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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Are Your Reasoning Models Reasoning or Guessing? A Mechanistic Analysis of Hierarchical Reasoning Models Abstract: Hierarchical reasoning model (HRM) achieves extraordinary performance on various reasoning tasks, significantly outperforming large language model-based reasoners. To understand the strengths and potential failure modes of HRM, we conduct a mechanistic study on its reasoning patterns and find three surprising facts: (a) Failure of extremely simple puzzles, e.g., HRM can fail on a puzzle with only one unknown cell. We attribute this failure to the violation of the fixed point property, a fundamental assumption of HRM. (b) "Grokking" dynamics in reasoning steps, i.e., the answer is not improved uniformly, but instead there is a critical reasoning step that suddenly makes the answer correct; (c) Existence of multiple fixed points. HRM "guesses" the first fixed point, which could be incorrect, and gets trapped there for a while or forever. All facts imply that HRM appears to be "guessing" instead of "reasoning". Leveraging this "guessing" picture, we propose three strategies to scale HRM's guesses: data augmentation (scaling the quality of guesses), input perturbation (scaling the number of guesses by leveraging inference randomness), and model bootstrapping (scaling the number of guesses by leveraging training randomness). On the practical side, by combining all methods, we develop Augmented HRM, boosting accuracy on Sudoku-Extreme from 54.5% to 96.9%. On the scientific side, our analysis provides new insights into how reasoning models "reason". Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Machine Learning (cs.LG) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10679 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10679v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Personal life Toggle Personal life subsection 1.1 Early life and education 1.2 Later life 1.1 Early life and education 1.2 Later life 2 Activism 3 Legacy and honors 4 See also 5 References Toggle References subsection 5.1 Notes 5.2 Citations 5.1 Notes 5.2 Citations 6 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 6.1 Encyclopedic entries 6.1 Encyclopedic entries 7 External links Elizabeth Peratrovich العربية Deutsch Español Français עברית ქართული 日本語 Русский Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Elizabeth Peratrovich Ḵaax̲gal.aat Born Ḵaax̲gal.aat July 4, 1911 ( 1911-07-04 ) Petersburg , District of Alaska , U.S. Died December 1, 1958 (1958-12-01) (aged 47) Seattle , Washington, U.S. Other names Elizabeth Jean Wanamaker Education .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Sheldon Jackson College Western College of Education Sheldon Jackson College Western College of Education Organization Alaska Native Sisterhood Known for .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Civil-rights activism Native-American rights Civil-rights activism Native-American rights Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Roy Peratrovich ( m. 1931) Children 3 Elizabeth Peratrovich ( née Elizabeth Jean Wanamaker ; Tlingit : Ḵaax̲gal.aat [qʰaχ.ɡʌɬ.ʔatʰ] ; [ 1 ] July 4, 1911 – December 1, 1958) [ 2 ] was an American civil rights activist , Grand President of the Alaska Native Sisterhood , [ 3 ] and a Tlingit who worked for equality on behalf of Alaska Natives . [ 4 ] In the 1940s, her advocacy was credited as being instrumental in the passing of Alaska's Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945 , the first state or territorial anti-discrimination law enacted in the United States. In 1988, Alaska Governor Steve Cowper established April 21 as Elizabeth Peratrovich Day "for her courageous, unceasing efforts to eliminate discrimination and bring about equal rights in Alaska. The date was later changed to February 16 in observance of the day in 1945 on which the Anti-Discrimination Act was approved. [ 1 ] [ 5 ] In March 2019, her obituary was added to The New York Times as part of their "Overlooked No More" series, [ 6 ] and in 2020, the United States Mint released a $1 coin inscribed with Peratrovich's likeness in honor of her historic achievements. [ 7 ] The Peratrovich family papers, including correspondence, personal papers, and news clippings related to the civil-rights work done by Peratrovich and her husband, are currently held at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian . [ 8 ] Personal life Early life and education Elizabeth Wanamaker was born on July 4, 1911, in Petersburg, Alaska , [ 2 ] [ 9 ] as a member of the Lukaax̱.ádi clan in the Raven moiety of the Tlingit nation and with the Tlingit name of Ḵaax̲gal.aat ("person who packs for themselves"). [ 1 ] She was orphaned at a young age and adopted by Andrew and Jean Wanamaker ( née Williams), who gave her the name Elizabeth Jean. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Andrew was a fisherman and Presbyterian lay minister . The Wanamakers raised Elizabeth in Petersburg, Klawock , and Ketchikan , Alaska. Wanamaker graduated from Ketchikan High School , and then attended Sheldon Jackson College in Sitka , and the Western College of Education in Bellingham, Washington (now part of Western Washington University ). [ a ] Later life On December 15, 1931, Elizabeth Wanamaker married Roy Scott Peratrovich (1908–1989), also a Tlingit, of mixed Native and Serb descent, who worked in a cannery . [ 13 ] They had three children: daughter Loretta Montgomery (c. 1942) and sons Roy Jr. (c. 1934) and Frank (c. 1938). [ 14 ] The family lived in Klawock , where Roy was elected to four terms as village mayor. [ 6 ] [ 15 ] Elizabeth Peratrovich was a member of the Presbyterian Church . [ 14 ] The Peratroviches were concerned about racial discrimination and inequities. Looking for greater access to lawmakers who could effect change, they moved to Juneau , and even there found extensive social and racial discrimination against Alaska Native people. [ 7 ] The Peratrovichs were one of the first Indigenous families in Juneau to live in a non-Native neighborhood, and Roy Jr. was one of the first Indigenous children to attend public schools there. [ 14 ] The Peratrovich family later moved to Antigonish, Nova Scotia , Canada, where Roy studied the fishing industry at St. Francis Xavier University , the first Alaskan to do so on a United Nations fellowship. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Later, they moved to Denver, Colorado , where Roy studied banking and finance at the University of Denver and credit procedure at the Central Bank and Trust Company in Denver. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] In the 1950s, the Peratrovichs moved to Oklahoma , when Roy took up a position with the federal government, and they moved back to Alaska when Elizabeth fell ill. [ 18 ] Elizabeth Peratrovich died of breast cancer , on December 1, 1958, at the age of 47. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] She is buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Juneau, Alaska, alongside her husband Roy who died in 1989. [ 6 ] [ 15 ] The eldest son, Roy Jr.—a partner in the engineering firm of Peratrovich, Nottingham and Drage [ 14 ] —became a civil engineer in Alaska and designed the Brotherhood Bridge in Juneau, which carries the Glacier Highway over the Mendenhall River . [ 21 ] Besides being an engineer Roy Peratrovich Jr. is also a Native artist. [ 22 ] Her younger son, Frank, worked as the Area Tribal Operations Officer for the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Juneau. [ 14 ] Activism In 1941, while living in Juneau, Alaska , Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich encountered discrimination in their attempts to secure housing and gain access to public facilities. They petitioned the territorial governor, Ernest Gruening , to prohibit public places from posting signs such as "No Natives Allowed," "We cater to white trade only," "No Dogs, No Natives,"... that were common in Alaska during this time. [ 10 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] With the help of others, Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich drafted and introduced an anti-discrimination bill in 1941, though it failed to pass. Nevertheless, they persevered: as high-ranking representatives of the Alaska Native Brotherhood and the Alaska Native Sisterhood , the Peratrovichs used their unique position to bring attention to the issue of discrimination and to lobby Alaska lawmakers, the governor, and others to advocate for the passage of anti-discrimination legislation. [ 7 ] In one instance, according to their granddaughter, Betsy Peratrovich, they decided to invite a legislator to join them for coffee, taking the opportunity to plead their case. When the invitation was accepted, they took the small amount of spare change they had and brought it to the meeting—worrying the whole time that they wouldn't have enough to pay if anything other than coffee was ordered. Thankfully, not only did they have just enough money to pay for the beverages, but the meeting was productive! There were many grassroots efforts in those days, including efforts by countless other Alaska Native people who took steps to overcome and raise awareness of widespread inequities and instances of blatant prejudice. [ 7 ] When the invitation was accepted, they took the small amount of spare change they had and brought it to the meeting—worrying the whole time that they wouldn't have enough to pay if anything other than coffee was ordered. Thankfully, not only did they have just enough money to pay for the beverages, but the meeting was productive! There were many grassroots efforts in those days, including efforts by countless other Alaska Native people who took steps to overcome and raise awareness of widespread inequities and instances of blatant prejudice. [ 7 ] In 1945, representing the Alaska Native Brotherhood/Sisterhood, they again brought an anti-discrimination bill before the Alaska Senate . Last to testify, Elizabeth Peratrovich took to the floor to deliver an impassioned speech, calling for equal treatment for Indigenous peoples. [ 7 ] [ 26 ] In reaction to the bill, Juneau territorial senator Allen Shattuck asked, "Who are these people, barely out of savagery, who want to associate with us whites, with 5,000 years of recorded civilization behind us?" Elizabeth Peratrovich responded: [ 14 ] I would not have expected that I, who am barely out of savagery, would have to remind gentlemen with five thousand years of recorded civilization behind them, of our Bill of Rights . [ 23 ] I would not have expected that I, who am barely out of savagery, would have to remind gentlemen with five thousand years of recorded civilization behind them, of our Bill of Rights . [ 23 ] The Senate voted 11–5 for House Resolution 14, providing "full and equal accommodations, facilities, and privileges to all citizens in places of public accommodations within the jurisdiction of the Territory of Alaska; to provide penalties for violation". [ 14 ] The bill was signed into law by Governor Gruening in 1945, nearly 20 years before the US Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Acts of the territorial legislature required final approval from the U.S. Congress, which affirmed it ( Bob Bartlett , Alaskan delegate, was known for his efficiency in passing legislation). Alaska thus became the first territory or state to end " Jim Crow " since 18 states banned discrimination in public accommodations in the three decades following the Civil War; not until 1955 would two more states, New Mexico and Montana, follow suit. [ 27 ] Peratrovich's testimony has been widely credited as a decisive factor in the passage of the historic Anti-Discrimination Act of 1945 . In 1992, Fran Ulmer , who represented Juneau in the Alaska House of Representatives (and who later became lieutenant governor of Alaska ), said the following about Peratrovich's testimony: She talked about herself, her friends, her children, and the cruel treatment that consigned Alaska Natives to a second-class existence. She described to the Senate what it means to be unable to buy a house in a decent neighborhood because Natives aren't allowed to live there. She described how children feel when they are refused entrance into movie theaters, or see signs in shop windows that read "No dogs or Natives allowed." [ 23 ] She talked about herself, her friends, her children, and the cruel treatment that consigned Alaska Natives to a second-class existence. She described to the Senate what it means to be unable to buy a house in a decent neighborhood because Natives aren't allowed to live there. She described how children feel when they are refused entrance into movie theaters, or see signs in shop windows that read "No dogs or Natives allowed." [ 23 ] The Peratrovich family papers, including correspondence, personal papers, and news clippings related to the civil rights work done by Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich, are currently held at the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian . [ 8 ] In 1988, the Alaska State Legislature declared February 16 as "Elizabeth Peratrovich Day". [ 7 ] Legacy and honors In April, 1988, Alaska Governor Steve Cowper established April 21 as Elizabeth Peratrovich Day "for her courageous, unceasing efforts to eliminate discrimination and bring about equal rights in Alaska." The date was later changed to February 16 in observance of the day in 1945 on which the Anti-Discrimination Act was approved (Alaska Statutes 44.12.065). [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 28 ] The Elizabeth Peratrovich Award was established in her honor by the Alaska Native Sisterhood . [ 29 ] In 1992, Gallery B of the Alaska House of Representatives chamber in the Alaska State Capitol was renamed in her honor. [ 23 ] Of the four galleries located in the respective two chambers, the Peratrovich Gallery is the only one named for someone other than a former legislator (the other House gallery was named for Warren A. Taylor ; the Senate galleries were named for former senators Cliff Groh and Robert H. Ziegler ). In 2003, a park [ 30 ] in downtown Anchorage was named for Elizabeth and Roy Peratrovich. It encompasses the lawn surrounding Anchorage's former city hall , with a small amphitheater in which concerts and other performances are held. [ 31 ] In 2009, For the Rights of All: Ending Jim Crow in Alaska , a documentary about Peratrovich's groundbreaking civil rights advocacy, premiered on October 22 at the Alaska Federation of Natives convention in Anchorage . The film, scheduled to air as a PBS documentary film in November 2009, was produced by Blueberry Productions, Inc. and was primarily written by Jeffry Lloyd Silverman of Anchorage. [ 32 ] In 2017, the theater in Ketchikan's Southeast Alaska Discovery Center was named in honor of Elizabeth Peratrovich, and a companion exhibit exploring her role in the struggle for Alaska Native civil rights was unveiled. [ 33 ] In 2018, Elizabeth Peratrovich was chosen by the National Women's History Project as one of its honorees for Women's History Month in the United States. [ 34 ] In March 2019, her obituary was added to The New York Times as part of their "Overlooked No More" series. [ 6 ] On October 5, 2019, United States Mint Chief Administrative Officer Patrick Hernandez announced that Peratrovich would appear on the reverse of the 2020 Native American $1 Coin , making her the first Alaska Native to be featured on U.S. currency. