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1489706	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20J.%20Brennan	Peter J. Brennan	American labor leaders were initially happy with Brennan's appointment. He was an outspoken advocate for a higher minimum wage, expanding the minimum wage to cover more workers, significant improvement in unemployment benefits, enhanced workplace safety, and worker training programs. But once in office, Brennan promoted a plan to raise the minimum wages in small increments over four years with no increase in the number of covered workers. George Meany, the president of the AFL-CIO, was outraged and rarely mentioned Brennan's name or spoke to him again during Brennan's tenure in office. Under Brennan, the Nixon administration supported and Congress passed legislation to protect worker pensions, expand workplace rights of the disabled, improve enforcement of occupational safety and health laws, and improve benefits for workers left jobless by changes in international trade. Brennan also stalled on affirmative action plans in the building industry, especially the New York Plan. By August 1972, only 534 minority workers had received training, and only 34 had received union cards under the New York Plan. In 1973, John Lindsay, who had become a Democrat, withdrew from the New York Plan and set a new objective to increase minority representation in the building trades to 25%. In response, Brennan issued a directive forbidding local authorities from exceeding the requirements of approved hometown plans and required states and cities to obtain the approval of the Secretary of Labor for plans affecting federal contracts. Furthermore, he froze federal funding for all building work in New York City until the city returned to the New York Plan. The federal government won the ensuing legal battle, and New York City's fiscal crisis meant that it had to abandon its affirmative action plans. The Watergate crisis meant that the Nixon administration was unable to do much other than focus on survival. Brennan was unable to develop new initiatives during Nixon's truncated second term.	2.234375
1489724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndrum	Tyndrum	Tyndrum (; ) is a small village in Scotland. Its Gaelic name translates as "the house on the ridge". It lies in Strath Fillan, at the southern edge of Rannoch Moor. Location and facilities Tyndrum is a popular tourist village, and a noted stop on the A82 for road travellers to refresh at the Green Welly Stop or one of the several other cafés and hotels. There is a filling station. The village is on the West Highland Way, and has a campsite, hotel, bunkhouse and bed and breakfasts to accommodate walkers. Overshadowed by Ben Lui, a Munro, Tyndrum is built over the battlefield where Clan MacDougall defeated Robert the Bruce in 1306, and supposedly took from him the Brooch of Lorn. Railways The village is notable as a junction of transport routes. The West Highland Line railway from Glasgow splits approximately to the south at Crianlarich, with one branch heading to Fort William and the other to Oban. Tyndrum has a station on each branch: Upper Tyndrum on the Fort William line and Tyndrum Lower on the Oban line. Thus unusually there are two stations serving the same small village, only a few hundred yards apart, but about apart by rail. Indeed, Tyndrum is the smallest settlement in the UK with more than one railway station. This is partly a legacy of the history of the railways in the area, after two separate railways belonging to different railway companies were built through the village. However, the main reason is geography: splitting the line in Crianlarich allows the contours of the glen to be used to avoid very steep climbs heading north or west from Tyndrum. Roads mirror this division: the A82 from Glasgow to Fort William passes through Tyndrum, and the A85 to Oban splits off just north of the village.	2.21875
1489724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndrum	Tyndrum	Mines Tyndrum is a former mining centre. The hamlet of Clifton (the row of cottages across the A82 from the Green Welly) is made up of the former mining cottages, and up the hillside beyond them the tailings of a former lead mine can be seen. Historical records indicate that the mine was exploited in several different phases between 1730 and 1928. Opencast mining was carried out from 1741 to 1745 under the orders of Sir Robert Clifton. The Scots Mining Company owned the mineral rights to the area from 1768 to 1791, introducing water-powered crushing machinery. A church was built at Clifton in 1829 by Lady Glenorchy, which was reported in 1846 as being used by the Free Church of Scotland. The site of a gold mine is to the south and west of Tyndrum at Cononish, above Cononish Farm. Work on constructing the mine began in the 1980s but low gold prices forced the closure of the mine before it became fully operational. In October 2011 it was announced that the mine would be reactivated. It was expected to employ 52 people and produce of gold and of silver over the next 10 years, thereby generating an estimated £80 million for the Scottish economy. Following planning difficulties, which featured in the BBC Four programme Tales from the National Parks, and a fall in the price of gold, opening of the mine was again delayed. In an update on the project released by Scotgold in May 2015, total ore reserves are now estimated at of gold and of silver. In July 2023, Scotgold began a review of its activities following disappointing production figures and suspended share trading in September 2023.	2.234375
1489747	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunningham%20Highway	Cunningham Highway	History The highway is named in honour of the explorer and botanist Allan Cunningham who followed a route close to where the modern-day highway runs. In 1828 after discovering the route Cunningham sent a report to Governor Ralph Darling emphasising the economic benefits that a link between the coast and pastoral lands of the Darling Downs would provide. The first road between the coast and the Darling Downs was Spicers Gap Road developed in 1859, which crossed the range at Spicer's Gap and was suitable for the drays used at that time. Although Cunningham's Gap was known at that time, it was considered too steep a route for drays. With the opening of the Southern railway line between Toowoomba and Warwick in 1871, passenger and goods transport switched to the railways and Spicers Gap Road fell into disuse and was not well maintained due to the cost. Even after the advent of the automobile, traffic from Ipswich to Warwick usually went via Gatton and Clifton. It wasn’t until 1946 that construction began on a road through Cunningham’s Gap. The new sealed road through the gap was eventually opened in November 1949. In the late 1960s, a new route was constructed between Warwick and Inglewood via Karara, replacing the old route via Stanthorpe. This route was sealed and declared a highway during the Second World War, but the Stanthorpe to Inglewood section was demoted to a regional road in 1963, as it did not meet modern highway standards. Then in the early 1970s, the road from Inglewood to Goondiwindi via Yelarbon was sealed, and in 1974 the entire road from Warwick to Goondiwindi was declared as an extension of the Cunningham Highway. It would now be signed as National Route 42.	2.359375
1489761	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloster%20Aircraft%20Company	Gloster Aircraft Company	1947 – Gloster's heyday During Gloster's heyday, in 1947, S/L Janusz Zurakowski was employed as an experimental pilot. In the following years, he became one of the world's most famous experimental and aerobatics pilots. He developed a new aerobatic manoeuvre, the "Zurabatic Cartwheel", which held the audience captivated as he suspended the Gloster Meteor G-7-1 prototype he was flying, in a vertical cartwheel at the 1951 Farnborough Air Show, a manoeuvre the announcer declared to be "Impossible!" Serving for a brief period as the chief test pilot, he tested the many experimental versions of the Gloster Meteor, Javelin and E.1/44 fighters. During the Gloster years, "Zura" as he came to be known, set an international speed record: London-Copenhagen-London, 4–5 April 1950 at Gloster's instruction to sell the aircraft to the Danish Air Force. In 1952, the two-seat, delta winged Gloster Javelin was developed as an all-weather fighter that could fly above at almost the speed of sound. This modern aircraft proved to be too heavy to take off from the short airfield in Brockworth, and was instead fitted out to the bare minimum and given a very small fuel load. It was then flown in a short hop to RAF Moreton Valence seven miles (11.27 km) to the south west, where the aircraft would be completed. It was this shortcoming of facilities, along with the rationalisation of the British aircraft industry, that would lead to the demise of Gloster. One blind alley was the work done (along with eight other British companies) on designing an aircraft to the same exacting Ministry specification that spawned the BAC TSR-2. The contract was issued to BAC but the Wilson Government cancelled the TSR2 project.	2.53125
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	The state known today as Ireland is the successor state to the Irish Free State, which existed from December 1922 to December 1937. At its foundation, the Irish Free State was, in accordance with its constitution and the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, governed as a constitutional monarchy, in personal union with the monarchy of the United Kingdom and other members of what was then called the British Commonwealth. The monarch as head of state was represented in the Irish Free State by his Governor-General, who performed most of the monarch's duties based on the advice of elected Irish officials. The Statute of Westminster, passed in 1931, granted expanded sovereignty to the Dominions of the British Commonwealth, and permitted the Irish state to amend its constitution and legislate outside the terms of the Treaty. The Executive Authority (External Relations) Act 1936, enacted in response to the abdication of Edward VIII, removed the role of the monarch for all internal purposes, leaving him only a few formal duties in foreign relations as a "symbol of cooperation" with other Commonwealth nations. The Constitution of Ireland, which took effect in December 1937, established the position of president of Ireland, with the office first filled in June 1938, but the monarch retained his role in foreign affairs, leaving open the question of which of the two figures was the formal head of state. The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 ended the statutory position of the British monarch for external purposes and assigned those duties to the President, taking effect in April 1949, from which point Ireland was inarguably a republic. Background	3.109375
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	The Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed upon to end the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence fought between Irish revolutionaries who favored an Irish Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The treaty provided for the Irish Free State, which excluded Northern Ireland, as an autonomous and self-governing dominion of the British Commonwealth, with the British monarch as head of state, in the same manner as in Canada and Australia. The treaty also mandated that members of the new Irish parliament would have to take an oath of allegiance that promised fidelity to George V and his heirs. The disestablishment of the Irish Republic declared in 1919, the imposition of even a constitutional monarchy, and the continued ties to Great Britain were particularly contentious for many Irish nationalists. Even the Treaty's supporters viewed it as a compromise imposed on the Irish by their inability to achieve full independence through military means: Michael Collins, the republican leader who had led the Irish negotiating team, argued that it gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire and develop, but the freedom to achieve freedom." The Treaty was fiercely debated in the Second Dáil, the Irish Republic's revolutionary parliament. Éamon de Valera, the Republic's President, opposed the proposed dominion status for Ireland; instead, he advocated for a relationship he called external association, under which Ireland would be "associated" with the rest of the British Commonwealth and would "recognise His Britannic Majesty as head of the Association" — but not as Ireland's King or head of state. Nevertheless, the Dáil narrowly approved the treaty, and de Valera resigned in protest. Pro-Treaty forces won the ensuing election and civil war, and the Free State's new constitution incorporated the monarchial elements mandated by the Treaty.	2.765625
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	Irish Free State The new Irish Free State thus established was a form of constitutional monarchy, a Dominion with the same monarch as the United Kingdom and other states within the British Commonwealth. Under its constitution, the King had functions that included the exercise of executive authority of the state, the appointment of the cabinet, the dissolution of the legislature, and the promulgation of laws. However, all of these were delegated to a representative called the Governor-General of the Irish Free State. The representative's title was not actually specified in the Treaty, and Collins considered a number of alternatives, including Commissioner of the British Commonwealth and President of Ireland. However, the Free State government ultimately settled on governor-general because it was the same title used by the corresponding officials in other Dominions. The office's Irish language title was , meaning "high steward" or "seneschal", which was later used in English. As was the case in all Dominions, by convention the governor-general acted on the advice of elected officials. For the most part, this advice came from Irish officials, and on a day-to-day basis the governor-general played a ceremonial role in the Irish Free State similar to the one the King played in the United Kingdom. (Notably, the head of government, who in practice held the most powerful position in the State, held the title President of the Executive Council rather than Prime Minister as in other Dominions.)	3.046875
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	Executive authority: The executive authority of the state was formally vested in the monarch but exercised by the governor-general. Under Article 51, executive authority was to be exercised in accordance with Canadian practice. Thus, with few exceptions, the governor-general was bound to act on the advice of the Executive Council. Appointment of the cabinet: The President of the Executive Council (prime minister) was appointed by governor-general after being selected by Dáil Éireann (the lower house of parliament). The remaining ministers were appointed on the nomination of the president, subject to a vote of consent in the Dáil. Convention and dissolution of the legislature: The governor-general, on behalf of the monarch, convened and dissolved the Oireachtas on the advice of the Executive Council. Signing bills into law: The monarch was formally, along with the Dáil and the Senate, one of three tiers of the Oireachtas. No bill could become law until it received the Royal Assent, which was given by the governor-general on behalf of the monarch. The governor-general theoretically had the right to veto a bill or reserve it "for the signification of the King's pleasure", in effect postponing a decision on whether or not to enact the bill, for a maximum of one year. However neither of these two actions was ever taken. Appointment of judges: All judges were appointed by the governor-general, on the advice of the Executive Council. Representing the state in foreign affairs: The monarch accredited ambassadors and received the letters of credence of foreign diplomats; ministers signed international treaties in his name. The role of the monarch in the Free State's foreign affairs was the only function retained by him after the constitutional changes of 1936. Oath of Allegiance The Oath of Allegiance was included in Article 17 of the Irish Free State's 1922 Constitution. It read:	2.78125
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	The Balfour Declaration, issued at the 1926 Imperial Conference, formally recognized the equality of the Dominions with the United Kingdom and with one another, and established that the various governors-general would henceforth only take advice from their Dominion governments. This equality was codified in legislative terms by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which removed almost all of Westminster's remaining authority to legislate for the Dominions, effectively granting the Free State internationally recognised independence. It also granted the Free State the freedom to amend its constitution outside the terms set by the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Patrick McGilligan, the Free State Minister for External Affairs, called the Statute of Westminster "the solemn declaration by the British people through their representatives in Parliament that the powers inherent in the Treaty position are what we have proclaimed them to be for the last ten years," and went on to present the legislation as largely the fruit of the Free State's efforts to secure for the other Dominions the same benefits it already enjoyed under the treaty.	2.40625
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	The 1932 Irish general election was won by Fianna Fáil, led by de Valera, on a republican platform. Over the next several years, the Irish government began reducing the visibility and formal role of the monarch and governor-general. Domhnall Ua Buachalla, a republican and former Fianna Fáil TD, was appointed governor-general in late 1932; on his government's advice, he withdrew from all public and ceremonial roles, performing in a perfunctory manner the minimum duties required by the Constitution. The governor-general's role in budget appropriations and ability to veto legislation were abolished, as was the Oath of Allegiance. No treaties requiring the assent of the king as head of state were signed from 1931 to 1937. Two methods were used to circumvent this: bilateral treaties were concluded at government rather than head-of-state level; for multilateral treaties, the Free State chose not to enrol at inauguration via the king's signature, but instead to accede a few months later via the signature of the Minister for External Affairs. 1936: Abdication crisis and the External Relations Act In January 1936, George V died and was succeeded by his eldest son, who became Edward VIII. The new King's reign lasted only eleven months, and he abdicated in December of that year and was succeeded by George VI. The parliaments of independent members of the British Commonwealth were required to ratify this change in monarch, and de Valera's government decided to use this opportunity to drastically change the constitution.	2.96875
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	The new constitution filled the gap left by the abolition of the Governor-General by creating the post of a directly elected president of Ireland, who would "take precedence over all other persons in the State", but was not explicitly described as head of state. The president was henceforth responsible for the ceremonial functions of dissolving the legislature, appointing the government, and promulgating the law. Unlike most heads of state in parliamentary systems, the president was not even the nominal chief executive. Instead, the role of exercising executive authority was explicitly granted to the government—in practice, to the Taoiseach, a role similar to the Free State constitution's President of the Executive Council. The constitution also, like the 1922 constitution that preceded it, contained many provisions typical of those found in republican constitutions, stating, for example, that sovereignty resided in the people and prohibiting the granting of titles of nobility. Article 29 of the new constitution mirrored the amendment to its predecessor passed the previous year, by permitting the state to allow its external relations to be exercised by the king. Article 29.4.2° provided that: This provision meant that the External Relations Act continued to have the force of law until the legislature decided otherwise, and so the monarch continued to represent the state abroad when empowered to do so. Ambiguity from 1936 to 1949 After the passage of the External Relations Act, some commentators consider that it was unclear whether the Irish state had become a republic or remained a form of constitutional monarchy and (from 1937) whether its head of state was the President of Ireland or King George VI. Executive power continued to be exercised by the head of government. Nevertheless, the exact constitutional status of the state during this period has been a matter of scholarly and political dispute.	2.828125
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 At any rate, the Republic of Ireland Bill was soon introduced into the Oireachtas. In the debate in the Seanad Éireann in December 1948 on the law, Costello argued that the bill would make the President of Ireland the Irish head of state. De Valera's party, the main opposition in the Dáil at the time, did not oppose the bill, and it passed quickly. The Act contained three major provisions: it repealed the External Relations Act; it provided that the description of the state was the Republic of Ireland; and it provided that the external relations of the state would henceforth be exercised by the President. The Act came into force on 18 April 1949, Easter Monday, to commemorate the Proclamation of the Irish Republic, which had been read by Patrick Pearse at the beginning of the Easter Rising on Easter Monday 1916. Soon after President Seán T. O'Kelly signed the act into law, he commemorated his new status as the clear and unambiguous Irish head of state with state visits to the Holy See and France. A visit to meet George VI at Buckingham Palace was also provisionally planned, but timetabling problems with the president's schedule prevented the meeting. One practical implication of explicitly declaring the state to be a republic in 1949 was that it automatically led to the state's termination of membership of the then British Commonwealth, in accordance with the rules in operation at the time. However, on 26 April, just days after the Act came into effect, the Commonwealth issued the London Declaration, which allowed India to remain within the Commonwealth while becoming a republic. The formula used in the Declaration—that India would "accept ... The King as the symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth"—has been noted for its similarity to de Valera's 1921 proposal for an Irish Republic's "external association" with the Commonwealth, and to the wording of the 1936 External Relations Act.	2.546875
