Split (1)

train · 1.04M rows

id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 381	title stringlengths 1 211	text stringlengths 1.02k 2.05k	edu_quality float64 1.91 4.03
6906659	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia%20State%20Route%209	Virginia State Route 9	History The road was commissioned in 1928 as State Route 713. After the 1933 renumbering, the route became State Route 238. It became SR 9 at the 1940 renumbering which focused on coordinating route numbers with neighboring states. The number was transferred from what is now SR 120 and SR 123. The Commonwealth Transportation Board voted to make the entire length of SR 9 a Virginia Byway on March 21, 2002. There has been considerable debate about how to manage increasing traffic levels as the populations of both western Loudoun and Jefferson County, West Virginia have grown throughout the 21st century, turning what was a country road into a major commuter route. In 2012, West Virginia completed a replacement of its two-lane Route 9 with a four-lane expressway to Charles Town. Virginia did not follow suit, leading to concerns about whether its narrow and winding Route 9 would be able to handle the traffic load. In particular, the stretch through Hillsboro, where Route 9 is that town's main street, became unsafe for pedestrians and would see large backups during rush hours. A bypass of Hillsboro was last proposed in 2008 and eventually removed from the county's draft 2010 transportation plan after protracted debate. A significant physical obstacle is that the town completely fills Hillsboro Gap; Route 9 cannot be widened in-place, and any bypass would have to go over or tunnel through Short Hill Mountain, substantially increasing its cost. Instead, VDOT and the Town of Hillsboro completed a range of reconstruction and traffic calming measures in 2022, with the intention of detouring high-speed traffic between Charles Town and Leesburg to U.S. Route 340 to the west. Major intersections	2.1875
6906718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsun	Subsun	A subsun (also spelled sub-sun) is an optical phenomenon that appears as a glowing spot visible within clouds or mist when observed from above. The subsun appears directly below the actual Sun, and is caused by sunlight reflecting off numerous tiny ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. As such, the effect belongs to the family of halos. Formation The subsun phenomena appears when a region of hexagonal ice crystals act as a large mirror, creating a virtual image of the Sun below the horizon. As they fall through the air, the ice forms plate crystals which orient horizontally, i.e., with their hexagonal surfaces parallel to the Earth's surface. When they are disturbed by turbulence, the plates "wobble", causing their surfaces to deviate some degrees from the ideal horizontal orientation, and causing the reflection (i.e., the subsun) to become elongated vertically. Deformations When the subsun is stretched far enough vertically, it can become a vertical column known as a lower sun pillar. A sun pillar is a form of light pillar. Examples (Images)	3
6906723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian%20Wars	Lusitanian Wars	The Lusitanian Wars, called Pyrinos Polemos ("the Fiery War") in Greek, were wars of resistance fought by the Lusitanian tribes of Hispania Ulterior against the advancing legions of the Roman Republic from 155 to 139 BC. The Lusitanians revolted in 155 BC, and again in 146 BC and were pacified. In 154 BC, a long war in Hispania Citerior, known as the Numantine War, was begun by the Celtiberians. It lasted until 133 and is an important event in the integration of what would become Portugal into the Roman and Latin-speaking world. Historical context In the sequence of the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic defeated Carthage and its colonies in the Mediterranean Coast of the Iberian Peninsula. This marked the first incursion of the Roman Republic into the peninsula and possibly the first clash between Lusitanians and Romans, as Lusitanian mercenaries fought on the Carthaginian side during the Punic Wars. In 194 BC, the Romans launched their first offensives in Lusitanian land. By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in subduing most tribes in region and signed a peace treaty with the Lusitanians. The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes: a fixed vectigal or land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. Taxes were not the only source of income; mine exploitation and peace treaties were a source of denarius as well as war spoils and war prisoners who were sold as slaves. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to the Romans, which left them only with their yearly earnings to pay the taxes. In 174 BC, when Publius Furius Philus was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special tribunal and laws, like the Lex Calpurnia created in 149 BC.	3.015625
6906723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian%20Wars	Lusitanian Wars	From Punicus to the Peace Treaty of Atilius (155 BC – 152 BC) The Lusitanian War began in 155 when Punicus attacked neighboring lands belonging to Roman subjects. In this raid, the Lusitanians killed 6,000 Romans, including a quaestor named Terentius Varro. After this first victory, the Lusitanians formed an alliance with the Vettones. Together, the Lusitanians and Vettones laid siege to the Blastophoenicians, a Phoenician settlement subject to Rome. Punicus was killed during this siege and was succeeded by Caesarus. Rome sent Mummius to fight Caesarus. Caesarus was initially defeated but, while fleeing, managed to turn the battle around, killing 9,000 Romans in the end. Mummius used his 5,000 remaining soldiers and attacked the Lusitanians by surprise, slaying a large number of them. The Lusitanians on the other side of the Tagus, led by Caucenus, invaded the Cunei, who were subject to Rome, and conquered Conistorgis. Some of the Lusitanians then raided North Africa, laying siege to Ocile. Mummius followed them into Africa and defeated the Lusitanian rebels and ended the siege of Ocile. With this victory, Mummius returned to Rome and was awarded a triumph. Mummius was succeeded by Marcus Atilius, who fought the Lusitanians and conquered their largest city, Oxthracae. This terrified the neighboring tribes (including the Vettones) into offering their surrender.	3.203125
6906723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian%20Wars	Lusitanian Wars	In 148 BC, the Lusitanians assembled a force of 10,000 and attacked Turdetania. Gaius Vetilius was sent to deal with the raid. After he amassed a force equal to those of the Lusitanians in numbers, Vetilius defeated the Lusitanians, who ask for peace terms. As peace terms were being arranged, Viriathus reminded his fellow Lusitanians of the treachery of the Romans, which he had witnessed firsthand with Galba. The Lusitanians chose Viriathus as their leader and concocted an escape plan: they would organize as if going into battle, but then flee in every direction and later reassemble in a city named Tribola. Vitilius, seeing the Lusitanian forces scattering, attacked Viriathus directly, but Viriathus and 1000 of his best men occupied Vitilus for two days while the others regrouped to safety. Viriathus then evaded the Romans and rejoined with his army. The success of Viriathus' campaign convinced neighboring Celtic tribes, such as the Gallaecians to support his cause. Viriathus gained renown throughout the Roman world as a guerrilla fighter. In the words of Theodor Mommsen, "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared." In 148 BC, Vitilius followed Viriathus into Tribola. Viriathus' forces ambushed the Romans. About 6,000 Romans managed to flee to Carpessus with their quaestor, while the remaining of the original 10,000 were either killed or imprisoned. Vitilius himself was killed during this ambush, as he was considered to be of little worth as a slave (he supposedly was old and fat). The Quaestor asked for reinforcements from the Celtic tribes allied to Rome, the Belli and the Titii. However, the 5,000 Belli and Titii forces were all slain in skirmishes against the Lusitanian forces. In 146 BC, Viriathus raided the Roman vassal Iberians in Carpetania until Gaius Plautius Hypsaeus arrived with 10,000 men on foot and 1,300 on horse. Plautius was defeated by Viriathus, who then proceeded to raid Hispania Ulterior without check.	2.609375
6906723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian%20Wars	Lusitanian Wars	In 145 BC, the general Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus was sent by Rome to fight the Lusitanians. With the end of the wars against Carthago and Greece, Maximus managed to assemble a great force: 15,000 men on foot and 2,000 on horse. The forces assembled in Urso and skirmished frequently with the Lusitanians, but without full-scale battle. In 144 BC, Maximus attacked Viriathus and put him to flight, capturing two of his cities in the aftermath. Maximus pursued Viriathus into a place called Baecor, killing many of his men but failing to capture Viriathus. Maximus wintered in Córdoba and then left for Rome. He was succeeded by Quintus Pompeius Aulus. In 143 BC, Viriathus managed to persuade several other Celtic tribes (Arevaci, Titii, and Belli) to resist the Romans, leading to the Numantine War. Afterwards, Viriathus skirmished with Quintus. He took refuge in a place called Venus mountain, but later returned to battle, slaying 1,000 of Quintus' men. Viriathus drove out the garrison of Ittuca and raided the Iberian Bastetani. Quintus wintered at Córdoba in the middle of autumn and sent Caius Marcius, a Hispanic from Italica, to fight Viriathus. In 142 BC, Fabius Maximus Servilianus succeeded Quintus, bringing two new legions and more allies, up to a total of 18,000 men on foot and 1,600 on horse. Maximus was reinforced by 300 horse and ten elephants from Africa. Maximus defeated Viriathus, who still managed to inflict 3,000 deaths and drive the Romans back to camp. The Romans were saved by night time and managed to defend their camp initially, but constant attacks by Viriathus drove them back to Itucca. Viriathus returned to Lusitania, but Maximus, instead of following him, raided five towns against Lusitanian allies in Baeturia. Afterwards, he marched against the Cunei and only then into Lusitania.	2.90625
6906723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian%20Wars	Lusitanian Wars	While moving against Viriathus, Maximus was attacked by an army of 10,000 led by Curius and Apuleius. Curius was killed in battle and Maximus succeeded in capturing the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. Maximus captured around 10,000 men. He beheaded 500 and sold the rest as slaves. While following Viriathus, Maximus' army rested in Erisana. Viriathus managed to infiltrate the town and, in defeating Maximus' armies, asked for an end to the war. Caepius, death of Viriathus and the end of the Lusitanian War In 140 BC, Fabius Maximus Caepius succeeded Maximus and wrote to Rome complaining of the treaty made with Viriathus, saying it was unworthy of the dignity of the Roman people. The Senate first permitted Caepius only to fight Viriathus secretly before deciding to break the treaty and declare war against Viriathus. Caepius took the town of Arsa and won a battle over Viriathus, who fled in Carpetania. Although Viriathus escaped, Caepius turned against the Vettones and Callaici, destroying their fields. Afterwards, Viriathus sent his most trusted friends Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus to negotiate peace terms with Caepio. Caepio bribed them to assassinate Viriathus. Viriathus slept little and in his armor but allowed his friends to enter his tent at any time so he could be summoned to battle as soon as possible. Taking advantage of this, his friends entered his tent and killed him in his sleep by slitting his throat. Viriathus was found dead in the morning, long after the assassins had escaped. Unable to avenge him as they knew not who murdered him, the Lusitanians instead held a grand funeral: they dressed Viriathus in special garments, burned him in a pyre, held processions, gladiator battles and songs. The popular story of the traitors' fate says that the Roman general Servilius Caepio executed them, declaring that "Rome does not pay traitors".	2.5
6906816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.%20S.%20Bhabra	H. S. Bhabra	Hargurchet Singh Bhabra (7 June 1955 – 1 June 2000) was a British Asian writer and broadcaster who settled in Canada. Bhabra was born in Mumbai, India, and moved to England with his family in 1957. The family eventually settled in Beare Green, Surrey. From 1966 to 1973, Bhabra attended Reigate Grammar School. He was the only boy of Asian origin in the school, was highly regarded by his teachers, and an accomplished actor in school productions such as Much Ado about Nothing. Regarded by his teachers as the most exceptional member of an exceptional year, he won a scholarship to Trinity College, Oxford, where he read English Literature. Publication Bhabra worked for six years in financial advertising in the City of London. In 1984, he resigned to complete Gestures, a novel on which he had been working for years. He travelled and worked as a correspondent for a few years, which provided material for his career as a writer of fiction, under his own name and also as A M Kabal and John Ford. Gestures won a Betty Trask Award in 1987. It has been described thus: "With extraordinary force and subtlety, Gestures conducts the 'funeral rite over an entire way of life . . . a liberal, human, European culture which has finally disappeared'. The lines could stand as an epitaph for Bhabra himself. Infused with his own erudition, elegance and empathy, it was also—and to a great degree—an expression of his own sense of displacement." Indeed, although he published in quick succession three thrillers—The Adversary (1986) and Bad Money (1987), and Zero Yield—the next few years were spent largely on travels to Egypt, Mexico and Latin America.	2.171875
6906816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.%20S.%20Bhabra	H. S. Bhabra	The United States In 1989, Bhabra was awarded the first Fulbright Chandler Fellowship in Spy and Detective Fiction Writing. This prize included a post as writer-in-residence at the University of California, Los Angeles, for one year. Bhabra stayed on in Los Angeles from 1991 to 1993, hoping to earn money as a scriptwriter. That did not work out, however, though his fund of esoteric knowledge did help him win $21,800 (appearing in three shows, winning two) as a contestant on the television quiz show Jeopardy! in April 1993, an accomplishment of which he remained proud. While there, he also developed an obsession with climbing bridges, which led to his arrest while making an assault on the Golden Gate, San Francisco. Bhabra also taught at Amherst College in Massachusetts. Canada In 1994, Bhabra moved to Toronto, where his parents now lived. In Canada, Bhabra was perceived as an Asian-Canadian writer and broadcaster. He taught at the Humber School for Writers at Humber College and then joined public broadcaster TVOntario as co-host, with Marni Jackson, of the book show Imprint from 1995 to 1997. Knowledgeable and intelligent, Bhabra had interests ranging from food and fashion to films and books. His contract with Imprint was not renewed after the 1997 season.	2
6906836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Frey%20Jr.	Louis Frey Jr.	Frey was first elected in 1968 to succeed Edward Gurney, who in turn became Florida's first Republican U.S. Senator since Reconstruction. Frey himself is the fourth Florida Republican to have been elected to the U.S. House in the 20th century. While in Congress, Frey served on the Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee, the Science and Technology Committee, and the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control. Frey received the "Watch Dog of the Treasury Award" in each of his terms for "voting to hold the line against inflation and to curb excess government spending." He also received the "Guardian of Small Business Award". In 1970, Congressman Frey addressed the Florida Republican State convention in Orlando at a time when divisive primaries for governor and the U.S. Senate had seriously undermined GOP chances of victory in the general election. Senate nominee and U.S. Representative William C. Cramer of St. Petersburg had defeated the former judge G. Harrold Carswell of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. Governor Claude R. Kirk Jr., had topped two intraparty rivals, drugstore magnate Jack Eckerd of Clearwater and state Senator and later Congressman L. A. "Skip" Bafalis of Palm Beach. Then Cramer and Kirk, who were intraparty rivals themselves, faced a united Democratic ticket of Lawton Chiles of Lakeland, running for the Senate, and Reubin Askew, the gubernatorial nominee. Though Carswell and Eckerd endorsed Cramer and Kirk, the primary candidates were inactive in the fall campaign. Apprehensive Republicans cheered Frey, who implored the factions to forget their "family feud" and to unite. But Cramer and Kirk both went down to defeat at the hands of Chiles and Askew, respectively.	1.9375
6906881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Aurelia%20Reinhardt%20Redwood%20Regional%20Park	Dr. Aurelia Reinhardt Redwood Regional Park	Dr. Aurelia Reinhardt Redwood Regional Park (formerly known as Redwood Regional Park) is a part of the East Bay Regional Parks District (EBRPD) in the San Francisco Bay Area. It is located in the hills east of Oakland, California. The park contains the largest remaining natural stand of coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) found in the East Bay. The park is part of a historical belt of coast redwood extending south to Leona Canyon Regional Open Space Preserve and east to Moraga. Redwood forests are more commonly found closer to the coast where the air is cool and humid year-round. In the Bay Area, such forests are found in the Santa Cruz Mountains and the Marin Hills. The unique geographical circumstances of the redwood forest in Redwood Regional Park create coastal conditions. Winds funneled through the Golden Gate flow directly across the Bay and are channeled into the linear valley in which the Montclair District of Oakland is situated. This valley is also well-watered all year round and is protected from extremes of temperature and high winds. History	2.359375
6906881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Aurelia%20Reinhardt%20Redwood%20Regional%20Park	Dr. Aurelia Reinhardt Redwood Regional Park	Up to the middle of the 19th century, the bulk of the redwood forest lay in the Redwood Creek valley, with extensions to the surrounding ridges. In 1826 British navy captain Frederick William Beechey used the "Navigation Trees", two particularly tall redwood trees along the ridges, to help them navigate in San Francisco Bay. However, logging from 1845 to 1860 wiped out the original trees, leaving only their stumps. A second logging occurred after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. In this instance the second growth redwoods (approximately 50 years old) as well as the stumps from the first generation trees were logged, the site of which is registered as California Historical Landmark #962. The redwoods contained in today's regional park are third-growth trees, many of which are over 100 years old. Only one old-growth redwood remains in the area, a tall tree that seems to grow miraculously out of a rock on a cliff face near Merritt College, which may have survived because it was out of reach for loggers. Once home to a grove named for her, the entire park was named for Dr. Aurelia Reinhardt in 2019. Activities Popular activities for park visitors include picnicking, jogging, hiking, archery, and horseback riding along the of park trails. Fishing is not allowed inside Redwood Regional Park. The park offers four picnic sites that can accommodate groups of 50 to 150 people. Advance reservations are recommended. These are reservable and accessible to handicapped persons. Some overnight group camping areas are also available. Reservations are required. A play structure for children is a quarter mile down Stream Trail from the Canyon Meadow staging area. Nature watching is another popular activity. The park is home to rare species, such as the golden eagle and the Alameda striped racer. More common fauna are deer, raccoons, rabbits, and squirrels. The trails are sometimes closed due to severe weather or effects from it or the general maintenance of the park. Chabot Center	2.65625
6906881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Aurelia%20Reinhardt%20Redwood%20Regional%20Park	Dr. Aurelia Reinhardt Redwood Regional Park	In 1989 Chabot Observatory & Science Center was formed as a Joint Powers Agency with the City of Oakland, the Oakland Unified School District, and the East Bay Regional Park District, in collaboration with the Eastbay Astronomical Society, and in 1992 was recognized as a nonprofit organization. The project was led by Chabot's Executive Director and CEO, Dr. Michael D. Reynolds, breaking ground for the facility in October 1996 with construction of the new Science Center beginning in May 1998. In January 2000, anticipating the opening of the new facility, the organization changed its name from Chabot Observatory & Science Center to Chabot Space & Science Center. The new name was chosen to better convey the organization's focus on astronomy and the space sciences, while communicating both the broad range and the technologically advanced nature of programs available in the new Science Center. Opened August 19, 2000, the Chabot Space & Science Center is an , state-of-the-art science and technology education facility on a site in the hills of Oakland, California, adjoining the western boundary of Redwood Regional Park.	2.515625
6906913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend%20discharge	Townsend discharge	In electromagnetism, the Townsend discharge or Townsend avalanche is an ionisation process for gases where free electrons are accelerated by an electric field, collide with gas molecules, and consequently free additional electrons. Those electrons are in turn accelerated and free additional electrons. The result is an avalanche multiplication that permits significantly increased electrical conduction through the gas. The discharge requires a source of free electrons and a significant electric field; without both, the phenomenon does not occur. The Townsend discharge is named after John Sealy Townsend, who discovered the fundamental ionisation mechanism by his work circa 1897 at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. General description The avalanche occurs in a gaseous medium that can be ionised (such as air). The electric field and the mean free path of the electron must allow free electrons to acquire an energy level (velocity) that can cause impact ionisation. If the electric field is too small, then the electrons do not acquire enough energy. If the mean free path is too short, then the electron gives up its acquired energy in a series of non-ionising collisions. If the mean free path is too long, then the electron reaches the anode before colliding with another molecule.	2.546875