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ] In December 2019, a 4-story apartment building called Elizabeth Place, named after Peratrovich, opened in downtown Anchorage. [ 38 ] In January 2020, Peratrovich was selected as one of the 20for2020 highlighting extraordinary accomplishments by women. [ 39 ] In July 2020, a new mural was unveiled in honor of Peratrovich in Petersburg. [ 40 ] On December 30, 2020, a Google Doodle in the United States and Canada honored Elizabeth Peratrovich. The Doodle was drawn by Tlingit artist Michaela Goade. [ 7 ] This day was chosen because it was on this date in 1941 when the Peratroviches, after seeing a "No Natives Allowed" sign, decided to submit the petition to the governor. [ 25 ] In September 2021 a mural of Peratrovich created by Tlingit artist, Crystal Worl was installed on the exterior of the Juneau Public Library/Marine Park Garage in Juneau, Alaska. [ 41 ] In early November 2021 the PBS Kids' animated educational series Molly of Denali aired an episode called Molly & Elizabeth that depicts the primary characters in the series, Molly Mabray and Tooey Ookami,remembering the legacy of Peratrovitch. [ 42 ] See also List of civil rights leaders Alberta Schenck Adams Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945 References Notes ^ Link to 1930 census of Klawock showing the Wanamaker household starting on line 18. [ 12 ] Citations ^ a b c d .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Boochever, Annie; Peratrovich, Roy Jr. (February 16, 2019). Fighter in Velvet Gloves: Alaska Civil Rights Hero Elizabeth Peratrovich . University of Alaska Press. ISBN 9781602233706 – via Google Books. ^ a b Kifer, Dave (February 18, 2008). "Alaska Celebrates Civil Rights Pioneer - Peratrovich's Efforts Pre-Dated Martin Luther King" . SitNews "Stories in the News" Ketchican, Alaska . Retrieved December 30, 2020 . ^ a b "§ 2 ch 65 SLA 1988" . Alaska State Legislature . 1988. ^ For the Rights of All: Ending Jim Crow in Alaska , retrieved November 19, 2020 ^ "Alaska. Territorial Legislature" . vilda.alaska.edu . Retrieved May 7, 2021 . ^ a b c d Vaughan, Carson (March 20, 2019). "Overlooked No More: Elizabeth Peratrovich, Rights Advocate for Alaska Natives" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved April 1, 2019 . ^ a b c d e f g "Celebrating Elizabeth Peratrovich" . Google Doodles . December 30, 2020 . Retrieved December 31, 2020 . ^ a b "Peratrovich family papers · SOVA" . sova.si.edu . ^ Duncan, Pauline (1999). Elizabeth Peratrovich: Native Civil Rights Leader . Sitka : Children of the Tidelands Publishing. p. 3. ^ a b "Elizabeth Peratrovich 100 Years" (PDF) . Alaska Newspapers . July 4, 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 7, 2017 . Retrieved April 6, 2017 . ^ "Andrew Wanamaker, his wife and daughter. Lay-workers at Klukwan. (Note: Chalyee éesh and Wooshkeenaa, of the Kaagwaantaan clan, Eagle Nest House.)" . Alaska State Library-Historical Collections . Alaska State Library . Retrieved December 30, 2020 . . ^ "Intellectual Reserve, Inc" . FamilySearch.org . Retrieved October 25, 2011 . ^ "Elizabeth Peratrovich Day" . February 13, 2019 . Retrieved November 21, 2020 . ^ a b c d e f g "A Recollection of Civil Rights Leader Elizabeth Peratrovich 1911–1958" . Compiled by Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska . 1991. ^ a b Bauman, Margaret (March 2, 2020). "Treasury urged to mint 5M Peratrovich coins" . The Cordova Times . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . In 1931, she married Roy Peratrovich, also Tlingit, of mixed Native and Serbian descent, and they lived in Klawock, where Roy served four terms as mayor. ... Elizabeth Peratrovich died of cancer on Dec. 1, 1958. She is buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Juneau, alongside of her husband, Roy. ^ a b "Roy Peratrovich Leaving for New Job at Anadarko, Oklahoma" . The Daily Alaska Empire, archived at www.alaskool.org . November 17, 1955 . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . Peratrovich, for the past nine years an official in the finance department of the Alaska Native Service, leaves tomorrow for a new job and a new home. He is to become loan examiner for the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the regional office at Anadarko, Okla., and it is there he will make his new home. ... He was the first Alaskan to receive a United Nations fellowship and he studied at St. Francis Xavier at Antignosis, Nova Scotia, on the fellowship. In 1952 he was awarded a grant to study credit procedure at the Central Bank and Trust Company in Denver, Colo. Also on the grant, Peratrovich took a business course at the Denver University. ^ a b "New Superintendent Appointed for Anchorage District" . www.bia.gov . U.S. Department of the Interior, Indian Affairs. January 23, 1968 . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . Peratrovich was born in Klawock. School, Salem, Oregon, for four years education in Ketchikan. He attended the Chemawa Indian He completed his high school He became the first Alaskan to receive a United Nations Fellowship, under which he studied the fishing industry of Nova Scotia. He also was awarded a John Hay Whitney Scholarship in 1952 which enabled him to study banking and finance under the auspices of the University of Denver. ^ a b "Elizabeth Peratrovich" . Alaskan History Magazine (Nov–Dec 2019). issuu. October 31, 2019 . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . ^ "Mrs. Roy Peratrovich Dies in Seattle". The Daily Alaska Empire . December 1, 1958. ^ "Alaska Native Women's History" . CIRI . April 2, 2020. Archived from the original on November 28, 2020 . Retrieved November 21, 2020 . ^ Alexander, Rosemarie (September 26, 2012). "Brotherhood Bridge for sale" . KTOO . Retrieved December 30, 2020 . ^ 28th, 2015:For pioneering Alaska Native civil engineer bridge design became my thing [ dead link ] ^ a b c d Ulmer, Fran (May 1, 1992). "Honoring Elizabeth Wanamaker Peratrovich" . Alaska House of Representatives . Anchorage : University of Alaska Anchorage Institute of Social and Economic Research . Retrieved October 25, 2011 . ^ "1945: Alaska's territorial legislature adopts anti-discrimination law" . Citizenship, Services, and Sovereignty – Timeline – Native Voices . U.S. National Library of Medicine . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . Elizabeth Peratrovich, president of the Alaska Native Sisterhood, testifies before the Alaska Territorial Legislature as it debates anti-discrimination legislation. Peratrovich, whose Tlingit name is Kaaxgal.aat, had experienced segregation in her home town, Juneau, where signs posted in busineses [ sic ? ] read "No Natives Allowed," "We cater to white trade only," "No Dogs, No Natives," "Meals at all hours — All white help." The law she championed help end these practices. ^ a b Joyner, Alfred (December 30, 2020). "Google Doodle honors civil rights activist Elizabeth Peratrovich" . Newsweek . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . The search engine giant has chosen to pay tribute to Peratrovich with a Google Doodle—a special temporary alteration to its homepage logo that commemorates holidays, events, achievements and historical figures. They picked December 30 as it was on this date in 1941, after seeing an inn door sign that said "No Natives Allowed," Peratrovich and her husband decided to write to Alaska's governor. ^ Monsen, Helen Troy (February 6, 1945). "Super race theory hit at hearing" . The Alaska Daily Empire . Juneau. p. 8 . Retrieved November 18, 2011 . ^ Caldwell, Wallace (October 1, 1965). "State Public Accommodations Laws, Fundamental Liberties and Enforcement Programs" . Washington Law Review . 40 : 843. ^ "Anti-discrimination Act of 1945" . Alaska State Archives. January 31, 2020 . Retrieved December 30, 2020 . ^ Twyman, Abby (February 20, 2020). "Alaskans and the Nation Celebrate Elizabeth Peratrovich" . Discover Prince Of Wales Island . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . The Alaska Native Sisterhood, of which she was the president, established the Elizabeth Peratrovich Award. ^ "Elizabeth & Roy Peratrovich Park" (PDF) . Municipality of Anchorage . Archived from the original (PDF) on December 8, 2015 . Retrieved January 30, 2017 . ^ "Projects Archive – Flight of the Raven" . Anchorage Park Foundation . Anchorage. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012 . Retrieved October 26, 2011 . ^ "For the Rights of All: Ending Jim Crow in Alaska" . Alaska Civil Rights Organization . Retrieved October 25, 2011 . ^ Bowman, Nick (February 25, 2017). "Theater Named for Peratrovich" . Associated Press / Ketchikan Daily News . ^ "National Women's History Month: What is it, when did it begin, who is being honored this year?" . kiro7.com. February 25, 2018. ^ Elizabeth Wolfe and Brian Ries (October 7, 2019). "Alaska Native and civil rights icon Elizabeth Peratrovich to be featured on $1 coin" . CNN . Retrieved November 21, 2020 . ^ United States Mint. "United States Mint Unveils 2020 Native American $1 Coin Reverse Design" . United States Mint . Retrieved October 7, 2019 . ^ Leval, Dave (October 6, 2019). "First Alaska Native on US currency revealed as Alaska Native Heritage Month becomes official" . Anchorage, Alaska: KTVA . Archived from the original on January 22, 2020 . Retrieved January 3, 2020 . ^ Swann, Kirsten; Anchorage, Alaska Public Media- (December 9, 2019). "Can a new housing development help pave the way for commercial growth in Downtown Anchorage?" . Alaska Public Media . Retrieved February 15, 2021 . Elizabeth Place, named after Alaska Native civil rights champion Elizabeth Peratrovich, was built via a public-private partnership between Cook Inlet Housing Authority, the Municipality of Anchorage and half a dozen other agencies and organizations. ^ "Elizabeth Peratrovich Catalyzed First Anti-Discrimination Law in U.S., Alaska 1945 #20for2020" . Amy Poehler's Smart Girls . January 10, 2020 . Retrieved October 11, 2020 . ^ KFSK, Corinne Smith- (July 3, 2020). "Petersburg to unveil new mural to honor Native civil rights leader Elizabeth Peratrovich" . Alaska Public Media . Retrieved November 21, 2020 . ^ McBride, Rhonda (September 7, 2021). "Tuesday, September 7th: Crystal Worl reflects on the completion her Elizabeth Peratrovich mural. Gustavus carver Lou Cacioppo opens an exhibit in Juneau. League of Women Voter's forum" . KTOO . Retrieved October 25, 2021 . ^ Stalcup, Jamie (November 8, 2021). "Molly of Denali Celebrates Native American Heritage Month" . worldscreen.com . tvkids.com . Retrieved November 8, 2021 . PBS KIDS has launched season two of Molly of Denali, honoring Native American Heritage Month...The first episode of the second season sees Molly find inspiration from the real-life Alaska Native civil rights leader Elizabeth Peratrovich, who was instrumental in the passing of the first anti-discrimination law in the U.S. in 1945. Further reading Boochever, Annie; Roy Peratrovich Jr. (2019). Fighter in Velvet Gloves: Alaska Civil Rights Hero Elizabeth Peratrovich . Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 9781602233713 . Duncan, Pauline (1999). Elizabeth Peratrovich: Native Civil Rights Leader . Sitka: Children of the Tidelands Publishing. Peratrovich, Roy Sr.; Roy Peratrovich Jr. (2001). A Recollection of Civil Rights Leader Elizabeth Peratrovich, 1911–1958 . Alaska: R.A. Peratrovich. OCLC 274035724 . Weingroff, Richard F. "Who Is Elizabeth Peratrovich? The Story Behind the Country's First Anti-Discrimination Law" . Highway History . Washington, D.C.: Federal Highway Administration , U.S. Department of Transportation . "A Recollection of Civil Rights Leader Elizabeth Peratrovich 1911–1958" . Compiled by Central Council of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska . 1991. Encyclopedic entries Barrett, Carole; Harvey Markowitz, eds. (c. 2005). "Peratrovich, Elizabeth W.". American Indian Biographies (rev. ed.). Pasadena: Salem Press. ISBN 1587652331 . LCCN 2004-28872 Clinton, Hillary Rodham ; Chelsea Clinton (2019). The Book of Gutsy Women . New York: Simon & Schuster . ISBN 9781501178412 . LCCN 2019946643 . Cobb, Daniel M., ed. (2015). Say we are nations: Documents of politics and protest in indigenous America since 1887 . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 9781469624808 . LCCN 2015-10506 . Cochrane, Marjorie (2014). Bold Women in Alaska History . Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company . ISBN 9780878426171 . LCCN 2014014828 . Edwards, Erika (2017). Raymond Bial (ed.). The people and culture of the Tlingit . New York: Cavendish Square Publishing. ISBN 9781502622518 . LCCN 2016038578 . Imel, Susan; Gretchen T. Bersch, eds. (2015). No Small Lives: Handbook of North American Early Women Adult Educators, 1925-1950 . Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9781623968830 . LCCN 2014039819 . Oleksa, Michael (1994). "Elizabeth Wanamaker Peratrovich, Roy Peratrovich, Sr.". In N. Dauenhauer ; R. Dauenhauer (eds.). Haa Kusteeyí, Our Culture: Tlingit Life Stories . Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 525– 44. ISBN 0295974001 . Peck, David R.; Tracy Irons-Georges (2000). American Ethnic Writers . Magill's choice. Pasadena: Salem Press. ISBN 0893561576 . LCCN 00059529 . "Super race theory hit at hearing" . The Alaska Daily Empire . Juneau : Helen Troy Monsen. February 6, 1945. p. 8 . Retrieved November 18, 2011 . External links Alaska Civil Rights For All official site Peratrovich family papers, 1929–2001 Elizabeth Peratrovich and Alaska's 1945 Anti-Discrimination Act , Alaska State Library .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Alaska Women's Hall of Fame v t e Class of 2009 Changunak Antisarlook Andrewuk (Sinrock Mary) Evangeline Atwood Lydia Black Rita (Pitka) Blumenstein Tikasuk "Emily" Brown (Ivanoff) Thelma Buchholdt Edith Bullock Susan Butcher Ellen "Nellie" Cashman Orah Dee Clark Carol Comeau Marvel Crosson Mahala Ashley Dickerson Neva Egan Dana Fabe Kay Fanning Helen Fischer Lucy Frey Nora Venes Guinn Dorothy Awes Haaland Lorene Harrison Cornelia Hatcher Mildred Robinson Hermann Frances Howard Celia Hunter Katie Hurley Sarah Agnes James Ruth Jefford Della Keats Lena Morrow Lewis Wilda Marston Blanche L. McSmith Rie Muñoz Lisa Murkowski Sadie Neakok Katherine Nordale Sarah Palin Elizabeth Peratrovich Sisters of Providence Mary Louise Rasmuson Irene Ryan Grace Berg Schaible Nell Scott Lidia Selkregg Natalya Shelikof Arliss Sturgulewski Dora M. Sweeney Fran Ulmer Ada Wien Esther Wunnicke Changunak Antisarlook Andrewuk (Sinrock Mary) Evangeline Atwood Lydia Black Rita (Pitka) Blumenstein Tikasuk "Emily" Brown (Ivanoff) Thelma Buchholdt Edith Bullock Susan Butcher Ellen "Nellie" Cashman Orah Dee Clark Carol Comeau Marvel Crosson Mahala Ashley Dickerson Neva Egan Dana Fabe Kay Fanning Helen Fischer Lucy Frey Nora Venes Guinn Dorothy Awes Haaland Lorene Harrison Cornelia Hatcher Mildred Robinson Hermann Frances Howard Celia Hunter Katie Hurley Sarah Agnes James Ruth Jefford Della Keats Lena Morrow Lewis Wilda Marston Blanche L. McSmith Rie Muñoz Lisa Murkowski Sadie Neakok Katherine Nordale Sarah Palin Elizabeth Peratrovich Sisters of Providence Mary Louise Rasmuson Irene Ryan Grace Berg Schaible Nell Scott Lidia Selkregg Natalya Shelikof Arliss Sturgulewski Dora M. Sweeney Fran Ulmer Ada Wien Esther Wunnicke Class of 2010 Alberta Daisy Schenck Adams Alice Brown Nora Marks Dauenhauer (Keixwnéi) Bettye J. Davis Hazel P. Heath Shirley Holloway Marlene Johnson (Slath Jaa Klaa Lákooti) Georgianna Lincoln Ethel Lund (Aan Wugeex’) Marge Mullen Helen Nienhueser Jo Ryman Scott Mary Taylor "Tay" Pryor Thomas Elizabeth Ann "Betsy" Tower Virginia "Ginny" Hill Wood Alberta Daisy Schenck Adams Alice Brown Nora Marks Dauenhauer (Keixwnéi) Bettye J. Davis Hazel P. Heath Shirley Holloway Marlene Johnson (Slath Jaa Klaa Lákooti) Georgianna Lincoln Ethel Lund (Aan Wugeex’) Marge Mullen Helen Nienhueser Jo Ryman Scott Mary Taylor "Tay" Pryor Thomas Elizabeth Ann "Betsy" Tower Virginia "Ginny" Hill Wood Class of 2011 Elaine Abraham Katharine "Kit" Crittenden Betti Cuddy Nan Elaine "Lanie" Fleischer Joerene Savikko Hout Lael Morgan Ruth Elin Hall Ost Leah Webster Peterson Martha M. Roderick Clare Swan Peg Tileston Helen Stoddard Whaley Caroline Wohlforth Patricia B. Wolf Elaine Abraham Katharine "Kit" Crittenden Betti Cuddy Nan Elaine "Lanie" Fleischer Joerene Savikko Hout Lael Morgan Ruth Elin Hall Ost Leah Webster Peterson Martha M. Roderick Clare Swan Peg Tileston Helen Stoddard Whaley Caroline