1489764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20head%20of%20state%20from%201922%20to%201949	Irish head of state from 1922 to 1949	Irish law did not provide any alternate royal style or title during this period. The original text of the Constitution of the Irish Free State simply referred to the monarch as the "King" without further elaboration. The opening words of Ireland's superseding constitution of 1937 were "In the Name of the Most Holy Trinity, from Whom is all authority and to Whom, as our final end, all actions both of men and States must be referred", and there was no mention in it of the king or monarch; the External Relations Act, the only Irish law referring to the monarch still in force after 1936, called him "the king recognised by those nations [of the British Commonwealth] as the symbol of their co-operation." Despite the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act, "Great Britain, Ireland" was not officially omitted from the royal title until 1953. Then, each Commonwealth realm adopted a unique title for the monarch. No mention of Ireland was made in any except in the title within the United Kingdom and its dependent territories: it was changed from "of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas Queen" to "of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen".	2.15625
1489795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mind%20Fixers	The Mind Fixers	The Mind Fixers was a seven-part series of newspaper stories by Jon Franklin which won the award for Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Journalism in 1985, first appearing in the Baltimore Evening Sun in July 1984. The series explores the science of molecular psychiatry as an alternative to psychoanalysis since Freud, dismissing the latter as "surrounded by an aura of witchcraft, proceeding on impression and hunch, often ineffective, it was the bumbling and sometimes humorous stepchild of modern science." Based upon interviews with more than fifty scientists, Franklin takes a generally optimistic point of view, looking forward to the possibility of "psychic engineering" when psychiatry becomes an "exact science" with "specialized drugs". He paraphrases his sources as saying that the new science is "capable of curing the mental diseases that afflict perhaps 20 percent of the population and constitute a major drain on the gross national product," as well as "untangling the ancient enigma of criminality and violence, and eventually expanding the boundaries of "the normal mind." Academic and Medical Sources Philosopher Daniel Dennett says "we're out an out materialists", summing up opinions of academics at a Johns Hopkins conference who find that mind is a direct mechanistic outgrowth of the brain. Dr. Candace Pert of NIMH says that the mechanistic view is the humanitarian one, arguing for destigmatization giving that mental illness is purely physical illness.	2.203125
1489819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition%20economy	Transition economy	The transition process is usually characterized by the changing and creating of institutions, particularly private enterprises; changes in the role of the state, thereby, the creation of fundamentally different governmental institutions and the promotion of private-owned enterprises, markets and independent financial institutions. In essence, one transition mode is the functional restructuring of state institutions from being a provider of growth to an enabler, with the private sector its engine. Another transition mode is change the way that economy grows and practice mode. The relationships between these two transition modes are micro and macro, partial and whole. The truly transition economics should include both the micro transition and macro transition. Due to the different initial conditions during the emerging process of the transition from planned economics to market economics, countries uses different transition model. Countries like the People's Republic of China and Vietnam adopted a gradual transition mode, however Russia and some other East-European countries, such as the former Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, used a more aggressive and quicker paced model of transition. The term "transition period" is also used to describe the process of transition from capitalism to the first stage of socialism, preceding the establishment of fully developed socialism (aka communism). Transition indicators The existence of private property rights may be the most basic element of a market economy, and therefore implementation of these rights is the key indicator of the transition process.	2.25
1489819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition%20economy	Transition economy	The economic malaise affecting the Comecon countries – low growth rates and diminishing returns on investment – led many domestic and Western economists to advocate market-based solutions and a sequenced programme of economic reform. It was recognized that micro-economic reform and macro-economic stabilization had to be combined carefully. Price liberalization without prior remedial measures to eliminate macro-economic imbalances, including an escalating fiscal deficit, a growing money supply due to a high level of borrowing by state-owned enterprises, and the accumulated savings of households ("monetary overhang") could result in macro-economic destabilization instead of micro-economic efficiency. Unless entrepreneurs enjoyed secure property rights and farmers owned their farms the process of Schumpeterian "creative destruction" would limit the reallocation of resources and prevent profitable enterprises from expanding to absorb the workers displaced from the liquidation of non-viable enterprises. A hardening of the budget constraints at state-owned enterprises would halt the drain on the state budget from subsidization but would require additional expenditure to counteract the resulting unemployment and drop in aggregate household spending. Monetary overhang meant that price liberalization might convert "repressed inflation" into open inflation, increase the price level still further and generate a price spiral. The transition to a market economy would require state intervention alongside market liberalization, privatization and deregulation. Rationing of essential consumer goods, trade quotas and tariffs and an active monetary policy to ensure that there was sufficient liquidity to maintain commerce might be needed. In addition to tariff protection, measures to control capital flight were also considered necessary in some instances.	2.09375
1489819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition%20economy	Transition economy	The impacts of the conventional transition strategies proved to be de-stabilizing in the short-term and left the population impoverished in the long-term. Economic output declined much more than expected. The decline in output lasted until 1992-96 for all transition economies. By 1994, economic output had declined across all transition economies by 41 percent compared to its 1989 level. The Central and Eastern European economies began growing again around 1993, with Poland, which had begun its transition programme earliest emerging from recession in 1992. The Baltic States came out of recession in 1994 and the rest of the former Soviet Union around 1996. Inflation remained above 20 percent a year (except in the Czech Republic and Hungary) until the mid-1990s. Across all transition economies the peak annual inflation rate was 2632 percent (4645 percent in the CIS). Unemployment increased and wages fell in real terms, although in Russia and other CIS economies the rate of unemployment recorded at employment exchanges remained low. Labour force surveys undertaken by the International Labour Organization showed significantly higher rates of joblessness and there was considerable internal migration. High interest rates induced a "credit crunch" and fuelled inter-enterprise indebtedness and hampered the expansion of small and medium-sized enterprises, which often lacked the connections to obtain finance legitimately.	2.09375
1489819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition%20economy	Transition economy	In time domestic producers were able to upgrade their production capacity and foreign direct investment was attracted to the transition economies. Local-manufactured higher quality consumer goods became available and won market share back from imports. Stabilization of the exchange rate was made more difficult by large-scale capital flight, with domestic agents sending part of their earning abroad to destinations where they believed their capital was more secure. The promise of European Union membership and the adoption of the EU's legislation and regulations (the Community acquis or acquis communautaire) helped secure trust in property rights and economic and governmental institutions in much of Central and Eastern Europe. Some economists have argued that the growth performance of the transition economies stemmed from the low level of development, decades of trade isolation and distortions in the socialist planned economies. They have emphasized that the transition strategies adopted reflected the need to resolve the economic crisis besetting the socialist planned economies and the overriding objective was the transformation to capitalist market economies rather than the fostering of economic growth and welfare. But by 2000, the EBRD was reporting that the effects of the initial starting point in each transition economy on the reform process had faded. Although the foundations had been laid for a functioning market economy through sustained liberalization, comprehensive privatization, openness to international trade and investment, and the establishment of democratic political systems there remained institutional challenges. Liberalized markets were not necessarily competitive and political freedom had not prevented powerful private interests from exercising undue influence.	2.265625
1489819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition%20economy	Transition economy	According to the World Bank's 10 Years of Transition report "... the wide dispersion in the productivity of labour and capital across types of enterprises at the onset of transition and the erosion of those differences between old and new sectors during the reform provide a natural definition of the end of transition." Mr. Vito Tanzi, Director of the IMF's Fiscal Affairs Department, gave definition that the transformation to a market economy is not complete until functioning fiscal institutions and reasonable and affordable expenditure programs, including basic social safety nets for the unemployed, the sick, and the elderly, are in place. Mr Tanzi stated that these spending programs must be financed from public revenues generated—through taxation—without imposing excessive burdens on the private sector. According to the EBRD a well-functioning market economy should enjoy a diverse range of economic activities, equality of opportunity and convergence of incomes. These outcomes had not yet been achieved by 2013 and progress in establishing well-functioning market economies had stalled since the 1990s. On the EBRD's measure of transition indicators the transition economies had become "stuck in transition". Price liberalization, small-scale privatization and the opening-up of trade and foreign exchange markets were mostly complete by the end of the 1990s. However economic reform had slowed in areas such governance, enterprise restructuring and competition policy, which remained substantially below the standard of other developed market economies.	2.015625
1489819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition%20economy	Transition economy	To spur further economic reform and break out of a vicious circle, the EBRD Transition Report 2013 proposed that the transition economies should: Open up trade and finance, which made reform more resilient to popular pressure ("market aversion") and meant that countries could access the EU single market either as member states or through association agreements (such as those being negotiated with Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia); Encourage transparent and accountable government, with media and civil society scrutiny, and political competition at elections; Invest in human capital, especially by improving the quality of tertiary education. Countries in transition Although the term "transition economies" usually covers the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, this term may have a wider context. Outside of Europe, there are countries emerging from a socialist-type command economy towards a market-based economy (e.g., China). Despite such movements, some countries have chosen to remain non-free states with regard to political freedoms and human rights. In a wider sense, the definition of transition economy refers to all countries which attempt to change their basic constitutional elements towards market-style fundamentals. Their origin could be also in a post-colonial situation, in a heavily regulated Asian-style economy, in a Latin American post-dictatorship, or even in a somehow economically underdeveloped country in Africa. In 2000, the IMF listed the following countries with transition economies: 1 — World Bank assessment In addition, in 2002, the World Bank defined Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later Serbia and Montenegro) as transition economies. In 2009, the World Bank included Kosovo in the list of transition economies. Some World Bank studies also include Mongolia. According to the IMF, Iran is in transition to a market economy, demonstrating early stages of a transition economy.	2.421875
1489828	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeropostal%20Alas%20de%20Venezuela	Aeropostal Alas de Venezuela	In 1951, LAV began service to Lima, Peru, and Bogotá, Colombia. LAV acquired the Bogotá route after they purchased 88% of TACA de Venezuela. Previously, TACA de Venezuela had a joint route agreement with the Colombian airline, LANSA. Until TACA de Venezuela was completely absorbed by LAV in 1958, the route to Bogotá was flown using TACA aircraft in TACA livery. In 1953, LAV opened a transatlantic service and began flying to Panama. The Constellation fleet was upgraded to L-1049G Super Constellations. An order for the first jet airliner, the De Havilland Comet 1, was placed, but with the Comet crashes of the 1950s, the airline never got their Comet jets. On March 24, 1956, LAV introduced its first turboprop, a Vickers Viscount 701 which was to replace the older piston engined Douglas and Martin aircraft. In the early 1960s, the Venezuelan government wanted to separate LAV's international and domestic routes, thus creating a new airline, Viasa, for international flights. A new livery was introduced for the new decade. The full airline title that had appeared on the Constellation fleet was simplified to a simple and bold AEROPOSTAL. The Constellations flew with a flying globe logo on the nose, which was also simplified, now appearing on the fin as a flying bird logo, a logo that would remain with the airline. Also in the early 1960s, the 'jet-prop' Avro 748 was introduced to replace the smaller piston twins that had made up LAV's fleet since 1938. Douglas DC-8 jets were introduced in 1961 to replace the Super Constellations. During the 1960s and 1990s LAV continued to introduce new fleet types like first the Caravelle and then McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and the MD-80 During the late 1980s, Aeropostal substituted Viasa with a run from Caracas to Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico, where the airline also sponsored WAPA-TV's weekly, youth-oriented Control Remoto television show.	1.914063
1489858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainas%20missions	Mainas missions	The Mainas (or Maynas) missions refers to a large number of small missions the Jesuits established in the western Amazon region of South America from 1638 until 1767, when the Jesuits were expelled from Latin America. Following the Jesuit expulsion, mission activity continued under Franciscan auspices. Roughly 60 missions were founded in total. Scholar Anne Christine Taylor notes that, '[o]f all the western Amazonian mission establishments, that of the Jesuits of Mainas was by far the most important'. She estimates that, prior to the arrival of the Spanish, the many ethnic groups (called Indians or Indios) in the mission field had a population of approximately 200,000. The population declined rapidly and many of the indigenous people resisted Christianity or had little contact with the Christian missionaries. Throughout their existence, the Jesuit mission settlements, known as reductions, were marked by epidemic disease (often smallpox) that exacted a tremendous death toll on the indigenous people resident in them. Slave raids also took a toll on the population and many of the indigenous people avoided or escaped missions. 'Maynas' or 'Mainas' refers to the Maina people, indigenous to the area around the Marañón River. The area in which the missions were established includes the 21st century area of Maynas Province, Peru, and adjacent areas of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Brazil. The Jivaro, Kokama, Cambeba, Secoya, and Yame were among the other indigenous peoples the missionaries sought to convert.	2.890625
1489858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainas%20missions	Mainas missions	Overview Christian missions by the Jesuits were one element of the broader Spanish colonial project in the Americas. Historian Ann Taylor characterizes the objective of the missions as "pav[ing] the way for the spread of colonial institutions through cultural means" by using religious and other ideological tools to induce indigenous people to conform to colonial priorities. The Jesuit missions competed with the secular colonists and government for control of the indigenous population which declined rapidly during the mission period due to the introduction of European diseases, overwork and exploitation on Spanish farms, and the ravages of the Bandeirantes, slavers from Portuguese Brazil. The result of the stress on native societies was a reduction in the indigenous population of the Mainas mission area from an estimated 200,000 in 1550 to 30,000 in 1730. The Jesuits sought to congregate semi-nomadic indigenous people into Spanish-style settlements called reductions, thereby facilitating their Christianization. The colonial governors sought in addition to subject the indigenous to the encomienda or repartimiento systems of labour extraction, forcing the Indians in the reductions to labor on Spanish farms. At times, conflict broke out between the religious orders and the state with regard to control over the indigenous population. Thus, the two organizations were allied in complex ways in the western Amazon from the 17th to 19th centuries. The Jesuit missions offered the indigenous people Christianity, iron tools, and a small degree of protection from the slavers and the colonists. In exchange, the indigenous had to submit to Jesuit discipline and adopt, at least superficially, a life style foreign to their experience. The population of the missions was only sustained by frequent expeditions into the jungle by Jesuits, soldiers, and Christian Indians to capture indigenous people and force them to return or to settle in the missions.	3.109375
1489858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainas%20missions	Mainas missions	Mission activity began in the area around Borja, Peru on the Marañon River and in the valley of the Huallaga River (a tributary of the Marañón). The Jesuits sought to 'induc[e]' indigenous peoples to settle in reductions, as opposed to their traditional modes of habitation and forms of government. This would have been a difficult assignment in the best of circumstances, coming as it did shortly after a violent rebellion. More so, because although the Jesuits would ultimately found 'dozens' of missions in the region, there were not many missionaries to go around. Nonetheless, by 1660, the Jesuits had 'catechized' around 10,000 people. Newson estimates that this was about 10–15 percent of the indigenous population in the region at the time. The missions were backed by colonial forces. The Jesuits travelled with soldiers, and the colonial governor would periodically send his forces on entradas—a missionary's initial attempt to establish contact with those he sought to convert, using 'food and gifts' as inducement. In 1689, Fritz began his descent down the Amazon River, entering by the area occupied by the Portuguese along the Solimões River, in the current state of Amazonas in Brazil. He founded the missions of Nossa Senhora de Guadalupe (current city of Fonte Boa, AM), São Paulo dos Cambebas (São Paulo de Olivença, AM), Castro de Avelães (Amaturá, AM), Santa Teresa do Tape (Tefé, AM) and Santana de Coari (Coari, AM), all on already identified Portuguese routes since 1660 (LOREIRO, 1978 apud REZENDE, 2006, p. 135). Reeve notes that the missionaries were largely dependent on 'indigenous guides and interpreters' in seeking out new fields for expansion: guides would bring the Jesuits to territories their people knew well, or with which their people were allied. She observes, then, that '[t]o a remarkable degree, the process of proselytization and mission formation followed indigenous alliance networks across the region'. 18th century	2.65625