6906913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend%20discharge	Townsend discharge	The avalanche mechanism is shown in the accompanying diagram. The electric field is applied across a gaseous medium; initial ions are created with ionising radiation (for example, cosmic rays). An original ionisation event produces an ion pair; the positive ion accelerates towards the cathode while the free electron accelerates towards the anode. If the electric field is strong enough, then the free electron can gain sufficient velocity (energy) to liberate another electron when it next collides with a molecule. The two free electrons then travel towards the anode and gain sufficient energy from the electric field to cause further impact ionisations, and so on. This process is effectively a chain reaction that generates free electrons. Initially, the number of collisions grows exponentially, but eventually, this relationship will break down—the limit to the multiplication in an electron avalanche is known as the Raether limit. The Townsend avalanche can have a large range of current densities. In common gas-filled tubes, such as those used as gaseous ionisation detectors, magnitudes of currents flowing during this process can range from about 10−18 to 10−5 amperes. Quantitative description Townsend's early experimental apparatus consisted of planar parallel plates forming two sides of a chamber filled with a gas. A direct-current high-voltage source was connected between the plates, the lower-voltage plate being the cathode and the upper-voltage the anode. He forced the cathode to emit electrons using the photoelectric effect by irradiating it with x-rays, and he found that the current flowing through the chamber depended on the electric field between the plates. However, this current showed an exponential increase as the plate gaps became small, leading to the conclusion that the gas ions were multiplying as they moved between the plates due to the high electric field.	2.8125
6906913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend%20discharge	Townsend discharge	Townsend observed currents varying exponentially over ten or more orders of magnitude with a constant applied voltage when the distance between the plates was varied. He also discovered that gas pressure influenced conduction: he was able to generate ions in gases at low pressure with a much lower voltage than that required to generate a spark. This observation overturned conventional thinking about the amount of current that an irradiated gas could conduct. The experimental data obtained from his experiments are described by the formula where is the current flowing in the device, is the photoelectric current generated at the cathode surface, is Euler's number, is the first Townsend ionisation coefficient, expressing the number of ion pairs generated per unit length (e.g. meter) by a negative ion (anion) moving from cathode to anode, and is the distance between the plates of the device. The almost-constant voltage between the plates is equal to the breakdown voltage needed to create a self-sustaining avalanche: it decreases when the current reaches the glow discharge regime. Subsequent experiments revealed that the current rises faster than predicted by the above formula as the distance increases; two different effects were considered in order to better model the discharge: positive ions and cathode emission. Gas ionisation caused by motion of positive ions Townsend put forward the hypothesis that positive ions also produce ion pairs, introducing a coefficient expressing the number of ion pairs generated per unit length by a positive ion (cation) moving from anode to cathode. The following formula was found: since , in very good agreement with experiments.	2.34375
6906913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend%20discharge	Townsend discharge	The first Townsend coefficient ( α ), also known as first Townsend avalanche coefficient, is a term used where secondary ionisation occurs because the primary ionisation electrons gain sufficient energy from the accelerating electric field, or from the original ionising particle. The coefficient gives the number of secondary electrons produced by primary electron per unit path length. Cathode emission caused by impact of ions Townsend, Holst and Oosterhuis also put forward an alternative hypothesis, considering the augmented emission of electrons by the cathode caused by impact of positive ions. This introduced Townsend's second ionisation coefficient , the average number of electrons released from a surface by an incident positive ion, according to the formula These two formulas may be thought as describing limiting cases of the effective behavior of the process: either can be used to describe the same experimental results. Other formulas describing various intermediate behaviors are found in the literature, particularly in reference 1 and citations therein. Conditions A Townsend discharge can be sustained only over a limited range of gas pressure and electric field intensity. The accompanying plot shows the variation of voltage drop and the different operating regions for a gas-filled tube with a constant pressure, but a varying current between its electrodes. The Townsend avalanche phenomena occurs on the sloping plateau B-D. Beyond D, the ionisation is sustained. At higher pressures, discharges occur more rapidly than the calculated time for ions to traverse the gap between electrodes, and the streamer theory of spark discharge of Raether, Meek, and Loeb is applicable. In highly non-uniform electric fields, the corona discharge process is applicable. See Electron avalanche for further description of these mechanisms.	2.28125
6906913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend%20discharge	Townsend discharge	Gas phototubes Avalanche multiplication during Townsend discharge is naturally used in gas phototubes, to amplify the photoelectric charge generated by incident radiation (visible light or not) on the cathode: achievable current is typically 10~20 times greater respect to that generated by vacuum phototubes. Ionising radiation detectors Townsend avalanche discharges are fundamental to the operation of gaseous ionisation detectors such as the Geiger–Müller tube and the proportional counter in either detecting ionising radiation or measuring its energy. The incident radiation will ionise atoms or molecules in the gaseous medium to produce ion pairs, but different use is made by each detector type of the resultant avalanche effects. In the case of a GM tube, the high electric field strength is sufficient to cause complete ionisation of the fill gas surrounding the anode from the initial creation of just one ion pair. The GM tube output carries information that the event has occurred, but no information about the energy of the incident radiation. In the case of proportional counters, multiple creation of ion pairs occurs in the "ion drift" region near the cathode. The electric field and chamber geometries are selected so that an "avalanche region" is created in the immediate proximity of the anode. A negative ion drifting towards the anode enters this region and creates a localised avalanche that is independent of those from other ion pairs, but which can still provide a multiplication effect. In this way, spectroscopic information on the energy of the incident radiation is available by the magnitude of the output pulse from each initiating event.	1.992188
6906920	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Torff	Brian Torff	Brian Q. Torff (born March 16, 1954) is an American jazz double-bassist, songwriter and composer. Career Teacher Brian Q. Torff is a Professor of Music and the director of the music program at Fairfield University in Fairfield, Connecticut. He has taught at New York University and makes frequent appearances at the Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts leading the Fairfield University Jazz Ensemble along with guest jazz artists including Randy Brecker, Bob Mintzer, Bernard Purdie, Milt Hinton, Dave Samuels and Paul Wertico. Performer Brian Q.Torff is a bassist, songwriter, composer and educator. His album, 'Run With Scissors,' features his music in a 'Delta Electric' style, combining vintage southern style instruments with drum machines. Torff has performed as a featured bass soloist leading his own trio and has appeared at Lincoln Center, the Hollywood Bowl, the Kennedy Center and Birdland in New York City. Torff performed at Carnegie Hall for Fiddle Fest, where he appeared with Mark O'Connor, Dave Grusin, Regina Carter, Yo-Yo Ma, Itzhak Perlman, and Pinchas Zukerman. He served as co-chair person for the music advisory board for the National Endowment for the Arts in 1992. Brian Torff's professional career began in 1974 when bassist Milt Hinton offered him the opportunity of touring with Cleo Laine. During the late 70s, Torff recorded and performed with pianists Mary Lou Williams and Marian McPartland, and toured Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong with jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli. He played in pianist Erroll Garner's last group and worked in the big bands of Oliver Nelson, and The Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra.	2.046875
6906969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Hyer	Tom Hyer	Tom Hyer (January 1, 1819 – June 26, 1864) was an American bare-knuckle boxer. He became a heavyweight boxing champion after defeating Country McCloskey in a long brutal fight in New York on September 9, 1841, though there was no sanctioning body to recognize his championship. Until he retired in 1851, he was widely celebrated as the first Heavyweight Boxing Champion of America. His victory increased American participation in boxing, and made him a celebrity; generating fight coverage and publicity in hundreds of American newspapers. Hyer was a brawler and engaged in several bar fights. The fights he had as a result of his political association with the nativist Bowery Boys' anti-immigration gang in 1855, were often particularly violent, and often involved weapons. Early life and boxing strengths Thomas Hyer was born in New York City, New York, on 1 Jan 1819. Documentation proving the date of his birth, his father's birth, and that of his ancestors is found in 'Hyer and Allied Families' by Claudia E. Thomas, published 2022 Tom died 26 June 1864 in New York City, New York. The book also addresses the error of the 1944 article stating he was born in Pennsylvania. He worked as a butcher at the old Washington Market in New York before entering boxing; staying with butchering as a sideline. After he had won several fights, he opened a bar on New York's Park Row attended widely by Know Nothing Party friends, New York natives, who were anti-immigration. He was of Dutch ancestry, a heritage common among New York's earliest settlers. His father Jacob Hyer also worked as a butcher, and briefly earned a living as a boxer, reportedly fighting an opponent named Tom Beasley in 1816, using the older Broughton rules of England, in what is now considered the first official boxing match known to have been held in America. Tom's father broke his arm in the fight, and never boxed again.	2.515625
6906969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Hyer	Tom Hyer	In his boxing prime, as seen at left, Tom Hyer had a huge chest, and long, muscular rangy arms with extremely wide shoulders, that gave him both strength and reach. His long legs and springy hips helped give speed, leverage, power, and placement to his punches. His favorite blow was a crushing left to the collarbone. He was not known as a scientific boxer with exceptionally finessed defensive skills, but was more of a brawler who had to trade blows in order to deliver a blow of his own. A signature move was to lead with a left swing, which he sometimes feinted, in order to score with a well placed short right uppercut. He used this strategy to win his fights against both Country McCloskey and Yankee Sullivan. Fine scientific boxing with a calculated defense involving feints with the arms and forward foot were rarely a feature of bareknuckle boxing in the 1840s, nor necessary with the undisciplined nature of London Prize Ring Rules. Other than gouging, hitting a man when he was down, kicking, hitting or grabbing below the waist, most moves were permitted, including throwing a man down or holding him to inflict blows. Unlike London Prize rules where a round ended anytime a man's knee touched the ground, the Marquess of Queensberry rules used today required gloves, had fixed three minute rounds, and made it illegal to throw a man down or to hold him to inflict blows.	2.75
6906969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Hyer	Tom Hyer	Heavyweight Champion of America, 1841 Hyer was recognized as the bare-knuckle boxing Heavyweight Champion of America after a 101-round victory over George McCheester, known as Country McCloskey, at Caldwell's Landing in New York City, on September 9, 1841. McClosky was one of several lieutenants to Isaiah Rynders who supported the Tweed Ring, backers of the corrupt Tammany Hall political machine and rivals of Hyer and his supporters. The intense battle in the scorching sun of the open air arena reportedly lasted 2 hours, fifty minutes before McCloskey's seconds threw up the sponge ending the bout in the 101st round. Hyer began with roughly an eight-pound weight advantage as well as an inch advantage in height. The first 11 rounds seemed to favor McClosky, but the tide turned by the 28th when Hyer unleashed a tremendous, left-hander on Country's nose, which caused serious bleeding. In the forty-fourth Hyer, with a tremendous blow, opened a deep gash in Country's head. After seventy-three rounds had been fought neither would give in, although McClosky was terribly injured. In the 74th, both men were knocked to the ground, and yet the fight continued. It was clear by the 90th round that McClosky could not win. In the ninety-fifth round McCloskey was knocked down again and was obviously badly injured. Again his seconds tried to stop the fight, but he begged to be allowed to fight while he still had sight. By the 100th round, in complete control, Hyer could hit McCloskey at will as he put up little defense. After the 101st, Yankee Sullivan, McCloskey's chief second exclaimed, "It is no use Country, banging at him. he's got you licked." In the brutal affair, McClosky was said to have been beaten til his friends could barely recognize him. Considering the intensity of the bout, it is not surprising that Hyer did not fight again for eight-and-half years.	2.109375
6906969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Hyer	Tom Hyer	Hyer first met "Yankee Sullivan", an Irishman with the real name James Ambrose, at an Oyster Bar at the corner of New York's Broadway and Park Place early in 1849. Sullivan had planned to meet him there for a brawl, possibly for publicity, but according to most newspapers of the day, with the clear intent of doing him harm. Hyer was reported to have won the brief encounter, and then loaded a pistol to protect himself from Sullivan's soon- to-arrive supporters. They arrived shortly after, but the police intervened and prevented any bloodshed. Sullivan had acted as a second to McClosky in his loss to Hyer in 1841, and had hoped to avenge McClosky by defeating Hyer. According to one source, Sullivan was a bit of a ruffian and petty criminal when he was boxing in London during his early fighting days, and was sent to a British penal colony in Australia, to serve time. His battle with Hyer was more than a prize fight. It was a statement by two warring factions in New York, in short "a proxy battle between anti-immigrant nativists represented by Hyer and his Bowery Boys gang, and the Irish immigrants backed by Tammany Hall, and represented by Sullivan and his followers. As noted by Chris Klein, "Boxing was closely involved with politics in America after the Civil War, and fighters forged close ties with corrupt urban political machines that relied on muscle (and often gangs) to help their candidates win elections". Opposing political factions often made up gangs and expressed their animosity using warfare in the streets, on occasion taking over balloting places to secure their candidates would win.	1.984375
6906982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy%20II%20of%20Spoleto	Guy II of Spoleto	Guy II (sometimes III) (died late 882 or early 883) was the eldest son and successor of Lambert I as Duke of Spoleto and Margrave of Camerino. He was elected to succeed to these titles on his father's death in 880. He had an ambitious plan of expansion to the south and to the west that conflicted with the Papacy. He received a papal letter on 18 July in the year of his accession. Pope John VIII asked for a meeting, but Guy ignored him and instead invaded the Papal States. John responded by begging the aid of Charles the Fat, already King of Italy, and crowning him Emperor on 12 February 881. Charles did little to help against Guy, however. A papal letter dated 11 November and addressed to Charles referred to Guy as Rabbia, an epithet meaning "rage." It stuck as a nickname. As ruler, Guy used the motto Renovatio regni Francorum (renewing the kingdom of the Franks), like his Carolingian predecessors. In February 882, at a diet convoked in Ravenna by Charles, the duke, emperor, and pope made peace and Guy and his uncle, Guy of Camerino, vowed to restore stolen papal lands. In a March letter to Charles, John claimed that the vows went unfulfilled. Guy never succeeded in his dreams of expansion or in keeping his promises: he died young, later that year or early in the next. His uncle succeeded him, as his children were minors. His son Guy IV later ruled in Spoleto and the Principality of Benevento. His daughter Itta married Guaimar I of Salerno.	2.046875
6906985	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul%20Nomad%20%26%20the%20World%20Eaters	Soul Nomad & the World Eaters	The player is given the ability to create and command squads, which after enough time, will become an army capable of destroying the world he or she is trying to save. Up to 25 different character types can be created, each filling a unique position in the squad with its own strengths and weaknesses. Characters' individual abilities can do such things as increase the range of an effect or give each unit a bonus to its inflicted damage. Tedious tasks like visiting the same area over and over in order to level new characters (a staple of older Nippon Ichi titles) are no longer necessary as any new units may be purchased up to the level of the main character. Also, unlike the older Nippon Ichi titles, the player is not allowed to return to older levels. Squads can also be merged in order to increase their power. The game includes more options for interacting with Non-playable Characters (NPCs) than previous Nippon Ichi games. It is possible to steal items from shops or NPCs instead of buying them. Additionally, the player can attack the towns and fight against the NPCs inhabiting them. Alternately, the player can recruit NPCs into her or his army. Story History of Prodesto In the backstory of the game, at the end of a long war-shattered age, one man brought all the countries in the Continent of Prodesto together under his rule: Lord Median the Conqueror. Though only one man, he became renowned throughout the world for his heroism. However, within ten years, the empire Lord Median had created collapsed with the death of his son, quickly followed by his own death. With no apparent leader, the continent collapsed once more into civil war. Fifteen years later, Lord Median's daughter had proven herself as a true leader, and convinced the remaining countries to form peace treaties, establishing peace once more.	2.3125
6907014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les%20Promenades%20Gatineau	Les Promenades Gatineau	The Société de transport de l'Outaouais offers several routes that travel to various areas across the city from the shopping mall, which is considered to be, outside the downtown core, the most important transit hub in the city. On average per day, 8,000 shoppers use public transit for shopping. The STO has a major park-and-ride facility, with over 500 parking spaces near the mall. It has also recently rebuilt the transit terminal and has built a new client service centre inside the mall. The client service centre has since moved to La Cité Station when the Rapibus Transit Corridor was opened on October 19, 2013. The number of park-and-ride spaces was also significantly reduced. Transit accessibility was greatly improved by the opening of the Rapibus station, on the north side of the mall. Routes that serve the shopping centre include: Routes 57, 63 and 67 which serves on La Savane Road. Rapibus Routes 68, 100, 200, 300, 400, 800 and 810 are serving Les Promenades Rapibus Station on the North side of Maloney Boulevard. Most of the Gatineau sector local routes used to end at Les Promenades Gatineau. Since the Rapibus opened, most local routes now end at La Gappe, La Cité, and Labrosse stations, which transfer to the Rapibus routes serving the north side of Maloney Boulevard.	1.976563