Wohlforth Patricia B. Wolf Class of 2012 Audrey Aanes Gretchen T. Bersch Connie Boochever Carolyn Floyd Wilda G. "Burch" Hudson Carolyn E. Jones Louise Kellogg Ellen Evak Paneok Sharon Richards Irene Sparks Rowan Lisa Howell Starr Rudd Susan L. Ruddy Hannah Paul Solomon Pauline Utter Rosita Worl Leonie von Meusebach–Zesch Audrey Aanes Gretchen T. Bersch Connie Boochever Carolyn Floyd Wilda G. "Burch" Hudson Carolyn E. Jones Louise Kellogg Ellen Evak Paneok Sharon Richards Irene Sparks Rowan Lisa Howell Starr Rudd Susan L. Ruddy Hannah Paul Solomon Pauline Utter Rosita Worl Leonie von Meusebach–Zesch Class of 2013 Arne (Buckley) Beltz Judith "Judy" (King) Brady Daphne Elizabeth Brown Carolyn (Huntsman) Covington Diddy R. M. (Seyd) Hitchins Karen L. (Lueck) Hunt Joan Hurst Dorothy M. (Knee) Jones Jewel Jones Mary Joyce Thelma (Perse) Langdon Emily Morgan Ruth E. Moulton Marie (Matsuno) Nash S. Anne Newell Arne (Buckley) Beltz Judith "Judy" (King) Brady Daphne Elizabeth Brown Carolyn (Huntsman) Covington Diddy R. M. (Seyd) Hitchins Karen L. (Lueck) Hunt Joan Hurst Dorothy M. (Knee) Jones Jewel Jones Mary Joyce Thelma (Perse) Langdon Emily Morgan Ruth E. Moulton Marie (Matsuno) Nash S. Anne Newell Class of 2014 Eleanor Andrews Jane Ruth Angvik Beverly D. Dunham Mary Jane (Evans) Fate Katie John V. Kay Lahdenpera Janie Leask (Gyetm Wilgoosk) Kay Muriel (Townsend) Linton Jane Vallett Sutherland Niebergall Verna E. Pratt Barbara Sweetland Smith Francine Conat Lastufka Taylor Gertrude M. Wolfe Eleanor Andrews Jane Ruth Angvik Beverly D. Dunham Mary Jane (Evans) Fate Katie John V. Kay Lahdenpera Janie Leask (Gyetm Wilgoosk) Kay Muriel (Townsend) Linton Jane Vallett Sutherland Niebergall Verna E. Pratt Barbara Sweetland Smith Francine Conat Lastufka Taylor Gertrude M. Wolfe Class of 2015 Laura Mae (Beltz) Bergt Daisy Lee (Andersen) Bitter L. Arlene "Buddy" Clay Lucy Evelyn (Huie Hon) Cuddy Marie (Hanna) Darlin Dolly Farnsworth Alice Johnstone Alice Dove (Montgomery) Kull Marie (Nick) Meade (Arnaq) Ramona Gail (McIver) Phillips Ruth Anne Marie Schmidt Ann Mary (Cherrington) Stevens Elvera Voth Laura Mae (Beltz) Bergt Daisy Lee (Andersen) Bitter L. Arlene "Buddy" Clay Lucy Evelyn (Huie Hon) Cuddy Marie (Hanna) Darlin Dolly Farnsworth Alice Johnstone Alice Dove (Montgomery) Kull Marie (Nick) Meade (Arnaq) Ramona Gail (McIver) Phillips Ruth Anne Marie Schmidt Ann Mary (Cherrington) Stevens Elvera Voth Class of 2016 Annie Aghnaqa (Akeya) Alowa Kathleen Dalton Sandy Harper Juanita Lou Helms Crystal Brilliant Jenne Margy K. Johnson Eliza Peter Jones Anne P. Lanier Janet McCabe Jo Michalski Alice Petrivelli Shirley Mae Staten Nancy Sydnam Annie Aghnaqa (Akeya) Alowa Kathleen Dalton Sandy Harper Juanita Lou Helms Crystal Brilliant Jenne Margy K. Johnson Eliza Peter Jones Anne P. Lanier Janet McCabe Jo Michalski Alice Petrivelli Shirley Mae Staten Nancy Sydnam Class of 2017 Dixie Johnson Belcher Katheryn Brown Paula Easley Elizabeth Fuller Elsner Kay Muriel Townsend Linton Tennys Thornton Bowers Owens Elizabeth Parent Cathryn Robertson Rasmuson Teri Rofkar Elsa Saladino Malapit Sargento Kathryn Dyakanoff Seller Ann Mary Cherrington Stevens Carol Swartz Dixie Johnson Belcher Katheryn Brown Paula Easley Elizabeth Fuller Elsner Kay Muriel Townsend Linton Tennys Thornton Bowers Owens Elizabeth Parent Cathryn Robertson Rasmuson Teri Rofkar Elsa Saladino Malapit Sargento Kathryn Dyakanoff Seller Ann Mary Cherrington Stevens Carol Swartz Class of 2018 Poldine Carlo Jeanmarie Larson Crumb Frederica de Laguna Mary Laurie Espinosa Epperson Alice Stevenson Green Lorrie Louise Angelo Horning Mary Lou King Margaret Lowe Edna Ahgeak MacLean Dorothy G. Page Michelle Ridgeway Beatrice Rose Poldine Carlo Jeanmarie Larson Crumb Frederica de Laguna Mary Laurie Espinosa Epperson Alice Stevenson Green Lorrie Louise Angelo Horning Mary Lou King Margaret Lowe Edna Ahgeak MacLean Dorothy G. Page Michelle Ridgeway Beatrice Rose Class of 2019 Virginia Blanchard Marie Qaqaun Carroll Heather Flynn Abigale Hensley Beverly Hoffman Mary K. Hughes Roxanna Lawer Vera Metcalf Mary Pete Margaret Pugh Virginia Blanchard Marie Qaqaun Carroll Heather Flynn Abigale Hensley Beverly Hoffman Mary K. Hughes Roxanna Lawer Vera Metcalf Mary Pete Margaret Pugh Class of 2020 Monica M Anderson Reyne Marie Athanas Sarah Eliassen April S. Ferguson Maragret Norma (Campbell) Goodman Ann “Nancy” (Desmond) Gross Karleen (Alstead) Grummett Jennifer “Jane” Wainwright Mears Peggy Mullen Sandy Poulson Frances Helaine Rose Judith “Judi” Anne Slajer Monica M Anderson Reyne Marie Athanas Sarah Eliassen April S. Ferguson Maragret Norma (Campbell) Goodman Ann “Nancy” (Desmond) Gross Karleen (Alstead) Grummett Jennifer “Jane” Wainwright Mears Peggy Mullen Sandy Poulson Frances Helaine Rose Judith “Judi” Anne Slajer Class of 2021 Agnes Coyle Brideen Crawford Milner Linda Curda Lynn E. Hartz Ermalee Hickel Barbara Hood Lucille Hope Margaret Murie Cindy Roberts Mary Ann Warden Agnes Coyle Brideen Crawford Milner Linda Curda Lynn E. Hartz Ermalee Hickel Barbara Hood Lucille Hope Margaret Murie Cindy Roberts Mary Ann Warden Class of 2022 Barbara Berner Pat Branson Etheldra Davis Shirley Fraser Brenda Itta-Lee DeeDee Ann Stout Jonrowe Becky Parker Karen Perdue Sheila Toomey Roxy Wright Barbara Berner Pat Branson Etheldra Davis Shirley Fraser Brenda Itta-Lee DeeDee Ann Stout Jonrowe Becky Parker Karen Perdue Sheila Toomey Roxy Wright Class of 2023 Adelheid Becker carolyn V. Brown Victoria D'Amico Hiroko Harada Dorothy Isabell Ada Johnson Diane Kaplan Mary Navitsky Esther Petrie Libby Riddles Martha Rutherford Adelheid Becker carolyn V. Brown Victoria D'Amico Hiroko Harada Dorothy Isabell Ada Johnson Diane Kaplan Mary Navitsky Esther Petrie Libby Riddles Martha Rutherford v t e Civil rights movement (1954–1968) v t e Events ( timeline ) Prior to 1954 Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott 1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Read's Drug Store sit-in Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom " Give Us the Ballot " Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Dockum Drug Store sit-in Katz Drug Store sit-in Youth March for Integrated Schools (1958 , 1959) Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins 1960–1963 New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday New Orleans school desegregation Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins " Second Emancipation Proclamation " Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom Leesburg Stockade March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement 1964–1968 Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches " How Long, Not Long " SCOPE Project Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement " The Other America " Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike " I've Been to the Mountaintop " King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute Prior to 1954 Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott 1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Read's Drug Store sit-in Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom " Give Us the Ballot " Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Dockum Drug Store sit-in Katz Drug Store sit-in Youth March for Integrated Schools (1958 , 1959) Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Read's Drug Store sit-in Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom " Give Us the Ballot " " Give Us the Ballot " Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Dockum Drug Store sit-in Katz Drug Store sit-in Youth March for Integrated Schools (1958 , 1959) Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins 1960–1963 New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday New Orleans school desegregation Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins " Second Emancipation Proclamation " Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom Leesburg Stockade March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday New Orleans school desegregation Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins " Second Emancipation Proclamation " Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom Leesburg Stockade March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement 1964–1968 Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches " How Long, Not Long " SCOPE Project Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement " The Other America " Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike " I've Been to the Mountaintop " King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches " How Long, Not Long " " How Long, Not Long " SCOPE Project Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement " The Other America " Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike " I've Been to the Mountaintop " " I've Been to the Mountaintop " King assassination funeral riots funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute Activist groups Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights American Friends Service Committee Atlanta Negro Voters League Atlanta Student Movement Black Panther Party Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Committee for Freedom Now Committee on Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human Rights Council for United Civil Rights Leadership Council of Federated Organizations Dallas County Voters League Deacons for Defense and Justice Georgia Council on Human Relations Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights Lowndes County Freedom Organization Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Montgomery Improvement Association NAACP Youth Council Nashville Student Movement Nation of Islam Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Southern Regional Council Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) The Freedom Singers United Auto Workers (UAW) Wednesdays in Mississippi Women's Political Council Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights American Friends Service Committee Atlanta Negro Voters League Atlanta Student Movement Black Panther Party Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Committee for Freedom Now Committee on Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human Rights Council for United Civil Rights Leadership Council of Federated Organizations Dallas County Voters League Deacons for Defense and Justice Georgia Council on Human Relations Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights Lowndes County Freedom Organization Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Montgomery Improvement Association NAACP Youth Council Youth Council Nashville Student Movement Nation of Islam Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Southern Regional Council Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) The Freedom Singers United Auto Workers (UAW) Wednesdays in Mississippi Women's Political Council Activists Juanita Abernathy Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Zev Aelony Mathew Ahmann Muhammad Ali William G. Anderson Gwendolyn Armstrong Arnold Aronson Ella Baker James Baldwin Marion Barry Daisy Bates Harry Belafonte James Bevel Claude Black Gloria Blackwell Randolph Blackwell Unita Blackwell Ezell Blair Jr. Joanne Bland Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Amelia Boynton Bruce Boynton Raylawni Branch Stanley Branche Ruby Bridges Aurelia Browder H. Rap Brown R. Jess Brown Ralph Bunche John H. Calhoun Guy Carawan Stokely Carmichael Johnnie Carr James Chaney J. L. Chestnut Shirley Chisholm Colia Lafayette Clark Ramsey Clark Septima Clark Xernona Clayton Eldridge Cleaver Kathleen Cleaver Josephine Dobbs Clement Charles E. Cobb Jr. Annie Lee Cooper Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Abraham Lincoln Davis Angela Davis Joseph DeLaine Dave Dennis Annie Bell Robinson Devine John Wesley Dobbs Jesse L. Douglas Patricia Stephens Due Joseph Ellwanger Charles Evers Medgar Evers Myrlie Evers-Williams Chuck Fager James Farmer Walter Fauntroy James Forman Marie Foster Golden Frinks Georgia Gilmore Andrew Goodman Robert Graetz Fred Gray Shirley Green-Reese Jack Greenberg Dick Gregory Lawrence Guyot Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer Fred Hampton William E. Harbour Vincent Harding Dorothy Height Audrey Faye Hendricks Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Oliver Hill Donald L. Hollowell James Hood Myles Horton Zilphia Horton T. R. M. Howard Ruby Hurley Cecil Ivory Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson Richie Jean Jackson T. J. Jemison Esau Jenkins Barbara Rose Johns Vernon Johns Frank Minis Johnson Clarence Jones J. Charles Jones Matthew Jones Vernon Jordan Tom Kahn Clyde Kennard A. D. King C.B. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Sr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee Sanford R. Leigh Jim Letherer Stanley Levison John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Danny Lyon Malcolm X Mae Mallory Vivian Malone Bob Mants Thurgood Marshall Benjamin Mays Franklin McCain Charles McDew Cleve McDowell Ralph McGill Floyd McKissick Joseph McNeil James Meredith William Ming Jack Minnis Amzie Moore Cecil B. Moore Douglas E. Moore Harriette Moore Harry T. Moore Queen Mother Moore William Lewis Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses William Moyer Pauli Murray Elijah Muhammad Diane Nash Charles Neblett Huey P. Newton Edgar Nixon Jack O'Dell James Orange Rosa Parks James Peck Charles Person Homer Plessy Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Fay Bellamy Powell Rodney N. Powell Al Raby Lincoln Ragsdale A. Philip Randolph George Raymond George Raymond Jr. Bernice Johnson Reagon Cordell Reagon James Reeb Frederick D. Reese Walter Reuther Gloria Richardson David Richmond Bernice Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Angela Russell Bayard Rustin Bernie Sanders Michael Schwerner Bobby Seale Pete Seeger Cleveland Sellers Charles Sherrod Alexander D. Shimkin Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Glenn E. Smiley A. Maceo Smith Kelly Miller Smith Mary Louise Smith Maxine Smith Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson Charles Kenzie Steele Hank Thomas Dorothy Tillman A. P. Tureaud Hartman Turnbow Albert Turner C. T. Vivian A. T. Walden Wyatt Tee Walker Hollis Watkins Walter Francis White Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams Kale Williams Robert F. Williams Q. V. Williamson Andrew Young Whitney Young Sammy Younge Jr. Bob Zellner James Zwerg Juanita Abernathy Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Zev Aelony Mathew Ahmann Muhammad Ali William G. Anderson Gwendolyn Armstrong Arnold Aronson Ella Baker James Baldwin Marion Barry Daisy Bates Harry Belafonte James Bevel Claude Black Gloria Blackwell Randolph Blackwell Unita Blackwell Ezell Blair Jr. Joanne Bland Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Amelia Boynton Bruce Boynton Raylawni Branch Stanley Branche Ruby Bridges Aurelia Browder H. Rap Brown R. Jess Brown Ralph Bunche John H. Calhoun Guy Carawan Stokely Carmichael Johnnie Carr James Chaney J. L. Chestnut Shirley Chisholm Colia Lafayette Clark Ramsey Clark Septima Clark Xernona Clayton Eldridge Cleaver Kathleen Cleaver Josephine Dobbs Clement Charles E. Cobb Jr. Annie Lee Cooper Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Abraham Lincoln Davis Angela Davis Joseph DeLaine Dave Dennis Annie Bell Robinson Devine John Wesley Dobbs Jesse L. Douglas Patricia Stephens Due Joseph Ellwanger Charles Evers Medgar Evers Myrlie Evers-Williams Chuck Fager James Farmer Walter Fauntroy James Forman Marie Foster Golden Frinks Georgia Gilmore Andrew Goodman Robert Graetz Fred Gray Shirley Green-Reese Jack Greenberg Dick Gregory Lawrence Guyot Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer Fred Hampton William E. Harbour Vincent Harding Dorothy Height Audrey Faye Hendricks Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Oliver Hill Donald L. Hollowell James Hood Myles Horton Zilphia Horton T. R. M. Howard Ruby Hurley Cecil Ivory Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson Richie Jean Jackson T. J. Jemison Esau Jenkins Barbara Rose Johns Vernon Johns Frank Minis Johnson Clarence Jones J. Charles Jones Matthew Jones Vernon Jordan Tom Kahn Clyde Kennard A. D. King C.B. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Sr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee Sanford R. Leigh Jim Letherer Stanley Levison John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Danny Lyon Malcolm X Mae Mallory Vivian Malone Bob Mants Thurgood Marshall Benjamin Mays Franklin McCain Charles McDew Cleve McDowell Ralph McGill Floyd McKissick Joseph McNeil James Meredith William Ming Jack Minnis Amzie Moore Cecil B. Moore Douglas E. Moore Harriette Moore Harry T. Moore Queen Mother Moore William Lewis Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses William Moyer Pauli Murray Elijah Muhammad Diane Nash Charles Neblett Huey P. Newton Edgar Nixon Jack O'Dell James Orange Rosa Parks James Peck Charles Person Homer Plessy Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Fay Bellamy Powell Rodney N. Powell Al Raby Lincoln Ragsdale A. Philip Randolph George Raymond George Raymond Jr. Bernice Johnson Reagon Cordell Reagon James Reeb Frederick D. Reese Walter Reuther Gloria Richardson David Richmond Bernice Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Angela Russell Bayard Rustin Bernie Sanders Michael Schwerner Bobby Seale Pete Seeger Cleveland Sellers Charles Sherrod Alexander D. Shimkin Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Glenn E. Smiley A. Maceo Smith Kelly Miller Smith Mary Louise Smith Maxine Smith Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson Charles Kenzie Steele Hank Thomas Dorothy Tillman A. P. Tureaud Hartman Turnbow Albert Turner C. T. Vivian A. T. Walden Wyatt Tee Walker Hollis Watkins Walter Francis White Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams Kale Williams Robert F. Williams Q. V. Williamson Andrew Young Whitney Young Sammy Younge Jr. Bob Zellner James Zwerg By region Omaha, Nebraska South Carolina Omaha, Nebraska South Carolina Movement songs "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" "Kumbaya" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" "Oh, Freedom" "This Little Light of Mine" "We Shall Not Be Moved" "We Shall Overcome" "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)" "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" "Kumbaya" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" "Oh, Freedom" "This Little Light of Mine" "We Shall Not Be Moved" "We Shall Overcome" "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)" Influences Nonviolence Padayatra Sermon on the Mount Mahatma Gandhi Ahimsa Satyagraha The Kingdom of God Is Within You Frederick Douglass W. E. B. 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Main page Simple start Simple talk New changes Show any page Help Contact us About Wikipedia Special pages Give to Wikipedia Create account Log in Give to Wikipedia Create account Log in Contents Beginning 1 Comic book 2 Friends 3 Enemies 4 Television 5 Famous quotes 6 Movies 7 Notes 8 References Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά English Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Betawi Ghanaian Pidgin Kʋsaal Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Page Talk Read Change Change source View history Read Change Change source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Switch to legacy parser Make a book Download as PDF Page for printing Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item .mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}} This article is about a comic book superhero. For the city in Turkey, see Batman (city) . .mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:-3px}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}} Batman A cosplayer of Batman Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist, and field commander Uses high-tech equipment and weapons Batman is a fictional character created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger in the DC Comics and movies as well as one of the most famous superheroes in DC. [ 4 ] Batman is the secret identity of the very rich and successful businessman Bruce Wayne . [ 5 ] He first appeared in comic books and was later used in several radio series , movies , TV programs , books, and video games . There are also many toys and other merchandise dealing with Batman and other characters and items from the world he lives in . Batman lives in the fictional city of Gotham. And he had a sidekick called Robin . Batman A cosplayer of Batman Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist, and field commander Uses high-tech equipment and weapons Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist, and field commander Uses high-tech equipment and weapons Batman is a fictional character created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger in the DC Comics and movies as well as one of the most famous superheroes in DC. [ 4 ] Batman is the secret identity of the very rich and successful businessman Bruce Wayne . [ 5 ] He first appeared in comic books and was later used in several radio series , movies , TV programs , books, and video games . There are also many toys and other merchandise dealing with Batman and other characters and items from the world he lives in . Batman lives in the fictional city of Gotham. And he had a sidekick called Robin . Comic book [ change | change source ] Actor Adam West as Batman in the 1960s Batman was first named "The Bat-Man" by Kane. [ 6 ] Batman made its first appearance in 1939 in Detective Comics No. 27 . [ 6 ] He was the second DC superhero to be created. The first was Superman . [ 4 ] Batman's origin story is that as a young child, Bruce Wayne saw a robber named Joe Chill murder his mother and father after the family left a theatre . Bruce decided that he did not want that kind of violence to happen to anyone else and wanted to avenge his parents' death. He then dedicated his life to protect his city, Gotham City . While he was growing up, Bruce learned many different ways to fight and solve crimes. As an adult , Bruce used a costume of a bat to scare criminals so that there would be less crime in Gotham City. Batman's tools Batman's car, the Batmobile Batman uses many different tools to help fight crime, these may vary based on the different iterations of batman. Notable examples include his car which he calls "the Batmobile ", a motorcycle called the "Bat-Cycle", and has a special belt full of tools called a "utility belt" and most notably bat-shaped boomerangs called "Batarangs" He also has radio signals in his bat ears and can shoot them out to his enemy. He also has tasers built in his suit, shocking his foes. In the movie "Batman & Robin" he has ice skates. He also has a kryptonite ring and a kryptonite launcher. He even has a power suit. Comic book Batman was first named "The Bat-Man" by Kane. [ 6 ] Batman made its first appearance in 1939 in Detective Comics No. 27 . [ 6 ] He was the second DC superhero to be created. The first was Superman . [ 4 ] Batman's origin story is that as a young child, Bruce Wayne saw a robber named Joe Chill murder his mother and father after the family left a theatre . Bruce decided that he did not want that kind of violence to happen to anyone else and wanted to avenge his parents' death. He then dedicated his life to protect his city, Gotham City . While he was growing up, Bruce learned many different ways to fight and solve crimes. As an adult , Bruce used a costume of a bat to scare criminals so that there would be less crime in Gotham City. Batman's tools Batman uses many different tools to help fight crime, these may vary based on the different iterations of batman. Notable examples include his car which he calls "the Batmobile ", a motorcycle called the "Bat-Cycle", and has a special belt full of tools called a "utility belt" and most notably bat-shaped boomerangs called "Batarangs" He also has radio signals in his bat ears and can shoot them out to his enemy. He also has tasers built in his suit, shocking his foes. In the movie "Batman & Robin" he has ice skates. He also has a kryptonite ring and a kryptonite launcher. He even has a power suit. Friends [ change | change source ] Batman is often helped from other people in Gotham. Batman and his some of his various allies are often referred to as the Bat Family. Some of these people also put on costumes and become superheroes when they help him. Some of the notable people who help Batman are his sidekick , Robin (Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, Tim Drake, and Damian Wayne, and briefly Stephanie Brown), his butler Alfred Pennyworth , police commissioner James Gordon , Wayne Enterprises CEO and president Lucius Fox , and Gordon's daughter Barbara Gordon . Barbara Gordon became a superhero named Batgirl (and later used the name Oracle ). Commissioner Gordon uses a Bat-Signal which shines a light into the sky with a shadow in the shape of a bat on when he needs Batman's assistance. Batman is often, but not always, shown being friends with Superman . He is often shown as a friend of Wonder Woman. Batman, Superman, and Wonder Woman are often referred to as the "Trinity". Batman is a part of many superhero teams that fight against evil, most notably the Justice League or JL for short, the Justice League of America or JLA, and the Justice League Dark or JLD. Friends Batman is often helped from other people in Gotham. Batman and his some of his various allies are often referred to as the Bat Family. Some of these people also put on costumes and become superheroes when they help him. Some of the notable people who help Batman are his sidekick , Robin (Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, Tim Drake, and Damian Wayne, and briefly Stephanie Brown), his butler Alfred Pennyworth , police commissioner James Gordon , Wayne Enterprises CEO and president Lucius Fox , and Gordon's daughter Barbara Gordon . Barbara Gordon became a superhero named Batgirl (and later used the name Oracle ). Commissioner Gordon uses a Bat-Signal which shines a light into the sky with a shadow in the shape of a bat on when he needs Batman's assistance. Batman is often, but not always, shown being friends with Superman . He is often shown as a friend of Wonder Woman. Batman, Superman, and Wonder Woman are often referred to as the "Trinity". Batman is a part of many superhero teams that fight against evil, most notably the Justice League or JL for short, the Justice League of America or JLA, and the Justice League Dark or JLD. Enemies [ change | change source ] Some of the villains that Batman fights, called his Rogues Gallery , are the Joker , Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Scarecrow , Talia al Ghul , Poison Ivy , Catwoman , Mr. Freeze , Bane , Riddler , Two-Face , and Clayface . Because the city and the police never gave Batman permission to fight crime, sometimes people see Batman as an enemy of the police . Sometimes if the police ever do bad things, Batman will fight them to keep everyone else safe. Once his tactics were stolen and used against some of the members of the Justice League . Enemies Some of the villains that Batman fights, called his Rogues Gallery , are the Joker , Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Scarecrow , Talia al Ghul , Poison Ivy , Catwoman , Mr. Freeze , Bane , Riddler , Two-Face , and Clayface . Because the city and the police never gave Batman permission to fight crime, sometimes people see Batman as an enemy of the police . Sometimes if the police ever do bad things, Batman will fight them to keep everyone else safe. Once his tactics were stolen and used against some of the members of the Justice League . Television [ change | change source ] In the 1960s, a live-action television series was made of Batman and it was called Batman . In Batman , Adam West was the actor who was Batman and Burt Ward was the actor who was Robin. There are also many of cartoons with Batman as a character. These include, but are not limited to, Superfriends , Batman: The Animated Series , Batman Beyond , and Justice League . There are other cartoons and programs where Batman is a character but he is not the most important part of the story, such as " Birds of Prey ". This was a live-action series that is about Batman's daughter, the Huntress . A 3D-animation show was called Beware the Batman . Most recently in 2024, a show came out that was made by Amazon and it is called Batman: Caped Crusader. Television In the 1960s, a live-action television series was made of Batman and it was called Batman . In Batman , Adam West was the actor who was Batman and Burt Ward was the actor who was Robin. There are also many of cartoons with Batman as a character. These include, but are not limited to, Superfriends , Batman: The Animated Series , Batman Beyond , and Justice League . There are other cartoons and programs where Batman is a character but he is not the most important part of the story, such as " Birds of Prey ". This was a live-action series that is about Batman's daughter, the Huntress . A 3D-animation show was called Beware the Batman . Most recently in 2024, a show came out that was made by Amazon and it is called Batman: Caped Crusader. Famous quotes [ change | change source ] "I am Batman." "Batman needs his supplies." "It's not who you are underneath, it's what you do that defines you." Famous quotes "I am Batman." "Batman needs his supplies." "It's not who you are underneath, it's what you do that defines you." Movies [ change | change source ] The actors who have played Batman in live action movies. Top from left to right: Lewis Wilson , Adam West , Michael Keaton and Val Kilmer . Bottom from left to right: George Clooney , Christian Bale , Ben Affleck and Robert Pattinson .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}} Kevin Conroy (left) voiced the character in various animated movies, television shows and video games while Will Arnett (right) voiced the character in The Lego Movie franchise 1940s movie serials by Lewis Wilson and Robert Lowery . 1966 Batman , based on the TV series, and starring Adam West . 1989-2023 Tim Burton 's film series 1989 Batman by Michael Keaton 1992 Batman Returns by Michael Keaton 2023 The Flash by Michael Keaton 1995-1997 Joel Schumacher 's duology 1995 Batman Forever by Val Kilmer . 1997 Batman & Robin by George Clooney . 2023 The Flash by George Clooney. 2005–2012 The Dark Knight Trilogy by Christian Bale 2005 Batman Begins 2008 The Dark Knight 2012 The Dark Knight Rises 2014–2019 The Lego Movies by Will Arnett 2014 The Lego Movie 2017 The Lego Batman Movie 2019 The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part 2016–2023 DC Extended Universe Movies by Ben Affleck 2016 Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice [ 7 ] 2016 Suicide Squad 2017 Justice League 2021 Zack Snyder's Justice League 2023 The Flash 2022–present The Batman Movies by Robert Pattinson 2022 The Batman 2022 DC League of Super-Pets by Keanu Reeves Movies 1940s movie serials by Lewis Wilson and Robert Lowery . 1966 Batman , based on the TV series, and starring Adam West . 1989-2023 Tim Burton 's film series 1989 Batman by Michael Keaton 1992 Batman Returns by Michael Keaton 2023 The Flash by Michael Keaton 1989 Batman by Michael Keaton 1992 Batman Returns by Michael Keaton 2023 The Flash by Michael Keaton 2023 The Flash by Michael Keaton 1995-1997 Joel Schumacher 's duology 1995 Batman Forever by Val Kilmer . 1997 Batman & Robin by George Clooney . 2023 The Flash by George Clooney. 1995 Batman Forever by Val Kilmer . 1997 Batman & Robin by George Clooney . 2023 The Flash by George Clooney. 2023 The Flash by George Clooney. 