1489869	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Quiet%20Place%20%28opera%29	A Quiet Place (opera)	Act 1 Friends and family gather at Dinah's funeral. Among the guests are Dinah's brother (Bill), her best friend (Susie), her psychoanalyst, her family doctor and his wife (Doc and Mrs. Doc), and eventually her children (Dede and Junior). Sam, Dinah's widowed husband, stands immobile and isolated in a corner. People are absorbed in their own thoughts and aren't communicating well. In a series of fragmented conversations, they discuss the circumstances of Dinah's death (the car accident from the prologue), mourn her loss and reveal some of what has happened to her family over the years. Dede and Junior live in Quebec with a French Canadian, François, who had been romantically involved with Junior, and is now married to Dede. Junior, who has a history of mental illness, has not seen his father in nearly 20 years, and Sam has never met his son-in-law. When everyone except Junior has arrived, the funeral director announces a ceremony of readings and reminiscences. Doc reads from Proverbs, Mrs. Doc from Elizabeth Barrett Browning (lines chosen by Sam); Bill and Susie offer spirited reminiscences of Dinah; Dede reads from Kahlil Gibran – until she breaks down in tears and François must read for her. Junior's unruly entrance interrupts the ceremony, and no one greets him. At the conclusion of the readings the guests file past Dinah's coffin and depart, leaving Sam, Junior, Dede, and François facing one another for the first time.	1.96875
1489871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian%20Exarchate	Bulgarian Exarchate	The Bulgarian Exarchate (; ) was the official name of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church before its autocephaly was recognized by the Ecumenical See in 1945 and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was restored in 1953. The Exarchate (a de facto autocephaly) was unilaterally (without the blessing of the Ecumenical Patriarch) decreed by the Ottoman Empire on , in the Bulgarian church in Constantinople in pursuance of the firman of Sultan Abdulaziz. The foundation of the Exarchate was the direct result of the actions of the most extreme Bulgarian nationalists under leadership of Dragan Tsankov, himself a Catholic, against the authority of the Greek Patriarchate of Constantinople in the 1850s and 1860s. In 1872, the Patriarchate was forced to declare that the Exarchate introduced ethno-national characteristics in the religious organization of the Orthodox Church, and the secession from the Patriarchate was officially condemned by the Council in Constantinople in September 1872 as schismatic. Nevertheless, Bulgarian religious leaders continued to extend the borders of the Exarchate in the Ottoman Empire by conducting plebiscites in areas contested by both Churches. In this way, in the struggle for recognition of a separate Church, the modern Bulgarian nation was created under the name Bulgarian Millet. National awakening In 1762, Saint Paisius of Hilendar (1722–1773), a monk from the south-western Bulgarian town of Bansko, wrote Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya ("History of the Slav-Bulgarians"), a short historical work which was also the first ardent call for a national awakening. In History of Slav-Bulgarians, Paisius urged his compatriots to throw off subjugation to the Greek language and culture. The example of Paisius was followed by others, including Saint Sophroniy of Vratsa (1739–1813), Abbot Spiridon Gabrovski (died 1824), Abbot Yoakim Karchovski (died 1820), and Abbot Kiril Peychinovich (died 1845). Struggle for church autonomy	2.234375
1489871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian%20Exarchate	Bulgarian Exarchate	In seeking to calm down the disturbances, the Ottoman government of the Sultan Abdülaziz granted the right to establish an autonomous Bulgarian Exarchate for the dioceses of Bulgaria as well as those, wherein at least two-thirds of Orthodox Christians were willing to join it, by issuing the Sultan's firman promulgated on . The firman envisaged a broad autonomy of the Exarchate but would leave it under the supreme canonical authority of the Ecumenical See, i.e. not full autocephaly. The Exarchate's borders went on to extend over present-day northern Bulgaria (Moesia), most of Thrace, as well as over north-eastern Macedonia. After the Christian population of the bishoprics of Skopje and Ohrid voted in 1874 overwhelmingly in favour of joining the Exarchate (Skopje by 91%, Ohrid by 97%) the Bulgarian Exarchate became in control of the whole of Macedonia (Vardar and Pirin Macedonia). The Exarchate was also represented in the whole of Greek Macedonia and the Vilayet of Adrianople by vicars. Thus, the borders of the Exarchate included all Bulgarian districts in the Ottoman Empire.	2.515625
1489871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian%20Exarchate	Bulgarian Exarchate	Exarch Antim I was discharged by the Ottoman government immediately after the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) on April 24, 1877, and was sent into exile in Ankara. Under the guidance of his successor, Joseph I, the Exarchate managed to develop and considerably extend its church and school network in the Bulgarian Principality, Eastern Rumelia, Macedonia and the Adrianople Vilayet. In 1879, the Tarnovo Constitution formally established the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as the national religion of the nation. On the eve of the Balkan Wars in 1912, in the Ottoman Macedonian vilayets and the Adrianople Vilayet alone, the Bulgarian Exarchate had seven dioceses with prelates and eight more with acting chairmen in charge and 38 vicariates, 1,218 parishes and 1,310 parish priests, 1331 churches, 73 monasteries and 234 chapels, as well as 1,373 schools with 2,266 teachers and 78,854 pupils. Almost all of the schoolmasters had been born in Macedonia and Adrianople Thrace. The immediate effect of the partition of the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars was the anti-Bulgarian campaign in areas under Serbian and Greek rule. The Serbians expelled Exarchist churchmen and teachers and closed Bulgarian schools and churches (affecting the standing of as many as 641 schools and 761 churches). Thousands of Bulgarian refugees left for Bulgaria, joining an even larger stream from the devastated Aegean Macedonia, where the Greeks burned Kukush, the center of Bulgarian politics and culture. Bulgarian language (including the Macedonian dialects) was prohibited, and its surreptitious use, whenever detected, was ridiculed or punished. The Ottomans managed to keep the Adrianople region, where the whole Thracian Bulgarian population was put to total ethnic cleansing by the Young Turks' army.	2.640625
1489881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yelarbon	Yelarbon	Yelarbon is a rural town and locality in the Goondiwindi Region, Queensland, Australia. It is on the border of Queensland and New South Wales. In the , the locality of Yelarbon had a population of 313 people. Geography Yelarbon is in south-central Queensland on the Dumaresq River, near the New South Wales border. It sits on the Cunningham Highway midway between Goondiwindi and Inglewood. History Bigambul (also known as Bigambal, Bigumbil, Pikambul, Pikumbul) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Bigambul people. The Bigambul language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Goondiwindi Regional Council, including the towns of Goondiwindi, Yelarbon and Texas extending north towards Moonie and Millmerran. Yelarbon is an Aboriginal Australian word meaning "Native name for the large lagoon adjacent to the Station." It was the first place in Queensland to grow tobacco commercially. Demographics In the , the locality of Yelarbon had a population of 448 people. In the , the locality of Yelarbon had a population of 364 people. In the , the locality of Yelarbon had a population of 313 people. Economy Nowadays, cattle and sheep are raised, and cereal crops are grown. A major employer in Yelarbon is the A. E. Girle and Sons sawmill. Transport The town is located on a branch of the narrow gauge South Western railway line. It will be located on a section of the new, standard gauge Inland Railway from Moree, New South Wales via North Star, crossing the NSW/Queensland border near Toomelah. Education Yelarbon State School is a government primary (Prep–6) school for boys and girls at 17 Eena Street (). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 41 students with 6 teachers (3 full-time equivalent) and 6 non-teaching staff (4 full-time equivalent). There is no secondary school in Yelarbon. The nearest secondary schools are Goondiwindi State High School in Goondiwindi (to Year 12) and Inglewood State High School in Inglewood (to Year 10 only).	2.5
1489887	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalothorax	Cephalothorax	The cephalothorax, also called prosoma in some groups, is a tagma of various arthropods, comprising the head and the thorax fused together, as distinct from the abdomen behind. (The terms prosoma and opisthosoma are equivalent to cephalothorax and abdomen in some groups. The terms prosoma and opisthosoma may be preferred by some researchers in cases such as arachnids, where there is neither fossil nor embryonic evidence animals in this class have ever had separate heads and thoraxes, and where the opisthosoma contains organs atypical of a true abdomen, such as a heart and respiratory organs.) The word cephalothorax is derived from the Greek words for head (, ) and thorax (, ). This fusion of the head and thorax is seen in chelicerates and crustaceans; in other groups, such as the Hexapoda (including insects), the head remains free of the thorax. In horseshoe crabs and many crustaceans, a hard shell called the carapace covers the cephalothorax. Arachnid anatomy Fovea The fovea is the centre of the cephalothorax and is located behind the head (only in spiders). It is often important in identification. It can be transverse or procurved and can, in some tarantulas (e.g. Ceratogyrus darlingi) have a "horn". Clypeus The clypeus is the space between the anterior of the cephalothorax and the ocularium. It is found in most arachnids. It is connected to the labrum of the invertebrate, between the labrum and the face. Ocularium The ocularium is a "turret" for the ocelli found in most arachnids. In harvestmen, it may have the ornament of spines. Trident The trident is a small group of (usually three) spines found in harvestmen exclusively. It is located in front of the ocularium. It varies in size amongst species; in some it is completely absent, and in others it is enlarged considerably.	2.703125
1489911	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphoria	Dysphoria	Dysphoria (; ) is a profound state of unease or dissatisfaction. It is the semantic opposite of euphoria. In a psychiatric context, dysphoria may accompany depression, anxiety, or agitation. In psychiatry Intense states of distress and unease increase the risk of suicide, as well as being unpleasant in themselves. Relieving dysphoria is therefore a priority of psychiatric treatment. One may treat underlying causes such as depression (especially dysthymia or major depressive disorder) or bipolar disorder as well as the dysphoric symptoms themselves. The 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) defines dysphoria as "an unpleasant mood state, which can include feelings of depression, anxiety, discontent, irritability, and unhappiness." Dissatisfaction with being able-bodied can be diagnosed as body integrity dysphoria in the ICD-11. Other dysphoria may include dysphoria that may be based on social constructs like nationalism. Gender dysphoria Gender dysphoria is discomfort, unhappiness or distress due to the primary and secondary sex characteristics of one's sex assigned at birth. The current edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-5, uses the term "gender dysphoria" where it previously referred to "gender identity disorder." Related conditions The following conditions may include dysphoria as a symptom:	2.65625
2134118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danger%20Lights	Danger Lights	Danger Lights is a 1930 American pre-Code drama film, directed by George B. Seitz, from a screenplay by James Ashmore Creelman. It stars Louis Wolheim, Robert Armstrong, and Jean Arthur. The plot concerns railroading on the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (Milwaukee Road), and the movie was largely filmed along that railroad's lines in Montana. The railway yard in Miles City, Montana, was a primary setting, while rural scenes were shot along the railway line through Sixteen Mile Canyon, Montana. Additional footage was shot in Chicago, Illinois (where the Milwaukee Road was headquartered until 1986, when it went out of business). The film was the first ever shot in the new Spoor-Berggren Natural Vision Process. In 1958, the film entered the public domain in the United States because the claimants did not renew its copyright registration in the 28th year after publication. Plot Dan Thorn is a divisional boss on the Milwaukee Railroad, based in Miles City, Montana. The film opens with a landslide across the track and Thorn dispatching, then accompanying, a repair crew to clear it. Several hobos are lounging nearby and are put to work helping the crew. Thorn discovers that one of the hobos, Larry Doyle, is a former railroad engineer who lost his job over insubordination. Thorn finds he likes the man and demands that he better his life by returning to work for the railroad. Doyle repeatedly refuses even as he starts the work, but Thorn is a hard man to say no to, and Doyle is hired. Thorn is engaged to Mary Ryan, but his job leaves him unable to give her much time or attention. When an engineer's wife dies, Thorn spends time with the man to keep him from getting drunk and endangering his railroad job. This leaves Thorn unable to attend a social event, so he asks Doyle to go with Mary instead. Afterwards, at night, the two are using a long railway bridge to walk home when a fast train approaches. Doyle whisks Mary into a trackside refuge and kisses her as the train rushes by.	1.953125
2134119	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A6nberht	Jænberht	Jænberht (died 12 August 792) was a medieval monk, and later the abbot, of St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, who was named Archbishop of Canterbury in 765. As archbishop, he had a difficult relationship with King Offa of Mercia, who at one point confiscated lands from the archbishopric. By 787, some of the bishoprics under Canterbury's supervision were transferred to the control of the newly created Archbishopric of Lichfield, although it is not clear if Jænberht ever recognised its legitimacy. Besides the issue with Lichfield, Jænberht also presided over church councils in England. He died in 792 and was considered a saint after his death. Early life Jænberht was a monk at St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury before being selected as abbot of that monastic house. He came from a prominent family in the kingdom of Kent, and a kinsman of his, Eadhun, was the reeve of King Egbert II of Kent. Jænberht himself was on good terms with Egbert. Archbishop of Canterbury Jænberht was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury on 2 February 765, at the court of King Offa of Mercia; this location implies that his election was acceptable to the king. In 766, he received a pallium, the symbol of an archbishop's authority given by the papacy. At this time, Kent had been subjected by Offa; in 776, perhaps at the urging of Jænberht, Kent rebelled and secured its freedom. In 780 and 781, Jænberht attended church councils at Brentford that were led by King Offa. Although initially on good terms with Offa, Jænberht's ties to Egbert were also strong: after the Battle of Otford, Egbert granted a number of estates to Christ Church. When Offa reasserted control over Kent, which occurred by 785 at the latest, he confiscated these lands and regranted to some of his thegns.	2.09375
2134119	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A6nberht	Jænberht	Elevation of Lichfield During Jænberht's term of office, a dispute arose between the see of Canterbury and Offa which led in 787 to the creation of the rival Archdiocese of Lichfield under Hygberht. Originally, Offa attempted to bring the southern archbishopric of Canterbury to London, but when the papacy refused permission, Offa secured the creation of a third archbishopric in the British Isles. Lichfield was the main Mercian bishopric, and thus the new archbishopric was under Offa's control. There were several reasons for the conflict between Jænberht and Offa. Jænberht opposed Offa's deposition of the Kentish dynasty. They conflicted over land which they both claimed as theirs, and Jænberht refused to crown Offa's son Ecgfrith. Problems were also caused by the archbishop minting his own coins at Canterbury. Matthew Paris, writing in the thirteenth century, stated that Jænberht conspired to admit Charlemagne to Canterbury if he invaded Britain. This story may reflect a genuine tradition recorded at St Albans Abbey, where Paris was based, or it may be a fabrication to fill in details of Jænberht's life where Paris had no other information. A rumour during Jænberht's reign also falsely claimed that Offa was plotting with Charlemagne to depose Pope Hadrian I; at least one modern historian, Simon Keynes, believes it possible Jænberht was behind the rumour. Offa's eventual successor later admitted to the papacy that Offa's actions had been motivated by hatred of Jænberht and the Kentish people. In 787, Pope Hadrian sent a pallium to Hygberht of Lichfield, elevating Lichfield to an archbishopric, and Ecgfrith was crowned. There is no extant contemporary evidence, however, that Jænberht ever recognised Hygberht as an archbishop. Canterbury retained as suffragans the bishops of Winchester, Sherborne, Selsey, Rochester, and London. The dioceses of Worcester, Hereford, Leicester, Lindsey, Dommoc and Elmham were transferred to Lichfield.	1.914063
2134128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Economics%20Foundation	New Economics Foundation	The organisation has launched a range of new organisations to promote its ideas, including the Ethical Trading Initiative, AccountAbility, Time Banking UK, London Rebuilding Society, the Community Development Finance Association, and others. The organisation's current projects include work on community-based housing, worker organising in the digital economy, restoring local banking and challenging xenophobia and racism in the Brexit debate. It is also active in community economic regeneration. The Foundation's BizFizz programme, an entrepreneurship development programme, has created more than 900 new businesses in deprived areas. The organisation has now taken this and Local Alchemy to six other countries through its international programme. The Foundation's public events attract well-known speakers. Its clone town campaign in favour of local economic diversity was covered two years running by every major national newspaper and TV news station and it was taken up in the Save Our Small Shops Campaign in the Evening Standard. Funding The New Economics Foundation has been rated as 'broadly transparent' in its funding by Transparify and has been given an A grade for funding transparency by Who Funds You?	2.125
2134155	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian%20High%20School%20%28Virginia%29	Meridian High School (Virginia)	Meridian High School (MHS), formerly George Mason High School, is a comprehensive public high school that serves the independent City of Falls Church. The school, which serves some 850 students in grades 9–12, is the sole high school in the Falls Church City Public Schools system. Opened in 1952, it is a hub of city activity for its facilities and athletic fields. Until January 2014, MHS was located outside the boundaries of Falls Church, in Idylwood, an unincorporated area of Fairfax County, Virginia. In 2014, a parcel of land, including the school, was transferred to Falls Church City as part of the Fairfax County Water Authority's purchase of the Falls Church Water System. The school ranks gold in U.S. News & World Reports Best High Schools Ranking for 2020; Meridian High School (formerly George Mason) ranks #16 among all schools in Virginia and #649 in the United States. Demographics Meridian High School's racial breakdown in the 2020-2021 class was 59% White (non-Hispanic), 6% Asian or Pacific Islander, 12% Hispanic, 4% Black, and 19% two or more races. For comparison, the demographics of the city are: 79.37% White, 3.38% Hispanics of any race, 6.5% Asian, 4.9% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 2.01% from other races, and 3.68% from two or more races. History MHS was built on the site of a single-room school house that burned down in 1857. After the fire, the land sat empty until Falls Church was founded as an independent city in 1948, when residents sought greater control over their local school system, which, at the time, was segregated by race. MHS was opened in 1952. In 1981, the school became the first in Virginia to use the International Baccalaureate program. A design for a new main building was unveiled in 2017 and construction began in 2019. The new LEED-certified building opened to students in 2021, and the original was demolished.	2.34375