6907022	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandana%2C%20Kentucky	Bandana, Kentucky	Bandana is a census-designated place (CDP) in Ballard County, Kentucky, United States. As of the 2020 census it had a population of 177. History A post office has been in operation at Bandana since 1880. Some say the community was so named for a traveling salesman who carried his goods in a bandana sack, while others believe the name marks an incident when a bandana was lost by a group of pioneers near the site. Geography Bandana is located in northern Ballard County at the intersection of Kentucky Route 358 (Bandana Road) and Kentucky Route 473 (Needmore Road / Woodville Road). It is south of the Ohio River and west of Paducah. Demographics As of the census of 2010, there were 203 people, 77 households, and 63 families residing in the CDP. The population density was . There were 101 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.0% White, 2.5% African American, and 0.5% from two or more races. There were 77 households, out of which 23.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.1% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.2% were non-families. 11.7% of all households were made up of individuals living alone, and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 2.87. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.7% under 18, 3.9% from 20 to 24, 22.1% from 25 to 44, 30.6% from 45 to 64, and 19.3% who were 65 or older. The median age was 44.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $88,906, and the median income for a family was $88,906. The per capita income for the CDP was $40,536. Notable people Technical Sergeant Morris E. Crain, Medal of Honor recipient for his service during World War II	1.945313
6907115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolium%20temulentum	Lolium temulentum	Lolium temulentum, typically known as darnel, poison darnel, darnel ryegrass or cockle, is an annual plant of the genus Lolium within the family Poaceae. The plant stem can grow up to one meter tall, with inflorescence in the ears and purple grain. It has a cosmopolitan distribution. Growth Darnel usually grows in the same production zones as wheat and was a serious weed of cultivation, a Vavilovian mimic of wheat, until modern sorting machinery enabled darnel seeds to be separated efficiently from seed wheat. The similarity between these two plants is so great that in some regions, darnel is called "false wheat". It bears a close resemblance to wheat until the ear appears. The spikes of L. temulentum are more slender than those of wheat. The spikelets are oriented edgeways to the rachis and have only a single glume, while those of wheat are oriented with the flat side to the rachis and have two glumes. Wheat will appear brown when ripe, whereas darnel is black. Darnel can be infected by an endophytic fungus of the genus Neotyphodium and the endophyte-produced, insecticidal loline alkaloids were first isolated from this plant. The French word for darnel is ivraie (from Latin ebriacus, intoxicated), which expresses the drunken nausea from eating the infected plant, which can be fatal. The French name echoes the scientific name, Latin temulentus "drunk." Literary references The ancient Greek botanist Theophrastus stated in his De causis plantarum (8:7 §1) that wheat can transform (metaballein) into darnel (aira), since fields sown to wheat are often darnel when reaped. The anonymous classic Greek work, Geoponika: Agricultural Pursuits contains multiple references to darnel (zizonia). Darnel (zizonia) was evidently the toxic weed in the Parable of the Tares in the Gospel of Matthew:	2.8125
6907128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Chirac%27s%20second%20term%20as%20President%20of%20France	Jacques Chirac's second term as President of France	At age 69, Jacques Chirac faced his fourth campaign for the French Presidency in 2002. He was the first choice of fewer than one voter in five in the first round of voting of the presidential elections of April 2002. It had been expected that he would face incumbent prime minister Lionel Jospin on the second round of elections; instead, Chirac faced controversial far right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen of the law-and-order, anti-immigrant National Front, and won re-election by a landslide; most parties outside the National Front had called for opposing Le Pen, even if it meant voting for Chirac. Slogans such as "vote for the crook, not for the fascist" or "vote with a clothespin on your nose" appeared. "We must reject extremism in the name of the honour of France, in the name of the unity of our own nation," Chirac said before the presidential election. "I call on all French to massively vote for republican ideals against the extreme right." The left-wing Socialist Party being in thorough disarray following Jospin's defeat, Chirac reorganized politics on the right, establishing a new party — initially called the Union of the Presidential Majority, then the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). The RPR had broken down - a number of members had formed Eurosceptic breakaways. While the Giscardian liberals of the Union of French Democracy (UDF) had moved sharply to the right. The UMP won the parliamentary elections that followed the presidential poll with ease.	2.015625
6907128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Chirac%27s%20second%20term%20as%20President%20of%20France	Jacques Chirac's second term as President of France	In an address to the nation, Chirac has declared that the new cabinet's top priority would be to curb the unemployment level, which consistently hovers above 10%, calling for a "national mobilization" to that effect. One of the main promises of Jean-Pierre Raffarin when he became Prime Minister had been to spur growth and that "the end of President Chirac's term would be marked by a drop in unemployment". However, at the time of his dismissal, no such improvement could be seen. Villepin set himself a deadline of a hundred days to restore the French people's trust in their government (note that Villepin's first published book was titled The Hundred Days or the Spirit of Sacrifice). Laïcité The Law of Secularity and Conspicuous Religious Symbols in Schools was passed in September 2004. This law stated all religious items could no longer be worn in public schools including but not limited to: kippah's, catholic crosses, and Muslim religious attire. 2012 Olympics Chirac became the subject of controversy the day before the International Olympic Committee was due to pick a host city for the 2012 Summer Olympics. Chirac made comments stating that "the only worse food than British food is Finnish" and "the only thing the British have done for Europe's agriculture is mad cow disease". Not only were Chirac's comments considered unsportsmanlike where the normal etiquette is not to criticize rival cities, there was also the presence of two Finnish members on the International Olympic Committee who would vote in the final ballot. Out of the competing candidate cities, the bid was widely acknowledged as the front runner but Paris's narrow loss to arch-rival London led many to believe that Chirac's comments were at fault. It seems that the French public laid the blame of the failure on President Chirac, and not on the Mayor of Paris Bertrand Delanoë, whose popularity had in fact risen according to polls.	1.914063
6907193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Reptile%20Park	Australian Reptile Park	Common wombat Dingo Eastern grey kangaroo Fat-tailed dunnart Feathertail glider Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo Greater bilby Grey-headed flying fox Kangaroo Island grey kangaroo Koala Parma wallaby Platypus Quokka Red-tailed phascogale Short-beaked echidna Tasmanian devil Yellow-footed rock wallaby Past attractions Eric the crocodile A crocodile named Eric, born in 1947 in Australia's Northern Territory, was featured for many years at the park. He was a star attraction and had a fan club of over 10,000 members across the world. Every year, Eric consumed his own body weight in various animals such as chicken, goat and fish. Eric had been implicated in the disappearance of two indigenous children in the 1980s, and was captured for the safety of the community. He was first taken to Darwin Crocodile Farm, where he bit off the heads of two female crocodiles with whom he was supposed to mate, and lost his right rear foot in a duel with a fellow crocodile. In 1989, he arrived by special freighter jet at the Australian Reptile Park and became a major attraction. He was named after the Park's founder Eric Worrell, who had died in 1987. Eric the crocodile died on 30 June 2007 from a systemic infection, exacerbated because staff couldn't treat him due to power outages caused by storms in the area. His vet, Peter Nosworthy, believes age made him susceptible to the infection, while his size made it impossible to administer intensive care. At 5.6m long and 700 kg, Eric was the largest crocodile in New South Wales at the time of his death. A memorial to Eric is now at the rear of the park. Education Talks and presentations include Galápagos tortoise feedings, a reptile show, a Tasmanian devil talk, koala talk, spider talk, dingo talk, and alligator feeding. The Australian Reptile Park also take hundreds of school groups into the Park throughout each year for syllabus-based animal and conservation education. Antivenom programs	2.625
6907193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Reptile%20Park	Australian Reptile Park	Snake venom-milking program Since the 1960s, the Australian Reptile Park has been the sole supplier of terrestrial snake venom for the purpose of making antivenom. It is estimated that 300 lives are saved by antivenom in Australia each year and since the program's inception, approximately 20,000 Australian lives have been saved by the program. The Australian Reptile Park is currently home to 250 venomous snakes that are a part of the venom program that are milked on a fortnightly basis. Milking snakes for venom Focused judgement and great dexterity are needed to obtain snake venom from the venomous species of snakes found in Australia. Keepers at the Australian Reptile Park use two different techniques depending on the species of snake. For taipans, king brown and tiger snakes, keepers position the snake's fangs to penetrate a latex membrane stretched over a glass beaker. The snake then bites onto the beaker and the venom is dropped into the beaker and collected. For eastern brown snakes and death adders, a technique called "pipetting" is used. The procedure requires keepers to push a polypropylene pipette onto the snake's fang with the venom dropping into the pipette. After drying, the venom crystals are carefully scraped from the beakers and pipettes for weighing and packaging. Trained staff, who work with the venom in its various stages of processing, work extremely carefully with the venom to ensure it is not contaminated. Producing snake antivenom Once the venomous snakes have been milked at the Australian Reptile Park, it is then freeze-dried and sent to Seqiris (formally bioCSL) in Melbourne to be made into antivenom. The process at Seqiris starts with the snake venom being injected into Percheron horses. Over 250 horses take part in the antivenom program, all living the life of luxury. They undergo minimal stress during the inoculation and extraction processes. Inoculation is harmless for the horses and extraction is as simple as donating blood for humans.	2.546875
6907193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Reptile%20Park	Australian Reptile Park	The horses are given increasing doses of venom over a period of six-months (until they have built up sufficient antibodies to the venom). Blood is then drawn from the horse with the antibodies extracted from the blood, purified and reduced to a usable form – this becomes antivenom. The antivenom taken from the horses is used to treat humans suffering from snakebite. Antivenom is injected into the human bloodstream, with the antibodies attacking the venom, neutralising its effects. The dose of antivenom given to a patient varies according to the species responsible for the bite and, when it can be ascertained, the amount of venom injected. The age and weight of the victim makes no difference to the dose of antivenom required in the treatment. Funnel-web spider venom-milking program Since the inception of the Australian Reptile Park's funnel-web spider antivenom program in 1981, zero deaths have been recorded due to a funnel web spider bite. The Australian Reptile Park's venom program houses over 2,000 spiders from baby spiderlings up to full grown adult male specimens; who are milked on a weekly schedule. The Australian Reptile Park encourages the public to catch funnel-web spiders in their homes and backyards, if it is safe to do so, and bring the spiders to various drop-off locations in around the Central Coast, Sydney and Newcastle. These spiders will become part of the Park's funnel-web spider breeding and venom-milking programs. Milking funnel-web spiders for venom Spider keepers at the Australian Reptile Park must use steady hands and extreme focus to milk funnel-web spiders. Using a glass pipette on the end of a small vacuum, keepers encourage the funnel web spider to rear up in a defensive position and then gently suck the venom from the end of the spider's fangs. Once all spiders have been milked, the venom is removed from the pipette and frozen until shipment to Seqiris, where the venom is made into antivenom.	2.515625
6907282	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi%20Gwal	Yi Gwal	Korea's political stance at the time caused the downfall of Yi Gwal. Since the establishment of a Confucian dynasty by King Taejo, there had been political disputes between the parties in the government. Some disputes even ended up in bloodshed, like the one which occurred in the time of King Yeonsangun. Also, during the time of King Seonjo just before the Japanese invasions of Korea, the political parties had been divided between the Easterners and the Westerners. The Easterners gradually split up into two parties called the Northerners and the Southerners. In January 1624, the Westerners, recently unsatisfied with the success of Yi Gwal (who was part of the Northerners), made a petition to the King stating that Yi Gwal and some members of the Northerners were planning a rebellion. As these ministers all had a close relationship with the King, the petition was examined. However, the reports proved false, and the Westerners failed to condemn Yi Gwal. They tried again soon after, which provoked the suspicion of the King. The government soon sent an examination and arrest party to Yongbyon to arrest Yi Gwal's son Yi Jeon. As he suspected that he himself would be condemned if his son confessed, he decided on a pre-emptive strike. Finally, he killed the arrest party and the rebellion officially began on January 22, 1624. He and his ten thousand troops headed straight for Hanyang, to relieve the capital and capture the King. The first clash with the government troops happened on the Hamgyong province, where the government troops were being led by Jeong Chung-sin and Nam Yi-hong. He tried to avoid these two generals and surpassed their troops. During the march to the capital, Yi Gwal met much opposition, but all were defeated. Injo soon abandoned the capital and Yi Gwal captured it on February 10. Since the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty, it was the first time a rebel army had captured the capital.	2.53125
6907290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard%20Schiemer	Leonhard Schiemer	Leonhard Schiemer (c. 1500 – 14 January 1528) was an early pacifist Anabaptist writer and martyr whose work survives in the Ausbund. Background Schiemer was born around 1500 in Vöcklabruck, where he grew up in a religious environment and trained to be a tailor. He originally wanted to become a Roman Catholic priest but as an adolescent joined the Franciscan monastery in Judenburg. Six years later he left he monastery and arrived at Nürnberg, where he — disappointed with monastic life — returned to tailoring. Anabaptist encounters Biographers disagree whether Schiemer first made contact with Anabaptists in Nürnberg. Schiemer may have made arrangements to travel to Nikolsburg in Moravia, where Balthasar Hubmaier was an important Anabaptist leader. Here he witnessed the May 1527 disputation between the Stäbler (shepherd's staff) und Schwertler (sword) Anabaptist groups. While the Stäbler under the leadership of Hans Hut held a position of absolute nonviolence, Hubmeier and the Schwertler professed that Christians were permitted to defend themselves and others with the sword. It is unknown which of these positions Schiemer adopted. Some biographers think he probably adopted Hubmeier’s view, because later in Vienna he was reluctant to accept Hans Hut. Conversion Only a few weeks after the Nikolsburg disputation, Leonhard Schiemer went to Vienna. There he again met — as already mentioned — Hans Hut and the Anabaptist congregation at Kärntnerstraße. Within two days, Schiemer was won over to the Anabaptist view and at the same time convinced of the pacifist beliefs of the Stäbler. He was baptized and became a member of the Vienna congregation. Schiemer immediately began an extensive missionary endeavor. Next he worked a short time in Steyr und Salzburg, taking part in the August 1527 Augsburg Martyrs' Synod and was sent from there as a messenger to Tyrol, where he settled in Rattenberg on the Inn. He joined an existing Anabaptist congregation there, which called him to serve as bishop shortly after his arrival.	1.9375
6907290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard%20Schiemer	Leonhard Schiemer	Arrest A few weeks later, Schiemer was arrested at the instigation of the Roman Catholic authorities. An Anabaptist bishop present at the interrogation reported on his activities: within six months of his baptism he preached in 28 cities, winning more than 200 converts to Anabaptism. Schiemer used the short stay in prison (until January 1528) for composing and publishing a number of works including: Was die Gnade sei (What Grace Is) Vom Fläschl (Just as a bottle is narrow at the top and wide below, the way to heaven is narrow and difficult … but the Lord comforts those in extreme misery. Suffering is nothing other than the price of eternal life.) Von der Taufe im Neuen Testament (About Baptism in the New Testament). Ein Bekenntnis vor dem Richter zu Rotenburg (A Confession before the Judge of Rattenburg; January 1528). Schiermer's writings were widely circulated and after his death had a significant influence on the development of Austrian and south German Anabaptism. Teachings Schiemer appears to have confirmed the doctrine of the Trinity. Schiemer separated the outer word of God, the Bible, received through one's ear, from the inner word, the direct word of God, that only a spirit-possessed person is able to hear. The inner word leads to loving God and following Christ, while the outer word is used only to devise external rules and regulations. It makes people merely good citizens, but not devoted and sacrificial followers of Jesus. The followers of Schiemer also renounced private property. He was fascinated with early Christian communism and taught this as a sign of the true Christian. The Hutterites have made this ideal a principle of their community. The central message of Schiemer's writing is on the theology of the cross and Passion mysticism of the Late Middle Ages: Christ suffered for the faithful of this world. His theology also appears in the hymns he composed, which have been passed down in the Ausbund, which is still used by descendants of the Anabaptists, the Amish.	2.640625
6907330	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformational%20entropy	Conformational entropy	In chemical thermodynamics, conformational entropy is the entropy associated with the number of conformations of a molecule. The concept is most commonly applied to biological macromolecules such as proteins and RNA, but also be used for polysaccharides and other molecules. To calculate the conformational entropy, the possible conformations of the molecule may first be discretized into a finite number of states, usually characterized by unique combinations of certain structural parameters, each of which has been assigned an energy. In proteins, backbone dihedral angles and side chain rotamers are commonly used as parameters, and in RNA the base pairing pattern may be used. These characteristics are used to define the degrees of freedom (in the statistical mechanics sense of a possible "microstate"). The conformational entropy associated with a particular structure or state, such as an alpha-helix, a folded or an unfolded protein structure, is then dependent on the probability of the occupancy of that structure. The entropy of heterogeneous random coil or denatured proteins is significantly higher than that of the tertiary structure of its folded native state. In particular, the conformational entropy of the amino acid side chains in a protein is thought to be a major contributor to the energetic stabilization of the denatured state and thus a barrier to protein folding. However, a recent study has shown that side-chain conformational entropy can stabilize native structures among alternative compact structures. The conformational entropy of RNA and proteins can be estimated; for example, empirical methods to estimate the loss of conformational entropy in a particular side chain on incorporation into a folded protein can roughly predict the effects of particular point mutations in a protein. Side-chain conformational entropies can be defined as Boltzmann sampling over all possible rotameric states: where is the gas constant and is the probability of a residue being in rotamer .	2.125
6907456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%20People%27s%20Theatre	Young People's Theatre	Young People's Theatre (YPT) is a professional theatre for young audiences located in Toronto, Ontario. The company produces and presents a full season of theatre and arts education programming, performing to approximately 150,000 patrons annually. Founded in 1966 by Susan Douglas Rubeš, YPT originally operated out of the now-demolished Colonnade Theatre on Bloor Street. Since its 1977–78 season, the company has resided in a renovated heritage building in downtown Toronto. YPT operates two performance spaces at 165 Front Street East: the Ada Slaight Stage and the Nathan Cohen Studio. It stages an average of eight productions each year. Herbie Barnes become the Artistic Director in the Spring of 2021 and Camilla Holland became the executive director in September 2024. History Rubeš created the Museum Children's Theatre in her Toronto kitchen and opened Alice in Wonderland at the Royal Ontario Museum in 1963. Rubeš staged her first YPT show, The Looking Glass Revue, at the Colonnade Theatre in 1966. Before being located at its current site, YPT staged shows at the St. Lawrence Centre, the Ontario Science Centre and Toronto's Firehall Theatre. The company also toured to schools throughout Ontario, and toured the play Inook and the Sun in the United Kingdom. In 1977, YPT staged its first show in its current location with an adaptation of The Lost Fairy Tale. YPT added a drama school in 1969. The Drama School operates in Downtown Toronto and Etobicoke. Several stage and screen actors have appeared on the YPT mainstage since the 1970s, including Martin Short, Megan Follows, Brent Carver, Cynthia Dale, Fiona Reid, Gordon Pinsent, R.H Thomson, Sheila McCarthy and Eric Peterson. Celebrities such as Drake and Kiefer Sutherland also attended YPT's Drama School. In the spring of 2001, the theatre was renamed Lorraine Kimsa Theatre for Young People after a donation of $1.5 million from Kevin Kimsa in honour of his mother, Lorraine. In March 2011, the theatre announced a change back to its original name.	2.5625
