, where he continued to work. Despite a lifetime of painting religious images, he was a non-believer. Luca Signorelli, also known as Luca da Cortona, was probably born sometime between 1445-1450. Although little information is available on his private life, he is reputed to have been a family man, living relatively comfortably. Signorelli was renowned for his use of foreshortening and his aptitude as a draughtsman. His nudes and enormous frescoes also set him aside as an artist of great skill. Michelangelo is said to have used some of these figures for his work on the Sistine Chapel wall. His work, the Last Judgement, is considered to be his greatest accomplishment. Its spectacular composition is regarded as being one of the most important of Italian Renaissance art. Modern art refers to works of art produced roughly from 1850 to 1970. The term is often used ambiguously to refer to artwork created after the said period. After all, the term modern is used to refer to the current time. One could say that modern art is the art of change. It was born in an era that saw the dawn of industrialisation that created a wave of change, affecting everything. Modern artists’ techniques adapted with the changing philosophies and technological advancements that emerged in their time. They focused on and tried to capture what was happening around them, how they saw it, and how it made them feel. Frida Kahlo is known for many things: her passion, her political activism, her numerous self-portraits, and her turbulent marriage with Diego Rivera, whose fiery temperament rivalled hers. Aside from drawing from her personal experiences, Frida’s paintings were also influenced by her Mexican heritage. Above all, Frida should be remembered for her courage to confront her pain and express it through her art. She painted her struggles in a time when any woman who expressed her pain through her art would be labelled a hysteric or even insane. Through her paintings, Frida may have helped others, artists and non-artists to confront their pain and find the courage to carry on. Vincent van Gogh was a Dutch painter who was best known for his post-impressionistic style of painting and his use of bold colours and empathic brushwork, a highly innovative art style during his time. He is the personified image of the struggling and tortured artist. He was a relative unknown who couldn’t even sell his paintings during his lifetime. Van Gogh also suffered from mental illness his whole life, which led to his early death at his own hands. Decades after his tragic end, he is now recognised for what he truly was: an artistic genius and perhaps the greatest artist the world has ever known. Salvador Dali has been more known for his paintings, but he was also a sculptor, filmmaker and writer. Dali experimented with Impressionism and Pointillism when he attended the Fine Arts School in Madrid. On his visit to Picasso’s studio in Paris, Dali was inspired by Cubism. He also became interested in Futurism, as well as studying Freud’s psychoanalytic concepts. Dali explored these concepts and worked to find a way to alter perception and vividly reinterpret reality. His works would feature the strangest of subjects and emotionally charged themes. With his larger-than-life personality and artistic versatility, Dali was among the most famous and prolific artists of the 20th century. Pablo Picasso remains one of the most influential and prolific artists of the 20th century. At the age of seven, he began learning how to draw and do oil paintings under the tutelage of his father. In his lifetime, Picasso created more than 50,000 pieces of art in various mediums. As his final years approached, Picasso became a dervish of creativity. He took elements from his previous styles and repurposed them into stunning pieces. His art is featured in the world’s top galleries and fetches millions at auction. Picasso had a genius for finding beauty in the most mundane objects, and his style continues to have an impact on the art scene until now. Dorrit Black never received the praise she deserved during her lifetime, but she has left us with some beautiful and interesting art. Despite considerable prejudice against her, she was determined not only to produce her own works but also to help other people in Australia enjoy the Modernistic and Cubist styles which were becoming so fashionable in Europe. Dorrit’s skills were wide-ranging. Perhaps, she was best known for her pioneering printing. She also produced some very fine watercolours, oils and was a skilled draughtswoman as well. Although Dorrit never achieved financial success during her lifetime, her paintings are now worth respectable prices. At his young age, Claude Monet was both an artist and an entrepreneur. He would sell his charcoal drawings for 10 to 20 francs apiece. Monet learned how to use oil paints and outdoor or “en plein air” painting techniques from fellow artist Eugène Boudin. Monet’s works were among those that featured the modernisation of Paris in a unique way, with the essence of spontaneity and intuitive feeling visible on the canvas. Later in life, he focused more on the environment and atmosphere in his works while focusing less on modernity. Monet’s paintings were not only sought for locally but was quite popular in England and the United States as well. Sandro Botticelli is the creator of probably two of the most