2134159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Pomerance	Carl Pomerance	Carl Bernard Pomerance (born 1944 in Joplin, Missouri) is an American number theorist. He attended college at Brown University and later received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1972 with a dissertation proving that any odd perfect number has at least seven distinct prime factors. He joined the faculty at the University of Georgia, becoming full professor in 1982. He subsequently worked at Lucent Technologies for a number of years, and then became a distinguished professor at Dartmouth College. Contributions He has over 120 publications, including co-authorship with Richard Crandall of Prime numbers: a computational perspective (Springer-Verlag, first edition 2001, second edition 2005), and with Paul Erdős. He is the inventor of one of the integer factorization methods, the quadratic sieve algorithm, which was used in 1994 for the factorization of RSA-129. He is also one of the discoverers of the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test. Awards and honors He has won many teaching and research awards, including the Chauvenet Prize in 1985, the Deborah and Franklin Haimo Award for Distinguished College or University Teaching of Mathematics in 1997, and the Levi L. Conant Prize in 2001 for "A Tale of Two Sieves". In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. He also became the John G. Kemeny Parents Professor of Mathematics in the same year.	2.140625
2134171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siti%20Wan%20Kembang	Siti Wan Kembang	Che Siti Wan Kembang (Jawi: ) was a legendary queen who reigned over a region on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, now located within the Malaysian state of Kelantan. She ruled in 1610–1667. Che Siti was famous for her wisdom and descended from the royalty of Champa, Kelantan and Pattani. She was known as a warrior queen and engaged in battle on horseback with a sword accompanied by an army of female horseriders. It was said that she and her adopted daughter Puteri Saadong possessed mystical powers. Background According to certain historical records, Cik Siti Wan Kembang was born in 1585. Her parents were Raja Ahmad and Cik Banun, both of royal lineage. Raja Ahmad was crowned Ruler of Kelantan in 1584. However, Raja Ahmad died in 1589, when the princess was only 4 years old. Therefore, Raja Hussein of Johor was made Regent of Kelantan. Cik Siti Wan Kembang ascended to the throne of Kelantan in 1610 AD upon the death of Raja Hussein. She was said to have resided in Gunung Chinta Wangsa (), Gua Musang, located approximately 45 km from Kuala Krai. Cik Siti never married, and therefore never had children of her own. She adopted Puteri Saadong as her daughter. Puteri Saadong was the princess of the ruler of Jembal, whom Cik Siti had close ties with. Kijang coins Differing views are given regarding the origin of the Kijang gold coins. Kijang means "muntjac" in the Malay language and derives its name from the engravings of said animal on the coin. The Kijang coins are generally associated with Cik Siti. According to Kelantanese folklore, the kijang is her favorite pet and she has always been fond of it since young, while some stories suggest that there was once an Arab trader who came to her country to seek permission to trade and presented a muntjac to the Queen as a gift. She became very fond of the muntjac and took it as her pet, to the point that she ordered its image to be inscribed on the gold coins of her country.	2.453125
2134175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Holmes	Ray Holmes	Raymond Towers Holmes (20 August 1914 – 27 June 2005) was a British Royal Air Force fighter pilot during the Second World War who is best known for an event that occurred during the Battle of Britain. He became famous when he reportedly saved Buckingham Palace from being hit by German bombing by ramming his Hawker Hurricane into a Dornier Do 17 bomber over London. He was feted by the press as a war hero for saving the Palace. However, different versions of this event have been proposed. Holmes became a King's Messenger after the war, and died at the age of 90 in 2005. Early life Raymond Towers Holmes was born on 20 August 1914 in Wallasey, Cheshire. He attended Wallasey and Calday Grange Grammar School and worked as a crime journalist at the Birkenhead Advertiser before joining the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve in 1936 as their 55th volunteer. Second World War Battle of Britain In June 1940 he joined No. 504 Squadron RAF. He became known among his flight comrades as "Arty" which was taken from the initials of his name R.T. According to the now common account, on 15 September 1940, known as Battle of Britain Day, Sergeant Holmes was flying a Hawker Hurricane fighter when he spotted a formation of three Dornier Do 17 bombers of Kampfgeschwader 76 heading for central London, to make a bombing attempt. As he made an attack on one of the bombers, the bomber fired a flamethrower at him, and Holmes' windscreen was covered in oil. The flamethrower, obviously intended for use on the ground, did not work as intended at 16,000 feet, producing a jet of flame only some 100 yards long. The oil did not catch fire, and instead covered Holmes' windshield. As the airflow cleared the oil away from his windscreen, Holmes saw that he was dangerously close to the Dornier, and ramming the stick forward, passed beneath the bomber.	2
2134175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Holmes	Ray Holmes	Holmes' plane began to dive to the left, and was no longer responding to the controls. As the Hurricane went into a vertical dive, he bailed out. As he climbed out, the air-stream caught him and smacked him down onto the roof of his Hurricane. Then, as he was thrown backward, his shoulder hit his own tail fin. When he finally managed to pull his ripcord, the jolt shook off his flying boots and he found himself swinging violently about. He watched the Dornier crash near Victoria tube station. Holmes landed in a narrow back garden, and ended up dangling inside an empty dustbin. The Dornier pilot, Feldwebel Robert Zehbe, bailed out, only to die later reportedly of wounds suffered during the attack. The observer, Unteroffizier Hans Goschenhofer, and the gunner, Unteroffizier Gustav Hobel, were killed, while radio operator Gefreiter Ludwig Armbruster and flight engineer Unteroffizier Leo Hammermeister survived. Holmes was feted by the press as a war hero for his saving of Buckingham Palace. As the RAF did not practise ramming as an air combat tactic, this was considered an impromptu manoeuvre, and an act of selfless courage. This event became one of the defining moments of the Battle of Britain and elicited a congratulatory note to the RAF from Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, who had witnessed the event. The bomber's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London. Later activities When recovered, he became part of No 81 Squadron, and was sent to the Northern Front near Murmansk in Soviet Russia to help train the Russian air force in flying the Hawker Hurricane. Here he claimed a further kill; a Bf 109 F. He married Elizabeth Killip in April 1941 and was commissioned as a Pilot Officer on 10 June 1941, promoted to Flying Officer on 10 June 1942, and Flight Lieutenant on 10 June 1943. Returning from Russia, Holmes served as an instructor with 2 FIS, Montrose, from 1942 until 1944. He then flew PR Spitfires with 541 Squadron from February 1945. Post-war	2.3125
2134175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Holmes	Ray Holmes	Personal life After the war, he was a King's Messenger, personally delivering mail for Winston Churchill. After leaving the RAF in late 1945, he returned to journalism, joining his father's news agency covering Liverpool Crown Court for local and national newspapers. He had two daughters with Elizabeth before she died in 1964. In 1966, he married Anne Holmes and went on to have a son and a daughter. He provided eyewitness testimony of the Battle of Britain in the "Alone" episode of The World at War. In 1989, he published his autobiography entitled Sky Spy: From Six Miles High to Hitler's Bunker. Sixty-five years later, the wreckage of Holmes' Hurricane was discovered and excavated from the streets of London. The discovery was featured on the National Geographic Channel documentary, "The Search for the Lost Fighter Plane". Holmes also was mentioned in an episode of Battlefield Britain. He was awarded the Freedom of the Borough of Wirral in January 2005. He died on 27 June 2005, aged 90 at Hoylake Cottage Hospital after a two-year battle with cancer. He was buried in Rake Lane Cemetery, Wallasey. Postwar discussion of Holmes' attack The story that Holmes deliberately crashed into the Dornier and that the German plane was attempting to bomb the palace has been challenged - notably by Alfred Price and Stephen Bungay. In one account, Zehbe developed engine trouble and lagged half a mile (800 metres) behind the main bomber stream. His Dornier attracted a swarm of fighters and was damaged. Goschenhofer and Hobel were killed before Zehbe and the others bailed out (Armbruster over Sydenham and Hammermeister over Dulwich). As Zehbe bailed out, he set the aircraft on autopilot. His Dornier was therefore unmanned when Holmes rammed it. During its spinning dive, the gravitational force on the Dornier caused its bombs to be released, which hit or landed near to the Palace nearby, damaging the building.	2.03125
2134195	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingeborg%20Hallstein	Ingeborg Hallstein	She also devoted herself to the lied, giving recitals in Germany and abroad. Teaching In 1979, Hallstein was appointed professor at the Musikhochschule Würzburg where she taught until 2006. After initial doubts, teaching became her new passion and she decided to retire from stage and concentrate on the young talents. She has given master classes in Germany and abroad and is a sought-after juror for international singing competitions. Recordings, films and television An exclusive contract with Deutsche Grammophon resulted in numerous recordings of operas, operettas and songs. These recordings display an artist who had an uncanny sense of sophistication in terms of ornamentation and a fearless bravura approach to the most daring virtuoso pieces. Besides her very successful stage career, she also achieved great popularity during the 1960s and 1970s when she appeared in many operetta films such as Die Zirkusprinzessin or Wiener Blut, and musical television shows. Awards She received the title of a Bavarian Kammersängerin in 1968 and the Federal Cross of Merit in 1979, that order's First Class in 1996, and the Bavarian Order of Merit in 1999.	2.09375
2134239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s%20University%20Faculty%20of%20Arts%20and%20Sciences	Queen's University Faculty of Arts and Sciences	The Faculty of Arts and Sciences is the largest of all faculties at Queen's University at Kingston, and one of the original three faculties that founded the school in 1841. History The Faculty of Arts and Science stands at the core of the history of Queen's University. The royal charter issued by Queen Victoria in 1841, which declared that the university would both train students as Presbyterian ministers and instruct youth “in the various branches in Science and Literature”, laid the Faculty's foundations, and — even though Theology seemed predominant for many years — made it possible for Queen's to emerge at last as a full-grown university with faculties of medicine and applied science. Queen's opened its doors on March 7, 1842, making it the Dominion's first active university in all the 1860 kilometers between Fredericton, New Brunswick and the Pacific Ocean. Thirteen students enrolled in the first courses, which were offered in a small, wood-frame house on the edge of Kingston where the Reverends Peter Colin Campbell and J.A. Williamson as well as the University's first Principal, Thomas Liddell taught Classics, Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. Twenty years later, the student body had swelled to 200 young men — an enrolment comparable to the universities of McGill, Toronto and Victoria that had come into being in the meantime. The faculty grew as well and its complement of five professors — including its first professor in History, a part-time lecturer without salary! — offered a broader range of subjects in the arts and sciences. Since the professoriate hailed predominantly from Britain, great care was taken to recruit faculty members under the age of 40 who, it was thought, would have less difficulty “adjusting to Canadian conditions”.	2.109375
2134239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s%20University%20Faculty%20of%20Arts%20and%20Sciences	Queen's University Faculty of Arts and Sciences	Student Government The faculty's undergraduate student government is the Arts and Science Undergraduate Society (A.S.U.S.). A.S.U.S. sends representatives and its executive to the university-wide undergraduate student government, the AMS. It also has its own assembly and manages its own set of events, organizations, and committees. PHEKSA The Physical Health Education & Kinesiology Student Association (PHEKSA) is a student-run group at Queen's University that is composed of a Council, Assembly, and Honorary and Ordinary members. CESA Founded in 1985, the Concurrent Education Students' Association represents over 900 students enrolled in the Concurrent Education program at Queen's University. Providing a united voice for students in this unique program to all external bodies, as well as facilitating a sense of community remain the main focuses of the Association. COMPSA Queen's University Computing Students’ Association (COMPSA) is the student government for Queen's University School of Computing. COMPSA is run by a group of highly motivated students who represent and bring together the entire Computing student community through various events and opportunities. SGPS Queen's Society of Graduate and Professional Students (SGPS) is a student government to provide a voice for all graduate and professional students at Queen's University. SGPS is run by students who represent and build the community of Queen's for all students past the undergraduate level. Research	2.15625
2134244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Route%202%20%28Hong%20Kong%29	Route 2 (Hong Kong)	Route 2 (Chinese: 二號幹綫) of Hong Kong is a series of expressways that runs from Quarry Bay of Hong Kong Island to Ma Liu Shui of the New Territories East, formerly known as route 6, and renamed as route 2 in 2004 under the route numbering scheme proposed in the same year. Route 2 consists of 4 parts, from South to North: The Eastern Harbour Crossing starting from Quarry Bay, where it joins into the Island Eastern Corridor (Route 4), across Victoria Harbour and ending at Lam Tin, then junction to Tseung Kwan O - Lam Tin Tunnel. The Kwun Tong Bypass succeeds the EHC at Lei Yue Mun Interchange and goes along the coast of Kowloon Bay, junctions Route 5 and Route 7 and continues to Diamond Hill. Tate's Cairn Tunnel continues the route from Diamond Hill, cutting through Tate's Cairn to Shek Mun Interchange, junctioning the Sha Lek Highway. Tate's Cairn Highway, takes the route 2 to its terminus at Ma Liu Shui, where it joins into Tolo Highway of Route 9. Like Route 3, Route 8, Route 9 and Route 10, most of the route consists of expressways. Exits and Interchanges	2.09375
2134260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariano%20%C3%81lvarez	Mariano Álvarez	Mariano Malia Álvarez (: March 15, 1818 – August 25, 1924) was a Filipino revolutionary and statesman. Pre-war life Álvarez was born in Tierra Alta, Cavite to Severino Álvarez and María Malia. He received formal schooling at the San José College in Manila, and obtained a teacher's diploma. He returned to Cavite and worked as a schoolteacher in Naic and Maragondon. In 1871, he was incarcerated and tortured by the colonial authorities after insulting a Spanish soldier. The following year, he was accused of involvement in the Cavite Mutiny and was hauled to Manila in chains for detention. Upon his eventual release, he returned to Noveleta, and in 1881, was elected gobernadorcillo before becoming capitan municipal, the new title under the Maura Law, in 1893 after getting re-elected. He held the position until the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in 1896. Revolutionary general Álvarez and his son Santiago were active members of the Katipunan, the anti-Spanish secret society founded by Andrés Bonifacio in 1892. Mariano was the uncle of Bonifacio's wife, Gregoria de Jesús. In early 1896, Álvarez was elected president of the Magdiwang, one of two Katipunan branches in Cavite along with Magdalo. The two branches evolved into separate factions with their own local governments, through their provincial councils. Álvarez helped facilitate growing membership of the Katipunan in Cavite. When the revolution started in August 1896, Bonifacio at least planned to give him overall command of all the revolutionary forces in Cavite. A draft of the appointment order survives but whether it was dispatched is uncertain. He led Filipino forces in several battles against the Spanish army in Cavite and held the rank of general. His efforts helped liberate most towns in Cavite from Spanish control within weeks from the start of the revolt. He was recognized as the instigator of the revolution in Cavite.	2.4375
2134260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariano%20%C3%81lvarez	Mariano Álvarez	Rivalry and tension existed between the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions over jurisdiction and authority, and Álvarez, as Magdiwang head, invited Bonifacio, as Presidente Supremo ("Supreme President") of the Katipunan, to mediate over them. Bonifacio was seen as partial to the Magdiwang probably due to his kinship ties with Álvarez. In their memoirs, Emilio Aguinaldo and other Magdalo personages claim that Bonifacio became the head of the Magdiwang, receiving the title Hari ng Bayan (“King of the People”) with Álvarez as his second-in-command. However, no documentary sources have been found substantiating these claims. Instead it has been suggested that these claims stem from a misunderstanding or misrepresentation of one of Bonifacio’s titles, Pangulo ng Haring Bayan (“President of the Sovereign Nation”). In his own memoirs, Santiago Álvarez clearly distinguishes between the Magdiwang government and the Supreme Council of the Katipunan headed by Bonifacio. The dispute between the Magdiwang and Magdalo soon involved the issue of command of the revolution. The Magdalo called for the abolition of the Katipunan and the establishment of a revolutionary government. Bonifacio and the Magdiwang maintained the Katipunan was already their government. After losing the internal power struggle to Aguinaldo, Bonifacio was executed in 1897. Álvarez was aggrieved by Bonifacio's death, and, like Emilio Jacinto, refused to join the forces of Aguinaldo, who had then retreated to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan. Personal life In May 1863, he married Nicolasa Virata y del Rosario and has three children including Santiago, also a revolutionary general, was born on July 25, 1872, in Imus. Later life	2.40625
2134287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20%28linguistics%29	Feature (linguistics)	In linguistics, a feature is any characteristic used to classify a phoneme or word. These are often binary or unary conditions which act as constraints in various forms of linguistic analysis. In phonology In phonology, segments are categorized into natural classes on the basis of their distinctive features. Each feature is a quality or characteristic of the natural class, such as voice or manner. A unique combination of features defines a phoneme. Examples of phonemic or distinctive features are: [+/- voice ], [+/- ATR ] (binary features) and [ CORONAL ] (a unary feature; also a place feature). Surface representations can be expressed as the result of rules acting on the features of the underlying representation. These rules are formulated in terms of transformations on features. In morphology and syntax In morphology and syntax, words are often organized into lexical categories or word classes, such as "noun", "verb", "adjective", and so on. These word classes have grammatical features (also called categories or inflectional categories), which can have one of a set of potential values (also called the property, meaning, or feature of the category). For example, consider the pronoun in English. Pronouns are a lexical category. Pronouns have the person feature, which can have a value of "first", "second", or "third". English pronouns also have the number feature, which can have a value of either "singular" or "plural". As a result, we can describe the English pronoun "they" as a pronoun with [person:3] and [number:plural]. Third person singular pronouns in English also have a gender feature: "she" is [gender:feminine], "he" [gender:masculine] and "it [gender:neuter]. Different lexical categories realise or are specified for different grammatical features: for example, verbs in English are specified for tense, aspect and mood features, as well as person and number. The features that a category realises can also differ from language to language.	3.484375
2134287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature%20%28linguistics%29	Feature (linguistics)	There is often a correspondence between morphological and syntactic features, in that certain features, such as person, are relevant to both morphology and syntax; these are known as morphosyntactic features. Other types of grammatical features, by contrast, may be relevant to semantics (morphosemantic features), such as tense, aspect and mood, or may only be relevant to morphology (morphological features). Inflectional class (a word's membership of a particular verb class or noun class) is a purely morphological feature, because it is only relevant to the morphological realisation of the word. In formal models of grammar, features can be represented as attribute-value pairs. For example, in Lexical functional grammar, syntactic features are represented alongside grammatical functions at the level of functional structure (f-structure), which takes the form of an attribute-value matrix. In semantics In semantics, words are categorized into semantic classes. Intersecting semantic classes share the same semantic features. Semantic features can include [±human] and [±animate]. These features may in some instances be realised morphologically, in which case they may also be called morphosemantic features.	2.796875