6907480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/689th%20Radar%20Squadron	689th Radar Squadron	The 689th Radar Squadron is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to the 25th Air Division, stationed at Mount Hebo Air Force Station, Oregon. It was inactivated on 30 June 1979. History The 689th Radar Squadron's long range radars (LRR) were part of the Air Force Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) computer directed system for air defense. Available squadron electronic equipment was able to support the detection, identification, and destruction of enemy aircraft. This was accomplished by communications between the SAGE computer at McChord Air Force Base, the radars and communications systems at Mount Hebo Air Force Station, and airborne interceptor aircraft such as the supersonic Convair F-106 Delta Dart jet. Radar systems operated and maintained by the 689th included the AN/FPS-24 search radar and the AN/FPS-26A and AN/FPS-90 height finder radars. The FPS-24 was housed in a 5 story tall (85 ft) building with two separate transmitters, a receiver, and special receiver equipment to provide counter measures against enemy jamming. In addition, the radar antenna was housed beneath a rigid radome about 145 ft in diameter and 100 ft tall. Three separate radomes were installed in the period from 1962 to 1965. All three were destroyed by high winds, the last in 1968. As a result, the FPS-24 was removed and a FPS-27 search radar requiring a much smaller radome was installed. Both height finder radar antennas were protected by smaller, inflatable radomes. Each height finder radar was installed in its own building. The FPS-26A radar was later modified beginning in 1967 to an FSS-7 Sea Launched Ballistic Missile detector. All three radar buildings were connected together so that 689th personnel could walk between them and the Operations building and be protected from adverse weather conditions.	2.265625
6907492	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20St%C3%B6lzel	Heinrich Stölzel	Heinrich David Stölzel (7 September 1777 – 16 February 1844) was a German horn player who developed some of the first valves for brass instruments. He developed the first valve for a brass musical instrument, the Stölzel valve, in 1818, and went on to develop various other designs, some jointly with other inventor musicians. Biography Stölzel was born in Schneeberg, Saxony. His father was also a musician, and as a young man he learnt to play numerous instruments, including harp, violin, trumpet and horn. From 1800 he was employed as a military musician for the Duke of Pless, Silesia, mainly playing the horn. During this time, the horn used was essentially a natural horn, which restricted the range of notes that were able to be easily used to only those in the instrument's natural harmonic series, and variations thereof created by using the hand in the bell to alter the pitch. German musicians also used an Inventionshorn, which allowed some further range of notes by manually inserting extra crooks. Stölzel dedicated himself to the further development of the instrument, and experimented with adding valves that redirected the air stream into different lengths of tubing, to lengthen the sections of tubing available and thereby created more (and lower) usable harmonic series. His system featured two valves; the first lowered the instrument's fundamental pitch by a tone, the second by a semitone. Depressing both at once lowered the fundamental by a tone and a half. By 1814 he had developed a playable valve horn, able to play a chromatic series in the instrument's upper register.	2.796875
6907510	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Frederick%20Lyttelton	Charles Frederick Lyttelton	Rev. Hon. Charles Frederick Lyttelton (26 January 1887 – 3 October 1931) was an English priest and first-class cricketer from the Lyttelton family. He played 31 games for Cambridge University, Worcestershire and Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in the early twentieth century. Early life and family Lyttelton was born in Marylebone, London, the third son of Charles Lyttelton, 8th Viscount Cobham. He was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge, and became a clergyman. He served in the Royal Army Chaplains' Department in the First World War and was awarded the Military Cross in the 1919 Birthday Honours for distinguished service in France and Flanders. In 1920, he married Sibell Eleanor Maud Kay-Shuttleworth (née Adeane), daughter of Charles Adeane and widow of Hon. Edward James Kay-Shuttleworth, (son of the 3rd Baron Shuttleworth) who was killed in 1917 in a military accident. They had two sons, Lt. John Anthony Lyttelton (1921–1944), who was killed in Italy in the Second World War, and a son who died in infancy. John Anthony was also educated at Eton and was in the cricket XI in 1939–40. His stepchildren were Charles Kay-Shuttleworth, 4th Baron Shuttleworth (1917–1975) and Pamela Kay-Shuttleworth, who married as her first husband Keith Rous, 5th Earl of Stradbroke. Cricket career Lyttelton appeared in a minor match in August 1906 when he played at Stoke Edith playing for a team of the same name against "Gentlemen of the Netherlands" and took three wickets including that of Carst Posthuma. Two weeks later he made his first-class debut for Worcestershire against Gloucestershire, though he bowled only a single over (which cost ten runs) and managed 6 and 13 with the bat.	2.015625
6907510	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Frederick%20Lyttelton	Charles Frederick Lyttelton	His maiden first-class wicket, that of Jack Sharp, had to wait until his next game, for Cambridge against Lancashire in May 1907. Lyttelton had a very good match, taking 2-26 and 5-33 (his best innings performance) as well as scoring 25 not out from number eleven. Cambridge recorded a crushing win by an innings and 204 runs, which remains their second highest margin of victory. 1908 was Lyttelton's most productive season, as in ten matches (all but one for Cambridge; the other was for Worcestershire) he took a total of 47 wickets, including 5–75 against Sussex. He won his blue that year too, his five wickets in the Varsity Match proving important as Cambridge beat Oxford by the narrow margin of two wickets. He also played against Oxford the following year (though he took no wickets), and played five times for Worcestershire, although he never claimed more than three wickets in an innings that summer. Lyttelton played his last three first-class matches in 1910: two for Worcestershire and his one and only appearance for MCC, a badly rain-affected game against his old university in which he neither batted nor bowled. For his county he took three wickets in each of the two matches he played, with his final first-class wicket being that of Hampshire's Alexander Johnston. In this, his final game, Lyttelton captained Worcestershire for the only time in his career. A very large number of Lyttelton's relations played cricket to a high standard: his grandfather, father, brother, five uncles and a nephew all made at least one first-class appearance, with one of those uncles, Alfred Lyttelton, playing four Test matches for England in the 1880s. Two of his brothers-in-law were also first-class cricketers. Lyttelton died in Paddington, London, at age 44.	1.984375
6907551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirck%20Storm	Dirck Storm	Dirck Gorisszen Storm (16301716) was an early colonial American who recorded the first official history of the Dutch community at Sleepy Hollow. His book Het Notite Boeck der Christelyckes Kercke op de Manner of Philips Burgh is a rare document of life in colonial times. Sometimes referred to as Het Notite Boeck, the five-part book is one of the few surviving records of Dutch Colonial American village life in English-occupied New York province. Birth and early life One line of data provides that Dirck Storm was born in Utrecht, The Netherlands, in 1630 and his family resided in Leyden, Holland, where they dealt in fine cloth. R. W. Storm states that historical records carry this Storm line back to Dederick Storm, who lived in Wyck, near Delft, in 1390. The family may have been of Viking stock since so many settled in the province of North Brabant when the Vikings overran the Low Countries before the year 1000. A move from the low countries to Brabant before the year 1000 and a move to Brabant from there by Dirck in the 1600s do not support the internal logic of the latter statement. At the age of eighteen, Dirck Storm went to Den Bosch to be a clerk in his uncle's commercial office. On May 13, 1656, he married Maria van Montfoort—daughter of Pieter van Montfoort, a Walloon Calvinist—in the church of St. Gertrude in 's-Hertogenbosch. By 1660, Storm was named Town Clerk of Oss in the Mayorate of 's-Hertogenbosch (Den Bosch). Public service was part of the Storm family history, as Dirck's father was the City Clerk of Leiden and his grandfather was a lawyer in the Court of Justice of Holland, West Friesland and Zealand. However, primary sources for all of these ancestral data are needed. When Protestant Holland was hit by a recession after the overthrow of Cromwell in England, Dirck Storm set sail for the New World.	2.0625
6907565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othman%20Wok	Othman Wok	Othman bin Wok (8 October 1924 – 17 April 2017), often known as Othman Wok, was a Singaporean statesman who served as Minister of Social Affairs between 1963 and 1977. After retiring from politics, he was Singapore's Ambassador to Indonesia and served on the boards of the Singapore Tourism Board and Sentosa Development Corporation. For his political, economic and social contributions to the nation building of Singapore, he was awarded the Order of Nila Utama (Second Class) in 1983 by President Devan Nair. Othman is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of Singapore. He was also one of the earliest members of the People's Action Party (PAP), and was an important figure between the local Malay–Muslim community and the party especially during the early years of independence. Early life Othman was born on 8 October 1924 in Singapore during British colonial rule, to a family of Orang Laut origins. His father, Wok Ahmad, had been a school teacher and principal. Othman began his education in Telok Blanga Malay School at the age of 5, before attending Radin Mas English School and Raffles Institution (RI). During the Japanese occupation of Singapore in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945, Wok Ahmad enrolled Othman in a Japanese school in the belief that doing so would prevent Othman from being conscripted into the Japanese Imperial Army (IJA). As a result, Othman would come to learn the Japanese language.	2.4375
6907565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othman%20Wok	Othman Wok	Othman's grandfather, a religious teacher, objected to Wok Ahmad's decision to send Othman to Radin Mas and later Raffles Institution (RI), both of which are English-medium schools. He was afraid that Othman would waver in his religious beliefs in the course of his English-language education, converting him to Christianity. However, not only did Othman stay faithful to his religion, he would also became an important bridge between the local Malay–Muslim community and the then new People's Action Party (PAP) government from the 1950s. This affirmed Wok Ahmad's beliefs that an English-language and mainstream education is essential for a brighter future ahead of his people and the country. Othman himself, too, was also pragmatic and did not hold the same worries as his grandfather. He had no issues sending one of his daughters to a Catholic school, CHIJ Katong Convent. His daughter received religious education outside school hours, and remained a Muslim. Early career Othman joined the local Utusan Melayu Malay-language newspaper as a clerk after finishing his education, and was offered a reporter position in 1946 by Yusof Ishak (founder of the newspaper who would also go on to become Singapore’s first president). In 1950, Othman pursued a Diploma in Journalism in London on a Colonial Development Scholarship, and rejoined Utusan Melayu as a news editor in 1951. Upon his return, Othman was also elected as Honorary Secretary of the Singapore Printing Employees Union (SPEU), which sought to secure better wages and working conditions for its members. This was a significant period in Othman’s early years as it marked the time when he would become acquainted with Lee Kuan Yew, who had been the legal adviser to Utusan Melayu as well as SPEU. This would mark the beginning of a long and enduring friendship between the two. He would stay in his role of news editor for 6 more years until his promotion to deputy editor of the newspaper in 1957.	2.4375
6907565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othman%20Wok	Othman Wok	Political career Days after the formation of the PAP in 1954, Othman joined the political party as his ideology of a national policy of multi-racialism was aligned with what the PAP sought to achieve. He took on the role of producing the party’s Petir publication, and was a member of the bulletin’s editorial board. In 1959, he was asked by the then legislative assembly member Ahmad Ibrahim to be the elected chairman of the PAP Geylang Serai/Tampines branch. Minister Othman became Singapore’s first Minister for Social Affairs after his successful election in the General Elections of 1963, and was at that time the only Malay member in the Cabinet. He also held the concurrent role of Director of the Malay Affairs Bureau, and has been credited with implementing policies that continue to impact the Malay community today. Under his tenure, he oversaw the setting up of Singapore’s Pilgrimage Office, which was Singapore’s first formal system of registration for Hajj activities. The system remains today, and continues to be built upon the foundations set in place by him then. The Singapore Pilgrimage Office would eventually evolve the Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura (MUIS) entity, which continue to regulate and oversee Hajj-related as well as other Muslim affairs. The Ministry for Social Affairs would also go on to implement the Administration of Muslim Law Act (AMLA) and Mosque Building Fund (MBF) under his leadership. Othman was initially branded as a "race traitor" by some of the local Malay community for joining the PAP. At the time, they were being heavily courted by the Kuala Lumpur–based United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) to fight for Ketuanan Melayu ( "Malay Supremacy"), an ideology that still holds strongly in Malaysia. As a result, Othman lost in the 1959 Singaporean general election when he was contesting as a PAP candidate for the electoral ward of Kampong Kembangan.	2.46875
6907565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othman%20Wok	Othman Wok	He would go on to contest once more in the 1963 Singaporean general election, when he would then succeed and become the elected representative of the Pasir Panjang constituency. Following his successful election, Othman would go on to leave his job at the Utusan Melayu to focus on developing his political career full-time. On 7 August 1965, the Parliament of Malaysia successful voted for the expulsion of Singapore from Malaysia. On 9 August, Othman, along with 8 other Singapore ministers, signed the document of separation. On this day, Othman highlighted his concern regarding the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) to Lee Kuan Yew, and only upon assurance did he put pen to paper. Othman was also known for his active involvement in the development of sports and recreation in Singapore. He was also once a famous tennis player, peaking and ranking number 28 in the world. Othman was responsible for setting up a Sports Department within the purview of the Ministry of Social Affairs in 1966, and officiated the groundbreaking ceremony of the first National Stadium. Ambassador Having served 14 years as Minister for Social Affairs, Othman was appointed to serve as Singapore’s ambassador to Indonesia in 1977. His term would last three and a half years. He served as Member of Legislative Assembly (1963 to 1965) and Member of Parliament (1963 to 1980) for the Pasir Panjang Constituency, retiring on 5 December 1980 when parliament dissolved on the same day for the 1980 Singaporean general election. His seat was retained by Abbas Abu Amin of the PAP in that election, who held the constituency until it was redistributed in the 1991 Singaporean general election. Today, the area generally corresponds to the West Coast and Telok Blangah divisions of the West Coast Group Representation Constituency. Post–political career Othman continued to be active and served in the Presidential Council of Minority Rights as a permanent member. He was also appointed as a member of several companies' board of directors.	1.953125
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) is a disinfection technique employing ultraviolet (UV) light, particularly UV-C (180–280 nm), to kill or inactivate microorganisms. UVGI primarily inactivates microbes by damaging their genetic material, thereby inhibiting their capacity to carry out vital functions. The use of UVGI extends to an array of applications, encompassing food, surface, air, and water disinfection. UVGI devices can inactivate microorganisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, molds, and other pathogens. Recent studies have substantiated the ability of UV-C light to inactivate SARS-CoV-2, the strain of coronavirus that causes COVID-19. UV-C wavelengths demonstrate varied germicidal efficacy and effects on biological tissue. Many germicidal lamps like low-pressure mercury (LP-Hg) lamps, with peak emissions around 254 nm, contain UV wavelengths that can be hazardous to humans. As a result, UVGI systems have been primarily limited to applications where people are not directly exposed, including hospital surface disinfection, upper-room UVGI, and water treatment. More recently, the application of wavelengths between 200-235 nm, often referred to as far-UVC, has gained traction for surface and air disinfection. These wavelengths are regarded as much safer due to their significantly reduced penetration into human tissue.. Moreover, their efficiency relies on the fact, that in addition to the DNA damage related to the formation of pyrimidine dimers, they provoke important DNA photoionization, leading to oxidative damage. Notably, UV-C light is virtually absent in sunlight reaching the Earth's surface due to the absorptive properties of the ozone layer within the atmosphere. History	2.859375
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Origins of UV germicidal action The development of UVGI traces back to 1878 when Arthur Downes and Thomas Blunt found that sunlight, particularly its shorter wavelengths, hindered microbial growth. Expanding upon this work, Émile Duclaux, in 1885, identified variations in sunlight sensitivity among different bacterial species. A few years later, in 1890, Robert Koch demonstrated the lethal effect of sunlight on Mycobacterium tuberculosis, hinting at UVGI's potential for combating diseases like tuberculosis. Subsequent studies further defined the wavelengths most efficient for germicidal inactivation. In 1892, it was noted that the UV segment of sunlight had the most potent bactericidal effect. Research conducted in the early 1890s demonstrated the superior germicidal efficacy of UV-C compared to UV-A and UV-B. The mutagenic effects of UV were first unveiled in a 1914 study that observed metabolic changes in Bacillus anthracis upon exposure to sublethal doses of UV. Frederick Gates, in the late 1920s, offered the first quantitative bactericidal action spectra for Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus coli, noting peak effectiveness at 265 nm. This matched the absorption spectrum of nucleic acids, hinting at DNA damage as the key factor in bacterial inactivation. This understanding was solidified by the 1960s through research demonstrating the ability of UV-C to form thymine dimers, leading to microbial inactivation. These early findings collectively laid the groundwork for modern UVGI as a disinfection tool.	2.78125
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	UVGI for air disinfection The utilization of UVGI for air disinfection began in earnest in the mid-1930s. William F. Wells demonstrated in 1935 that airborne infectious organisms, specifically aerosolized B. coli exposed to 254 nm UV, could be rapidly inactivated. This built upon earlier theories of infectious droplet nuclei transmission put forth by Carl Flügge and Wells himself. Prior to this, UV radiation had been studied predominantly in the context of liquid or solid media, rather than airborne microbes. Shortly after Wells' initial experiments, high-intensity UVGI was employed to disinfect a hospital operating room at Duke University in 1936. The method proved a success, reducing postoperative wound infections from 11.62% without the use of UVGI to 0.24% with the use of UVGI. Soon, this approach was extended to other hospitals and infant wards using UVGI "light curtains", designed to prevent respiratory cross-infections, with noticeable success. Adjustments in the application of UVGI saw a shift from "light curtains" to upper-room UVGI, confining germicidal irradiation above human head level. Despite its dependency on good vertical air movement, this approach yielded favorable outcomes in preventing cross-infections. This was exemplified by Wells' successful usage of upper-room UVGI between 1937 and 1941 to curtail the spread of measles in suburban Philadelphia day schools. His study found that 53.6% of susceptibles in schools without UVGI became infected, while only 13.3% of susceptibles in schools with UVGI were infected. Richard L. Riley, initially a student of Wells, continued the study of airborne infection and UVGI throughout the 1950s and 60s, conducting significant experiments in a Veterans Hospital TB ward. Riley successfully demonstrated that UVGI could efficiently inactivate airborne pathogens and prevent the spread of tuberculosis.	2.578125