2005–2012 The Dark Knight Trilogy by Christian Bale 2005 Batman Begins 2008 The Dark Knight 2012 The Dark Knight Rises 2005 Batman Begins 2008 The Dark Knight 2012 The Dark Knight Rises 2014–2019 The Lego Movies by Will Arnett 2014 The Lego Movie 2017 The Lego Batman Movie 2019 The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part 2014 The Lego Movie 2017 The Lego Batman Movie 2019 The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part 2016–2023 DC Extended Universe Movies by Ben Affleck 2016 Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice [ 7 ] 2016 Suicide Squad 2017 Justice League 2021 Zack Snyder's Justice League 2023 The Flash 2016 Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice [ 7 ] 2016 Suicide Squad 2017 Justice League 2021 Zack Snyder's Justice League 2023 The Flash 2022–present The Batman Movies by Robert Pattinson 2022 The Batman 2022 The Batman 2022 DC League of Super-Pets by Keanu Reeves Notes [ change | change source ] .mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman} ↑ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Notes ↑ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] References [ change | change source ] .mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}} @media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}} Wikimedia Commons has media related to Batman and his cast . ↑ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). "When Is Batman's Birthday, Actually?" . MTV News . New York City: Viacom . Archived from the original on July 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 9, 2014 . ↑ "DC Entertainment To Give Classic Batman Writer Credit in 'Gotham' and 'Batman v Superman' (Exclusive)" . Hollywood Reporter . September 18, 2015. Archived from the original on October 22, 2015 . Retrieved September 21, 2015 . ↑ Sims, Chris (October 21, 2015). "Bill Finger Has A Creator Credit On This Week's Batman Comics" . Comics Alliance . Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2015 . 1 2 "Who Is Bill Finger? - Bob Kane Created Batman, so who is Bill Finger? - Bill Finger Batman - The History of Batman - Legions of Gotham - Batman Wiki - The Batman Homepage - Ba..." Archived from the original on April 15, 2012 . Retrieved June 1, 2012 . ↑ "Why Batman is so Popular, and His History - Yahoo! Voices - voices.yahoo.com" . Archived from the original on July 28, 2014 . Retrieved June 1, 2012 . 1 2 Daniels, Les . Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8118-4232-0 , pg. 18 ↑ "Ben Affleck set to play Batman in 'Man of Steel' sequel" . MSN . August 23, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013 . 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}} .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman The Dark Knight Creators Bob Kane Bill Finger Batman family By secret identity Batman Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Bluebird Catwoman Hawkfire Huntress Knight Nightwing Robin Red Hood Red Robin Spoiler Squire By real name Helena Bertinelli Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Tim Drake Luke Fox Barbara Gordon James "Jim" Gordon Dick Grayson Beryl Hutchinson Bette Kane Katherine Kane Selina Kyle Harper Row Cyril Sheldrake Jason Todd Jean-Paul Valley Bruce Wayne Damian Wayne Helena Wayne David Zavimbe Supporting characters Main support Ace the Bat-Hound Harold Allnut Lucius Fox Alfred Pennyworth Leslie Thompkins Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Police contacts Crispus Allen Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen James "Jim" Gordon Renee Montoya Maggie Sawyer Neutral characters Azrael Jason Bard Bat-Mite Julie Madison Mayors of Gotham City Hamilton Hill Professor Carter Nichols Silver St. Cloud Vicki Vale Adversaries Central Rogues Gallery Bane Catwoman Clayface Harley Quinn The Joker Killer Croc Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze The Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul The Riddler Scarecrow Talia al Ghul Two-Face The Ventriloquist Recurring antagonists Anarky Black Mask Blockbuster Calendar Man Catman Cluemaster Deadshot Doctor Death Doctor Hurt Firefly Hush KGBeast Killer Moth Lady Shiva Professor Pyg Red Hood Hugo Strange Tweedledum and Tweedledee Maxie Zeus Victor Zsasz Mobsters and Crime Lords Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sal Maroni Lew Moxon Rupert Thorne Tony Zucco Hostile Organizations Circus of Strange Court of Owls League of Assassins Terrible Trio Locations Gotham City Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Batcave Blackgate Penitentiary Gotham City Police Department Haly's Circus Iceberg Lounge Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Equipment Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit Utility Belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Vehicles Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Redbird v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman ( episodes ) Legends of the Superheroes OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham ( episodes ) Live-action serials and movies Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989 movie series Batman (1989) Batman Returns Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Animated television The Adventures of Batman The Batman/Superman Hour The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The New Adventures of Batman Batman: The Animated Series ( episodes ) The New Batman Adventures ( episodes ) Batman Beyond ( episodes ) The Batman ( episodes ) Batman: The Brave and the Bold ( episodes ) Beware the Batman ( episodes ) Animated movies Featuring Batman Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Under the Red Hood Year One The Dark Knight Returns – Part 1 The Dark Knight Returns – Part 2 DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Batman vs. Robin With other heroes Justice League: The New Frontier Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Justice League: Doom Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time Justice League: War The Lego Movie Justice League: Throne of Atlantis Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts Justice League: Gods and Monsters Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem Animated shorts Chase Me Gotham Knight Novels Dead White Fear Itself Inferno The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Related topics Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Batman action figures Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman enemies in other media List of Batman movies cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books v t e Justice League Gardner Fox Founding members Superman Batman Wonder Woman Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) Flash (Barry Allen) Aquaman Martian Manhunter ( original ) Black Canary ( some retellings ) Cyborg ( some retellings ) Other Members Major antagonists Amazo Anti-Monitor Darkseid Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust The General Imperiex Joker Kanjar Ro The Key Lex Luthor Libra Maxwell Lord Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro T. O. Morrow Vandal Savage The White Martians Organizations The Extremists The Crime Syndicate Legion of Doom The Secret Society of Super Villains Injustice Gang Injustice League The Royal Flush Gang Enemies Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Spin-off groups The Hall of Justice Happy Harbor Secret Sanctuary Justice League Satellite Justice League Watchtower Bases and facilities Storylines " JLApe: Gorilla Warfare! " " World War III " " Tower of Babel " " JLA: Earth 2 " " Justice Leagues " " JLA/Avengers " " Pain of the Gods " " The Lightning Saga " " Throne of Atlantis " " Trinity War " Current series Justice League (The New 52) Justice League Dark Justice League United Previous series Justice League of America Justice League International Justice League Europe Justice League Quarterly Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice JLA Justice JLA: Classified Justice League: Generation Lost Limited series Justice Riders JLA: The Nail series DC Comics Two Thousand Created Equal Act of God Destiny Age of Wonder JLA: Shogun of Steel Cry for Justice Related articles Bizarro League Snapper Carr In other media Justice Society of America Squadron Supreme References ↑ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). "When Is Batman's Birthday, Actually?" . MTV News . New York City: Viacom . Archived from the original on July 26, 2014 . Retrieved August 9, 2014 . ↑ "DC Entertainment To Give Classic Batman Writer Credit in 'Gotham' and 'Batman v Superman' (Exclusive)" . Hollywood Reporter . September 18, 2015. Archived from the original on October 22, 2015 . Retrieved September 21, 2015 . ↑ Sims, Chris (October 21, 2015). "Bill Finger Has A Creator Credit On This Week's Batman Comics" . Comics Alliance . Archived from the original on March 4, 2016 . Retrieved October 21, 2015 . 1 2 "Who Is Bill Finger? - Bob Kane Created Batman, so who is Bill Finger? - Bill Finger Batman - The History of Batman - Legions of Gotham - Batman Wiki - The Batman Homepage - Ba..." Archived from the original on April 15, 2012 . Retrieved June 1, 2012 . ↑ "Why Batman is so Popular, and His History - Yahoo! Voices - voices.yahoo.com" . Archived from the original on July 28, 2014 . Retrieved June 1, 2012 . 1 2 Daniels, Les . Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8118-4232-0 , pg. 18 ↑ "Ben Affleck set to play Batman in 'Man of Steel' sequel" . MSN . August 23, 2013. Archived from the original on August 26, 2013 . Retrieved August 24, 2013 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman v t e The Dark Knight Creators Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Batman family By secret identity Batman Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Bluebird Catwoman Hawkfire Huntress Knight Nightwing Robin Red Hood Red Robin Spoiler Squire By real name Helena Bertinelli Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Tim Drake Luke Fox Barbara Gordon James "Jim" Gordon Dick Grayson Beryl Hutchinson Bette Kane Katherine Kane Selina Kyle Harper Row Cyril Sheldrake Jason Todd Jean-Paul Valley Bruce Wayne Damian Wayne Helena Wayne David Zavimbe By secret identity Batman Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Bluebird Catwoman Hawkfire Huntress Knight Nightwing Robin Red Hood Red Robin Spoiler Squire Batman Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Bluebird Catwoman Hawkfire Huntress Knight Nightwing Robin Red Hood Red Robin Spoiler Squire By real name Helena Bertinelli Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Tim Drake Luke Fox Barbara Gordon James "Jim" Gordon Dick Grayson Beryl Hutchinson Bette Kane Katherine Kane Selina Kyle Harper Row Cyril Sheldrake Jason Todd Jean-Paul Valley Bruce Wayne Damian Wayne Helena Wayne David Zavimbe Helena Bertinelli Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Tim Drake Luke Fox Barbara Gordon James "Jim" Gordon Dick Grayson Beryl Hutchinson Bette Kane Katherine Kane Selina Kyle Harper Row Cyril Sheldrake Jason Todd Jean-Paul Valley Bruce Wayne Damian Wayne Helena Wayne David Zavimbe Supporting characters Main support Ace the Bat-Hound Harold Allnut Lucius Fox Alfred Pennyworth Leslie Thompkins Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Police contacts Crispus Allen Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen James "Jim" Gordon Renee Montoya Maggie Sawyer Neutral characters Azrael Jason Bard Bat-Mite Julie Madison Mayors of Gotham City Hamilton Hill Professor Carter Nichols Silver St. Cloud Vicki Vale Main support Ace the Bat-Hound Harold Allnut Lucius Fox Alfred Pennyworth Leslie Thompkins Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Ace the Bat-Hound Harold Allnut Lucius Fox Alfred Pennyworth Leslie Thompkins Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Police contacts Crispus Allen Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen James "Jim" Gordon Renee Montoya Maggie Sawyer Crispus Allen Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen James "Jim" Gordon Renee Montoya Maggie Sawyer Neutral characters Azrael Jason Bard Bat-Mite Julie Madison Mayors of Gotham City Hamilton Hill Professor Carter Nichols Silver St. Cloud Vicki Vale Azrael Jason Bard Bat-Mite Julie Madison Mayors of Gotham City Hamilton Hill Hamilton Hill Professor Carter Nichols Silver St. Cloud Vicki Vale Adversaries Central Rogues Gallery Bane Catwoman Clayface Harley Quinn The Joker Killer Croc Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze The Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul The Riddler Scarecrow Talia al Ghul Two-Face The Ventriloquist Recurring antagonists Anarky Black Mask Blockbuster Calendar Man Catman Cluemaster Deadshot Doctor Death Doctor Hurt Firefly Hush KGBeast Killer Moth Lady Shiva Professor Pyg Red Hood Hugo Strange Tweedledum and Tweedledee Maxie Zeus Victor Zsasz Mobsters and Crime Lords Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sal Maroni Lew Moxon Rupert Thorne Tony Zucco Hostile Organizations Circus of Strange Court of Owls League of Assassins Terrible Trio Central Rogues Gallery Bane Catwoman Clayface Harley Quinn The Joker Killer Croc Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze The Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul The Riddler Scarecrow Talia al Ghul Two-Face The Ventriloquist Bane Catwoman Clayface Harley Quinn The Joker Killer Croc Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze The Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul The Riddler Scarecrow Talia al Ghul Two-Face The Ventriloquist Recurring antagonists Anarky Black Mask Blockbuster Calendar Man Catman Cluemaster Deadshot Doctor Death Doctor Hurt Firefly Hush KGBeast Killer Moth Lady Shiva Professor Pyg Red Hood Hugo Strange Tweedledum and Tweedledee Maxie Zeus Victor Zsasz Anarky Black Mask Blockbuster Calendar Man Catman Cluemaster Deadshot Doctor Death Doctor Hurt Firefly Hush KGBeast Killer Moth Lady Shiva Professor Pyg Red Hood Hugo Strange Tweedledum and Tweedledee Maxie Zeus Victor Zsasz Mobsters and Crime Lords Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sal Maroni Lew Moxon Rupert Thorne Tony Zucco Joe Chill Carmine Falcone Sal Maroni Lew Moxon Rupert Thorne Tony Zucco Hostile Organizations Circus of Strange Court of Owls League of Assassins Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls League of Assassins Terrible Trio Locations Gotham City Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Batcave Blackgate Penitentiary Gotham City Police Department Haly's Circus Iceberg Lounge Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Gotham City Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Batcave Blackgate Penitentiary Gotham City Police Department Haly's Circus Iceberg Lounge Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Batcave Blackgate Penitentiary Gotham City Police Department Haly's Circus Iceberg Lounge Wayne Enterprises Wayne Manor Equipment Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit Utility Belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Batarang Batcomputer Batsuit Utility Belt Utility Belt Bat-Signal Bat phone Vehicles Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Redbird Batboat Batcopter Batcycle Batmobile Batplane Redbird v t e Batman franchise media v t e Live-action television Batman ( episodes ) Legends of the Superheroes OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham ( episodes ) Batman ( episodes ) Legends of the Superheroes OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham ( episodes ) Live-action serials and movies Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989 movie series Batman (1989) Batman Returns Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989 movie series Batman (1989) Batman Returns Batman Forever Batman & Robin Batman (1989) Batman Returns Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Suicide Squad Animated television The Adventures of Batman The Batman/Superman Hour The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The New Adventures of Batman Batman: The Animated Series ( episodes ) The New Batman Adventures ( episodes ) Batman Beyond ( episodes ) The Batman ( episodes ) Batman: The Brave and the Bold ( episodes ) Beware the Batman ( episodes ) The Adventures of Batman The Batman/Superman Hour The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The