2134303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwing	Birdwing	Description Ova After mating, females immediately begin to seek appropriate host plants; climbing vines of the genera Aristolochia and Pararistolochia (both in the family Aristolochiaceae) are sought exclusively. The female lays her spherical eggs under the tips of the vine's leaves, one egg per leaf. Larva The caterpillars are voracious eaters but move very little; a small group will defoliate an entire vine. If starved due to overcrowding, the caterpillars may resort to cannibalism. Fleshy spine-like tubercles line the caterpillars' backs, and their bodies are dark red to brown and velvety black. Some species have tubercles of contrasting colours, often red, or pale "saddle" markings. Like other members of their family, birdwing caterpillars possess a retractable organ behind their heads called an osmeterium. Shaped like the forked tongue of a snake, the osmeterium excretes a fetid terpene-based compound and is deployed when the caterpillar is provoked. The caterpillars are also unappealing to most predators due to their toxicity: the vines which the caterpillars feed upon contain aristolochic acid, a poisonous compound known to be carcinogenic in rats. The feeding caterpillars incorporate and concentrate the aristolochic acid into their tissues, where the poison will persist through metamorphosis and into adulthood. Pupa Birdwing chrysalids are camouflaged to look like a dead leaf or twig. Before pupating, the caterpillars may wander considerable distances from their host plants. In O. alexandrae, it takes about four months to get from egg to adult. Barring predation, this species can also survive up to three months as an adult. Imago Birdwings inhabit rainforests and adults are usually glimpsed along the forest periphery. They feed upon—and are important long-range pollinators of—nectar-bearing flowers of the forest canopy, as well as terrestrial flowers, such as lantana. They are strong flyers and seek sunlit spots in which to bask.	2.8125
2134303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwing	Birdwing	Breeding behaviour varies little between species; the female's role is relatively passive, slowly fluttering from perch to perch while the male performs an elaborate, quivering yet stationary dance 20–50 cm above her. Birdwings are typified by large size (up to a maximum body length of 7.6 cm or 3 inches and a wingspan of 28 cm or 11 inches in O. alexandrae), showy colouration (in contrasting shades of green, yellow, black, white, and sometimes blue or orange), and slender, lanceolate forewings. With few exceptions (i.e., the New Guinean O. meridionalis and O. paradisea), the hindwings lack tails. Sexual dimorphism is strong in Ornithoptera species only, where males are black combined with bright iridescent green, blue, orange, or yellow while the larger and less colourful females are overall black or dark brownish with white, pale brown, or yellow markings. Males and females of most Troides birdwings are similar and have jet black to brown dorsal forewings, often with the veins bordered in grey to creamy white. At least one of these darkly-coloured species (T. rhadamantus) possesses thermoreceptors on the anal veins (A2 and A3) of the wings and on the antennal clubs. The antennal receptors of the clubs—which also possess hygroreceptors that measure atmospheric humidity—are known as sensilla basiconica. The thermoreceptors are sensitive to sudden increases in temperature; they are thought to help the butterfly thermoregulate and avoid overheating while basking.	2.703125
2134303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwing	Birdwing	The colours of most species are pigmentary (via papiliochrome); but two species, Troides magellanus and the much rarer T. prattorum, are noted for their use of limited-view iridescence: the yellow of the dorsal hindwings is modified by bright blue-green iridescence which is only seen when the butterfly is viewed at a narrow, oblique angle. This "grazing iridescence" is brought about through diffraction of light (after back-reflection) by the wings' extremely steeply-set, multilayered rib-like scales (rather than the ridge-lamellae of most other iridescent butterflies, such as Morpho species). Such limited-view iridescence was previously only known from one other species, the riodinid Ancyluris meliboeus. In A. meliboeus, however, the iridescence is produced by ridge-lamellar scales and features a wider range of colours. The close evolutionary relationship between Troides and Ornithoptera butterflies is well demonstrated by the fact that commercial breeders have produced numerous hybrids between the two. The final and smallest genus is Trogonoptera with just two species. They resemble each other, being overall black with iridescent green markings and a red head. Females are duller than males. Distribution	2.84375
2134303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwing	Birdwing	Richmond birdwings (O. richmondia) depend on the plant Aristolochia praevenosa which they need for their caterpillars. However, the very similar Aristolochia elegans (Dutchman's pipe) which can be found in many Australian backyards, kills the caterpillars. Reproduction Ornithoptera, or the genus of birdwing butterflies, usually reproduce sexually and are oviparous. In butterflies sex is determined by a WW/WZ system, with a heterogametic female, reverse of that found in mammals and many other insects, which have a heterogametic male. During copulation males will transfer an ejaculate containing both sperm and accessory substances that can make up to fifteen percent of a males body mass. Mating systems Mating systems, first explored in evolutionary terms by Darwin, includes all behaviours associated with sexual reproduction. Mating systems include all costs and benefits, pre- and postcopulatory competitions, displays and mate choice. Butterfly mating systems have great variation, including strict monandry, one male and one female, to polyandry, having many mates of the opposite sex. Typically Ornithoptera tend to be polygamous, mating with more than one individual. Female choice Female choice can have a serious impact on mate selection and successful reproduction. Several species of Ornithoptera have been known to create hybrids if they have no access to their own species. Troides oblongamaculatus females have been known to choose to mate with other species such as Ornithoptera priamus poseidon, which will attempt mating if their own species is not to be found near by. The females will typically resist mating attempts by covering their abdomen with their forewings or dropping to the ground, making mating near impossible. Although the females usually resist these mating attempts, they have been noted to be more susceptible if they have not had previous encounters with males of their own species. Male courtship	2.96875
2134303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birdwing	Birdwing	Some male Ornithoptera species demonstrate courtship behaviour. Ornithoptera priamus posedion males will approach a female carefully, and examine the female for several minutes. After consideration, the male may choose to hover twenty to thirty centimeters above the female, displaying the bright yellow marking on its hindwings. Meanwhile, the forewings will move forward, exposing the abdomen and androconial hair tufts. Mating is only attempted when the female has ceased to flap her wings. After about thirty seconds of the display, the male will attempt copulation. Cryptic choice: sperm competition and postcopulatory guarding In many animals, females often mate with more than one male. Males who are able will adapt strategies such as postcopulatory guarding to ensure the paternity of the offspring. Following insemination, it is common for the male Ornithoptera to produce a mating plug, which will seal the ostium bursae and prevent remating by the female, as new sperm is unable to enter the opening. The plug does not impede oviposition and may stay in place for the duration of the female's life. Sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism is very prominent in Ornithoptera species, the males being black with brightly colored markings of blue, green, orange or yellow and the females are overall black or dark brown. The sexual dichromatism functions in mate recognition by the use of photoreceptors. Due to the protected nature of Ornithoptera it has been difficult to study the spectral sensitivities of the sexes although this difference in coloration alludes to the idea of sensory exploitation of the female's photoreceptors. The sensory bias of females to select for males with brighter wings has yet to be studied in Ornithoptera.	2.984375
2134310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithoptera	Ornithoptera	Ornithoptera is a genus of birdwing butterflies found in the northern portion of the Australasian realm, east of Weber's line; the Moluccas, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and northeastern Australia; except for Ornithoptera richmondia, which may be found in far northeastern New South Wales, Australia, therefore the southernmost distribution of birdwings. This genus includes the two largest butterfly species in the world, the Queen Alexandra's birdwing and the Goliath birdwing. Ornithoptera species are highly prized by insect collectors because they are rare, large, and considered exceptionally beautiful. Species subgenus: Aetheoptera Ornithoptera victoriae – Queen Victoria's birdwing subgenus: Ornithoptera Ornithoptera aesacus – Obi Island birdwing Ornithoptera croesus – Wallace's golden birdwing Ornithoptera euphorion – Cairns birdwing Ornithoptera priamus – common green birdwing Ornithoptera richmondia – Richmond birdwing subgenus: Schoenbergia Ornithoptera chimaera – chimaera birdwing Ornithoptera goliath – Goliath birdwing Ornithoptera meridionalis – southern tailed birdwing Ornithoptera paradisea – paradise birdwing Ornithoptera rothschildi – Rothschild's birdwing Ornithoptera tithonus – Tithonus birdwing subgenus: Straatmana Ornithoptera alexandrae – Queen Alexandra's birdwing	2.703125
2134313	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Zimmermann	Walter Zimmermann	Walter Zimmermann (born 15 April 1949) is a German composer associated with the Cologne School. Born in Schwabach, Germany, Zimmermann studied composition in Germany with Werner Heider and Mauricio Kagel, the theory of musical intelligence at the Institute of Sonology in Utrecht (now located in The Hague), and computer music at Colgate University in New York. Zimmermann's works are infused by a personal adaptation of minimal technique. Whereas many early American minimalist composers were influenced in their works by rock music, jazz, and world musics, Zimmermann has drawn a great deal of inspiration from his Franconian heritage. A number of his works, particularly his groups of pieces known as Lokale Musik, use the traditional music of this area as source material. These works frequently begin with melodic material derived from Franconian folk songs, which are rearranged and transformed in novel ways. In 1976, Zimmermann published a collection of interviews with American musicians and composers entitled Desert Plants: Conversations With 23 American Musicians.	2.265625
2134317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trogonoptera	Trogonoptera	Trogonoptera is a genus of birdwing butterflies from the rainforests of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Natuna, Sumatra, Palawan, and various small islands west of Sumatra. Their large size and stunning colors makes them highly prized by collectors. There are at least three theories as to why these butterflies have such distinctive markings on their wings: (1) the alternate green/black spear shapes mimic sharp thorns; (2) the green spear shapes mimic the camouflage pattern of a fern leaf when the butterfly is resting; (3) when flying, the black and green markings mimic those of green broadbill bird feathers in flight. The three green broadbill species in Borneo are found in the same habitats as Rajah Brooke's birdwing, which occurs from the forested lowlands up to 2.000 m on Mount Kinabalu. A number of observers have noted that all Borneo's birdwing butterflies are so large that they are easily mistaken for birds in flight. A bird hunting for an insect to eat would be unlikely to attack a bird. If the butterfly wing pattern mimics the broadbill's feathers then it would be a case of a Müllerian mimicry ring because both species have wings covered with thornlike patterns. In addition the broadbills are protected because of their large beaks and the butterfly because it is poisonous. The blue colors evolved in Trogonoptera brookiana form hecata and Trogonoptera trojana may be explained by the presence of fairy-bluebirds in their habitat. Species Two species are recognized in this genus: Trogonoptera brookiana – Rajah Brooke's birdwing Trogonoptera trojana – Triangle birdwing	3.109375
2134321	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Hill%20%28Australian%20communist%29	Ted Hill (Australian communist)	Edward Fowler Hill (23 April 1915 – 1 February 1988) was an Australian barrister, lawyer and communist activist. He was chairman of the Communist Party of Australia (CPA M-L) from 1964 to 1986. History Hill was born on 23 April 1915 in Mildura, Victoria to James and Alice Hill. He attended school at Hamilton High School, where his father was head teacher. After leaving school he worked as a clerk for Bill Slater, a local barrister who was also the local Labor Member of Parliament. In 1933 he moved to Melbourne to study law at the University of Melbourne. Despite being awarded for his academic knowledge he did not finish his legal degree until 1981. It was during his time at the university that he joined the Communist Party of Australia (CPA). He was admitted to practice as a barrister and solicitor in 1938 and soon became well known as the CPA's leading legal figure, defending the party and its members in several well-known trials. In 1951 he advised Frank Hardy in his prosecution for criminal libel over his novel Power Without Glory. Hill also represented the CPA before the 1947 Royal Commission into Communism and the 1954 Royal Commission into alleged Soviet espionage in Australia (see Petrov Affair). Split In the 1950s, Hill was Victorian State Secretary of the CPA. When the Sino-Soviet split developed in the early 1960s, Hill supported the position of the Chinese Communist Party, while the CPA majority, led by National Secretary Lance Sharkey supported the Soviet Union. Hill was expelled from the CPA in 1963 and in March 1964 formed the Communist Party of Australia (Marxist–Leninist) (CPA(ML)), taking many militant members from the Victorian CPA with him. Among ordinary Australian voters, the attraction of Hill's party was negligible.	1.960938
2134322	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspen%20Highlands	Aspen Highlands	Upper mountain terrain What attracts most skiers to Highlands is the dramatic, just-above-timberline summit of the mountain. The upper mountain is primarily served by the Loge Peak high speed quad originating at the Merry-Go-Round. The ridge that extends down from Loge Peak (the lift-served summit) has only one intermediate run, Broadway, which follows the ridge spine. On the skiers' right side is Steeplechase, an area of long and steep terrain with some runs reaching upwards of 45 degrees. Farther down is the Olympic bowl which contains steep slopes in and out of glades. Views of the Maroon Bells, Pyramid Peak, Hayden Mountain, and the Highland Bowl greet skiers at the summit. The Highland Bowl Since 2002, the Highland Bowl has been the crown jewel of Aspen Highlands. Most of the terrain is accessed only by hiking from the top of Loge Peak, although a snowcat can cut the distance by a third. Including the hike-to terrain in Highland Bowl, Highlands' skiable vertical descent increases to . The Highlands ski patrol monitors the Bowl and conducts avalanche control for skier safety. The Bowl faces primarily east, towards Aspen Mountain. Generally, the best snow to be found is in the north-facing G-Zones ("G" corresponds to green ski wax, for the coldest temperature snow). The B-Zones (for blue wax) face east and descend down the center of the bowl from the summit of Highland Peak. The south-facing Y-Zones (yellow wax), are the steepest, with slopes as steep as 48 degrees, according to Aspen Highlands trail maps. These can be skied without hiking. Prior to the construction of the Deep Temerity lift in 2005, a run down the Highland Bowl required then taking the Grand Traverse, a long, flat catwalk, to get back to the Loge Peak lift. The Highland Bowl also offers access from the summit into the steep and highly avalanche prone backcountry Five Fingers Bowl.	2.203125
2134328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttermilk%20%28ski%20area%29	Buttermilk (ski area)	Buttermilk Ski Area refers to a ski hill and an unincorporated community surrounding it in Pitkin County, Colorado. Located about halfway between the cities of Aspen and Snowmass Village, it is frequently considered the easiest skiing mountain in the area. Buttermilk has also been the host to the ESPN Winter X Games multiple times. It contains three ski areas: Tiehack (difficult), Main Buttermilk (regular), and West Buttermilk (easy). Art Pfister developed Buttermilk Mountain ski area in 1958.　It was part of the original Aspen trio of 1960s: Aspen Mountain (ski area), Aspen Highlands, and Aspen Buttermilk. Buttermilk is anchored by three high speed quads. The Summit Express services trails in the Main Buttermilk section of the mountain. The West Buttermilk Express, built in 2004, services beginner terrain on the west face of the mountain. The Tiehack Express, built in 2011, services advanced and intermediate terrain on the west face of Buttermilk Mountain. Buttermilk is known as one of the best beginner mountains in North America, to learn ski or snowboard. Its base includes The Hideout — an integrated play-and-learning area for children in ski school ages 2 ½ to 6 years old. In February 2014, Nancy Pfister was found brutally murdered in a walk-in closet of her home in Buttermilk. The case made headlines across the country, and has been featured on Dateline and Snapped.	1.9375
2134338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20media%20in%20Sri%20Lanka	Mass media in Sri Lanka	Mass media of Sri Lanka consist of several different types of communications media: television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and Web sites. State and private media operators provide services in the main languages Sinhala, Tamil and English. The government owns two major TV stations, radio networks operated by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), and newspaper titles in Sinhala, Tamil, and English. After the growth of Sri Lankan economy, many satellite TV channels were introduced. However, there are over a dozen privately owned radio stations and more than 30 privately operated television stations. They often engage in political debates. The use of the internet is a growing force within Sri Lanka, many of the newspapers now have online editions. Because of the limited circulation for the daily and weekly newspapers, they are heavily dependent on advertising. As a result of this it is very rare to see Sri Lankan newspapers engage in investigative journalism or daring exposés of big business. Press freedom Press freedom is a major concern in Sri Lanka. Both sides in the war make efforts to silence inconvenient reporters. Around 15 reporters received death threats from one faction or the other in 2004 The assassinated reporter Aiyathurai Nadesan, correspondent in Batticaloa for several Tamil media stated just prior to his assassination in 2005: We are caught between a rock and a hard place. It is very difficult for us to check reports either with the security forces or the Tamil Tigers. And when a news item on local events is datelined Colombo, it puts us at risk of reprisals on the ground. In 2005, the Tamil newspaper Thinakkural was threatened by Karuna. Copies of the newspaper were burned in the Eastern provinces. On the other hand, distribution of the Tamil weekly Thinamurasu is blocked by the LTTE because it is close to another armed group, the EPDP. BBC World Service stopped its broadcast in Sinhalese and Tamil for fear of reprisal against its reporters.	2.515625
2134340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus%20terebinthifolia	Schinus terebinthifolia	Schinus terebinthifolia is a species of flowering plant in the cashew family, Anacardiaceae, that is native to subtropical and tropical South America. Common names include Brazilian peppertree, aroeira, rose pepper, broadleaved pepper tree, wilelaiki (or wililaiki), Christmasberry tree and Florida holly. The species name has been very commonly misspelled as ‘terebinthifolius’. Description Brazilian peppertree is a sprawling shrub or small tree, with a shallow root system, reaching a height of . The branches can be upright, reclining, or nearly vine-like, all on the same plant. Its plastic morphology allows it to thrive in all kinds of ecosystems: From dunes to swamps, where it grows as a semi-aquatic plant. The leaves are alternate, long, pinnately compound with (3–) 5–15 leaflets; the leaflets are roughly oval (lanceolate to elliptical), long and broad, and have finely toothed margins, an acute to rounded apex and yellowish veins. The leaf rachis between the leaflets is usually (but not invariably) slightly winged. The plant is dioecious, with small white flowers borne profusely in axillary clusters. The fruit is a drupe diameter, carried in dense clusters of hundreds. The two varieties are: S. terebinthifolia var. acutifolia, leaves to 22 cm, with 7–15 leaflets, pink fruit S. terebinthifolia var. terebinthifolia, leaves to 17 cm, with 5–13 leaflets, red fruit Distribution Schinus terebinthifolia is native to Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. In the United States, it has been introduced to California, Texas, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada, Louisiana, and Florida. Cultivation and uses Brazilian pepper is widely grown as an ornamental plant in frost-free regions of South America for its foliage and fruit. In its native habitat it is a melliferous flower and is the main source of food for the stingless bee Tetragonisca angustula, which is an important honey producer in Central and South America.	2.5