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Method of operation UV light is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays. UV is categorised into several wavelength ranges, with short-wavelength UV (UV-C) considered "germicidal UV". Wavelengths between about 200 nm and 300 nm are strongly absorbed by nucleic acids. The absorbed energy can result in defects including pyrimidine dimers. These dimers can prevent replication or can prevent the expression of necessary proteins, resulting in the death or inactivation of the organism. Recently, it has been shown that these dimers are fluorescent. Mercury-based lamps operating at low vapor pressure emit UV light at the 253.7 nm line. Ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-C LED) lamps emit UV light at selectable wavelengths between 255 and 280 nm. Pulsed-xenon lamps emit UV light across the entire UV spectrum with a peak emission near 230 nm. This process is similar to, but stronger than, the effect of longer wavelengths (UV-B) producing sunburn in humans. Microorganisms have less protection against UV and cannot survive prolonged exposure to it. A UVGI system is designed to expose environments such as water tanks, rooms and forced air systems to germicidal UV. Exposure comes from germicidal lamps that emit germicidal UV at the correct wavelength, thus irradiating the environment. The forced flow of air or water through this environment ensures exposure of that air or water. Effectiveness The effectiveness of germicidal UV depends on the UV dose, i.e. how much UV light reaches the microbe (measured as radiant exposure) and how susceptible the microbe is to the given wavelength(s) of UV light, defined by the germicidal effectiveness curve. UV Dose The UV dose is measured in light energy per area, i.e. radiant exposure or fluence. The fluence a microbe is exposed to is the product of the light intensity, i.e. irradiance and the time of exposure, according to: UV dose (μJ/cm2) = UV intensity (μW/cm2) × exposure time (seconds)	3.09375
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Likewise, the irradiance depends on the brightness (radiant intensity, W/sr) of the UV source, the distance between the UV source and the microbe, the attenuation of filters (e.g. fouled glass) in the light path, the attenuation of the medium (e.g. microbes in turbid water), the presence of particles or objects that can shield the microbes from UV, and the presence of reflectors that can direct the same UV-light through the medium multiple times. Additionally, if the microbes are not free-flowing, such as in a biofilm, they will block each other from irradiation. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published UV dosage guidelines for water treatment applications in 1986. It is difficult to measure UV dose directly but it can also be estimated from: Flow rate (contact time) Transmittance (light reaching the target) Turbidity (cloudiness) Lamp age or fouling or outages (reduction in UV intensity) Bulbs require periodic cleaning and replacement to ensure effectiveness. The lifetime of germicidal UV bulbs varies depending on design. Also, the material that the bulb is made of can absorb some of the germicidal rays. Lamp cooling under airflow can also lower UV output. The UV dose should be calculated using the end of lamp life (EOL is specified in number of hours when the lamp is expected to reach 80% of its initial UV output). Some shatter-proof lamps are coated with a fluorated ethylene polymer to contain glass shards and mercury in case of breakage; this coating reduces UV output by as much as 20%.	2.46875
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	UV source intensity is sometimes specified as irradiance at a distance of 1 meter, which can be easily converted to radiant intensity. UV intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance so it decreases at longer distances. Alternatively, it rapidly increases at distances shorter than 1m. In the above formula, the UV intensity must always be adjusted for distance unless the UV dose is calculated at exactly from the lamp. The UV dose should be calculated at the furthest distance from the lamp on the periphery of the target area. Increases in fluence can be achieved by using reflection, such that the same light passes through the medium several times before being absorbed. Aluminum has the highest reflectivity rate versus other metals and is recommended when using UV. In static applications the exposure time can be as long as needed for an effective UV dose to be reached. In waterflow/airflow disinfection, exposure time can be increased by increasing the illuminated volume, decreasing the fluid speed, or recirculating the air or water repeatedly through the illuminated section. This ensures multiple passes so that the UV is effective against the highest number of microorganisms and will irradiate resistant microorganisms more than once to break them down. Inactivation of microorganisms	2.515625
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Microbes are more susceptible to certain wavelengths of UV light, a function called the germicidal effectiveness curve. The curve for E. coli is given in the figure, with the most effective UV light having a wavelength of 265 nm. This applies to most bacteria and does not change significantly for other microbes. Dosages for a 90% kill rate of most bacteria and viruses range between 2,000 and 8,000 μJ/cm2. Larger parasites such as Cryptosporidium require a lower dose for inactivation. As a result, US EPA has accepted UV disinfection as a method for drinking water plants to obtain Cryptosporidium, Giardia or virus inactivation credits. For example, for a 90% reduction of Cryptosporidium, a minimum dose of 2,500 μW·s/cm2 is required based on EPA's 2006 guidance manual. "Sterilization" is often misquoted as being achievable. While it is theoretically possible in a controlled environment, it is very difficult to prove and the term "disinfection" is generally used by companies offering this service as to avoid legal reprimand. Specialist companies will often advertise a certain log reduction, e.g., 6-log reduction or 99.9999% effective, instead of sterilization. This takes into consideration a phenomenon known as light and dark repair (photoreactivation and base excision repair, respectively), in which a cell can repair DNA that has been damaged by UV light. Safety Skin and eye safety Many UVGI systems use UV wavelengths that can be harmful to humans, resulting in both immediate and long-term effects. Acute impacts on the eyes and skin can include conditions such as photokeratitis (often termed "snow blindness") and erythema (reddening of the skin), while chronic exposure may heighten the risk of skin cancer.	2.640625
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	However, the safety and effects of UV vary extensively by wavelength, implying that not all UVGI systems pose the same level of hazards. Humans typically encounter UV light in the form of solar UV, which comprises significant portions of UV-A and UV-B, but excludes UV-C. The UV-B band, able to penetrate deep into living, replicating tissue, is recognized as the most damaging and carcinogenic. Many standard UVGI systems, such as low-pressure mercury (LP-Hg) lamps, produce broad-band emissions in the UV-C range and also peaks in the UV-B band. This often makes it challenging to attribute damaging effects to a specific wavelength. Nevertheless, longer wavelengths in the UV-C band can cause conditions like photokeratitis and erythema. Hence, many UVGI systems are used in settings where direct human exposure is limited, such as with upper-room UVGI air cleaners and water disinfection systems. Precautions are commonly implemented to protect users of these UVGI systems, including: Warning labels: Labels alert users to the dangers of UV light. Interlocking systems: Shielded systems, such as closed water tanks or air circulation units, often have interlocks that automatically shut off the UV lamps if the system is opened for human access. Clear viewports that block UV-C are also available. Personal protective equipment: Most protective eyewear, particularly those compliant with ANSI Z87.1, block UV-C. Similarly, clothing, plastics, and most types of glass (excluding fused silica) effectively impede UV-C.	2.6875
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Since the early 2010s there has been growing interest in the far-UVC wavelengths of 200-235 nm for whole-room exposure. These wavelengths are generally considered safer due to their limited penetration depth caused by increased protein absorption. This feature confines far-UVC exposure to the superficial layers of tissue, such as the outer layer of dead skin (the stratum corneum) and the tear film and surface cells of the cornea. As these tissues do not contain replicating cells, damage to them poses less carcinogenic risk. It has also been demonstrated that far-UVC does not cause erythema or damage to the cornea at levels many times that of solar UV or conventional 254 nm UVGI systems. Exposure limits Exposure limits for UV, particularly the germicidal UV-C range, have evolved over time due to scientific research and changing technology. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) have set exposure limits to safeguard against both immediate and long-term effects of UV exposure. These limits, also referred to as Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), form the basis for emission limits in product safety standards. The UV-C photobiological spectral band is defined as 100–280 nm, with limits currently applying only from 180 to 280 nm. This reflects concerns about acute damage such as erythema and photokeratitis as well as long-term delayed effects like photocarcinogenesis. However, with the increased safety evidence surrounding UV-C for germicidal applications, the existing ACGIH TLVs were revised in 2022. The TLVs for the 222 nm UV-C wavelength (peak emissions from KrCl excimer lamps), following the 2022 revision, are now 161 mJ/cm2 for eye exposure and 479 mJ/cm2 for skin exposure over an eight-hour period. For the 254 nm UV wavelength, the updated exposure limit is now set at 6 mJ/cm2 for eyes and 10 mJ/cm2 for skin.	2.453125
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	UV and violet light are able to neutralize the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2. Viral titers usually found in the sputum of COVID-19 patients are completely inactivated by levels of UV-A and UV-B irradiation that are similar to those levels experienced from natural sun exposure. This finding suggests that the reduced incidence of SARS-COV-2 in the summer may be, in part, due to the neutralizing activity of solar UV irradiation. Various UV-emitting devices can be used for SARS-CoV-2 disinfection, and these devices may help in reducing the spread of infection. SARS-CoV-2 can be inactivated by a wide range of UVC wavelengths, and the wavelength of 222 nm provides the most effective disinfection performance. Disinfection is a function of UV intensity and time. For this reason, it is in theory not as effective on moving air, or when the lamp is perpendicular to the flow, as exposure times are dramatically reduced. However, numerous professional and scientific publications have indicated that the overall effectiveness of UVGI actually increases when used in conjunction with fans and HVAC ventilation, which facilitate whole-room circulation that exposes more air to the UV source. Air purification UVGI systems can be free-standing units with shielded UV lamps that use a fan to force air past the UV light. Other systems are installed in forced air systems so that the circulation for the premises moves microorganisms past the lamps. Key to this form of sterilization is placement of the UV lamps and a good filtration system to remove the dead microorganisms. For example, forced air systems by design impede line-of-sight, thus creating areas of the environment that will be shaded from the UV light. However, a UV lamp placed at the coils and drain pans of cooling systems will keep microorganisms from forming in these naturally damp places. Water disinfection	2.75
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	Ultraviolet disinfection of water is a purely physical, chemical-free process. Even parasites such as Cryptosporidium or Giardia, which are extremely resistant to chemical disinfectants, are efficiently reduced. UV can also be used to remove chlorine and chloramine species from water; this process is called photolysis, and requires a higher dose than normal disinfection. The dead microorganisms are not removed from the water. UV disinfection does not remove dissolved organics, inorganic compounds or particles in the water. The world's largest water disinfection plant treats drinking water for New York City. The Catskill-Delaware Water Ultraviolet Disinfection Facility, commissioned on 8 October 2013, incorporates a total of 56 energy-efficient UV reactors treating up to a day. Ultraviolet can also be combined with ozone or hydrogen peroxide to produce hydroxyl radicals to break down trace contaminants through an advanced oxidation process. It used to be thought that UV disinfection was more effective for bacteria and viruses, which have more-exposed genetic material, than for larger pathogens that have outer coatings or that form cyst states (e.g., Giardia) that shield their DNA from UV light. However, it was recently discovered that ultraviolet radiation can be somewhat effective for treating the microorganism Cryptosporidium. The findings resulted in the use of UV radiation as a viable method to treat drinking water. Giardia in turn has been shown to be very susceptible to UV-C when the tests were based on infectivity rather than excystation. It has been found that protists are able to survive high UV-C doses but are sterilized at low doses.	2.8125
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	UV water treatment devices can be used for well water and surface water disinfection. UV treatment compares favourably with other water disinfection systems in terms of cost, labour and the need for technically trained personnel for operation. Water chlorination treats larger organisms and offers residual disinfection, but these systems are expensive because they need special operator training and a steady supply of a potentially hazardous material. Finally, boiling of water is the most reliable treatment method but it demands labour and imposes a high economic cost. UV treatment is rapid and, in terms of primary energy use, approximately 20,000 times more efficient than boiling. UV disinfection is most effective for treating high-clarity, purified reverse osmosis distilled water. Suspended particles are a problem because microorganisms buried within particles are shielded from the UV light and pass through the unit unaffected. However, UV systems can be coupled with a pre-filter to remove those larger organisms that would otherwise pass through the UV system unaffected. The pre-filter also clarifies the water to improve light transmittance and therefore UV dose throughout the entire water column. Another key factor of UV water treatment is the flow rate—if the flow is too high, water will pass through without sufficient UV exposure. If the flow is too low, heat may build up and damage the UV lamp. A disadvantage of UVGI is that while water treated by chlorination is resistant to reinfection (until the chlorine off-gasses), UVGI water is not resistant to reinfection. UVGI water must be transported or delivered in such a way as to avoid reinfection.	2.453125
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	A 2006 project at University of California, Berkeley produced a design for inexpensive water disinfection in resource deprived settings. The project was designed to produce an open source design that could be adapted to meet local conditions. In a somewhat similar proposal in 2014, Australian students designed a system using potato chip (crisp) packet foil to reflect solar UV radiation into a glass tube that disinfects water without power. Modeling Sizing of a UV system is affected by three variables: flow rate, lamp power, and UV transmittance in the water. Manufacturers typically developed sophisticated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models validated with bioassay testing. This involves testing the UV reactor's disinfection performance with either MS2 or T1 bacteriophages at various flow rates, UV transmittance, and power levels in order to develop a regression model for system sizing. For example, this is a requirement for all public water systems in the United States per the EPA UV manual. The flow profile is produced from the chamber geometry, flow rate, and particular turbulence model selected. The radiation profile is developed from inputs such as water quality, lamp type (power, germicidal efficiency, spectral output, arc length), and the transmittance and dimension of the quartz sleeve. Proprietary CFD software simulates both the flow and radiation profiles. Once the 3D model of the chamber is built, it is populated with a grid or mesh that comprises thousands of small cubes. Points of interest—such as at a bend, on the quartz sleeve surface, or around the wiper mechanism—use a higher resolution mesh, whilst other areas within the reactor use a coarse mesh. Once the mesh is produced, hundreds of thousands of virtual particles are "fired" through the chamber. Each particle has several variables of interest associated with it, and the particles are "harvested" after the reactor. Discrete phase modeling produces delivered dose, head loss, and other chamber-specific parameters.	2.390625
6907585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%20germicidal%20irradiation	Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation	When the modeling phase is complete, selected systems are validated using a professional third party to provide oversight and to determine how closely the model is able to predict the reality of system performance. System validation uses non-pathogenic surrogates such as MS 2 phage or Bacillus subtilis to determine the Reduction Equivalent Dose (RED) ability of the reactors. Most systems are validated to deliver 40 mJ/cm2 within an envelope of flow and transmittance. To validate effectiveness in drinking water systems, the method described in the EPA UV guidance manual is typically used by US water utilities, whilst Europe has adopted Germany's DVGW 294 standard. For wastewater systems, the NWRI/AwwaRF Ultraviolet Disinfection Guidelines for Drinking Water and Water Reuse protocols are typically used, especially in wastewater reuse applications. Wastewater treatment Ultraviolet in sewage treatment is commonly replacing chlorination. This is in large part because of concerns that reaction of the chlorine with organic compounds in the waste water stream could synthesize potentially toxic and long lasting chlorinated organics and also because of the environmental risks of storing chlorine gas or chlorine containing chemicals. Individual wastestreams to be treated by UVGI must be tested to ensure that the method will be effective due to potential interferences such as suspended solids, dyes, or other substances that may block or absorb the UV radiation. According to the World Health Organization, "UV units to treat small batches (1 to several liters) or low flows (1 to several liters per minute) of water at the community level are estimated to have costs of US$20 per megaliter, including the cost of electricity and consumables and the annualized capital cost of the unit."	1.976563
6907588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving%20Wiltsie	Irving Wiltsie	Irving Day Wiltsie (14 November 1898 – 24 November 1943) was a United States Navy captain who was killed in action in 1943 while commanding an escort carrier in the Gilbert Islands location, in the Central Pacific during World War II. He was awarded the Navy Cross posthumously, the second highest combat decoration for valor after the Medal of Honor. Biography Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Wiltsie graduated in the United States Naval Academy class of 1921. He then served at sea in a succession of ships, including Arizona (BB-39), Wyoming (BB-32), Raleigh (CL-7), and Cleveland (CL-21). Next he underwent flight instruction at NAS Pensacola, Florida, from 1925 to 1927 and was designated as a Naval Aviator. He subsequently served in seaplane aviation units embarked aboard Milwaukee (CL-5), Memphis (CL-13), and Texas (BB-35) before he returned to NAS Pensacola as an instructor. After another tour of sea duty—in Louisville (CA-28)—Wiltsie commanded the Naval Reserve Aviation Base at Minneapolis, Minnesota, from 29 June 1935 to 4 June 1937. He later commanded the bombing squadrons attached to Saratoga (CV-3) from June 1937 to June 1939, before he served at the Naval Air Station San Diego, California. He subsequently joined Yorktown (CV-5) as navigator on 27 June 1941 and received a promotion to commander on 1 July. Wiltsie remained in Yorktown until her loss at the pivotal Battle of Midway from 4 to 6 June 1942. During the early stages of the action, Wiltsie displayed "outstanding professional ability" as he provided complete and accurate navigational information to air plot, thus enabling the carrier's air group to pinpoint their targets.	1.945313
6907588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving%20Wiltsie	Irving Wiltsie	During the Japanese torpedo attacks on 4 June, when "Kates" from the carrier Hiryū located Yorktown and carried put a successful attack against her, Wiltsie, on instructions from the captain, conned the ship from his battle station in the conning tower and was later deemed directly responsible for the ship's evading a pair of torpedoes. When injuries sustained during the attack incapacitated the carrier's executive officer, Commander Wiltsie assumed these duties and directed the organization of a salvage party which fought valiantly to save the ship. When Yorktown eventually succumbed to her damage and the coup de grace administered by Japanese submarine I-168, Wiltsie directed the salvage party and the wounded to rescuing vessels alongside the doomed carrier. Wiltsie was promoted to captain in September 1942 and commanded the seaplane tender Albemarle (AV-5) from 6 October 1942 to 12 June 1943. After this tour, he supervised the fitting-out of escort carrier Glacier (CVE-33) at the Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Company and went on to supervise the same kind of activities of Liscome Bay (CVE-56). Captain Wiltsie would command this escort carrier from August 1943 until the ship's loss off Makin, in the Gilbert Islands, the following November.	2.1875