famous paintings in the world. Botticelli was renowned for his numerous works depicting the Madonna but was also widely known for his mythological paintings. It is generally understood that he produced the under-drawings and his apprentices completed the pieces. Drawings that Botticelli himself completed were also copied by his assistants. His style was linear and thus easily imitated, which made identification of his own work extremely problematic. Although Botticelli symbolised the methodology of the Quattrocento period, he did not enhance or influence it with his own work. He had developed his own style, preferring the more Gothic approach. Georgia O’Keeffe was recognised as one of America’s most significant artists with her works commanding high prices. She was a prolific artist who produced about 2000 pieces of art. She influenced early American modernists as a part of the Stieglitz Circle. Flowers were a consistent motif in O’Keeffe’s work. And despite her renunciation of their interpretation of her works, she was also a great influence on the artists of the feminist movement. The deterioration of her health did not mar her will to create. At seventy-three, her work featured more of rivers and clouds in the skies. O’Keeffe’s legacy included 70 years of work and contributions to American modernism’s development. Frederick Williams was noteworthy for not only being a prolific painter but is also celebrated for his etchings. He learned to draw in the traditional manner, copying from plaster casts. Fred became interested in etching from studying prints of Rembrandt and Goya at the British Museum and spent many hours making them. But when Fred returned home, he started to move away from his mainly figure-based work to painting landscapes. One painting sold for, what was at the time, the second-highest recorded price for any work sold at an Australian auction. Fred held more than 70 solo exhibitions both in Australia and abroad. His works can now be found in numerous galleries in Australia. The Italian Renaissance painter known as Titian was born Tiziano Vecellio. Titian commenced his career as an independent artist in Venice in 1510. He was the first artist to utilise the paintbrush as a means of expression in itself. Titian used colour pigments that were both readily available and much rarer. He would use the pigments undiluted and emphasise contrasting colours using light. It is thought that he used his fingers, as well as a brush, to blend and apply the medium, thus creating illusions of movement and chiaroscuro effects. As a master artist, Titian was commissioned by eminent persons of the day, from relatively minor royal and state personages to monarchs. John Perceval had his first exposure to art books when he attended Trinity Grammar and continued his hobby of drawing and painting by copying the old masters. When John was 14, he was disabled by poliomyelitis for more than a year and spent his recuperation by again copying art illustrations from books. In 1941, Perceval’s application for active military service was denied as he was declared unfit, but he was drafted to the Army Survey Corps as a draughtsman with the Cartographic Company. After the war, Perceval’s paintings turned to religious subjects. Despite a troubled life, John Perceval received many awards, took part in a number of exhibitions and influenced a few artists in his lifetime. Martin Ritchie Sharp did not have a close relationship with either of his parents, but his mother still encouraged his early leanings towards art. Martin attended his first art exhibition at age nine. His art teacher recognised his talent and recommended that he study at the National Art School in East Sydney. Sharp’s first solo exhibition was held in 1965 at the Clune Galleries in Sydney and was hugely successful, being almost a sell-out on the first night. Sharp also produced posters for musicians including Bob Dylan and Donovan. Having never married or had children, his will specified that his home Wirian become ‘a hub for art education and that it should foster awareness of his work’. Raphael, also known as Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, was a renowned Italian painter and architect of High Renaissance. He was popularly called The Divine One (‘Il Divino). He was renowned for the spatial geometry and perfect grace of his High Renaissance drawing and painting. He formed the traditional trinity of great masters of that era with Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Quite a lot of his works are deposited in the Vatican Palace. Despite his short life, he contributed immensely to the development of art in Italy and the whole world. Raphael’s works are available and can be seen in the best art museums all over the world.	2,561	ENGLISH	1
THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY by: Sarah Behrens Background France and Russia had been keeping Germany divided, with the states quarrelling each other, and dependent upon outside powers Became dissatisfied with Germany’s position and nationalism during and after the Napoleonic Wars Different from the West; had a peculiar German way of life and a political system of their own After 1848 By 1850, all the old states were restored and the loose confederation of 1815 was restored Output of coal and iron multiplied by six fold A Zollverein included almost all of Germany outside of Austria and Bohemia and provided economic unity Cities were growing and were joined by railroads and telegraphs Prussia • Characterized by its army but was the smallest of the great powers, and thus largely ignored • Had a parliament after 1850 • Was dominated by men of wealth • Some were liberals who wanted parliament to have control over government policies • Appointed a new chief minister, Otto von Bismarck Bismarck Was a Junker from the old Brandenburg, east of the Elbe Was intellectually superior and an accomplished man of the world He was not a nationalist and did not even consider Germany to be his Fatherland: He was a Prussian He did not trust the West, including Germany He thought if Germany was unified it would strengthen Prussia Bismarck vs. Parliament Parliament refused the proposed tax, but the government collected it anyway Military policy was above the theory of government consent. He believed Prussia’s boundaries, set in 1815, were unsound needed to expand “Not by speeches and majority vote are the great questions of the day decided- that was the great error of 1848 and 1849- but by blood and iron.” War Against Denmark Denmark wanted Schleswig, but it was part Dane and part German. Bismarck didn’t want to fight for a German cause, so he helped them by joining with Austria. They defeated Demark quickly. He wanted Schleswig to be occupied by Prussia and Holstein by Austria. Disputes broke out, and while he pretended to regulate them, Bismarck allowed them to ripen Bismarck as a Democrat Did this to weaken Austria within Germany Recommended there be a popular chamber elected by universal male suffrage; he knew most Germans were not capitalistic liberals, dedicated to the existing government structures of the German states, nor to the House of Habsburg Used democracy to undermine established interests that stood in his way Seven Weeks’ War There was a continued quarrel over Schleswig and Holstein. Austria tried to solve the problem using the diet in Germany, but Bismarck said they had no authority and ordered his army into Holstein. Prussia was in war with all the German states, but Prussia had a better army, made use of the railroads, and had a skilled commander. Austria was overthrown at the Battle of Sadowa and other German states were soon overthrown as well. Schleswig, Holstein, the kingdom of Hanover, the duchies of Massau and Hesse-Cassel and Frankfurt were all annexed. The North German Confederation was organized. A New Constitution The King of Prussia became the hereditary head There was a parliament with two chambers Negotiated with even the socialists; in exchange for democratic suffrage for them, they agreed to accept the North German Confederation Bismarck was winning popular approval Franco-Prussian War South Germany used to be more orientated towards France but was becoming nationalistic. Bismarck thought a war between Prussia and France would scare South Germany into a union with Prussia and would leave Austria outside, which is what he wanted. Spain’s queen was in exile, so the Spanish government offered the throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern three times but he refused each time. He accepted the fourth time, but withdrew his acceptance after the French ambassador to Prussia asked him to. Franco-Prussian War France went even further and approached the king again at Ems and asked that no Hohenzollern would ever accept a Spanish throne. The king declined and sent word of the conversation to Bismarck (the Ems dispatch), and Bismarck tweaked the telegram and published it so it sounded like the Prussian king had been insulted. When France saw this, they declared war of Prussia. All of Europe was against the French. Prussia was supported by the South German states, but France had no allies. The war lasted less than two months. The Third Republic was proclaimed in France; Prussia moved into France to siege the capital but Paris never did capitulate. The German Empire, 1871 In the palace of France, in the Hall or Mirrors, the German Empire was proclaimed. The king of Prussia received the hereditary title of German emperor. The other German rulers (except for Austria and the rulers Bismarck had dethroned) accepted his imperial authority. Bismarck insisted on the election of a Constituent Assembly and that France pay the German Empire five billion gold francs and cede to it the region of Alsace and most of Lorraine. The French Constituent Assembly gradually proceeded to construct the Third Republic. Strength of the German States The united all-German state was really a Germany conquered by Prussia Prussia embraced almost all of Germany north of the Main River Parliament legalized the tax collections ex post facto Adopted the constitution of the North German Confederation There was universal male suffrage and, in a sense, a democracy Each state kept its own laws, government, and constitution	<urn:uuid:2306fc83-9e65-4df1-9f17-2d11c74af458>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/cleave/the-unification-of-germany	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00245.warc.gz	en	0.981965	1,170	3.875	4	[ -0.2807309031486511, 0.6513862609863281, 0.14921997487545013, -0.160165935754776, -0.052152104675769806, 0.16841739416122437, -0.213234543800354, 0.15165159106254578, -0.28744247555732727, -0.040641263127326965, 0.2657749056816101, -0.5923652648925781, 0.08970005810260773, 0.26796114444732...	