2134340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus%20terebinthifolia	Schinus terebinthifolia	Although it is not a true pepper (Piper), its dried drupes are often sold as pink peppercorns, as are the fruits from the related species Schinus molle (Peruvian peppertree). The seeds can be used as a spice, adding a pepper-like taste to food. They are usually sold in a dry state and have a bright pink color. They are less often sold pickled in brine, where they have a dull, almost green hue. Planted originally as an ornamental outside of its native range, Brazilian pepper has become widespread and is considered an invasive species in many subtropical regions with moderate to high rainfall, including parts or all of Australia, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern China, Cuba, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Puerto Rico, Réunion, South Africa and the United States. In drier areas, such as Israel and southern California, it is also grown, but has not generally proven invasive. In California, it is considered invasive in coastal regions by the California Invasive Plant Council. Brazilian pepper is hard to control because it produces basal shoots if the trunk is cut. Trees also produce abundant seeds that are dispersed by birds and ants. This same hardiness makes the tree highly useful for reforestation in its native environment, but enables it to become invasive outside of its natural range. Toxicity Like many other species in the family Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper has an aromatic sap that can cause skin reactions (similar to poison ivy burns) in some sensitive people – although the reaction is usually weaker than that induced by touch of the closely related Lithraea molleoides, known in Brazil as "wild" aroeira (aroeira brava). Conversely, Schinus terebinthifolia is commonly known as "tame" aroeira (aroeira mansa).	2.984375
2134340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus%20terebinthifolia	Schinus terebinthifolia	In a paper on triterpenes, the ingested fruits are noted to have a “paralyzing effect” on birds. The narcotic and toxic effects on birds and other wildlife has also been noted by others, e.g., Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management. The AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants reports that the triterpenes found in the fruits can result in irritation of the throat, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, and vomiting. Like most other members of the Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper contains active alkenyl phenols, e.g., urushiol, cardol, which can cause contact dermatitis and inflammation in sensitive individuals. Contact with the “sap” from a cut or bruised tree can result in rash, lesions, oozing sores, severe itching, welts and reddening and swelling (especially of the eyes). The burning of plant matter releases many airborne irritants, so it is not an effective means of control. It is said to have a "mace-like" effect upon nearby people and is highly advised against. History Also known as "Florida holly", Schinus terebinthifolia was introduced to Florida by at latest 1891, probably earlier, where it has spread rapidly since about 1940, replacing native plants, like mangroves, with thousands of acres occupied. It is especially adept at colonizing disturbed sites and can grow in both wet and dry conditions. Its growth habit allows it to climb over understory trees and invade mature canopies, forming thickets that choke out most other plants.	2.703125
2134340	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus%20terebinthifolia	Schinus terebinthifolia	As an invasive pest The species, including the seed, is legally prohibited from sale, transport, or planting in Florida, according to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Noxious Weed List. It is classified as a Category I pest by The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FL EPPC). To keep the plant from spreading into native plant communities and displacing them, local regulations and environmental guidelines require eradication of Brazilian pepper wherever possible. The plant and all parts are also illegal for sale or transfer in Texas. As one of the two species sold as pink peppercorn, the other being Schinus molle, it lacks generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status with the FDA. Several biocontrols are being studied for use in Florida. It is a declared weed in several states of Australia. In South Africa, it is classified as a category 1 invader in KwaZulu-Natal province, where any plants are to be removed and destroyed, and a category 3 invader in all other provinces, meaning it may no longer be planted. Control Two herbicides are approved for use in the United States to exterminate Brazilian pepper: Triclopyr, using the basal bark method; and glyphosate. Picloram can be used if the stump has been freshly cut, but this is neither the preferred nor most effective means of eradication. Calophya terebinthifolii and Calophya lutea are two psyllids in the Calophya with high specificity – among plants in Florida – for Brazilian peppertree. Thus they are recommended for use in biocontrol in that area. Medicinal uses Peppertree is the subject of extensive folk medicinal lore where it is indigenous. Virtually all parts of this tropical tree, including its leaves, bark, fruit, seeds, resin and oleoresin (or balsam) have been used medicinally by indigenous peoples throughout the tropics. The plant has a very long history of use and appears in ancient religious artifacts and on idols among some of the ancient Chilean Amerindians.	2.34375
2134346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Jefferson%20National%20Accelerator%20Facility	Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility	History The facility was established in 1984 (first initial funding by the Department of Energy) as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF) by the Southeastern Universities Research Association; the name was changed to Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in 1996. The full funding for construction was appropriated by US Congress in 1986 and on February 13, 1987, the construction of the main component, the CEBAF accelerator began. The first beam was delivered to the experimental area on 1 July 1994. The design energy of 4 GeV for the beam was achieved during the year 1995. The laboratory dedication took place on May 24, 1996 (at this event the name was also changed). Full initial operations with all three initial experiment areas online at the design energy was achieved on June 19, 1998. On August 6, 2000, the CEBAF reached "enhanced design energy" of 6 GeV. In 2001, plans for an energy upgrade to 12 GeV electron beam and plans to construct a fourth experimental hall area started. The plans progressed through various DOE Critical Decision-stages in the 2000s decade, with the final DOE acceptance in 2008 and the construction on the 12 GeV upgrade beginning in 2009. May 18, 2012 the original 6 GeV CEBAF accelerator shut down for the replacement of the accelerator components for the 12 GeV upgrade. 178 experiments were completed with the original CEBAF. In addition to the accelerator, the laboratory has housed and continues to house a free-electron laser (FEL) instrument. The construction of the FEL started June 11, 1996. It achieved first light on June 17, 1998. Since then, the FEL has been upgraded numerous times, increasing its power and capabilities substantially.	2.328125
2134346	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Jefferson%20National%20Accelerator%20Facility	Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility	The design of CEBAF allows the electron beam to be continuous rather than the pulsed beam typical of ring shaped accelerators. (There is some beam structure, but the pulses are very much shorter and closer together.) The electron beam is directed onto three potential targets (see below). One of the distinguishing features of Jefferson Lab is the continuous nature of the electron beam, with a bunch length of less than 1 picosecond. Another is Jefferson Lab's use of superconducting Radio Frequency (SRF) technology, which uses liquid helium to cool niobium to approximately 4 K (−452.5 °F), removing electrical resistance and allowing the most efficient transfer of energy to an electron. To achieve this, Jefferson Lab houses the world's largest liquid helium refrigerator, and it was one of the first large-scale implementations of SRF technology. The accelerator is built 8 meters below the Earth's surface, or approximately 25 feet, and the walls of the accelerator tunnels are 2 feet thick. The beam ends in four experimental halls, labelled Hall A, Hall B, Hall C, and Hall D. Each hall contains specialized spectrometers to record the products of collisions between the electron beam or with real photons and a stationary target. This allows physicists to study the structure of the atomic nucleus, specifically the interaction of the quarks that make up protons and neutrons of the nucleus. With each revolution around the accelerator, the beam passes through each of the two LINAC accelerators, but through a different set of bending magnets in semi-circular arcs at the ends of the linacs. The electrons make up to five passes through the linear accelerators.	2.375
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	The American pika (Ochotona princeps), a diurnal species of pika, is found in the mountains of western North America, usually in boulder fields at or above the tree line. They are herbivorous, smaller relatives of rabbits and hares. Pikas have two different ways of foraging; they either directly consume food or they cache food in piles for the winter (haying). Pikas are vocal, using both calls and songs to warn when predators are nearby and during the breeding season. Predators of the pika include eagles, hawks, coyotes, bobcats, foxes, and weasels. Recent studies suggest populations in the southwestern United States are declining due to habitat loss and global warming. However, the American pika is overall considered a species of Least Concern, and is still common in the northwestern United States and Canada. Description American pikas, known in the 19th century as "little Chief hares", have a small, round, ovate body. Their body lengths range from . Their hind feet range from . They usually weigh about . Body size can vary among populations. In populations with sexual dimorphism, males are slightly larger than females.	3.109375
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	The American pika is intermediate in size among pikas. The hind legs of the pika do not seem to be much longer than its front legs and its hind feet are relatively short when compared to most other lagomorphs. It has densely furred soles on its feet except for black pads at the ends of the toes. The ears are moderately large and suborbicular, and are hairy on both surfaces, normally dark with white margins. The pika's "buried" tail is longer relative to body size compared to other lagomorphs. It has a slightly rounded skull with a broad and flat preorbital region. The fur color of the pika is the same for both sexes, but varies by subspecies and season. The dorsal fur of the pika ranges from grayish to cinnamon-brown, often colored with tawny or ochraceous hues, during the summer. During winter, the fur becomes grayer and longer. The dense underfur is usually slate gray- or lead-colored. It also has whitish ventral fur. Males are called bucks and females are called does like rabbits. Distribution and habitat The American pika can be found throughout the mountains of western North America, from central British Columbia and Alberta in Canada to the US states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, California, and New Mexico. Of the 30 existing species of pika, it is one of only two which inhabit North America, along with the collared pika (O. collaris). In relation to the distribution of the American pika, the collared pika is located farther north and is separated by a gap of about extending across British Columbia and Alberta.	2.734375
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	Pikas inhabit talus fields that are fringed by suitable vegetation in alpine areas. They also live in piles of broken rock. Sometimes, they live in man-made substrate such as mine tailings and piles of scrap lumber. Pikas usually have their den and nest sites below rock, around in diameter, but often sit on larger and more prominent rocks. They generally reside in scree near or above the tree line. Pikas are restricted to cool, moist microhabitats on high peaks or watercourses. Intolerant of high diurnal temperatures, in the northern portion of their range, they may be found near sea level, but in the south they are rare below . American pikas rely on existing spaces in the talus for homes and do not dig burrows. However, they can enlarge their homes by digging. Diet The American pika is a generalist herbivore. It eats a large variety of green plants, including different kinds of grasses, sedges, thistles, and fireweed. Although a pika can meet its water demand from the vegetation eaten, it does drink water if it is available in its environment. Pikas have two different ways of foraging; they directly consume food (feeding) or they cache food in haypiles to use for a food source in the winter (haying). They feed throughout the year while haying is limited to the summer. Since they do not hibernate, pikas have greater energy demands than other montane mammals. They also make 13 trips per hour to collect vegetation when haying, up to a little over 100 trips per day. The timing of haying seems to correlate to the amount of precipitation from the previous winter. Pikas start and then quit haying earlier in years following little snow and an early spring. In areas at lower elevations, haying begins before the snow has melted at high altitudes; at higher elevations, haying continues after it ends in lower elevations.	3.25
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	When haying, pikas harvest plants in a deliberate sequence, corresponding to their seasonal phenology. They seem to assess the nutritional value of available food and harvest accordingly. Pikas select plants that have the higher caloric, protein, lipid, and water content. Forbs and tall grass tend to be hayed more than eaten directly. Haypiles tend to be stored under the talus near the talus-meadow interface, although they may be constructed on the talus surface. Males generally store more vegetation than females and adults usually store more than juveniles. Like all lagomorphs (rabbits, hares, pikas), the American pika creates, expels & eats cecotropes (cecotrophy) to get more nutrition from its food. Cecotropes have more energy value than stored plant food and the American pika may consume them directly or store them for later. Life history The American pika is diurnal. The total area of land that a pika uses is known as a home range. About 55% of its home range is territory that the pika defends against intruders. Territory size can vary from and is dependent on configuration, distance to vegetation, and quality of vegetation. The home ranges of pikas may overlap, with the distances of the home ranges of a mated pair being shorter than that of the nearest neighbors of the same sex. Spatial distances between adults of a pair is greatest during early and midsummer and reduces during late summer and early autumn. Pikas defend their territories with aggression. Actual aggressive encounters are rare and usually occur between members of the same sex and those unfamiliar with each other. A pika may intrude on another's territory, but usually when the resident is not active. During haying, territorial behavior increases.	3.171875
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	Adult pikas of the opposite sex with territories adjacent form mated pairs. When more than one male is available, females exhibit mate choice. Pikas are reflex ovulators; ovulation only occurs after copulation, and they are also seasonally polyestrous. A female has two litters per year and these litters average three young each. Breeding takes place one month before the snow melts and gestation lasts around 30 days. Parturition occurs as early as March in lower elevations, but occurs from April to June at higher elevations. Lactation significantly reduces a female's fat reserves and they only wean the second litter if the first does not survive, despite exhibiting postpartum estrus. Pikas are born altricial, being blind, slightly haired, and having fully erupted teeth. They weigh between at birth. At around nine days old, they are able to open their eyes. Mothers forage most of the day and return to the nest once every two hours to nurse the young. Young become independent after four weeks, around the same time they are weaned. Young may remain in their natal or an adjoining home range. When in their home range, young occupy areas away from their relatives as much as possible. Dispersal appears to be caused by competition for territories. Pikas are vocal, using both calls and songs to communicate among themselves. A call is used to warn when a predator is lurking nearby, and a song is used during the breeding season (males only), and during autumn (both males and females). Predators of the pika include eagles, hawks, coyotes, bobcats, mountain lions, foxes, and weasels. Taxonomy The American pika was described in the scientific literature by John Richardson in Fauna Boreali-Americana in 1828. The original scientific name was Lepus (Lagomys) princeps. Conservation and decline	3.3125
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	As they live in the high and cooler mountain regions, they are very sensitive to high temperatures, and are considered to be one of the best early warning systems for detecting global warming in the western United States. Temperature increases are suspected to be one cause of American pikas moving higher in elevation in an attempt to find suitable habitat, as well as cooler temperatures. American pikas, however, cannot easily migrate in response to climate change, as their habitat is currently restricted to small, disconnected habitat "islands" in numerous mountain ranges. Pikas can die in six hours when exposed to temperatures above if individuals cannot find refuge from heat. In warmer environments, such as during midday sun and at lower elevation limits, pikas typically become inactive and withdraw into cooler talus openings. Because of behavioral adaptation, American pikas also persist in the hot climates of Craters of the Moon and Lava Beds National Monuments (Idaho and California, respectively). Average and extreme maximum surface temperatures in August at these sites are , respectively. Recent studies suggest some populations are declining due to various factors, most notably global warming. A 2003 study, published in the Journal of Mammalogy, showed nine of 25 sampled populations of American pika had been extirpated in the Great Basin, leading biologists to conduct further investigations to determine if the species as a whole is vulnerable. In 2010, the US government considered, then decided not to add the American pika under the US Endangered Species Act. In the IUCN Red List, it is still considered a species of Least Concern.	3.1875
2134362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20pika	American pika	The Pikas in Peril Project, funded through the National Park Service Climate Change Response Program, began data collection in May 2010. A large team of academic researchers and National Park Service staff - from three universities and eight national parks - worked together to address questions regarding the vulnerability of the American pika to future climate change scenarios projected for the western United States. The project concluded in 2016. More recent studies have found widespread extirpations and range retractions at lower elevations which are typically warmer and drier, patterns that have been further attributed to varying aspects of climate change such as warmer summer and winter temperatures and changes in precipitation. For example, one study found upslope retractions in 44 of 64 watersheds surveyed in the Northern Rockies, with retractions averaging . Another study in North Cascades National Park in Washington found that a single winter of little to no snow caused drastic declines in pika abundance, highlighting how snowpack provides a necessary insulation against cold winter temperatures.	2.671875
2134377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Goings	Ralph Goings	Ralph Goings (May 9, 1928 – September 4, 2016) was an American painter closely associated with the Photorealism movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. He was best known for his highly detailed paintings of hamburger stands, pick-up trucks, and California banks, portrayed in a deliberately objective manner. Biography Early life Goings was born to a working-class family in Corning, California and grew up during the Great Depression. He was exposed to art and painting in a freshman high-school art class, and inspired by his discovery of Rembrandt at his local library. His aunt encouraged him to draw, and bought him books and instructional materials. He began painting using paint from the local hardware store, and old bed sheets when canvas was unavailable. Education After serving in the military, Goings enrolled in Hartnell College, in Salinas, California and was approached and encouraged to attend art school by Leon Amyx, who was the head of the art department at Hartnell at that time and a well-known painter. Goings studied art at the California College of Arts and Crafts in Oakland. During his studies at California College of the Arts, he studied along other painters from the Photorealist Movement including Robert Bechtle and Richard Mclean, as well as other artists including Nathan Oliveira. He received his MFA in painting from Sacramento State College in 1965. He was inspired by artists such as Wayne Thiebaud, Johannes Vermeer, and Thomas Eakins. His interest in Photorealism sparked after being thoroughly disappointed with the quality of the pop art imagery at the time; he felt that if something was to represent an object then it should resemble a photograph as closely as possible. Work Goings helped to define the Photorealist Movement along with Robert Bechtle, Robert Cottingham, Audrey Flack, Don Eddy, and Richard Estes.	2.46875