6907588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving%20Wiltsie	Irving Wiltsie	In the predawn darkness of 24 November, Japanese submarine I-175 torpedoed Liscome Bay—the flagship of Rear Admiral Henry M. Mullinnix—which caused a mass detonation of aircraft bombs and ammunition and started fires fed by aviation gasoline. The flames spread rapidly, and the carrier rocked with explosions. Wiltsie immediately left the bridge and proceeded along the starboard gallery deck level to ascertain the damage to his ship, as communications had been severed early on. Despite the tremendous structural damage and raging fires, the captain headed aft to determine the full extent of the damage. Damage control efforts failed, however, and the carrier sank in less than 30 minutes thereafter, carrying down with it Captain Wiltsie, Admiral Mullinix, and 644 officers and men, including Third Class Cook Dorie Miller, who was awarded a Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism on a battleship during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The citation for Captain Wiltsie's posthumous Navy Cross noted his "calm, courageous action and valiant devotion to duty" which inspired the surviving members of the crew. Namesake USS Wiltsie (DD-716) was named for him.	2.15625
6907647	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardino%20Poccetti	Bernardino Poccetti	Bernardino Poccetti (26 August 1548 – 10 October 1612), also known as Barbatelli, was an Italian Mannerist painter and printmaker of etchings. Biography Born in Florence, he was initially trained as a decorator of facades and ceilings, enrolling in 1570 in the Florentine painters guild for such work, the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno, (Academy of the Arts of Drawing). He is also referred to as: Bernardino Barbatelli or Bernardino delle Grottesche, delle Facciate, or delle Muse. He initially worked in the shop of Michele Tosini, and he participated in the broadly shared decoration of the Chiostro Grande of Santa Maria Novella in the 1580s. In 1583–85, he helped decorate panegyric frescoes for the Palazzo Capponi. He also completed frescoes in San Pier Maggiore in San Pierino. In 1592–93, he worked on frescoes in the Certosa di Galluzzo relating to Life and Death of San Bruno. He painted scenes from the life of founder of the Convent of the Servites for the Annunziata. He painted scenes from the Life of St. Anthony (fresco) for San Marco. He frescoed scenes from the Life of Cosimo I as decoration of great Salon of the Pitti Palace. He also labored for other charterhouses in Pisa and Siena. He also painted frescoes, considered his masterpiece, in the Cappella del Giglio (Cappella Neri, 1599) in Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi. In his later works, he is considered one of the Florentine reformers—the so-called Counter-Maniera (Counter-Mannerism)—along with Santi di Tito, Domenico Cresti (Il Passignano), Lodovico Cigoli, Jacopo Chimenti da Empoli, Andrea Boscoli, and Gregorio Pagani. Among the painters he trained or influenced was Michelangelo Cinganelli. Other works Palazzo Usimbardi (now Palazzo Acciaiuoli (1603)) Santissima Annunziata di Pistoia Pistoia (1601) Cloister of Sant'Antonino in San Marco, Florence (1602) Massacre of the Innocents, Ospedale degli Innocenti, Florence (1610) Gallery Frescoes for Communicatorio of Sant'Apollonia Frescoes for vaults of Ospedale degli Innocenti, Florence	2.140625
6907676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coltrane%27s%20Sound	Coltrane's Sound	Coltrane's Sound is an album credited to the jazz musician John Coltrane, recorded in 1960 and released in 1964 on Atlantic Records, catalogue SD 1419. It was recorded at Atlantic Studios during the sessions for My Favorite Things, assembled after Coltrane had stopped recording for the label and was under contract to Impulse! Records. Like Prestige and Blue Note Records before them, as Coltrane's fame grew during the 1960s Atlantic used unissued recordings and released them without either Coltrane's input or approval. On February 16, 1999, Rhino Records reissued Coltrane's Sound as part of its Atlantic 50th Anniversary Jazz Gallery series. Included were two bonus tracks: "26-2" had been previously released on the 1970 album The Coltrane Legacy; and the alternate take of "Body and Soul" had been released on the 1975 album Alternate Takes. Reception In a review for AllMusic, Lindsay Planer called the album "one of the most highly underrated entries in Coltrane's voluminous catalog," and wrote: "The title could not have been more accurate, as each of the six pieces bear the unmistakable and indelible stamp of Coltrane's early-'60s style... Regardless of the lack of attention, these recordings remain among Trane's finest." Douglas Payne of All About Jazz stated: "Spin Coltrane's Sound and even non-jazz fans sense something. It's a warm, human sound that takes listeners somewhere they like to go... [it] makes for essential, enjoyable jazz listening." Writing for Jazz Views, Nick Lea described the album as a useful document "in tracing the saxophonist's transition from his coming out as a leader, and out from the shadow of his former boss to the ever searching and deeply exploratory playing that would ultimately lead to the classic A Love Supreme and the large scale Ascension."	1.992188
6907692	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midtown%20Plaza%20%28Rochester%2C%20New%20York%29	Midtown Plaza (Rochester, New York)	Midtown Plaza is a city district in downtown Rochester, New York. The site was originally occupied by an indoor shopping mall designed by Victor Gruen and opened in 1962. Although it was primarily promoted as a retail space, Gruen's vision was for the plaza to function as an all-purpose community space to revitalize the downtown area. The original mall was closed in 2008 after a decline in retail activity and partially demolished. Since 2010 the site has been redeveloped with new buildings and an open lot known as Parcel 5. History The idea for Midtown Plaza started with discussions between Gilbert J.C. McCurdy, owner of the McCurdy's department stores, and Maurice F. Forman, owner of the B. Forman Co. department stores, in 1956. At that time, strip plazas were growing in popularity. Though both owners had opened branch stores, they were concerned about Downtown Rochester's viability amid falling retail sales and came up with the idea of an indoor shopping center. A partnership was formed with the city government, which built a parking garage for the facility. The Midtown Plaza venture was announced to great fanfare in January 1958. Designed by Victor Gruen, the plaza was opened before on April 10, 1962, before a crowd of 5,000. It was the first downtown indoor mall in the United States. The first enclosed shopping center had been Southdale Center in suburban Minneapolis in 1956, also designed by Gruen.	2.046875
6907692	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midtown%20Plaza%20%28Rochester%2C%20New%20York%29	Midtown Plaza (Rochester, New York)	City officials and planners from around the globe came to see Gruen's solution to the mid-century urban crisis, including Walt Disney, who was then designing EPCOT. Midtown won several design awards. Gruen described the aerial view of Rochester as a giant parking lot with a few buildings to inconvenience traffic flow. His intention was to create a pedestrian-friendly town square for Rochester, inspired by public squares in his native city of Vienna. He incorporated art, benches, fountains, a four hundred-seat auditorium, and a sidewalk cafe into his plans hoping to encourage the sort of social intermingling that he saw as the enriching essence of urban life. Later in life, Gruen dismissed the strictly commercial suburban malls as "those bastard developments". In addition to the shopping center, the Plaza also included an 18-story office building, which at one time held an upscale hotel and restaurant — the Top Of The Plaza — on its top four floors. Count Basie, Buddy Rich, Gap Mangione and many other nationally known jazz artists played at the Top Of The Plaza several times, and the restaurant was a popular site for receptions, business parties, and special-occasion dinners.	2.015625
6907724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Newfoundland%20referendums	1948 Newfoundland referendums	The Newfoundland referendums of 1948 were a series of two referendums to decide the political future of the Dominion of Newfoundland. Before the referendums, Newfoundland was in debt and went through several delegations to determine whether the country would join Canada ("confederation"), remain under British rule or regain independence. The voting for the referendums occurred on June 3 and July 22, 1948. The eventual result was for Newfoundland to enter into Confederation, which it did on March 31, 1949, becoming the tenth province of Canada. Background Newfoundland was the first region in what would become Canada to be settled by Europeans, but was the last to obtain either a local representative government or responsible government. In 1832, it received local representative government in the form of a locally elected body of officials overseen by a governor. The British granted responsible government, in which the government is responsible to the legislature and elected officials occupy ministerial jobs, in 1855. Newfoundland did not send any delegates to the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, which was to discuss a union of Maritime colonies. Later that year, Newfoundland attended the Quebec Conference, called by John A. Macdonald to discuss a greater British North America union. The two Newfoundland delegates, Frederick Carter and Ambrose Shea, returned in favour of a union with Canada. However, Confederation was highly unpopular with the Newfoundland public, and the Government of Newfoundland did not send representatives to the London Conference of 1866, in which the British government and the colonies agreed to the terms of the British North America Act. Opponents of Confederation decisively won the 1869 Newfoundland general election. In 1907, Newfoundland became a self-governing Dominion separate from Canada.	2.890625
6907724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Newfoundland%20referendums	1948 Newfoundland referendums	By the 1920s and the 1930s, Newfoundland was almost $40 million in debt, and on the verge of economic collapse. A commission recommended Newfoundland to be "given a rest from party politics" and to be administered by a special Commission of Government. Chaired by the governor, it would consist of three people from Newfoundland and three from the United Kingdom. Backing the recommendation was the United Kingdom, which agreed to take on Newfoundland's debts. The Commission of Government began on February 16, 1934. Prosperity returned when the Americans were invited to the island by Britain to set up military bases in 1941 to 1945. The American Bases Act became law in Newfoundland on June 11, 1941. Newfoundland girls married American personnel by the thousands. In 1948 there was a short-lived but growing movement for some sort of economic union with the United States. The British government, keen to cut expenditure after World War II, hoped that Newfoundland would decide to join the confederation and end the rule by commission. Newfoundland first asked Canada for help in a return to responsible government. However, the response from the Canadian government was that it was not interested in helping Newfoundland economically unless Newfoundland joined Confederation. The British did not want their colony to become an American possession, and the Canadian government, despite being convinced that absorbing Newfoundland would not benefit Canada economically, thought that the annexation would be the lesser of two evils when compared to the prospect of the country being almost completely surrounded by American territory.	2.859375
6907724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Newfoundland%20referendums	1948 Newfoundland referendums	Seeking a union with the United States was not a referendum option, despite the idea having some currency amongst locals. With the Cold War looming, U.S. interests in Newfoundland were centred primarily on its strategic importance to the defence of North America. The Americans' ability to maintain bases on the island satisfied those concerns — after receiving assurances that the Canadian government would honour the leases for bases on Newfoundland, the U.S. State Department had no further interest in the political future of Newfoundland. President Harry S. Truman's administration had little incentive to pursue annexation. With respect to foreign policy, such a territorial ambition would have only served to antagonize two key allies. With respect to domestic policy, the administration would not likely have been able to convince Congress to offer statehood to Newfoundland due to its small population and geographical isolation from the then-48 existing states, and would not likely have been able to convince Newfoundlanders to accept territorial status as an alternative to admission as a U.S. state. Newfoundland National Convention The British government decided to let Newfoundlanders deliberate and choose their own future by calling a National Convention in 1946. Chaired by Judge Cyril J. Fox, it consisted of 45 elected members, one of whom was the future first premier of Newfoundland, Joey Smallwood. The Convention set up committees to study where Newfoundland's future lay. Many members assumed that the final decision was due near the end of their deliberations, but the timeline was upset when Smallwood moved that the Convention should send a delegation to Ottawa to discuss a union in October 1946. His motion was defeated, as it only received the support of 17 members, although the Convention later decided to send delegations to both London and Ottawa. London delegation	2.703125
6907724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Newfoundland%20referendums	1948 Newfoundland referendums	Referenda Newfoundland recommended that the British Government hold a referendum on Newfoundland's future. London agreed that a referendum was a good idea, and left it up to the Convention to decide what was to be on the ballot. Originally, the Convention decided that only two choices were to be on the ballot: restoration of responsible government and the continuation of the Commission of Government. Smallwood moved on January 23, 1948, to add Confederation with Canada to the choices. The debate ended at 5:30a.m. on January 28, with the motion being defeated 29–16. The British government intervened in March and overruled the Convention, deciding that Confederation with Canada would indeed be on the ballot. They did this after having concluded, "It would not be right that the people of Newfoundland should be deprived of an opportunity of considering the issue at the referendum". Factions Three main factions actively campaigned during the lead up to the referendums. One faction, led by Smallwood, was the Confederate Association (CA) advocating entering into Confederation. They campaigned through a newspaper known as The Confederate. The Responsible Government League (RGL), led by Peter Cashin, advocated an independent Newfoundland with a return to responsible government. They also had their own newspaper, The Independent. A third smaller Economic Union Party (EUP), led by Chesley Crosbie, advocated closer economic ties with the United States. First referendum The first referendum took place on June 3, 1948. The votes were as follows:	2.59375
6907733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler%20Canada%20Greenway	Chrysler Canada Greenway	The Chrysler Canada Greenway is a rail trail in Essex County, Ontario, Canada, between Oldcastle (near Windsor) and Leamington. History The trail follows the route of a former railway branch line from Windsor, Ontario, south and east through Kingsville to Leamington, Ontario. The rail line was built by Hiram Walker to connect his distillery in Windsor to Kingsville in 1882 and was extended to Leamington in 1889. The rail line operated as the Canadian branch of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway and by the late 1980s was operated by CSX Transportation. A portion of the rail line from Windsor to Blenheim was abandoned in 1989, and the rail line was donated to the Essex Region Conservation Authority (ERCA) in 1993. In exchange for naming rights, Chrysler Canada provided a $250,000 donation to convert the rail line to a bike trail. Work was finished on the trail by 1997, and it opened that year to use. The remainder of the rail line would also be abandoned, and its tracks removed to where they branch from the mainline between Highgate and Muirkirk. The 1998 ECRA budget included $406,000 to develop the Chrysler Canada Greenway, part of which came from the sale of ravine land. The Harrow Rotary Club provided $40,000 in development costs. The first of the Greenway, between Queen Street in Harrow east to Ferriss Side Road, were opened on 29 May 1998. Along with the rail lines, the ECRA also acquired an 1889 stone train station but did not have the funds to preserve it. Development plans to complete the trail were estimated at $750,000 in late 1998, with a federal grant of $145,000.	2.078125
6907733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler%20Canada%20Greenway	Chrysler Canada Greenway	By 2001, CN Rail took note of the popularity of the trail and donated an additional 26-km spur line from Amherstburg, Ontario to Essex, Ontario, a portion of the rail line operated by the Canada Southern Railway, which was abolished in 1977. (The rails for this spur, were removed in 1995 and the spur leading from Comber to Leamington removed in 2001, eliminating three at-grade railroad crossings on Highway 3). ERCA has stated they intend on converting the new trail from Amhurstburg to Essex as soon as funds become available. There has been no announcements regarding a possible conversion of the Leamington-Comber rail corridor. ERCA, Ontario Parks and Parks Canada have stated interest on turning the entire abandoned rail corridor from Ruthven to St. Thomas into an extended Chrysler Canada Greenway, linking up with trails in Delhi and Simcoe, providing a single long trail corridor from Windsor to London and Kitchener, and possibly to Hamilton then linking to Toronto via the Waterfront Trail. It is currently unknown if Leamington intends on converting its abandoned rail corridors to trails. LaSalle, Ontario, has also expressed its interest and intentions to link the Windsor Trail and its own LaSalle Trail network to the Greenway. How to travel The Greenway allows several different modes of transportation: cycling, walking, horseback riding and cross-country skiing. Alignment The trail starts at the junction with Kings Highway 3, with signs to cross at the nearby Walker Road due to the dangerously high levels of traffic. The trail also has an unofficial "extension" which continues 2 km straight to its terminus with North Talbot Road. The Greenway also has five "Community Entrances", three of which (Harrow, Kingsville, and Ruthven) are of "service center" standards. The Greenway surface is crushed gravel. The route passes through towns and farmland, crossing creeks and connecting 25 woodlots. Note: Not all exits are initially listed. more will be added as information is received.	2.046875
6907803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbins%20Reef%20Light	Robbins Reef Light	The Robbins Reef Light Station is a sparkplug lighthouse located off Constable Hook in Bayonne, Hudson County, New Jersey, United States, along the west side of Main Channel, Upper New York Bay. The tower and integral keepers quarters were built in 1883. It replaced an octagonal granite tower built in 1839. The U.S. Coast Guard owned and operated the light station until the 2000s. Position The light is located on a small ridge of sand named Robyn's Rift by the Dutch settlers of the area. The reef is now called Robbins Reef. It is situated near the entrance to the Kill van Kull, a strait connecting New York Bay to Newark Bay. The channel is one of the most heavily used in the Port of New York and New Jersey, accessing Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal. History The name derives from the New Netherland era of the 17th century. In Dutch rob or robyn means seal, groups of which would sometimes lie on the reef at low tide. The structure is also called Kate's Light for Kate Walker who "manned" the station alone after the death of her husband Captain John Walker in 1886, until 1919. She rowed her children to school in Bayonne. Herman Westgate was the last keeper of the lighthouse before it was finally automated. In 2009 Robbins Reef was put up for sale under the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act. In 2011, the Noble Maritime Collection, a maritime museum on Staten Island, was granted stewardship of the light station by the U.S. General Services Administration. The octagonal structure near Robbins Reef Lighthouse is not the base of the original 1839 tower but rather a sewer outfall that was constructed around 1915.	2.328125
6907817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeb%20Mesfin	Azeb Mesfin	Azeb Mesfin Haile (Amharic and ; born 21 December 1966) is an Ethiopian politician who was the second First Lady of Ethiopia from 2001 to 2012. Azeb is the widow of Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi. She is the founder and patron of National Initiative for Mental Health of Ethiopia. In early 2009, she was appointed CEO of the Endowment Fund for the Rehabilitation of Tigray by its head Abadi Zemu. Early life Azeb was born in Welkait in the Tigray region, and was raised in Gadarif, Eastern Sudan. She is the daughter of an Amhara peasant farmer father Mesfin Haile and a Tigrayan mother Konjit Gola. Her maternal grandfather, Gola Goshu was as an Italian Askari during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1936). Due his action in the country, Gola was killed by Ethiopian patriots. From an early age, Azeb was raised by her aunt Maniahlosh Gola who is the daughter of this "Fitawrari" a title given to Goshu by Italian invaders meaning Commander of the vanguard; a feudal era military title. Azeb was married to Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi until his death in 2012. Together they had three children: Semhal, Marda and Senay Meles. Career She was elected in 2005 to the House of Peoples' Representatives (the lower House of the Ethiopian Parliament) representing her home woreda of Welkait and Humera, and serves as chair of its Social Affairs Standing Committee. Her role has at times been controversial, with some members of Ethiopian diaspora alleging that, during the period in which she was an executive at the parastatal Mega Corporation, she was involved in "the impropriety of mingling public, private and party-owned businesses."	1.960938