1	THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY by: Sarah Behrens Background France and Russia had been keeping Germany divided, with the states quarrelling each other, and dependent upon outside powers Became dissatisfied with Germany’s position and nationalism during and after the Napoleonic Wars Different from the West; had a peculiar German way of life and a political system of their own After 1848 By 1850, all the old states were restored and the loose confederation of 1815 was restored Output of coal and iron multiplied by six fold A Zollverein included almost all of Germany outside of Austria and Bohemia and provided economic unity Cities were growing and were joined by railroads and telegraphs Prussia • Characterized by its army but was the smallest of the great powers, and thus largely ignored • Had a parliament after 1850 • Was dominated by men of wealth • Some were liberals who wanted parliament to have control over government policies • Appointed a new chief minister, Otto von Bismarck Bismarck Was a Junker from the old Brandenburg, east of the Elbe Was intellectually superior and an accomplished man of the world He was not a nationalist and did not even consider Germany to be his Fatherland: He was a Prussian He did not trust the West, including Germany He thought if Germany was unified it would strengthen Prussia Bismarck vs. Parliament Parliament refused the proposed tax, but the government collected it anyway Military policy was above the theory of government consent. He believed Prussia’s boundaries, set in 1815, were unsound needed to expand “Not by speeches and majority vote are the great questions of the day decided- that was the great error of 1848 and 1849- but by blood and iron.” War Against Denmark Denmark wanted Schleswig, but it was part Dane and part German. Bismarck didn’t want to fight for a German cause, so he helped them by joining with Austria. They defeated Demark quickly. He wanted Schleswig to be occupied by Prussia and Holstein by Austria. Disputes broke out, and while he pretended to regulate them, Bismarck allowed them to ripen Bismarck as a Democrat Did this to weaken Austria within Germany Recommended there be a popular chamber elected by universal male suffrage; he knew most Germans were not capitalistic liberals, dedicated to the existing government structures of the German states, nor to the House of Habsburg Used democracy to undermine established interests that stood in his way Seven Weeks’ War There was a continued quarrel over Schleswig and Holstein. Austria tried to solve the problem using the diet in Germany, but Bismarck said they had no authority and ordered his army into Holstein. Prussia was in war with all the German states, but Prussia had a better army, made use of the railroads, and had a skilled commander. Austria was overthrown at the Battle of Sadowa and other German states were soon overthrown as well. Schleswig, Holstein, the kingdom of Hanover, the duchies of Massau and Hesse-Cassel and Frankfurt were all annexed. The North German Confederation was organized. A New Constitution The King of Prussia became the hereditary head There was a parliament with two chambers Negotiated with even the socialists; in exchange for democratic suffrage for them, they agreed to accept the North German Confederation Bismarck was winning popular approval Franco-Prussian War South Germany used to be more orientated towards France but was becoming nationalistic. Bismarck thought a war between Prussia and France would scare South Germany into a union with Prussia and would leave Austria outside, which is what he wanted. Spain’s queen was in exile, so the Spanish government offered the throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern three times but he refused each time. He accepted the fourth time, but withdrew his acceptance after the French ambassador to Prussia asked him to. Franco-Prussian War France went even further and approached the king again at Ems and asked that no Hohenzollern would ever accept a Spanish throne. The king declined and sent word of the conversation to Bismarck (the Ems dispatch), and Bismarck tweaked the telegram and published it so it sounded like the Prussian king had been insulted. When France saw this, they declared war of Prussia. All of Europe was against the French. Prussia was supported by the South German states, but France had no allies. The war lasted less than two months. The Third Republic was proclaimed in France; Prussia moved into France to siege the capital but Paris never did capitulate. The German Empire, 1871 In the palace of France, in the Hall or Mirrors, the German Empire was proclaimed. The king of Prussia received the hereditary title of German emperor. The other German rulers (except for Austria and the rulers Bismarck had dethroned) accepted his imperial authority. Bismarck insisted on the election of a Constituent Assembly and that France pay the German Empire five billion gold francs and cede to it the region of Alsace and most of Lorraine. The French Constituent Assembly gradually proceeded to construct the Third Republic. Strength of the German States The united all-German state was really a Germany conquered by Prussia Prussia embraced almost all of Germany north of the Main River Parliament legalized the tax collections ex post facto Adopted the constitution of the North German Confederation There was universal male suffrage and, in a sense, a democracy Each state kept its own laws, government, and constitution	1,181	ENGLISH	1