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel of wood, either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th century, panel painting was the normal method, when not painting directly onto a wall (fresco) or on vellum (used for miniatures in illuminated manuscripts). Wood panels were also used for mounting vellum paintings. History Panel painting is very old; it was a very prestigious medium in Greece and Rome, but only very few examples of ancient panel paintings have survived. A series of 6th century BC painted tablets from Pitsa (Greece) represent the oldest surviving Greek panel paintings. Most classical Greek paintings that were famous in their day seem to have been of a size comparable to smaller modern works – perhaps up to a half-length portrait size. However, for a generation in the second quarter of the fifth-century BC there was a movement, called the "new painting" and led by Polygnotus, for very large painted friezes, apparently painted on wood, decorating the interiors of public buildings with very large and complicated subjects containing numerous figures at least half life-size, and including battle scenes. We can only attempt to imagine what these looked like from some detailed literary descriptions and vase-paintings that appear to echo their compositions.	3.09375
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	The first century BC to third century AD Fayum mummy portraits, preserved in the exceptionally dry conditions of Egypt, provide the bulk of surviving panel painting from the Imperial Roman period – about 900 face or bust portraits survive. The Severan Tondo, also from Roman Egypt (about 200 AD), is one of the handful of non-funerary Graeco-Roman specimens to survive. Wood has always been the normal support for the Icons of Byzantine art and the later Orthodox traditions, the earliest of which (all in Saint Catherine's Monastery) date from the 5th or 6th centuries, and are the oldest panel paintings which seem to be of the highest contemporary quality. Encaustic and tempera are the two techniques used in antiquity. Encaustic largely ceased to be used after the early Byzantine icons. Although there seem from literary references to have been some panel paintings produced in Western Europe through the centuries between Late Antiquity and the Romanesque period, and Byzantine icons were imported, there are next to no survivals in an unaltered state. In the 12th century panel painting experienced a revival. Altarpieces seem to have begun to be used during the 11th century, with the possible exception of a few earlier examples. They became more common in the 13th century because of new liturgical practices—the priest and congregation were now on the same side of the altar, leaving the space behind the altar free for the display of a holy image—and thus altar decorations were in demand. The habit of placing decorated reliquaries of saints on or behind the altar, as well as the tradition of decorating the front of the altar with sculptures or textiles, preceded the first altarpieces.	2.65625
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	The earliest forms of panel painting were dossals (altar backs), altar fronts and crucifixes. All were painted with religious images, commonly the Christ or the Virgin, with the saints appropriate to the dedication of the church, and the local town or diocese, or to the donor. Donor portraits including members of the donor's family are also often shown, usually kneeling to the side. They were for some time a cheaper alternative to the far more prestigious equivalents in metalwork, decorated with gems, enamels, and perhaps ivory figures, most of which have long been broken up for their valuable materials. Painted panels for altars are most numerous in Spain, especially Catalonia, which is explained by the poverty of the country at this time, as well as the lack of Reformation iconoclasm. The 13th and 14th centuries in Italy were a great period of panel painting, mostly altarpieces or other religious works. However, it is estimated that of all the panel paintings produced there, 99.9 percent have been lost. The vast majority of Early Netherlandish paintings are on panel, and these include most of the earliest portraits, such as those by Jan van Eyck, and some other secular scenes. However, one of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels of about 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, which is very early indeed for oil painting also. In these works the frame and panel are sometimes a single piece of wood, as with Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?) by van Eyck (National Gallery, London), where the frame was also painted, including an inscription done illusionistically to resemble carving.	2.59375
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	By the 15th century with the increased wealth of Europe, and later the appearance of humanism, and a changing attitude about the function of art and patronage, panel painting went in new directions. Secular art opened the way to the creation of chests, painted beds, birth trays and other furniture. Many such works are now detached and hung framed on walls in museums. Many double-sided wings of altarpieces (see picture at top) have also been sawn into two one-sided panels. Canvas took over from panel in Italy by the first half of the 16th century, a change led by Mantegna and the artists of Venice (which made the finest canvas at this point, for sails). In the Netherlands the change took about a century longer, and panel paintings remained common, especially in Northern Europe, even after the cheaper and more portable canvas had become the main support medium. The young Rubens and many other painters preferred it for the greater precision that could be achieved with a totally solid support, and many of his most important works also used it, even for paintings over four metres long in one dimension. His panels are of notoriously complicated construction, containing as many as seventeen pieces of wood (Het Steen, National Gallery, London). For smaller cabinet paintings, copper sheets (often old printmaking plates) were another rival support, from the end of the 16th century, used by many artists including Adam Elsheimer. Many Dutch painters of the Golden Age used panel for their small works, including Rembrandt on occasion. By the 18th century it had become unusual to paint on panel, except for small works to be inset into furniture, and the like. But, for example, The National Gallery in London has two Goya portraits on panel. Many other painting traditions also painted, and still paint, on wood, but the term is usually only used to refer to the Western tradition described above. Panel construction and preparation	2.6875
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	The technique is known to us through Cennino Cennini's "The Craftsman's Handbook" (Il libro dell' arte) published in 1390, and other sources. It changed little over the centuries. It was a laborious and painstaking process: A carpenter would construct a solid wood piece the size of the panel needed. Usually a radial cut piece was preferred (across rather than along the length of the tree; the opposite of most timber cuts), with the outer sapwood excluded. In Italy it was usually seasoned poplar, willow or linden. It would be planed and sanded and if needed, joined with other pieces to obtain the desired size and shape. The wood would be coated with a mixture of animal-skin glues and resin and covered with linen (the mixture and linen combination was known as a "size"); this might be done by a specialist, or in the artists studio. Once the size had dried, layer upon layer of gesso would be applied, each layer sanded down before the next applied, sometimes as many as 15 layers, before a smooth hard surface emerged, not unlike ivory. This stage was not necessarily done after the 16th century, or darker grounds were used. Painting techniques Once the panel construction was complete, the design was laid out, usually in charcoal. The usual ancient painting technique was encaustic, used at Al-Fayum and in the earliest surviving Byzantine icons, which are at the Saint Catherine's Monastery. This uses heated wax as the medium for the pigments. This was replaced before the end of first millennium by tempera, which uses an egg-yolk medium. Using small brushes dipped in a mixture of pigment and egg-yolk, the paint was applied in very small, almost transparent, brushstrokes. Thin layers of paint would be used to create volumetric forms.	2.765625
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	By the beginning of the 15th century, oil painting was developed. This was more tolerant, and allowed the exceptional detail of Early Netherlandish art. This used a very painstaking multi-layered technique, where the painting, or a particular part of it, had to be left for a couple of days for one layer to dry before the next was applied. Conservation and scientific analysis Wood panels, especially if kept with too little humidity, often warp and crack with age, and from the 19th century, when reliable techniques were developed, many have been transferred to canvas or modern board supports. This can result in damage to the paint layer, as historical transfer techniques were rather brutal. Paintings on wood panel that were expanded, such as Rubens' A View of Het Steen in the Early Morning (which consists of eighteen separate panels, seventeen added as the artist enlarged his composition), often suffer greatly over time. Each warps in its own way, tearing the overall piece apart at the seams. Wood panel is now rather more useful to art historians than canvas, and in recent decades there has been great progress in extracting this information. Many fakes have been discovered and mistaken datings corrected. Specialists can identify the tree species used, which varied according to the area where the painting was made. Carbon-dating techniques can give an approximate date-range (typically to a range of about 20 years), and dendrochronology sequences have been developed for the main source areas of timber for panels. Italian paintings used local or sometimes Dalmatian wood, most often poplar, but including chestnut, walnut, oak and other woods. The Netherlands ran short of local timber early in the 15th century, and most Early Netherlandish masterpieces are Baltic oak, often Polish, cut north of Warsaw and shipped down the Vistula, across the Baltic to the Netherlands. Southern German painters often used pine, and mahogany imported into Europe was used by later painters, including examples by Rembrandt and Goya.	3
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	Types of wood Artists would typically use wood native to the region. Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), for example, painted on poplar when he was in Venice and on oak when in the Netherlands and southern Germany. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) used oak for his paintings in France; Hans Baldung Grien (1484/85–1545) and Hans Holbein (1497/98–1543) used oak while working in southern Germany and England. In the Middle Ages, spruce and lime were used in the Upper Rhine and often in Bavaria. Outside of the Rhineland, softwood (such as pinewood) was mainly used. Of a group of twenty Norwegian altar frontals from the Gothic period (1250–1350) fourteen were made of fir, two of oak, and four of pine (Kaland 1982). Large altars made in Denmark during the fifteenth century used oak for the figures as well as for the painted wings. Lime was popular with Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480–1538), Baldung Grien, Christoph Amberger (d. 1562), Dürer, and Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553). Cranach often used beech wood—an unusual choice. In Northern Europe, poplar is very rarely found, but walnut and chestnut are not uncommon. In the northeast and south, coniferous trees such as spruce, and various types of fir, and pine have been used. Fir wood is shown to have been used in the Upper and Middle Rhine, Augsburg, Nuremberg, and Saxony. Pinewood was used mainly in Tirol and beech wood only in Saxony. However, in general, oak was the most common substrate used for panel making in the Low Countries, northern Germany, and the Rhineland around Cologne. In France, until the seventeenth century, most panels were made from oak, although a few made of walnut and poplar have been found.	2.8125
2134398	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel%20painting	Panel painting	The oak favored as a support by the painters of the northern school was, however, not always of local origin. In the seventeenth century about four thousand full-grown oak trees were needed to build a medium-sized merchant ship; thus, imported wood was necessary. Oak coming from Königsberg as well as Gdańsk is often found among works by Flemish and Dutch artists from the 15th through the 17th centuries; the origin can be established by the patterns of growth rings. In the last decade of the seventeenth century, Wilhelmus Beurs, a Dutch writer on painting techniques, considered oak to be the most useful wooden substrate on which to paint. However, exceptions are seen rather early in the seventeenth century: sometimes walnut, pearwood, cedarwood, or Indian woods were used. Mahogany was already in use by a number of painters during the first decades of the seventeenth century and was used often in the Netherlands in the nineteenth century. Even so, when canvas or copper was not used, the main oeuvre of the northern school was painted on oak panels.	2.375
2134402	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microeconomic%20reform	Microeconomic reform	The reforms created a very business-friendly regulatory framework. A 2008 study ranked New Zealand 99.9% in "business freedom", and 80% overall in "economic freedom", noting amongst other things that it only takes 12 days to establish a business in New Zealand on average, compared with a worldwide average of 43 days. Other indicators measured were property rights, labor market conditions, government controls and corruption, the last being considered "next to non-existent" in The Heritage Foundation and Wall Street Journal study. Economic reform in the USSR and Russia Economic reforms began in the Soviet Union when Perestroika was introduced in June 1985 by the then Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Its literal meaning is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet economy. During the initial period (1985–1987) of Mikhail Gorbachev's time in power, he talked about modifying central planning, but did not make any truly fundamental changes (uskoreniye, acceleration). Gorbachev and his team of economic advisers then introduced more fundamental reforms, which became known as perestroika (economic restructuring). Economic reform in Africa Economic reform began in Africa throughout Africa in the mid-1990s. Before that, the two decades of donor-sponsored reform efforts to Africa failed to help most sub-Saharan economies to overcome the fiscal and balance of payments deficits. During the mid-1990s, several civil wars ended and a wave of democratization started. The growth rate reached 1.2 percent a year between 1994 and 1997 which is the highest rate during that generation. However, the growth is a result of a donor-led process of structural adjustment as compatible with the survival of the status quo. The growth rate started to decline after 1998 and civil wars reactivated again by then. The two-decade failure reform leaves many African countries incapable of leading another economic reform. Economic reform in North Korea	2.453125
2134402	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microeconomic%20reform	Microeconomic reform	North Korea is a communist country with the central economic planning system. With the ongoing nuclear issue, North Korea is politically and economically isolated from other countries. Therefore, several tries for economic reforms did not appear to be successful. Its economy relied heavily on the defense industry and the consumer goods industry had been overlooked according to the juche policy. Under the Third Seven-Year Economic Plan (1987–93), DPRK aimed to focus on technology-based industry and to solve their scarcity of electricity. Nevertheless, it did not give a satisfiable result. One of the causes was its relationship with trading partners and losing supportive allies. In response, North Korea tried to attract foreign investors by endorsing joint venture and opening some free-trade zones. Unluckily, with other factors, this policy was not practical. In addition, it also had to encounter a massive military expenditure to secure its leader with both internal and external threat. Later in 2002, there was another attempt to make a market liberalization reform, which the government tries to let the demand and supply determine the price level, which used to be controlled by the central government. It also gave some authority to local producers to make some economic decisions by themselves. Other than the decentralization policy, North Korea also kept trying to induce foreign investors in several ways, including depreciation of its currency and the initiation of Sinuiju Special Administrative District. Still, its solution to successfully reform its economy appears to be contradicting with its leader security regimes. Kim Jong-il's goal, “kangsong taeguk” or “rich nation/strong army,” appears to be unachievable. It caused him facing a reform dilemma. Opening up the country likely to facilitate the reform to be successful, while it would also make its dictatorship insecure.	2.265625
2134431	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havre-Saint-Pierre	Havre-Saint-Pierre	Havre-Saint-Pierre () is a municipality located on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in Côte-Nord region, Minganie RCM, Quebec, Canada. History In 1857, a group of Acadian families arrived, in 1872, the Parish of Saint-Pierre-de-la-Pointe-aux-Esquimaux was officially established, the same year its post office opened under the name Esquimaux Point. In 1873, the place was incorporated as a municipality. In 1924, the post office changed its name to Havre-Saint-Pierre, followed by the town in 1927, in order to focus on the harbor, which characterizes the area, while retaining the original parish name. It remained the largest town on the North Shore until 1936 when it was overtaken by Baie-Comeau. Since 1948, the Quebec Iron and Titanium Company mines deposits of ilmenite, a mineral composed of iron and titanium, at a site some north. The Chemin de fer de la Rivière Romaine brings it by rail cars to Havre-Saint-Pierre. Geography Havre-Saint-Pierre is located in a place formerly known as Rade aux Esquimaux or Pointe aux Esquimaux, north of the Mingan Archipelago and Anticosti Island, on the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The municipality is located 1000 km east of Montreal, 870 km northeast of Quebec City and 200 km from Sept-Îles. Access. Geology The Havre Saint-Pierre - Mingan region is located in the geological province of Grenville. It includes rocks of Precambrian and Ordovician age. The Precambrian is represented by metamorphosed and intrusive sedimentary rocks. The Ordovician rocks, of sedimentary nature, belong to the Mingan Iceland group which is divided into two formations: the Romaine Formation and the Mingan Formation. A study by Quebec Ministry of Transport and Sustainable Mobility (1986) covers several aspects of a territory 5 to 13 km wide and 70 km long along the coast from Havre-Saint-Pierre to Baie-Johan-Beetz. From an ecological and morpho-sedimentological point of view, this region and the sub-region, Havre-Saint-Pierre and Nickerson Bay, are extremely diverse.	2.640625
2134437	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Stone	Carl Stone	Carl Stone (born Carl Joseph Stone, February 10, 1953) is an American composer, primarily working in the field of live electronic music. His works have been performed in the United States, Canada, Europe, Asia, Australia, South America, and the Near East. Biography From 1966 to 1969 he formed a band with Z'EV and James Stewart, performing jazz rock. After auditioning for Frank Zappa's Bizarre Records, the band ceased activities and both he and Z'EV went on to attend CalArts. Stone studied composition at the California Institute of the Arts with Morton Subotnick and James Tenney and has composed electro-acoustic music almost exclusively since 1972. Stone utilizes a laptop computer as his primary instrument and his works often feature very slowly developing manipulations of samples of acoustic music, speech, or other sounds. Because of this, as well as his preference for tonal melodic and harmonic materials similar to those used in popular musics, Stone's work has been associated with the movement known as minimalism. Prior to his settling on the laptop, in the 1980s, he created a number of electronic and collage works utilizing various electronic equipment as well as turntables. Prominent works from this period include Dong Il Jang (1982) and Shibucho (1984), both of which subjected a wide variety of appropriated musical materials (e.g. Okinawan folk song, European Renaissance music, 1960s Motown, etc.) to fragmentation and looping. In this way his work paralleled innovations being made in the early days of rap and hip hop (e.g. Grandmaster Flash, of whose work he was unaware at the time). It was during this period that he began naming many of his works after his favorite restaurants (often Asian ones).	2.046875