6907878	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorseddau%20Junction%20and%20Portmadoc%20Railway	Gorseddau Junction and Portmadoc Railway	The Gorseddau Junction and Portmadoc Railway (GJ&PR) was a Welsh tramway. The GJ&PR was a narrow-gauge railway connecting the slate quarries of Cwm Pennant with the wharves at Porthmadog harbour. It was built in 1872, partly as a conversion of the earlier gauge Gorseddau Tramway, which in itself had incorporated the even earlier gauge Tremadoc Tramway. It opened to mineral and goods traffic in 1875. Route and operation The main line followed the route of the original Gorseddau Tramway from Porthmadog through Tremadoc, Penmorfa and Ynys-y-Pandy to Gorseddau quarry. On conversion, the line from Porthmadog to Braich-y-bib, just north of Ynys-y-Pandy, was regauged to . A new extension was added from Braich-y-bib. This led west along the Cwm Pennant before heading north to Cwm Trwsgl where inclines served the Prince of Wales and Dol-ifan-Gethin slate quarries and the Cwm Dywfor copper and lead mine. This branch added an additional 5 miles to the length of the railway, for a total length of 13 miles. At Porthmadog the last few hundred yards of the original Gorseddau route were abandoned and traffic was worked to the wharves over the Croesor Tramway. At around the same time the line from Braich-y-bib to Gorseddau quarry had been abandoned. The Prince of Wales quarry supplied most of the traffic for the railway during its existence. Unlike its predecessor the GJ&PR had a single steam locomotive, a vertical boilered De Winton named Pert, although it continued to use horses as motive power for most of its existence. The locomotive is believed to have been disused after 1878, and to have been sold in 1896 to Glodd-fa'r-Glai Quarry which was connected to the Nantlle Railway. Abandonment	2.09375
6907994	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Castiglia	Jim Castiglia	James Vincent Castiglia (September 30, 1918 – December 26, 2007) was an American professional football fullback in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins and Philadelphia Eagles as well as the Baltimore Colts of the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). He also briefly played Major League Baseball as a catcher for the Philadelphia Athletics. On September 7, 1947, Castiglia scored the first touchdown in Baltimore Colts franchise history on a kickoff fumble recovery. Biography Early life Jim Castiglia was born September 30, 1918, in Passaic, New Jersey. He attended Passaic High School where he was a three-sport athlete, making his mark on the football team as a star fullback, as a guard on the basketball team, and the baseball team as a catcher. Regarded as a particularly hard tackler on defense and a powerful runner of the football, Castiglia was elected 1936 team captain by his teammates at the end of the 1935 season. Castiglia led his team to the New Jersey Group IV state championship in 1936 and was selected to the All-County team for the Passaic County Interscholastic League. College career Castiglia attended Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. in 1937, gaining notice of the coaches of the school's freshman football team as "one of the greatest backs in many years" to attend the school. He became eligible to play for head coach Jack Hagerty's varsity football squad as a sophomore in 1938. He was not regarded as a star during the 1938 or 1939 seasons, only finding his way during his 1940 senior year. In the third game of the 1940 season against Temple University, Castiglia popped a 16-yard run up the middle for a touchdown, helping the Hoyas continue their undefeated record that dated back to 1937.	2.0625
6908058	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Markov	Alexander Markov	Alexander Markov is a Russian American violinist who has received awards from the Paganini International Violin Competition (gold medal) and the Avery Fisher Career Grant. He is known for his recording of Paganini's 24 Caprices for Solo Violin, particularly for his interpretation of the left-hand pizzicato section of the 24th Caprice. A film of Markov playing the Caprices was directed by Bruno Monsaingeon. Markov was born in Moscow and studied violin with his father, concert violinist Albert Markov. By the time he was eight years old, he was appearing as a soloist with orchestras and performing double concertos with his father. Markov emigrated to the U.S. with his parents and received his United States citizenship in 1982. He made his New York debut recital at Carnegie Hall and appeared with Christoph Eschenbach conducting the Mostly Mozart Festival Orchestra at Avery Fisher Hall. Markov has recorded for the Erato label, distributed worldwide by Warner Classics. His releases have included the Tchaikovsky pieces for violin and piano. He has performed with Charles Dutoit, Ivan Fischer, Neeme Järvi, Zdeněk Mácal, Lorin Maazel, and Gerard Schwarz. He has performed with the orchestras such as the Philadelphia Orchestra, Orchestre de Paris, the BBC Symphony, the Montreal Symphony, the Budapest Festival Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony, the New Jersey Symphony, the Seattle Symphony and Houston, Baltimore, Cincinnati and Jerusalem orchestras. He played to great acclaim at the Llandeilo Music festival in west Wales in July 2012. Yehudi Menuhin has written "He is without doubt one of the most brilliant and musical of violinists… Alexander Markov will certainly leave his mark on the music-lovers of the world and in the annals of the violin virtuosi of our day".	1.90625
6908123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorelei%20%28Mutate%29	Lorelei (Mutate)	Lorelei (Lani Ubana) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Publication history The character's first appearance was in The X-Men #63 (Dec. 1969), and was created by Roy Thomas and Neal Adams. The character subsequently appears in The Avengers #105 (Nov. 1972), The Defenders #15-16 (Sept.–Oct. 1974), The Uncanny X-Men #104 (April 1977), The Champions #17 (Jan. 1978), Super-Villain Team-Up #14 (Oct. 1977), Marvel Fanfare #1-4 (March–Sept. 1982), Captain America #415-417 (May–July 1993), X-Men: The Hidden Years #4 (March 2000), Cable & Deadpool #49 (March 2008), and Marvel Comics Presents #6-7 (April–May 2008). Lorelei appeared as part of the "Savage Land Mutates" entry in The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Deluxe Edition #11. Fictional character biography Lorelei is a Savage Land native until Magneto turns her into a mutated siren, whose voice can put men into a hypnotic trance, and she is placed in his Savage Land Mutates group. However, the machine that Magneto had used to empower his Savage Land creations is eventually destroyed. As a result, Lorelei lost her siren powers. Some time later, she was seen with her powers somehow restored. She made a further appearance with the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants. Years later, Lorelei was seen allied with the High Technician in the Savage Land. She battled Captain America and attempted to hypnotize the Falcon, but was quickly defeated by Diamondback. Much later, she manipulated Ka-Zar to battle Deadpool. This was part of a mission to expand the dominion of the Savage Land. She uses many of the Land's inhabitants. Deadpool shoots her prehistoric ride and leaves her falling towards a group of dinosaurs. She survives this incident. Lorelei helps chase out invading mercenaries.	2
6908226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolyn%20Wells	Carolyn Wells	Carolyn Wells (June 18, 1862 — March 26, 1942) was an American mystery author and poet. Life and career Born in Rahway, New Jersey, she was the daughter of William Edmund and Anna Potter Wells (nee Woodruff). After finishing school, she worked as a librarian for the Rahway Library Association. Her first book, At the Sign of the Sphinx (1896), was a collection of literary charades. Her next publications were The Jingle Book and The Story of Betty (1899), followed by a book of verse entitled Idle Idyls (1900). After 1900, Wells wrote numerous novels and collections of poetry. Carolyn Wells wrote a total 170 books. During the first ten years of her career, she concentrated on poetry, humor, and children's books. According to her autobiography, The Rest of My Life (1937), she heard That Affair Next Door (1897), one of Anna Katharine Green's mystery novels, being read aloud and was immediately captivated by the unraveling of the puzzle. From that point onward, she devoted herself to the mystery genre. Among the most famous of her mystery novels were the Fleming Stone Detective Stories which—according to Allen J. Hubin's Crime Fiction IV: A Comprehensive Bibliography, 1749–2000 (2003)—number 61 titles. Wells's The Clue (1909) is on the Haycraft-Queen Cornerstone list of essential mysteries. She was also the first to conduct a (brief, in this case) annual series devoted to the best short crime fiction of the previous year in the U.S., beginning with The Best American Mystery Stories of the Year (1931) (though others had begun a similar British series in 1929).	1.9375
6908244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20L.%20Green	Roger L. Green	Member of New York State Assembly After a historic election that required him to win an unprecedented three primary runoffs, Roger Green was elected to the New York State Assembly in November 1980. He was a member of the State Assembly (57th D.) from 1981 to 2006 (with an interruption in 2004), sitting in the 184th, 185th, 186th, 187th, 188th, 189th, 190th, 191st, 192nd, 193rd, 194th, 195th, and 196th New York State Legislatures. During his tenure in public office, he distinguished himself as an architect of laws, policies and institutions that defined his commitment to civil and human rights within New York State, the nation, and the world community. Beginning in 1981, he participated in numerous mass mobilizations and legislative mobilizations dedicated to the abolition of police brutality. In response to the deaths of Luis Baez, Randolph Evans and Eleanor Bumpurs, Green authored legislation creating the Center for Law and Social Justice at Medgar Evers College. This social justice advocacy organization has become a renowned transformative vehicle for the abolition of racial injustice. The center worked with the New York City Council to author the disparity study, which quantified discriminatory practices within the construction industry. In 1983, Coretta Scott King and labor leader Cleveland Robinson asked Green to serve as the New York State political coordinator for the Memorial March on Washington. It was during this period that Green authored the bill that established the New York State Martin Luther King Holiday Commission and the bill establishing the New York State Martin Luther King Institute. In 1985 and 1986, in conjunction with the founding of the federal Martin Luther King Jr. Day, Governor Cuomo signed these bills into law.	2.25
6908244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20L.%20Green	Roger L. Green	From 1986 to 1988, Green served his first tenure as chair of the New York State Black and Puerto Rican Legislative Caucus. During his term, the caucus was viewed as the preeminent voice in support of laws designed to reduce and prosecute racial violence. Following the racial killing of Michael Griffith in the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn, Green joined the Reverend Al Sharpton, Reverend Timothy Mitchell and Reverend Herbert Daughtry in citywide protests entitled the Day of Outrage. After his arrest for civil disobedience, Green returned to Albany and worked with Assemblyman Arthur O. Eve in the co-authorship of the New York State Anti-Bias Bill. This bill was the first comprehensive legislation to include prosecution for violence against members of the gay community. In 1994, Ralph J. Marino, the N.Y. senate majority leader of the Republican Caucus, presented Green and Eve with an opportunity to pass their bill if they would agree to drop "gay rights" language from their proposal. Green, Eve, and other members of the Caucus considered this an unprincipled compromise. During a debate within the Assembly, Green quoted Martin Luther King Jr.'s admonition that "an injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere"… Six years later, following a major "March for Justice" and lobbying effort, the anti-bias bill, authored by Green and Eve, was signed into law. From 1986 to 1991, the New York State Martin Luther King Institute trained more than 1,000 high school and college students through its Ella Baker Academy. Students participating in this program learned the theory and practice of non-violent conflict resolution. Students were also provided with an opportunity to study civil rights and human rights social history.	2.1875
6908244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20L.%20Green	Roger L. Green	South Africa and Rwanda From 1982 to 1992, Green was actively involved in the global struggle to dismantle apartheid and to establish a free democratic South Africa. Green served as co-sponsor of the State Divestiture Bill, which was authored by Albert Vann. Green also served as political coordinator for the June 14 March Against Apartheid. It was the largest anti-apartheid demonstration in the history of the U.S. After the march, the U.N. Special Commission on Human Rights appointed Green as one of eight U.S. delegates to the World Conference Against Apartheid in Paris, which was organized to develop strategies to eliminate this injustice. After Nelson Mandela was released, Green worked directly with the leadership of the African National Congress, Harry Belafonte, and labor leaders Cleveland Robinson and Jim Bell to formulate the Nelson Mandela Welcoming Committee involved in Mandela’s historic visit to the U.S. From 1989 to 2005, Green served with distinction as the chair of the Standing Committee on Children and Families in the New York State Legislature. During his tenure, Green authored numerous groundbreaking laws dedicated to protecting the rights of children. During the height of the genocidal conflict within Rwanda, Dr. Vera Makonde, representing survivors of this tragedy who lived in the U.S., urged Green to serve as the chair of the Rwanda Children's Aid Committee. He accepted this responsibility. As chair of the Committee, he raised moral and material support for the children who were orphaned or made refugees as a result of this crisis. Resignation Green resigned his seat on June 1, 2004, after pleading guilty to petty larceny in connection with $3,000 in false travel reimbursement claims. As part of a plea deal, he served three years' probation, was fined $2,000, and had to pay $3,000 in restitution. Later that year, he ran for the Assembly and was re-elected to the same seat he had held.	2.421875
6908253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20family%20features	Microsoft family features	Microsoft family features (includes family safety features formerly known as Microsoft Family Safety, formerly Parental Controls in Windows 7 and Vista) is a free set of features available on Windows 10 PC and Mobile that is bundled with the Windows 10, Home edition operating system. On July 17, 2020, Microsoft released Microsoft Family Safety on Google Play and App Store (iOS) as well. Starting in Windows 10, a Microsoft Account is required to use the Microsoft family features. A parent can manage settings for a child if both of their Microsoft Accounts are in the same family. When parents turn on settings for their child, these settings are applied to every device that the child logs into with that Microsoft Account. Other changes to family safety features in Windows 10 include Windows Store purchase controls and the ability to find a child's Windows 10 Mobile device on a map. History Microsoft has offered family safety features since March 2006 when a preview of Windows Live OneCare Family Safety was first offered to 3000 beta testers. After over a year and a half of testing, the final version was released on November 6, 2007. On December 15, 2008, Microsoft released an updated version 2009 of the software, and rebranded it as Windows Live Family Safety, removing it from the discontinued Windows Live OneCare family of products. Web Filtering and Activity Reporting were previously features in Windows Vista Parental Controls. They were removed from the Windows 7 release when they were moved to Windows Live. On September 30, 2010, Windows Live Family Safety 2011 (Wave 4) was released as part of Windows Live Essentials 2011. On May 14, 2012, Microsoft announced that Windows Live Family Safety will be renamed to Microsoft Family Safety and will be built-in as part of its Windows 8 operating system. In August 2015, Microsoft Family Safety was renamed Microsoft Family Features and the family features offering was expanded beyond that of just family safety to include Windows Store funding.	2
6908253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20family%20features	Microsoft family features	Windows 10 features Partial Web Filtering – Web filtering is restricted to Microsoft Edge and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers (excluding Windows 10 Mobile). Turning on web filtering for a child blocks access to adult websites and enables safe search, which filters out adult content in search results from Bing, Google, Yahoo! and other popular search engines. When Web Filtering is enabled, the safe search setting blurs out adult content in images. The web filter provides blacklisting and whitelisting of websites by a parent account. Web Filtering blocks InPrivate browsing in Microsoft Internet Explorer and Microsoft Edge. When the child is blocked from visiting a website, they can send a request to the parent asking for permission. Upon approval the child can visit the website. Most other commonly used browsers are automatically blocked, but can be enabled if required. Activity Reporting – Parents can obtain a list of the websites visited, device usage time, and apps used for any Windows 10 PC or Mobile devices. Screen time - Parents can restrict the amount of time a child can use the PC, and specify the time intervals that PCs can be used as well as a maximum time allowance per PC. A parent can approve extensions when time runs out. App, games & media limits (Store only) - In Windows 10 it is no longer possible to block non-Windows Store applications. Only Windows Store apps can be restricted. Parents can set an age rating for content that a child can acquire in the Windows Store. This applies to apps, games, music, and movie content that a child can browse or acquire in the Windows Store. Parents can explicitly block Store apps or games but only after they have been used by the child.	2.46875
6908407	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brody%20Castle	Brody Castle	Brody Castle (, Brodivskyi zamok) is a former fortress in the city of Brody, part of Lviv Oblast, Ukraine. History and overview The earliest information about the construction of the castle in Brody town refers to the 1580s. Crown Hetman () Stanisław Koniecpolski acquired Brody town in 1629 and built the castle bastion of a new type between 1630 and 1635 under the supervision of Italian architect Andrea del Aqua, based on a design by Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan. The castle was pentagonal in plan and included five bastions and curtain walls, with octagonal dungeons in the middle. It was surrounded by the deep moat. The total number of casemates in the castle was 75; they were used as barracks and warehouses. The governor lived in a wooden house in the castle grounds. This house, as well as a wooden chapel, remained until the middle of the 18th century. The castle and the fortress withstood a siege by Cossack troops that lasted several weeks during the Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648. During the Battle of Berestechko (1651) the fortress was the Polish military base. Here the captive Cossacks were detained. In the late 1660s the castle was renovated, and thanks to this the locals could hide there during the Turkish campaigns in 1672 and in 1676. The castle was acquired in 1704 by the Potocki family. Count Potocki reconstructed the castle for his own residence in rococo style. In 1772, after the First Partition of Poland, Brody town was withdrawn by Austria. Russian forces ravaged Brody during the War of the Polish Succession. At the order of the Austrian administration, most of the remaining fortifications were demolished by Wincenty Potocki in 1812: the ravelin, the clock tower, two bastions from the city side; the moat was filled.	2.015625
6908540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Ward%20%28Virginia%29	Fort Ward (Virginia)	Fort Ward is a former Union Army installation now located in the city of Alexandria in the U.S. state of Virginia. It was the fifth largest fort built to defend Washington, D.C. in the American Civil War. It is currently well-preserved with 90-95% of its earthen walls intact. Occupation of Arlington Before the outbreak of the Civil War, Alexandria County, the closest part of Virginia to Washington, D.C., was a predominantly rural area. Originally part of the District of Columbia, the land now comprising the county was retroceded to Virginia in a July 9, 1846 act of Congress that took effect in 1847. Most of the county is hilly, and at the time, most of the county's population was concentrated in the city of Alexandria, at the far southeastern corner of the county. In 1861, the rest of the county largely consisted of scattered farms, the occasional house, fields for grazing livestock, and Arlington House, owned by Mary Custis, wife of Robert E. Lee. Following the surrender of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 14, 1861, new American president Abraham Lincoln declared that "an insurrection existed," and called for 75,000 troops to be called up to quash the rebellion. The move sparked resentment in many other southern states, which promptly moved to convene discussions of secession. The Virginia State Convention passed "an ordinance of secession" and ordered a May 23 referendum to decide whether or not the state should secede from the Union. The U.S. Army responded by creating the Department of Washington, which united all Union troops in the District of Columbia and Maryland under one command.	2.703125