Which exactly are all the attributes in mathematics? What exactly does the range me an in mathematics? This informative guide is going to reveal to the several sorts of replies you can have in your equations, all of the combinations that you can explore and lots of distinctive tactics to obtain a remedy to you. What is seriously a multiple in math? You can find various tactics to say what’s a multiple in math. By employing a many in the equation and also the emblem N, you’re saying exactly what exactly N will be at the equation and to the right. The very first means is plus a range that’s different. Also you would like to write N as a separate number, though the equation can be written that way or employing precisely the very same equation by you. The N in the equation is utilised to show that you are not defining some, however are specifying a word. N is usually written by you the exact identical quantity you also could create N as you of many angles into this right or you could compose N as an angle. You are able to use the multiple in math’s definition as a angle with this is of N. You are able to write exactly the very same value becoming utilised by N . N can be utilized by you . You can also write N by two angles employing the suitable hand side of this equation. N might be written by you. These are all variants of N. The future way is N, in addition to a unique angle. It’s possible to create N by a single angle 3 angles, or 2 angles. N might be written by you from one angle. You can also write N two angles employing the angle. You are able to also write N two angles and also a double angle. You can write N as two angles along with also a double angle angle. You may even produce N by also two angles and a triple angle, about three angles, plus a triple angle. It’s possible for you to write N by either 2 angles and some quadrant, a quadrangle or quadrant, along with 4 angles. N is usually written by you as 3 angles as well as a quadrant. You are able to even compose N by three angles and a quadrant. It is possible to even create N by a radius and also about a few angles. You could also create N as a quadrant and two angles. You are able to even publish N by also a quadrant and 3 angles and a quadrant and two angles. You may even produce two angles and N as a quadrant and a radius.	<urn:uuid:387f3189-34f2-453d-9a14-c98d8e848a65>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://drinkmaker.com.br/blog/which-are-all-the-houses-in-l-z-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00044.warc.gz	en	0.980212	538	3.8125	4	[ -0.325748473405838, -0.3166123628616333, 0.12265968322753906, -0.604279637336731, -0.5794579982757568, 0.3597487211227417, 0.23762592673301697, -0.10303245484828949, -0.058020688593387604, -0.30700522661209106, 0.1650388538837433, -0.34822219610214233, 0.30148977041244507, -0.3306336402893...	1	Which exactly are all the attributes in mathematics? What exactly does the range me an in mathematics? This informative guide is going to reveal to the several sorts of replies you can have in your equations, all of the combinations that you can explore and lots of distinctive tactics to obtain a remedy to you. What is seriously a multiple in math? You can find various tactics to say what’s a multiple in math. By employing a many in the equation and also the emblem N, you’re saying exactly what exactly N will be at the equation and to the right. The very first means is plus a range that’s different. Also you would like to write N as a separate number, though the equation can be written that way or employing precisely the very same equation by you. The N in the equation is utilised to show that you are not defining some, however are specifying a word. N is usually written by you the exact identical quantity you also could create N as you of many angles into this right or you could compose N as an angle. You are able to use the multiple in math’s definition as a angle with this is of N. You are able to write exactly the very same value becoming utilised by N . N can be utilized by you . You can also write N by two angles employing the suitable hand side of this equation. N might be written by you. These are all variants of N. The future way is N, in addition to a unique angle. It’s possible to create N by a single angle 3 angles, or 2 angles. N might be written by you from one angle. You can also write N two angles employing the angle. You are able to also write N two angles and also a double angle. You can write N as two angles along with also a double angle angle. You may even produce N by also two angles and a triple angle, about three angles, plus a triple angle. It’s possible for you to write N by either 2 angles and some quadrant, a quadrangle or quadrant, along with 4 angles. N is usually written by you as 3 angles as well as a quadrant. You are able to even compose N by three angles and a quadrant. It is possible to even create N by a radius and also about a few angles. You could also create N as a quadrant and two angles. You are able to even publish N by also a quadrant and 3 angles and a quadrant and two angles. You may even produce two angles and N as a quadrant and a radius.	513	ENGLISH	1

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