2134443	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindalino	Lindalino	Lindalino is a fictional city from the 1726 satirical novel Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. Lindalino successfully revolted against the flying island of Laputa. The name Lindalino is a play on words of Dublin. Laputa had several methods of enforcing obedience from its subject towns. The island could be made to hover over a city indefinitely, depriving them of sunlight and rain. In more extreme situations, this would be combined with dropping large rocks on the inhabitants. Finally, the Laputans had the ability to lower their island directly onto a town, utterly destroying it. This was exceedingly rare, due to the risk it would pose to the integrity of Laputa itself. As a result of oppressions and tribute demanded from them by Laputa, the Lindalinians rebelled against their governor and constructed tall towers at each of the four corners of the city. On top of these, they placed powerful lodestones, or magnets. The result of this was that when Laputa approached them, it was pulled toward these towers more swiftly than the king had expected. As a test, the Laputans then dropped several pieces of adamant, the substance from which their island was constructed. These were violently drawn to the towers. Realizing the situation, the king of Laputa had no choice but to give in to Lindalino's conditions. If he had not, the island would have been fixed in place and overthrown. The story of Lindalino is an allegory for Great Britain's impositions on Ireland. Swift had earlier written a series of pamphlets, known as Drapier's Letters, to rouse public opinion on the matter. Lindalino represents Dublin, and the impositions of Laputa represent the British imposition of William Wood's currency.	2.546875
2134453	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara%20Osborn%20Kreamer	Barbara Osborn Kreamer	Barbara Osborn Kreamer (born December 8, 1948) is an American politician from Aberdeen, Maryland and a former Democratic member of the Maryland House of Delegates. She was the first woman member of the Harford County Council and the first elected member of a county board in Maryland to give birth. Early life Barbara Osborn was born on December 8, 1948, in Baltimore, Maryland to Nancy Leigh (née Cronin) and J. Grafton Osborn, Sr. Kreamer attended Aberdeen High School. She earned a B.A. from Washington College in 1970, an M.L.A. from Johns Hopkins University in 1975, and a J.D. from the University of Maryland School of Law in 1989. Career From 1971 to 1976, Kreamer was an English and creative writing teacher at Bel Air High School. After graduating from the University of Maryland School of Law, she passed the Maryland bar and became a lawyer. She conducted a solo general civil practice of law in Harford and Cecil Counties for fourteen years, until she was disbarred in 2008. Kreamer served one four-year term on the County Council of Harford County, Maryland representing District E from 1978 to 1982. She represented the County Council to the Northeast Regional Waste Authority and the Board of Estimates. She led the Council to increase funding for public education thereby improving Harford's funding ranking in the state. She initiated a comparable worth plank in the American County Platform from her post on the National Association of Counties Committee on Labor and Employee Benefits. Kreamer was appointed to two four-year terms on the Maryland Commission for Women in 1977 and 1981. She led the comparable worth initiative that reformed the Maryland state government pay plan to pay workers in female and minority-dominated positions according to comparable worth principles.	1.96875
2134463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Children%27s%20Hospital	Royal Children's Hospital	The Royal Children's Hospital (RCH), colloquially referred to as the Royal Children's, is a major children's hospital in Parkville, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Regarded as one of the great Children's hospitals globally, the hospital and its facilities are internationally recognised as a “leading centre for paediatrics”. The hospital serves the entire states of Victoria, and Tasmania, as well as southern New South Wales and parts of South Australia. Patients from countries with a Reciprocal Health Agreement with Australia may be treated at the hospital, with seldom cases of overseas children being treated at the hospital. As a major specialist paediatric hospital in Victoria, the Royal Children's Hospital provides a full range of clinical services, tertiary care, as well as health promotion and prevention programs for children and young people. The hospital is the designated statewide major trauma centre for paediatrics in Victoria and a Nationally Funded Centre for cardiac and liver transplantation. Its campus partners are the Murdoch Children's Research Institute and The University of Melbourne Department of Paediatrics, which are based onsite at the hospital. The hospital is surrounded by the parkland of Royal Park, with views of trees and much natural light. History Establishment and early years The hospital was established in 1870, founded by doctors John Singleton and William Smith, in response to their serious concerns about infant mortality in the fledgling city of Melbourne. The original "Free Hospital for Sick Children" was set up in a small house at 39 Stephen Street (now 49 Exhibition Street) and treated more than 1,000 children in its first year of operation.	2.640625
2134474	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Women%27s%20Hospital	Royal Women's Hospital	The Royal Women's Hospital, located in the Melbourne suburb of Parkville, is Australia's oldest specialist women's hospital. It offers a full range of services in maternity, gynaecology, neonatal care, women's cancers and women's health. It also offers complementary services such as social work, physiotherapy, dietetics, genetic counselling and pastoral care. Specialist clinics in endometriosis, chronic pelvic pain, menopause symptoms after cancer, and infertility are also available. It is a major teaching hospital of over 200 beds with links to the University of Melbourne and La Trobe University. Co-located in the same building is the Frances Perry Private Hospital, a 69-bed private hospital for women. History The hospital was established at Eastern Hill by doctors Richard Tracy and John Maund on 19 August 1856 as a place where under-privileged women could give birth with proper medical attention. The doctors were assisted by a group of women led by Mrs Frances Perry, the wife of Charles Perry, the Bishop of Melbourne. The original title for the hospital was the Melbourne Lying-in Hospital and Infirmary for Diseases Peculiar to Women and Children. The Women's was the first specialist teaching hospital in the Antipodes, and the first hospital in Australia to train nurses and midwives and the first in Australia to hold postgraduate classes for nurses. In 1858 it was relocated to a site in Carlton, which spanned the block between Swanston and Cardigan Streets and Grattan and Faraday Streets. In March 1884, the hospital was renamed The Hospital for Women, with the royal title being conferred on 6 September 1954.	2.203125
2134477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicobar%20Islands%20rain%20forests	Nicobar Islands rain forests	Only Great Nicobar has perennial streams. The island has five perennial rivers – the Galathea, Jubilee, Amrit Kaur, Dak Aniang, and Dak Tayal – which all originate from Mount Thullier. The Galathea River is the longest, flowing southwards for about 30 km to empty into the sea at Galathea Bay near the southern tip of the island. Climate The Nicobar Islands have a tropical rain forest climate. Average temperatures range from 22 to 30 °C. Average annual rainfall ranges from 3,000 to 3,800 mm. Heavier rainfall coincides ith the monsoon winds, which come from the southwest from May to September, and from the northeast between October and December. Flora Plant communities on the islands include mangroves and coastal forests near the shore, and evergreen and deciduous forests in the interiors of the islands. Coastal forests feature widespread Indo-Pacific seashore plants, including the trees Barringtonia sp., Pandanus sp., and Casuarina equisetifolia, with the shrubs Scaevola frutescens, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Clerodendrum inerme. There are extensive areas of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) along the coast, both cultivated and wild. The evergreen forests on Great Nicobar, Kamorta, and Katchal are dominated by the trees Calophyllum soulattri, Sideroxylon longipetiolatum, Garcinia xanthochymus, Pisonia excelsa, and Mangifera sylvatica, with Artocarpus peduncularis, Radermachera lobbi, Symplocos leiostachya, and Bentinckia nicobarica also present on Kamorta and Katchal. Species of Macaranga, Ficus, and Terminalia are common along the riverbanks of Great Nicobar. The tree canopy averages 30 to 50 metres in height. The climbing bamboo Dinochloa andamanica climbs the tall trees. Deciduous forests are found at lower elevations on Great Nicobar, and typical trees include Terminalia procera and Terminalia bialata.	3.078125
2134477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicobar%20Islands%20rain%20forests	Nicobar Islands rain forests	Some of the northern and central islands, including Car Nicobar, Kamorta, Katchall, and Nancowry, have extensive areas of grassland in the interior. The grasslands may be anthropogenic in origin. Typical species include the grasses Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum spontaneum, Heteropogon contortus, Chloris barbata, Chrysopogon aciculatus, and Scleria cochinchinensis, together with herbs and shrubs. There are 580 species of flowering plants on the islands. Approximately 14% are endemic to the islands. The flora of the islands shares more affinities with Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula than with the Andamans or Myanmar; only 28% of flowering plant species are shared with the Andamans. The palms Bentinckia nicobarica, Rhopaloblaste augusta, Calamus dilaceratus, and Calamus nicobaricus are endemic to the Nicobar Islands. Areca triandra, Calamus andamanicus, Caryota mitis, Korthalsia laciniosa, Licuala peltata, and Pinanga manii are more widespread species native to the islands. Fauna There are 25 native mammal species on the islands, principally bats and rats. Large mammals include the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and Nicobar macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa). Four species are endemic to the islands – the Nicobar shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) on Great Nicobar, the Nicobar treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica) on Great Nicobar and Little Nicobar, the Palm rat (Rattus palmarum) on Car Nicobar and Great Nicobar, and the Nicobar flying fox (Pteropus faunulus) throughout the islands.	3
2134477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicobar%20Islands%20rain%20forests	Nicobar Islands rain forests	82 species of birds are native to the islands. These include eight species of heron, seven hawk species, six kingfisher species, and six species of pigeon. Five species are endemic, including the Nicobar serpent-eagle (Spilornis minimus), Nicobar sparrowhawk (Accipiter butleri), Nicobar parakeet (Psittacula caniceps), and Nicobar bulbul (Hypsipetes nicobariensis). The Nicobar scrubfowl (Megapodius nicobariensis) once inhabited the Andaman islands as well, but is now extinct there and found only on the Nicobar Islands. Four species, the Andaman wood-pigeon (Columba palumboides), Andaman cuckoo-dove (Macropygia rufipennis), Andaman boobook (Ninox affinis), and white-headed starling (Sturnus erythropygius), are limited to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The ecoregion constitutes the Nicobar Islands endemic bird area. There are 43 reptile species on the islands, of which eleven are endemic. There are eleven species of amphibians, all frogs and toads, including two endemic species, the Nicobar tree frog (Polypedates insularis) and Nicobar cricket-frog (Minervarya nicobariensis). People The islands have been inhabited for centuries. The Nicobarese people live on twelve of the islands. Most Nicobarese live in villages, and grow a variety of tree, root, and vegetable crops for food, fiber, and building materials, including coconut, areca palm, papaya, banana, breadfruit, jackfruit, and yams. Pigs and chickens are kept for food, and wild fruits, roots, tubers, and fibers are gathered from the forests. Larger plantations of coconut have been established near the coast, and tapioca, sweet potato, sugarcane, and cashew are grown in the interior of the more populated islands.	3.34375
2134482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellie%27s%20Castle	Kellie's Castle	Kellie's Castle (sometimes also called Kellie's Folly) is a castle located in Batu Gajah, Kinta District, Perak, Malaysia. The unfinished, ruined mansion, was built by a Scottish planter named William Kellie-Smith. According to differing accounts, it was either a gift for his wife or a home for his son. Kellie's Castle is situated beside the Raya River (Sungai Raya), which is a small creek to the Kinta River. Background William Kellie-Smith (1870–1926) was born in 1870 in Kellas, Moray Firth, Scotland. In 1890, at the age of 20, he arrived in Malaya as a civil engineer. He joined Charles Alma Baker’s survey firm, who had won concessions from the state government to clear 9,000 hectares of forests in Batu Gajah, Perak. With the substantial profits made from his business venture with Baker, Kellie-Smith bought 1,000 acres (405 ha) of jungle land in the district of Kinta and started planting rubber trees and dabbled in the tin mining industry. In time, he named his estate "Kinta Kellas" after his home farm "Easter Kellas". Kellie-Smith went on to own the Kinta Kellas Tin Dredging Company as well. With his fortune made, he returned home to marry his Scottish sweetheart, Agnes, and brought her over to Malaya in 1903. They had a daughter named Helen the following year. History Construction on a mansion started in 1910 called the Kellas House, which would eventually become the castle. With the birth of Kellie-Smith's son in 1915, he started planning for a huge castle with Moorish, Indo-Saracenic and Roman designs. Kellie-Smith brought in 70 craftsmen from Madras, India. All the bricks and marble were imported from India too. Included in the plan was a four-floored building with 14 rooms and an elevator (Malaya's first), it also included underground tunnels, secret rooms, a tennis court, a wine cellar and hidden stairways. Also, the bricks and tiles made for the castle were brought from India.	2.40625
2134482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kellie%27s%20Castle	Kellie's Castle	During construction, a virulent strain of Spanish flu struck his workmen in 1918. When his workmen approached him to build a temple nearby, Kellie-Smith readily agreed. In return for his generosity, they built a statue of him beside the other deities on the lord murugan temple wall. It is believed that a tunnel was built to the temple from the castle. Descendants of the Tamil labourers brought over to Malaya to work on the mansion still live nearby. William Kellie-Smith died at the age of 56 of pneumonia during a short trip to Lisbon, Portugal in 1926. William's wife was devastated and decided to move back to Scotland; construction on the castle was never completed by the workers and the castle was left abandoned in the jungle. In the end, Kellas House, later known as "Kellie's Folly" or "Kellie's Castle," was sold to a British company called Harrisons and Crosfield. Kellie's Castle is now a popular local tourist attraction. It was used as a setting in the 1999 film Anna and the King and 2001 film Skyline Cruisers. The castle saw recent developments to its physical condition for the comfort of its tourists, a restaurant was also made across the river opposite the castle. During school holidays, the castle would have as much as 500 to 700 people visiting daily. In 2015, Kellie's Castle was the site of the first ever 24-hour comic challenge in a castle. A collaboration between Port Ipoh and the Malaysian Comic Activist Society (PEKOMIK) and Malaysian Animation Society (ANIMAS), the event took place on 21–22 March 2015 and was claimed as the "scariest" 24 hour comics challenge.	2.078125
2134495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiomyosarcoma	Leiomyosarcoma	A leiomyosarcoma (LMS) is a rare malignant (cancerous) smooth muscle tumor. The word is . The stomach, bladder, uterus, blood vessels, and intestines are examples of hollow organs made up of smooth muscles where LMS can be located; however, the uterus and abdomen are the most common sites. Although leiomyosarcomas are rare, they belong to the more common types of soft-tissue sarcoma, representing 10–20% of new cases. This type of cancer is more frequently diagnosed in adults as compared to children. When considering LMS specifically in the context of the uterus, it affects approximately 6 individuals per 1 million people in the United States each year. LMSs are resistant cancers, meaning they are generally not very responsive to chemotherapy or radiation. The best outcomes occur when the tumor tissue can be removed surgically at an early stage, while it is small and has not yet spread from the original site (it remains in situ). Mechanism Smooth muscle cells make up the involuntary muscles, which are found in most parts of the body, including the uterus, stomach and intestines, the walls of all blood vessels, and the skin. These are the areas where LMSs originate from. LMSs also often develop in the retroperitoneal region which consists of the suprarenal glands, the kidney, and ureter. Just as it is not known what truly causes most sarcomas, LMSs have similarly complex karyotypes and it is suggested that because of the complexity, genomic instability might be the cause.	2.546875
2134500	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Cochran	Steve Cochran	Personal life Cochran was a notorious womanizer and attracted tabloid attention for his tumultuous private life, which included well-documented affairs with numerous starlets and actresses. Mamie Van Doren later wrote about their sex life in graphic detail in her tell-all autobiography Playing the Field: My Story (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1987). He was also married and divorced three times to actresses Fay McKenzie, Florence Lockwood, and Jonna Jensen. He and Lockwood had one daughter, Xandra, through whom he was the grandfather of film and television producer Alex Johns, who was a co-executive producer for more than seventy episodes of the animated television series Futurama. In the 2002 documentary The Importance of Being Morrissey, Steven Morrissey claims that his parents named him after Steve Cochran. In 1950, Cochran hired future screenwriter and actor Montgomery Pittman as a gardener at Cochran's Beverly Hills home. Cochran was in trouble with the police several times in his life, including a reported assault and a charge of reckless driving in 1953. Death Cochran recruited two “young women” and a 14-year-old girl to accompany him on a sailing trip from Acapulco to Costa Rica, ostensibly to take part in an upcoming film. The yacht lost one of its two masts in a storm a few days into the trip. Cochran fell ill and died two days later, on June 15, 1965, at the age of 48, of what was later determined to be an acute lung infection. The women who were accompanying him did not know how to sail the boat and were trapped with the decomposing body for ten days before being rescued out at sea. The boat, still carrying his corpse, was later found drifting off the coast of Guatemala. Cochran's widow was given half of his estate of $25,000. She shared it with his daughter by another marriage. Cochran was buried in Monterey, California. Cochran has a star at 1750 Hollywood Boulevard in the Motion Pictures section of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was dedicated on February 8, 1960. Filmography	1.90625
2134521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary%E2%80%93Edmonton%20Corridor	Calgary–Edmonton Corridor	The Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is a geographical region of the Canadian province of Alberta. It is the most urbanized area in Alberta and is one of Canada's four most populated urban regions. It consists of Statistics Canada Alberta census divisions No. 11, No. 8, and No. 6. Measured from north to south, the region covers a distance of approximately . As of the designations in the Canada 2021 Census of census metropolitan areas (CMAs) and census agglomerations (CAs) in Alberta, the corridor includes three of the province's four CMAs (Calgary, Edmonton and Red Deer) and two CAs (Lacombe and Sylvan Lake), in addition to four other CAs already included in the Calgary and Edmonton CMAs. The corridor is bordered by Edmonton and the surrounding area to the north, Red Deer in the middle, and Calgary and the surrounding area to the south. Transportation Alberta Highway 2, also known as the Queen Elizabeth II Highway or QE2, is the busiest highway in Alberta and forms the central spine of the corridor. A Canadian Pacific Kansas City rail line, originally built by the Calgary and Edmonton Railway in 1891, roughly parallels the highway. The line has been used exclusively by freight trains since 1985, when Via Rail discontinued its Calgary–South Edmonton train service. There have been several proposal and studies for high-speed rail through the region. The corridor has two of Canada's five busiest airports: Calgary International and Edmonton International. The number of daily flights between these two airports number into the dozens, making it one of Canada's busiest commuter flight routes. Demographics In the Canada 2001 Census, the population of the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor was 2,149,586, representing 72.3% of Alberta's population. In the Canada 2011 Census, the corridor's population had increased to 2,703,380 or 74.2% of the province's population. The population as of the Canada 2016 Census was 3,074,223.	2.671875

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