6908540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Ward%20%28Virginia%29	Fort Ward (Virginia)	The imposing scene was at the Long Bridge, where the main body of the troops crossed. Eight thousand infantry, two regular cavalry companies and two sections of Sherman's artillery battalion, consisting of two batteries, were in line this side of the Long Bridge at two o'clock. The occupation of Northern Virginia was peaceful, with the sole exception of the town of Alexandria. There, as Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth, commander of the New York Fire Zouaves (11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment), entered a local hotel to remove the Confederate flag flying above it, he was shot and killed by James W. Jackson, the proprietor. Ellsworth was one of the first men killed in the American Civil War. Jackson was then killed by invading Federal soldiers of the 11th New York. Throughout the remainder of the war, Alexandria would lean strongly towards the Confederate government, necessitating continued occupation by a Union garrison. Battle of Bull Run Over the seven weeks that followed the occupation of northern Virginia, forts were constructed along the banks of the Potomac River and at the approaches to each of the three major bridges (Chain Bridge, Long Bridge, and Aqueduct Bridge) connecting Virginia to Washington and Georgetown. While the Potomac River forts were being built, planning and surveying was ordered for an enormous new ring of forts to protect the city. Unlike the fortifications under construction, the new forts would defend the city in all directions, not just the most direct route through Arlington. In mid-July, this work was interrupted by the First Battle of Bull Run. As the Army of Northeastern Virginia marched south to Manassas, the soldiers previously assigned to construction duties marched instead to battle. In the days that followed the Union defeat at Bull Run, panicked efforts were made to defend Washington from what was perceived as an imminent Confederate attack. The makeshift trenches and earthworks that resulted were largely confined to Arlington and the direct approaches to Washington.	2.765625
6908540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Ward%20%28Virginia%29	Fort Ward (Virginia)	On July 26, 1861, five days after the battle, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan was named commander of the military district of Washington and the subsequently renamed Army of the Potomac. Upon arriving in Washington, McClellan was appalled by the condition of the city's defenses. In no quarter were the dispositions for defense such as to offer a vigorous resistance to a respectable body of the enemy, either in the position and numbers of the troops or the number and character of the defensive works... not a single defensive work had been commenced on the Maryland side. There was nothing to prevent the enemy shelling the city from heights within easy range, which could be occupied by a hostile column almost without resistance. To remedy the situation, one of McClellan's first orders upon taking command was to greatly expand the defenses of Washington. At all points of the compass, forts and entrenchments would be constructed in sufficient strength to defeat any attack. Alexandria, which contained the southern terminus of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and one of the largest ports in the Chesapeake Bay, was an object of "anxious study." Planning and construction It was named for US Navy Commander James H. Ward, killed at Mathias Point. It was designed with a perimeter of 540 yards and platforms for 24 guns. Later, a 100-pound Parrott gun was added. The larger guns made the fort vulnerable if besieged. In 1863, the perimeter was expanded to 818 yards with room for 36 guns. Gen. John Newton, who was in charge of the forts south of Four Mile Run, supervised the construction and managed the flow of men and material. Liberated slaves, also known as "contrabands", helped build the defenses to protect Washington from invasion by Confederate forces during the Civil War. The Fort was named for the first Union naval officer to die in the war. Fort Ward never saw any attacks, and was dismantled in November 1865, though many African- Americans continued to live there into the 1900s.	3.015625
6908552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lautaro%20%28volcano%29	Lautaro (volcano)	Lautaro is an active subglacial stratovolcano located in Chilean Patagonia, in the northern part of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field. Its summit rises roughly above the average surface of the ice cap plateau. Geography and geomorphology Lautaro is located within the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, and is the highest summit in its area. Bad weather and remote location make the volcano difficult to access. The existence of a volcano at Lautaro was recognized in 1879, but it was identified as Lautaro only in 1961. The volcano was named in 1952; it was originally named "volcán de Los Gigantes" and sometimes confused with the neighbouring non-volcano Cerro FitzRoy. The volcano is a composite volcano and a stratovolcano covered with glaciers. Its elevation is variously given as , or . It rises about above the surrounding ice, and bears traces of glacial erosion. The edifice covers an area of about and about 90% of it is covered with ice. It has a parasitic vent on the western side and two volcanic craters just north of the summit, one of which is wide. The Lautaro Glacier descends the western slope, while the icefield at the eastern foot is drained by the O'Higgins Glacier. It is part of the Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ), a belt of volcanoes in southwesternmost South America that includes (from north to south) Lautaro, Viedma, Aguilera, Reclus, Burney and Cook. All these volcanoes do not exceed height and most have produced tephras during the Holocene. North of Lautaro comes first a volcanic gap, then Mount Hudson from the Southern Volcanic Zone. Geology	2.703125
6908552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lautaro%20%28volcano%29	Lautaro (volcano)	Off the southwestern tip of South America, the Antarctic Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of . The subduction process is responsible for the volcanism of the AVZ. To the north the subduction zone is limited by the Chile Triple Junction, to the south it gradually leads into the Magallanes-Fagnano fault zone. Other volcanoes in the region are Cerro Pampa northeast of Lautaro, which was active in the Miocene, Cerro del Fraile south-southeast and the Pali-Aike volcanic field far southeast of it. With the exception of a granite outcrop west of the volcano, the basement under Lautaro is hidden beneath ice, but in the rest of the AVZ it consists of Paleozoic-Mesozoic metamorphic rocks, subsequent Mesozoic to Cenozoic volcanic rocks and sediments. Several AVZ volcanoes are located close to or on the South Patagonian Batholith. Lautaro has erupted dacite with a porphyritic to vitrophyric texture. Phenocrysts include biotite, clinopyroxene, hornblende, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and quartz. Rocks of the AVZ define an adakitic suite. The peculiar composition of AVZ magmas appears to reflect the melting of slab rocks from the downgoing Antarctic Plate. Eruption history Potassium-argon dating has yielded ages of 161,000±11,000 to 30,000±73,000 years years. A 43,400 years old tephra layer in Laguna Potrok Aike might originate from Lautaro, while the attribution of 35,600 and 34,200 years old tephra layers to this volcano is less certain. Two tephra layers in Lago Cardiel emplaced 3,345 and 3,010 years ago could come from Lautaro or another northern AVZ volcano. Three tephra layers in the Lago Viedma-Lago San Martin have been attributed to Lautaro.	2.5625
6908552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lautaro%20%28volcano%29	Lautaro (volcano)	Lautaro is the most historically active volcano of the AVZ, with several eruptions. Activity is recorded from 1876, 1878–1879, 1883, 1933, 1945, 1959–1960, 1972 and 1978–1979. The 1959 eruption was observed from aircraft, clarifying the position of the volcano, and is the only well-documented historic eruption in the AVZ. Other possible eruptions took place in 1876, 1878, 1972 and 1976, and an unknown volcano erupted in 1886. In the outflow glaciers of the Patagonian ice cap and in aerial photographs, volcanic ash and pumice from Lautaro have been noted on adjacent glaciers; block-and-ash flows may indicate the past occurrence of lava domes or coulees. Tephra layers from several historical eruptions have been found in adjacent lakes, where ecosystems were altered by the ash fallout. However, distinguishing between Lautaro tephras and these of neighbouring volcanoes is difficult. In 1960 a fissure on the northern side was seen producing steam. Fumarolic activity was also observed in 1964, and smelled of sulfur. Continuing fumarolic activity was observed in 1974. Ascent history The first ascent of Lautaro was made by Peter Skvarca and Luciano Pera, on 29 January 1964. They climbed the southeast ridge, encountering many crevasses, some steep ice walls, cornices, and a snow mushroom at the summit. They found an active crater and strong sulfurous emissions near the summit. The second ascent was made by Eric Jones, Mick Coffey, and Leo Dickinson on 2 March 1973, as part of a crossing of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field. Both the Pacific Ocean and the mountains to the east are visible from its summit.	2.46875
6908561	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amethystine%20python	Amethystine python	Taxonomy Formerly, five subspecies of Morelia amethistina, including the nominate race, M. a. amethystina, were generally recognized. The Moluccan Islands (including Halmahera, Ternate and Tidore) are home to the former M. a. tracyae. The Tanimbar Islands are home to a smaller subspecies, the former M. a. nauta. On the island of Seram, the former M. a. clastolepis can be found. On mainland of Papua New Guinea (including the Indonesian western half, once called Irian Jaya—now West Papua), and many of its nearby offshore islands, the former M. a. amethystina is quite common. In Australia, the former M. a. kinghorni is represented. American biologist Michael Harvey and colleagues investigated the amethystine python complex and recognised five separate species Simalia amethistina, Simalia clastolepis, Simalia kinghorni, Simalia nauta, and Simalia tracyae based on cladistic analysis of cytochrome b sequences and morphology. In 2014 cladistic analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genes of pythons and boas, R. Graham Reynolds and colleagues supported the distinctness of M. tracyae, M. amethistina, and M. clastolepis, but were less confident of M. kinghorni and M. nauta. According to McDiarmid et al. (1999), all cases in which the specific name was spelled with a y follow Daudin's (1803) Python amethystinus and are therefore unjustified emendations. The specific name, amethistina, is an allusion to the milky iridescent sheen on its scales, which gives it an amethyst-like colour. Description Specimens of S. amethistina have reportedly been measured at more than in total length (including tail), but this is exceptional, as specimens are already considered extremely large. Although the amethystine python is smaller than the Australian scrub python, some sources claim that S. amethistina is able to reach lengths of , with a weight up to and perhaps even . The smooth dorsal scales are arranged in 39–53 rows at midbody. There are deep, heat-sensing pits on six or seven of the posterior lower labials.	2.46875
6908585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20Lane%20%28physicist%29	Kenneth Lane (physicist)	Kenneth Douglas Lane is an American theoretical particle physicist and professor of physics at Boston University. Lane is best known for his role in the development of extended technicolor models of physics beyond the Standard Model. Career Lane received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in physics at the Georgia Institute of Technology, and was a student of Chung Wook Kim at Johns Hopkins University, where he received his Ph.D. in 1970. His physics research focuses on the problems of electroweak and flavor symmetry breaking. With Estia J. Eichten, Lane co-invented extended technicolor. He and Eichten also contributed to early work on charmonium with Kurt Gottfried, Tom Kinoshita and Tung-Mow Yan. In 1984 he coauthored "Supercollider Physics" (with Eichten, Ian Hinchliffe and Chris Quigg), which has strongly influenced the quest for future discoveries at hadron colliders such as the Fermilab Tevatron the SSC, and the LHC at CERN. In 2011 Dr Lane with Chris Quigg, Estia Eichten, and Ian Hinchliffe won the J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics "For their work, separately and collectively, to chart a course of the exploration of TeV scale physics using multi-TeV hadron colliders" He was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 1990 "for original contributions to the theory of electroweak symmetry breaking and Supercollider physics"	1.921875
6908596	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan%20Peter%20Koch	Johan Peter Koch	Johan Peter Koch (15 January 1870 – 13 January 1928) was a Danish captain and explorer of the Arctic dependencies of Denmark, born at Vestenskov. He was the uncle of the geologist Lauge Koch Career J.P. Koch participated in Amdrup's expedition to east Greenland in 1900 and was one of the general staff of the surveying expeditions to Iceland in 1903–1904. In 1906–1908 he was a member of the ill-fated Denmark expedition led by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, which mapped the last pieces of the northeastern coast of Greenland. On the death of Mylius-Erichsen and two others on a long sled voyage from Danmarkshavn to Peary Land, Koch along with the Greenlander Tobias Gabrielsen searched for the lost party, and found only the Greenlander Jørgen Brønlund on whose body were recovered the charts hand drawn by Niels Peter Høeg Hagen which completed the map of Greenland. In 1907 Koch, together with Aage Bertelsen, was reported to have first seen Fata Morgana Land (), a phantom island supposedly lying between NE Greenland and Svalbard. This elusive land was allegedly seen as well by Lauge Koch from the air in 1933. Koch later led the 1912–13 Danish Expedition to Queen Louise Land, a sled expedition across the inland ice of Greenland, also known as the "1912-13 Danish Expedition to Queen Louise Land and across North Greenland’s Inland Ice," with Alfred Wegener, Vigfús Sigurðsson, and Lars Larsen. Honours Koch received, among other honors, the Vega medal of the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography. He also became a member of the International Polar Commission. J.P. Koch Land in north-west Greenland was named after him. This ice-free peninsula is bounded by the Greenland Ice Sheet on the west side. There, next to the glacier, is mountain, which is the highest mountain in this land and also the northernmost basalt mountain in Greenland. On the north side, J.P. Koch land is bounded by Upernavik Icefjord, in the west and south by Eqaluarssuit Fjord (sv). The land is about 1010 square-km in area.	2.734375
6908619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20Comparative%20Zoology	Museum of Comparative Zoology	The Museum of Comparative Zoology (formally the Agassiz Museum of Comparative Zoology and often abbreviated to MCZ) is a zoology museum located on the grounds of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is one of three natural-history research museums at Harvard, whose public face is the Harvard Museum of Natural History. Harvard MCZ's collections consist of some 21 million specimens, of which several thousand are on rotating display at the public museum. In July 2021, Gonzalo Giribet, Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology at Harvard and Curator of Invertebrate Zoology, was announced as the new director of the museum. Many of the exhibits in the public museum have not only zoological interest, but also historical significance. Past exhibits have included a fossil sand dollar found by Charles Darwin in 1834, Captain James Cook's mamo, and two pheasants that once belonged to George Washington, now on loan to Mount Vernon in Virginia. The research collections of the MCZ are not open to the public. History The Museum of Comparative Zoology was founded in 1859 through the efforts of zoologist Louis Agassiz; the museum used to be referred to as "The Agassiz" after its founder. Agassiz designed the collection to illustrate the variety and comparative relationships of animal life. Many female paleontologists, such as Elvira Wood, were involved in the early development of the museum. The Radcliffe Zoological Laboratory was created in 1894 when Radcliffe College rented a space on the fifth floor of the MCZ to convert into a women's laboratory. Prior to this acquisition, Radcliffe science laboratories were taught using inadequate facilities, converting spaces such as bathrooms in old houses into physics laboratories, in which Harvard professors often refused to teach. The laboratory space was converted from an office or storage closet, and was sandwiched between other invertebrate storage rooms on the fifth floor.	2.921875
6908619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20Comparative%20Zoology	Museum of Comparative Zoology	Departments The museum has nine departments with research collections: Entomology, Herpetology, Ichthyology, Invertebrate Paleontology, Invertebrate Zoology, Mammalogy, Malacology, Ornithology, and Vertebrate Paleontology. The Ernst Mayr Library and its archives form the tenth department of the museum. The library is a founding member of the Biodiversity Heritage Library. Publications The museum publishes two journals: the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, first published in 1869, and Breviora, first published in 1956. Displays In contrast to numerous more modern museums, the Harvard Museum of Natural History has many hundreds of stuffed animals on display, from the MCZ collections. Notable exhibits include whale skeletons, the largest turtle shell ever found (8 ft long), "the Harvard mastodon", a long Kronosaurus skeleton, the skeleton of a dodo, and a coelacanth preserved in fluid. The two-story Great Mammal Hall was renovated in 2009 in celebration of the 150th anniversary of founding of the museum. Changing exhibitions in the Harvard Museum of Natural History have included "Evolution" (2008); "The Language of Color" (2008 to 2013); "Arthropods: Creatures that Rule" (2006); "New England Forests" (2011); and "Mollusks: Shelled Masters of the Marine Realm" (2012). Gallery	2.484375
6908796	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosa%20and%20Eliana%20Mart%C3%ADnez	Rosa and Eliana Martínez	Eliana Martínez (September 15, 1981 – November 27, 1989) was an American adoptee who contracted HIV from a blood transfusion as an infant. Her adoptive mother, Rosa Martínez (February 20, 1952 – August 18, 2022), fought for Eliana to be allowed to attend a public school without being isolated from other students by transparent partitions, referred to by Rosa Martínez as a "glass cage". Eliana died of complications from AIDS seven months after winning the right to attend a special education program without being physically isolated from other students. Biography Early life Eliana Martínez was born prematurely on September 15, 1981, in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. She received thirty-nine blood transfusions in the first four months of life, thereby receiving contaminated blood with HIV from one of them. Unable to care for Eliana nor her four older siblings, her biological parents were denied custody of her. The first eleven months of her life were spent in the hospital where she was born until she was adopted by Joe and Rosa Martínez. (The couple separated in 1986.) Eliana had multiple handicaps and was mistakenly diagnosed with cerebral palsy until the diagnosis of AIDS-related complex was confirmed; her handicaps were due to the effects of AIDS. She was diagnosed with AIDS-Related Complex in April 1985. Eliana was treated with AZT for two years and later with ddl. Legal challenges to attend school In November 1986, Rosa Martínez sought to have Eliana admitted to Manhattan Exceptional Center, a special school operated by Hillsborough County Public Schools. With a tested IQ of 41, Eliana was classified as a trainably mentally handicapped child. The school district wanted Eliana taught at home out of fear she could transmit HIV to others.	1.96875
6908800	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna	Sotāpanna	In Buddhism, a (Pali) or (Sanskrit)—translated variously as "stream-enterer", "stream-entrant" or "stream-winner"—is one who has reached the first of the four stages of enlightenment. Stream entry is purportedly followed by three subsequent stages of awakening: Sakadāgāmi (once-returner), Anāgāmi (non-returner), and Arahant (fully liberated). The word sotāpanna literally means "one who entered (āpanna) the stream (sota); stream-enterer", after a metaphor which calls the noble eightfold path a stream which leads to a vast ocean, nibbāna. It describes a person who has grasped the dharma and thereby dropped the first three fetters (Pāli: ), namely self-view (sakkāya-ditthi), and skeptical indecision (vicikicchā), clinging to rites and rituals (sīlabbata-parāmāsa). A stream entrant is said to be free from possible rebirth in one of the three lower realms. Attainment The is termed the path of stream-entry (sotāpatti-magga), which cuts through the first three fetters. The person who experiences it is called a stream-winner (sotāpanna). The sotāpanna is said to attain an intuitive grasp of the dharma—this wisdom being called right view (sammā diṭṭhi)—and has unshakable confidence in the Buddha, dharma, and sangha; this trio is sometimes taken to be the triple refuge, and are at other times listed as being objects of recollection. In general though, confirmed confidence in the Buddha, dharma, and sangha is considered to be one of the four limbs of stream-winning (sotāpannassa angāni). The sotapanna is said to have "opened the eye of the Dhamma" (dhammacakkhu), because they have realized that whatever arises will cease (impermanence). Their conviction in the true dharma would at this point be unshakable.	2.078125

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.