New Adventures of Batman Batman: The Animated Series ( episodes ) The New Batman Adventures ( episodes ) Batman Beyond ( episodes ) The Batman ( episodes ) Batman: The Brave and the Bold ( episodes ) Beware the Batman ( episodes ) Animated movies Featuring Batman Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Under the Red Hood Year One The Dark Knight Returns – Part 1 The Dark Knight Returns – Part 2 DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Batman vs. Robin With other heroes Justice League: The New Frontier Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Justice League: Doom Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time Justice League: War The Lego Movie Justice League: Throne of Atlantis Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts Justice League: Gods and Monsters Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem Featuring Batman Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Under the Red Hood Year One The Dark Knight Returns – Part 1 The Dark Knight Returns – Part 2 DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Batman vs. Robin Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Under the Red Hood Year One The Dark Knight Returns – Part 1 The Dark Knight Returns – Part 2 DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Batman vs. Robin With other heroes Justice League: The New Frontier Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Justice League: Doom Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time Justice League: War The Lego Movie Justice League: Throne of Atlantis Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts Justice League: Gods and Monsters Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem Justice League: The New Frontier Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Justice League: Doom Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox JLA Adventures: Trapped in Time Justice League: War The Lego Movie Justice League: Throne of Atlantis Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts Justice League: Gods and Monsters Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem Animated shorts Chase Me Gotham Knight Chase Me Gotham Knight Novels Dead White Fear Itself Inferno The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Dead White Fear Itself Inferno The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Related topics Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Batman action figures Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman enemies in other media List of Batman movies cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Batman action figures Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman enemies in other media List of Batman movies cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books v t e Justice League v t e Gardner Fox Gardner Fox Founding members Superman Batman Wonder Woman Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) Flash (Barry Allen) Aquaman Martian Manhunter ( original ) Black Canary ( some retellings ) Cyborg ( some retellings ) Superman Batman Wonder Woman Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) Flash (Barry Allen) Aquaman Martian Manhunter ( original ) Black Canary ( some retellings ) Cyborg ( some retellings ) Other Members Major antagonists Amazo Anti-Monitor Darkseid Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust The General Imperiex Joker Kanjar Ro The Key Lex Luthor Libra Maxwell Lord Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro T. O. Morrow Vandal Savage The White Martians Organizations The Extremists The Crime Syndicate Legion of Doom The Secret Society of Super Villains Injustice Gang Injustice League The Royal Flush Gang Major antagonists Amazo Anti-Monitor Darkseid Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust The General Imperiex Joker Kanjar Ro The Key Lex Luthor Libra Maxwell Lord Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro T. O. Morrow Vandal Savage The White Martians Amazo Anti-Monitor Darkseid Despero Doctor Destiny Doctor Light Doomsday Eclipso Felix Faust The General Imperiex Joker Kanjar Ro The Key Lex Luthor Libra Maxwell Lord Professor Ivo Prometheus Queen Bee Queen of Fables Sinestro Starro T. O. Morrow Vandal Savage The White Martians Organizations The Extremists The Crime Syndicate Legion of Doom The Secret Society of Super Villains Injustice Gang Injustice League The Royal Flush Gang The Extremists The Crime Syndicate Legion of Doom The Secret Society of Super Villains Injustice Gang Injustice League The Royal Flush Gang Enemies Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Spin-off groups The Hall of Justice Happy Harbor Secret Sanctuary Justice League Satellite Justice League Watchtower The Hall of Justice Happy Harbor Secret Sanctuary Secret Sanctuary Justice League Satellite Justice League Watchtower Bases and facilities Storylines " JLApe: Gorilla Warfare! " " World War III " " Tower of Babel " " JLA: Earth 2 " " Justice Leagues " " JLA/Avengers " " Pain of the Gods " " The Lightning Saga " " Throne of Atlantis " " Trinity War " Current series Justice League (The New 52) Justice League Dark Justice League United Previous series Justice League of America Justice League International Justice League Europe Justice League Quarterly Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice JLA Justice JLA: Classified Justice League: Generation Lost Limited series Justice Riders JLA: The Nail series DC Comics Two Thousand Created Equal Act of God Destiny Age of Wonder JLA: Shogun of Steel Cry for Justice Storylines " JLApe: Gorilla Warfare! " " World War III " " Tower of Babel " " JLA: Earth 2 " " Justice Leagues " " JLA/Avengers " " Pain of the Gods " " The Lightning Saga " " Throne of Atlantis " " Trinity War " " JLApe: Gorilla Warfare! " " World War III " " Tower of Babel " " JLA: Earth 2 " " Justice Leagues " " JLA/Avengers " " Pain of the Gods " " The Lightning Saga " " Throne of Atlantis " " Trinity War " Current series Justice League (The New 52) Justice League Dark Justice League United Justice League (The New 52) Justice League Dark Justice League United Previous series Justice League of America Justice League International Justice League Europe Justice League Quarterly Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice JLA Justice JLA: Classified Justice League: Generation Lost Justice League of America Justice League International Justice League Europe Justice League Quarterly Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice JLA Justice JLA: Classified Justice League: Generation Lost Limited series Justice Riders JLA: The Nail series DC Comics Two Thousand Created Equal Act of God Destiny Age of Wonder JLA: Shogun of Steel Cry for Justice Justice Riders JLA: The Nail series DC Comics Two Thousand Created Equal Act of God Destiny Age of Wonder JLA: Shogun of Steel Cry for Justice Related articles Bizarro League Snapper Carr In other media Justice Society of America Squadron Supreme Bizarro League Snapper Carr In other media Justice Society of America Squadron Supreme DC Comics superheroes Batman DC Comics adapted into movies Fictional characters introduced in 1939 Fictional orphans Justice League Use mdy dates Character pop Converted comics character infoboxes Converted category character infoboxes Commons category link from Wikidata Pages using duplicate arguments in template calls This page was last changed on 7 January 2026, at 01:22. 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O seu lançamento ocorreu em 11 de maio de 2000, quase cinco anos após o bem-sucedido Verde, Anil, Amarelo, Cor-de-Rosa e Carvão (1994), por meio das editoras discográficas EMI , Phonomotor e Blue Note . Após liberar Barulhinho Bom: Uma Viagem Musical (1996) — em que mesclava faixas inéditas com outras gravadas em estúdio —, Monte dedicou os anos seguintes a explorar seus talentos musicais em outras vertentes, além do canto. Nessa direção, ela atuou como produtora musical de Omelete Man , segundo disco de estúdio de Carlinhos Brown , e de Tudo Azul , álbum da Velha Guarda da Portela , que foi aclamado pela crítica. Ao passo em que começou a desenvolver novas canções para seu próximo projeto inédito. ( Artigo completo... ) Bedtime Stories Like a Prayer Confessions on a Dance Floor Compartilhe: Artigos destacados : 1536 • Artigos bons : 1959 Nos Prémios Globo de Ouro , O Agente Secreto vence como melhor filme em língua estrangeira e Wagner Moura (imagem) como melhor ator dramático . Faustin-Archange Touadéra reeleito presidente da República Centro-Africana . Estados Unidos realizam intervenção militar na Venezuela e capturam o presidente Nicolás Maduro . Incêndio num bar durante as comemorações de Ano Novo em Crans-Montana , Suíça , causa ao menos 40 mortes. Eventos a decorrer : Protestos no Irã • Guerra de Gaza ( genocídio ) • Guerra Rússia-Ucrânia ( cronologia ) • Guerra Civil no Sudão Mortes recentes : Scott Adams • Takashi Ono • Gabriel Barkay • Titina Medeiros • Bob Weir • Erich von Däniken • Manoel Carlos A Wikipédia ( logotipo ) comemora 25 anos; Dia de Hangul na Coreia do Norte 69 – Ano dos Quatro Imperadores : Galba é morto pela guarda pretoriana ; o Senado reconhece Otão como novo imperador romano . 1759 – O Museu Britânico é aberto ao público, na Montagu House , Bloomsbury , Londres . 1919 – Um grande tanque de melaço em Boston , Massachusetts , rompeu-se e uma onda de melaço avançou pelas ruas, matando 21 pessoas e ferindo outras 150. 1962 – O Papiro de Derveni , o mais antigo manuscrito sobrevivente da Europa, é descoberto na Macedônia , no norte da Grécia. 1975 – Assinado o Acordo de Alvor entre o governo português e os movimentos independentistas angolanos MPLA , FNLA e UNITA . 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(resolução original: 3 164 × 2 109) Sobre a Wikipédia A Wikipédia é um projeto de enciclopédia colaborativa, universal e multilíngue estabelecido na internet sob o princípio wiki . Tem como propósito fornecer um conteúdo livre, objetivo e verificável, que todos possam editar e melhorar. O projeto é definido pelos princípios fundadores e o conteúdo é disponibilizado sob a licença Creative Commons BY-SA e pode ser reutilizado sob a mesma licença , desde que respeitando os termos de uso . Todos podem publicar conteúdo on-line desde que criem uma conta e sigam as regras básicas, como verificabilidade ou notoriedade . Todos os editores da Wikipédia são voluntários e integram uma comunidade colaborativa, sem um líder, onde coordenam esforços em projetos temáticos e espaços de discussão . Dentre as várias páginas de ajuda à disposição, estão as que explicam como criar um artigo ou editar um artigo . Em caso de dúvidas, não hesite em perguntar . Debates e comentários sobre os artigos são bem-vindos. As páginas de discussão servem para centralizar reflexões e avaliações sobre como melhorar o conteúdo da Wikipédia. A Wikipédia é um projeto de enciclopédia colaborativa, universal e multilíngue estabelecido na internet sob o princípio wiki . Tem como propósito fornecer um conteúdo livre, objetivo e verificável, que todos possam editar e melhorar. O projeto é definido pelos princípios fundadores e o conteúdo é disponibilizado sob a licença Creative Commons BY-SA e pode ser reutilizado sob a mesma licença , desde que respeitando os termos de uso . Todos podem publicar conteúdo on-line desde que criem uma conta e sigam as regras básicas, como verificabilidade ou notoriedade . Importante! Princípio da imparcialidade Versões do português Direitos de autor Normas de conduta Coisas a não fazer Escrevendo artigos O que é uma wiki? 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Historical context 2 Early West Saxon sources 3 West Saxon expansion Toggle West Saxon expansion subsection 3.1 556: Beran byrg 3.2 568: Wibbandun 3.3 571: Bedcanford 3.4 577: Lower Severn 3.5 584: Fethan leag 3.1 556: Beran byrg 3.2 568: Wibbandun 3.3 571: Bedcanford 3.4 577: Lower Severn 3.5 584: Fethan leag 4 Bretwaldaship 5 Wessex at Ceawlin's death 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References Toggle References subsection 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 8.1 Primary sources 8.2 Secondary sources 9 External links Ceawlin of Wessex Ænglisc تۆرکجه Brezhoneg Català Čeština Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Polski Português Русский Simple English Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Ceawlin Ceawlin's name as it appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , as Ceaulin King of Wessex Reign 560–592 Predecessor Cynric Successor Ceol Bretwalda Reign 560–592 Predecessor Ælle of Sussex Successor Æthelberht of Kent Died 593 Issue Cutha (possibly) Cuthwine House Wessex Father Cynric of Wessex Ceawlin ( [ˈtʃæɑw.lin] CHOW -lin ; [ 1 ] also spelled Ceaulin , Caelin , Celin , died ca. 593) was a King of Wessex . He may have been the son of Cynric of Wessex and the grandson of Cerdic of Wessex , whom the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle represents as the leader of the first group of Saxons to come to the land which later became Wessex . Ceawlin was active during the last years of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, with little of southern England remaining in the control of the native Britons by the time of his death. The chronology of Ceawlin's life is highly uncertain. The historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the later Anglo-Saxon Chronicle have been called into question, and his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years. [ 2 ] The Chronicle records several battles of Ceawlin's between the years 556 and 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of Anglo-Saxons, and indicates that under Ceawlin Wessex acquired significant territory, some of which was later to be lost to other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms . Ceawlin is also named as one of the eight " bretwaldas ", a title given in the Chronicle to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern Britain, although the extent of Ceawlin's control is not known. Ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, Ceol . He is recorded in various sources as having two sons, Cutha and Cuthwine , but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable. Historical context The history of the sub-Roman period in Britain is poorly sourced and the subject of a number of important disagreements among historians. It appears, however, that in the fifth century, raids on Britain by continental peoples developed into migrations. The newcomers included Angles , Saxons , Jutes and Frisians . These peoples captured territory in the east and south of England, but at about the end of the fifth century, a British victory at the battle of Mons Badonicus halted the Anglo-Saxon advance for fifty years. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Near the year 550, however, the British began to lose ground once more, and within twenty-five years, it appears that control of almost all of southern England was in the hands of the invaders. [ 5 ] The peace following the battle of Mons Badonicus is attested partly by Gildas , a monk, who wrote De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae or On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain during the middle of the sixth century. This essay is a polemic against corruption and Gildas provides little in the way of names and dates. He appears, however, to state that peace had lasted from the year of his birth to the time he was writing. [ 6 ] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the other main source that bears on this period, in particular in an entry for the year 827 that records a list of the kings who bore the title " bretwalda ", or "Britain-ruler". That list shows a gap in the early sixth century that matches Gildas's version of events. [ 7 ] Ceawlin's reign belongs to the period of Anglo-Saxon expansion at the end of the sixth century. Though there are many unanswered questions about the chronology and activities of the early West Saxon rulers, it is clear that Ceawlin was one of the key figures in the final Anglo-Saxon conquest of southern Britain. [ 8 ] Early West Saxon sources The two main written sources for early West Saxon history are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List . The Chronicle is a set of annals which were compiled near the year 890, during the reign of King Alfred the Great of Wessex . [ 9 ] They record earlier material for the older entries, which were assembled from earlier annals that no longer survive, as well as from saga material that might have been transmitted orally. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] The Chronicle dates the arrival of the future "West Saxons" in Britain to 495, when Cerdic and his son, Cynric , land at Cerdices ora , or Cerdic's shore. Almost twenty annals describing Cerdic's campaigns and those of his descendants appear interspersed through the next hundred years of entries in the Chronicle . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Although these annals provide most of what is known about Ceawlin, the historicity of many of the entries is uncertain. [ 14 ] The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List is a list of rulers of Wessex, including the lengths of their reigns. It survives in several forms, including as a preface to the [B] manuscript of the Chronicle . [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Like the Chronicle , the List was compiled in its present form during the reign of Alfred the Great, but an earlier version of the List was also one of the sources of the Chronicle itself. Both the list and the Chronicle are influenced by the desire of their writers to use a single line of descent to trace the lineage of the Kings of Wessex through Cerdic to Gewis , the legendary eponymous ancestor of the West Saxons, who is made to descend from Woden . The result served the political purposes of the scribe but is riddled with contradictions for historians. [ 17 ] The contradictions may be seen clearly by calculating dates by different methods from various sources. The first event in West Saxon history whose date can be regarded as reasonably certain is the baptism of Cynegils , which occurred in the late 630s, perhaps as late as 640. The Chronicle dates Cerdic's arrival to 495, but adding up the lengths of the reigns as given in the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List leads to the conclusion that Cerdic's reign might have started in 532, a difference of 37 years. Neither 495 nor 532 may be treated as reliable; however, the latter date relies on the presumption that the Regnal List is correct in presenting the Kings of Wessex as having succeeded one another, with no omitted kings, and no joint kingships , and that the durations of the reigns are correct as given. None of these presumptions may be made safely. [ 12 ] The sources also are inconsistent on the length of Ceawlin's reign. The Chronicle gives it as thirty-two years, from 560 to 592, but the manuscripts of the Regnal List disagree: different copies give it as seven or seventeen years. David Dumville 's detailed study of the Regnal List finds that it originally dated the arrival of the West Saxons in England to 532, and favours seven years as the earliest claimed length of Ceawlin's reign, with dates of 581–588 proposed. Dumville suggests that Ceawlin's reign length was then inflated to help extend the longevity of the Cerdicing dynasty further back into the past and that Ceawlin's reign specifically was extended because he is mentioned by Bede, giving him a status which led later West Saxon historians to conclude that he deserved a more impressive-looking reign. [ 12 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The sources do agree that Ceawlin is the son of Cynric and he usually is named as the father of Cuthwine. [ 20 ] There is one discrepancy in this case: the entry for 685 in the [A] version of the Chronicle assigns Ceawlin a son, Cutha, but in the 855 entry in the same manuscript, Cutha is listed as the son of Cuthwine. Cutha also is named as Ceawlin's brother in the [E] and [F] versions of the Chronicle , in the 571 and 568 entries, respectively. [ 21 ] Whether Ceawlin is a descendant of Cerdic is a matter of debate. Subgroupings of different West Saxon lineages give the impression of separate groups, of which Ceawlin's line is one. Some of the problems in the Wessex genealogies may have come about because of efforts to integrate Ceawlin's line with the other lineages: it became very important to the West Saxons to be able to trace the ancestors of their rulers back to Cerdic. [ 22 ] Another reason for doubting the literal nature of these early genealogies is that the etymology of the names of several early members of the dynasty does not appear to be Germanic, as would be expected in the names of leaders of an apparently Anglo-Saxon dynasty. The name Ceawlin has no convincing Old English etymology; it seems more likely to be of British origin. [ 23 ] The earliest sources do not use the term "West Saxon". According to Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , the term is interchangeable with the Gewisse . The term "West Saxon" appears only in the late seventh century, after the reign of Cædwalla . [ 24 ] West Saxon expansion Ultimately, the kingdom of Wessex occupied the southwest of England, but the initial stages in this expansion are not apparent from the sources. [ 17 ] Cerdic's landing, whenever it is to be dated, seems to have been near the Isle of Wight , and the annals record the conquest of the island in 530. In 534, according to the Chronicle , Cerdic died and his son Cynric took the throne; the Chronicle adds that "they gave the Isle of Wight to their nephews, Stuf and Wihtgar". [ 25 ] These records are in direct conflict with Bede , who states that the Isle of Wight was settled by Jutes, not Saxons; the archaeological record is somewhat in favour of Bede on this. [ 13 ] [ 26 ] Subsequent entries in the Chronicle give details of some of the battles by which the West Saxons won their kingdom. Ceawlin's campaigns are not given as near the coast. They range along the Thames Valley and beyond, as far as Surrey in the east and the mouth of the Severn in the west. Ceawlin clearly is part of the West Saxon expansion, but the military history of the period is difficult to understand. [ 17 ] In what follows the dates are as given in the Chronicle , although, as noted above, these are earlier than now thought accurate. 556: Beran byrg The first record of a battle fought by Ceawlin is in 556, when he and his father, Cynric, fought the native Britons at " Beran byrg ", or Bera's Stronghold. This now is identified as Barbury Castle , an Iron Age hill fort in Wiltshire, near Swindon. Cynric would have been king of Wessex at this time. [ 13 ] [ 27 ] 568: Wibbandun The first battle Ceawlin fought as king is dated by the Chronicle to 568 when he and Cutha fought with Æthelberht , the king of Kent. The entry says "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against Aethelberht and drove him into Kent; and they killed two ealdormen , Oslaf and Cnebba, on Wibbandun." The location of "Wibbandun", which can be translated as "Wibba's Mount", has not been identified definitely; it was at one time thought to be Wimbledon, but this now is known to be incorrect. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] David Cooper proposes Wyboston , a small village 8 miles north-east of Bedford on the west bank of the Great Ouse . Wibbandun is often written as Wibba's Dun, which is close phonetically to Wyboston and Æthelberht's dominance, from Kent to the Humber according to Bede, extended across those Anglian territories south of the Wash. It was this region that came under threat from Ceawlin as he looked to establish a defensible boundary on the Great Ouse River in the easternmost part of his territory. In addition, Cnebba, named as slain in this battle, has been associated with Knebworth, which lies 20 miles to the south of Wyboston. Half a mile south of Wyboston is a village called Chawston. The origin of the place name is unknown but might be derived from the Old English Ceawston or Ceawlinston . A defeat at Wyboston for Æthelberht would have damaged his overlord status and diminished his influence over the Anglians. The idea that he was driven or "pursued" into Kent (depending on which Anglo-Saxon Chronicle translation is preferred) should not be taken literally. Similar phraseology is often found in the Chronicle when one king bests another. A defeat suffered as part of an expedition to help his Anglian clients would have caused Æthelberht to withdraw into Kent to recover. [ 30 ] This battle is notable as the first recorded conflict between the invading peoples: previous battles recorded in the Chronicle are between the Anglo-Saxons and the native Britons. [ 13 ] There are multiple examples of joint kingship in Anglo-Saxon history, and this may be another: it is not clear what Cutha's relationship to Ceawlin is, but it certainly is possible he was also a king. The annal for 577, below, is another possible example. [ 31 ] 571: Bedcanford The annal for 571 reads: "Here Cuthwulf fought against the Britons at Bedcanford, and took four settlements: Limbury and Aylesbury , Benson and Eynsham ; and in the same year he passed away." Cuthwulf's relationship with Ceawlin is unknown, but the alliteration common to Anglo-Saxon royal families suggests Cuthwulf may be part of the West Saxon royal line. The location of the battle itself is unidentified. It has been suggested that it was Bedford , but what is known of the early history of Bedford's names does not support this. This battle is of interest because it is surprising that an area so far east should still be in Briton hands this late: there is ample archaeological evidence of early Saxon and Anglian presence in the Midlands, and historians generally have interpreted Gildas's De Excidio as implying that the Britons had lost control of this area by the mid-sixth century. One possible explanation is that this annal records a reconquest of land that was lost to the Britons in the campaigns ending in the battle of Mons Badonicus. [ 27 ] 577: Lower Severn The annal for 577 reads "Here Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the Britons, and they killed three kings, Coinmail and Condidan and Farinmail, in the place which is called Dyrham , and took three cities: Gloucester and Cirencester and Bath ." [ 32 ] This entry is all that is known of these Briton kings; their names are in an archaic form that makes it very likely that this annal derives from a much older written source. The battle itself has long been regarded as a key moment in the Saxon advance, since in reaching the Bristol Channel , the West Saxons divided the Britons west of the Severn from land communication with those in the peninsula to the south of the Channel. [ 33 ] Wessex almost certainly lost this territory to Penda of Mercia in 628, when the Chronicle records that "Cynegils and Cwichelm fought against Penda at Cirencester and then came to an agreement." [ 34 ] [ 35 ] It is possible that when Ceawlin and Cuthwine took Bath, they found the Roman baths still operating to some extent. Nennius , a ninth-century historian, mentions a "Hot Lake" in the land of the Hwicce , which was along the Severn, and adds "It is surrounded by a wall, made of brick and stone, and men may go there to bathe at any time, and every man can have the kind of bath he likes. If he wants, it will be a cold bath; and if he wants a hot bath, it will be hot". Bede also describes hot baths in the geographical introduction to the Ecclesiastical History in terms very similar to those of Nennius. [ 36 ] Wansdyke , an early-medieval defensive linear earthwork, runs from south of Bristol to near Marlborough, Wiltshire , passing not far from Bath. It probably was built in the fifth or sixth centuries, perhaps by Ceawlin. [ 37 ] 584: Fethan leag Ceawlin's last recorded victory is in 584. The entry reads "Here Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the Britons at the place which is named Fethan leag, and Cutha was killed, and Ceawlin took many towns and countless war-loot, and in anger, he turned back to his own [territory]." [ 13 ] There is a wood named "Fethelée" mentioned in a twelfth-century document that relates to Stoke Lyne , in Oxfordshire , and it now is thought that the battle of Fethan leag must have been fought in this area. [ 33 ] The phrase "in anger he turned back to his own" probably indicates that this annal is drawn from saga material, as perhaps are all of the early Wessex annals. [ 37 ] It also has been used to argue that perhaps, Ceawlin did not win the battle and that the chronicler chose not to record the outcome fully—a king does not usually come home "in anger" after taking "many towns and countless war-loot". It may be that Ceawlin's overlordship of the southern Britons came to an end with this battle. [ 8 ] Bretwaldaship About 731, Bede, a Northumbrian monk and chronicler, wrote a work called the Ecclesiastical History of the English People . The work was not primarily a secular history, but Bede provides much information about the history of the Anglo-Saxons, including a list early in the history of seven kings who, he said, held "imperium" over the other kingdoms south of the Humber . The usual translation for "imperium" is "overlordship". Bede names Ceawlin as the second on the list, although he spells it "Caelin", and adds that he was "known in the speech of his own people as Ceaulin". Bede also makes it clear that Ceawlin was not a Christian—Bede mentions a later king, Æthelberht of Kent, as "the first to enter the kingdom of heaven". [ 38 ] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in an entry for the year 827, repeats Bede's list, adds Egbert of Wessex , and also mentions that they were known as "bretwalda", or "Britain-ruler". [ 7 ] A great deal of scholarly attention has been given to the meaning of this word. It has been described as a term "of encomiastic poetry", [ 39 ] but there also is evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership. [ 40 ] Bede says that these kings had authority "south of the Humber ", but the span of control, at least of the earlier bretwaldas, likely was less than this. [ 41 ] In Ceawlin's case the range of control is hard to determine accurately, but Bede's inclusion of Ceawlin in the list of kings who held imperium , and the list of battles he is recorded as having won, indicates an energetic and successful leader who, from a base in the upper Thames valley, dominated much of the surrounding area and held overlordship over the southern Britons for some period. [ 14 ] Despite Ceawlin's military successes, the northern conquests he made could not always be retained: Mercia took much of the upper Thames valley, and the north-eastern towns won in 571 were among territory subsequently under the control of Kent and Mercia at different times. [ 33 ] Bede's concept of the power of these overlords also must be regarded as the product of his eighth century viewpoint. When the Ecclesiastical History was written, Æthelbald of Mercia dominated the English south of the Humber, and Bede's view of the earlier kings was doubtless strongly coloured by the state of England at that time. For the earlier bretwaldas , such as Ælle and Ceawlin, there must be some element of anachronism in Bede's description. [ 40 ] It also is possible that Bede only meant to refer to power over Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, not the native Britons. [ 41 ] Ceawlin is the second king on Bede's list. All the subsequent bretwaldas followed more or less consecutively, but there is a long gap, perhaps fifty years, between Ælle of Sussex , the first bretwalda, and Ceawlin. The lack of gaps between the overlordships of the later bretwaldas has been used to make an argument for Ceawlin's dates matching the later entries in the Chronicle with reasonable accuracy. According to this analysis, the next bretwalda, Æthelberht of Kent , must have been already a dominant king by the time Pope Gregory the Great wrote to him in 601, since Gregory would have not written to an underking. Ceawlin defeated Æthelberht in 568 according to the Chronicle . Æthelberht's dates are a matter of debate, but recent scholarly consensus has his reign starting no earlier than 580. The 568 date for the battle at Wibbandun is thought to be unlikely because of the assertion in various versions of the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List that Ceawlin's reign lasted either seven or seventeen years. If this battle is placed near the year 590, before Æthelberht had established himself as a powerful king, then the subsequent annals relating to Ceawlin's defeat and death may be reasonably close to the correct date. In any case, the battle with Æthelberht is unlikely to have been more than a few years on either side of 590. [ 42 ] The gap between Ælle and Ceawlin, on the other hand, has been taken as supporting evidence for the story told by Gildas in De Excidio of a peace lasting a generation or more following a Briton victory at Mons Badonicus. [ 43 ] Æthelberht of Kent succeeds Ceawlin on the list of bretwaldas, but the reigns may overlap somewhat: recent evaluations give Ceawlin a likely reign of 581–588, and place Æthelberht's accession near to the year 589, but these analyses are no more than scholarly guesses. [ 18 ] [ 44 ] Ceawlin's eclipse in 592, probably by Ceol, may have been the occasion for Æthelberht to rise to prominence; Æthelberht very likely was the dominant Anglo-Saxon king by 597. [ 45 ] Æthelberht's rise may have been earlier: the 584 annal, even if it records a victory, is the last victory of Ceawlin's in the Chronicle , and the period after that may have been one of Æthelberht's ascent and Ceawlin's decline. [ 8 ] Wessex at Ceawlin's death Ceawlin lost the throne of Wessex in 592. The annal for that year reads, in part: "Here there was great slaughter at Woden's Barrow, and Ceawlin was driven out." Woden's Barrow is a tumulus, now called Adam's Grave , at Alton Priors , Wiltshire . [ 13 ] No details of his opponent are given. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury , writing in about 1120, says that it was "the Angles and the British conspiring together". [ 46 ] Alternatively, it may have been Ceol, who is supposed to have been the next king of Wessex, ruling for six years according to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. [ 45 ] According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , Ceawlin died the following year. The relevant part of the annal reads: "Here Ceawlin and Cwichelm and Crida perished." [ 13 ] Nothing more is known of Cwichelm and Crida, although they may have been members of the Wessex royal house—their names fit the alliterative pattern common to royal houses of the time. [ 8 ] [ 47 ] According to the Regnal List, Ceol was a son of Cutha, who was a son of Cynric; and Ceolwulf, his brother, reigned for seventeen years after him. It is possible that some fragmentation of control among the West Saxons occurred at Ceawlin's death: Ceol and Ceolwulf may have been based in Wiltshire, as opposed to the upper Thames valley. This split also may have contributed to Æthelberht's ability to rise to dominance in southern England. The West Saxons remained influential in military terms, however: the Chronicle and Bede record continued military activity against Essex and Sussex within twenty or thirty years of Ceawlin's death. [ 40 ] See also List of monarchs of Wessex Notes ^ Flom, G. T. (1930:171). Introductory Old English Grammar and Reader . United Kingdom: D.C. Heath. ^ Stenton, p. 29, accepts the date given for Ceawlin's accession in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 560, but Barbara Yorke in her online DNB article on Ceawlin states that his reign seems to have been deliberately lengthened. ^ Hunter Blair, An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England , pp. 13–16. ^ Campbell et al., The Anglo-Saxons , p. 23. ^ Hunter Blair ( Roman Britain , p. 204) gives the twenty-five years from 550 to 575 as the dates of the final conquest. ^ Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , pp. 2–7. ^ a b Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , pp. 60–61 ^ a b c d Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , p. 30. ^ Keynes and Lapidge, Alfred the Great , p. 41. ^ Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , p. xix ^ Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms , p. 132. ^ a b c Kirby, Earliest English Kings , pp. 50–51. ^ a b c d e f g h Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , pp. 14–21 ^ a b Kirby, Earliest English Kings , p. 55 ^ Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , p. xxii. ^ Lapidge, Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England , p. 388. ^ a b c D.P. Kirby ( Earliest English Kings , p. 49) refers to the combination of the Chronicle and the Regnal List as a " political fiction ". ^ a b Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms , p. 133. ^ David N. Dumville, 'The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List and the Chronology of Early Wessex', Peritia , 4 (1985), 21–66 (pp. 58-59, 62-63). ^ See the "Genealogical Tables" in the appendices to Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . ^ Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , pp. 18–19. For tables showing the variations in the Wessex genealogy, see also figures 3 and 4 in Kirby, Earliest English Kings , pp. 223–224. ^ Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms , p. 133, gives this argument in some detail. ^ "Records of the West Saxon dynasties survive in versions which have been subject to later manipulation, which may make it all the more significant that some of the founding 'Saxon' fathers have British names: Cerdic, Ceawlin, Cenwalh". in: Hills, C., Origins of the English, Duckworth (2003), p. 105. Also "The names Cerdic, Ceawlin and Caedwalla, all in the genealogy of the West Saxon kings, are apparently British." in: Ward-Perkins, B., Why did the Anglo-Saxons not become more British? The English Historical Review 115.462 (June 2000), 513–33: p513. ^ Kirby, Earliest English Kings , pp. 48, 223 ^ Note that the name "Wight" is derived from the Romano-British "Vectis', not from "Wihtgar"; see Swanton, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , p. 16. ^ Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , pp. 22–23. ^ a b Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , pp. 26–28. ^ Plummer, Two Saxon Chronicles , vol. 2 p. 16 ^ English Place-Name Society (1926), p. xiv, cited in Hodgkins, A History , p. 188 n. 2 ^ Cooper, David: Badon and the Early Wars for Wessex, circa 500 to 710 (2018: Pen & Sword Books) pp. 168-171. ^ Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms , pp. 143–144. ^ Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , pp. 18–19 ^ a b c Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , p. 29. ^ Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , p. 45. ^ Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , pp. 24–25. ^ Campbell et al., The Anglo-Saxons , pp. 40–41. ^ a b Fletcher, Who's Who , pp. 25–26. ^ Bede, Ecclesiastical History , II 5, quoted from Sherley-Price's translation, p. 111 ^ Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , pp. 34–35. ^ a b c Kirby, Earliest English Kings , p. 17. ^ a b Campbell et al., The Anglo-Saxons , pp. 53–54. ^ The argument is made in more detail in Kirby, Earliest English Kings , p. 56. See also pp. 50–51 for a review of the evidence concerning the length of Ceawlin's reign. ^ Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England , p. 19. ^ Kirby ( Earliest English Kings , pp. 31–34) provides a very detailed analysis of the chronology of Æthelberht's reign. ^ a b Kirby, Earliest English Kings , p. 56. ^ Quoted in Plummer, Two Saxon Chronicles , vol. 2 p. 17 ^ Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms , p. 143 References Primary sources .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Bede (1991). D.H. Farmer (ed.). Ecclesiastical History of the English People . Translated by Leo Sherley-Price . Revised by R. E. Latham . London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044565-X . Swanton, Michael (1996). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92129-5 . Secondary sources Campbell, James ; John, Eric ; Wormald, Patrick (1991). The Anglo-Saxons . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 0-14-014395-5 . Fletcher, Richard (1989). Who's Who in Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England . London: Shepheard-Walwyn. ISBN 0-85683-089-5 . Hodgkin, R. H. (1952) [1935]. A History of the Anglo-Saxons . Oxford: Oxford University Press . OCLC 59000682 . Hunter Blair, Peter (1960). An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . (2003 edition: ISBN 0-521-83085-0 ) Hunter Blair, Peter (1966). Roman Britain and Early England: 55 BC – AD 871 . New York: W. W. Norton & Company . ISBN 0-393-00361-2 . Keynes, Simon ; Lapidge, Michael (2004). Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources . New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044409-2 . Kirby, D.P. (1992). The Earliest English Kings . London: Routledge . ISBN 0-415-09086-5 . Lapidge, Michael (1999). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England . Oxford: Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 0-631-22492-0 . Plummer, Charles (1972). Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel . Oxford: Clarendon Press . OCLC 2697415 . Stenton, Frank M. (1971). Anglo-Saxon England . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-821716-1 . Yorke, Barbara (1990). Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England . London: Seaby. ISBN 1-85264-027-8 . Yorke, Barbara (2004). "Ceawlin" . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/4973 . ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) External links Ceawlin 2 at Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England Celm 1 at Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England – separate PASE entry for "Celm" (Celin ?), a variant for Ceawlin found in the genealogical preface of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle texts A and G Regnal titles Preceded by Cynric King of Wessex 560–592 Succeeded by Ceol .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Monarchs of Wessex v t e House of Wessex House of Wessex Cerdic Cynric Ceawlin Ceol Ceolwulf Cynegils Cwichelm Cenwalh Seaxburh Cenfus (disputed) Æscwine Centwine Cædwalla Ine Æthelheard Cuthred Sigeberht Cynewulf Beorhtric Ecgberht Æthelwulf Æthelbald Æthelberht Æthelred I Alfred the Great (until c. 886) Cerdic Cynric Ceawlin Ceol Ceolwulf Cynegils Cwichelm Cenwalh Seaxburh Cenfus (disputed) Æscwine Centwine Cædwalla Ine Æthelheard Cuthred Sigeberht Cynewulf Beorhtric Ecgberht Æthelwulf Æthelbald Æthelberht Æthelred I Alfred the Great (until c. 886) v t e Bretwaldas v t e Ælle of Sussex Ceawlin of Wessex Æthelberht of Kent Rædwald of East Anglia Edwin of Deira Oswald of Bernicia Oswiu of Northumbria Wulfhere of Mercia 1 Æthelred of Mercia 1 Æthelbald of Mercia 1 Offa of Mercia 1 Cœnwulf of Mercia 1 Egbert of Wessex Ælle of Sussex Ceawlin of Wessex Æthelberht of Kent Rædwald of East Anglia Edwin of Deira Oswald of Bernicia Oswiu of Northumbria Wulfhere of Mercia 1 Æthelred of Mercia 1 Æthelbald of Mercia 1 Offa of Mercia 1 Cœnwulf of Mercia 1 Egbert of Wessex 1 Not listed in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but held equivalent or greater power. 1 Not listed in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but held equivalent or greater power. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND WorldCat National United States United States 590s deaths Anglo-Saxon warriors West Saxon monarchs 6th-century English monarchs House of Wessex Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured articles Use British English from June 2024 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from June 2024 Pages with Old English (ca. 450-1100) IPA Articles containing Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB Year of birth unknown Year of death uncertain This page was last edited on 3 July 2025, at 20:18 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. 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Trong tương lai, khi chất lượng các bài viết cao hơn, có thể mỗi ngày sẽ có thêm một bài chọn lọc, giống như các Wikipedia phiên bản lớn khác. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0} Viết tắt .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:BVCL WP:FA Lưu trữ .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Xem thêm Thay đổi mới ở các bài chọn lọc Bài viết chọn lọc ngẫu nhiên WP:BVCL WP:FA Lưu trữ 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 Xem thêm Thay đổi mới ở các bài chọn lọc Bài viết chọn lọc ngẫu nhiên Nội dung có trên Trang chính Bài chọn lọc tuần này .mw-parser-output .main-box-figure{float:right;clear:right;margin:0.4em 0 0.4em 1em}.mw-parser-output .main-box-figure img{width:100%;height:auto;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .main-box-figure__caption{padding-top:0.25em;font-size:0.9em} " Cheers (Drink to That) " là một bài hát của nữ ca sĩ người Barbados Rihanna nằm trong album phòng thu thứ năm của cô, Loud (2010). Bài hát này được sáng tác bởi The Runners gồm hai thành viên Andrew Harr, Jermaine Jackson, cùng với Stacy Barthe, Laura "LP" Pergolizzi, Corey Gibson, Chris Ivery và Rihanna. LP cho biết cô đã sáng tác ca khúc bằng ukulele , còn The Runners thì phụ trách toàn bộ khâu sản xuất cho ca khúc. Các nhà phê bình xếp "Cheers (Drink to That)" thuộc thể loại pop rock , reggae pha trộn với các yếu tố nhạc rock . Đây là một bài hát tiệc tùng kể về những thú vui chơi vào cuối tuần, với đoạn điệp khúc "yeah-e-yeah" được sample từ một bài hát của Avril Lavigne , " I'm with You " (2002). Tại Hoa Kỳ, hãng đĩa Def Jam Recordings phát hành "Cheers (Drink to That)" lên đài phát thanh hit đương đại và rhythmic đương đại vào ngày 2 tháng 8 năm 2011, trở thành đĩa đơn thứ bảy và là đĩa đơn cuối cùng trích từ Loud . [ Đọc tiếp ] Bài chọn lọc tuần sau Khởi nghĩa Lam Sơn là một cuộc kháng chiến của người Việt do Lê Lợi lãnh đạo nhằm chống lại sự cai trị của nhà Minh , bắt đầu từ đầu năm 1418 và kết thúc cuối năm 1427 với thắng lợi của Nghĩa quân Lam Sơn cùng sự rút lui về nước của quân Minh sau hội thề Đông Quan . Năm 1407, Đại Minh sáp nhập toàn bộ lãnh thổ Đại Ngu của nhà Hồ , thành lập tỉnh Giao Chỉ . Sau khi thiết lập nền cai trị, Minh Thành Tổ thi hành chính sách Hán hóa một cách quyết liệt nhằm đồng hóa người Việt. Chính sách này gây ra sự bất mãn trong dân chúng, dẫn tới sự bùng nổ của hàng loạt các cuộc khởi nghĩa lớn nhỏ trên khắp Giao Chỉ nhưng tất cả đều thất bại. [ Đọc tiếp ] Sửa Sửa ← Tuần trước Tuần sau → Bài chọn lọc tuần này .mw-parser-output .main-box-figure{float:right;clear:right;margin:0.4em 0 0.4em 1em}.mw-parser-output .main-box-figure img{width:100%;height:auto;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .main-box-figure__caption{padding-top:0.25em;font-size:0.9em} " Cheers (Drink to That) " là một bài hát của nữ ca sĩ người Barbados Rihanna nằm trong album phòng thu thứ năm của cô, Loud (2010). Bài hát này được sáng tác bởi The Runners gồm hai thành viên Andrew Harr, Jermaine Jackson, cùng với Stacy Barthe, Laura "LP" Pergolizzi, Corey Gibson, Chris Ivery và Rihanna. LP cho biết cô đã sáng tác ca khúc bằng ukulele , còn The Runners thì phụ trách toàn bộ khâu sản xuất cho ca khúc. Các nhà phê bình xếp "Cheers (Drink to That)" thuộc thể loại pop rock , reggae pha trộn với các yếu tố nhạc rock . Đây là một bài hát tiệc tùng kể về những thú vui chơi vào cuối tuần, với đoạn điệp khúc "yeah-e-yeah" được sample từ một bài hát của Avril Lavigne , " I'm with You " (2002). Tại Hoa Kỳ, hãng đĩa Def Jam Recordings phát hành "Cheers (Drink to That)" lên đài phát thanh hit đương đại và rhythmic đương đại vào ngày 2 tháng 8 năm 2011, trở thành đĩa đơn thứ bảy và là đĩa đơn cuối cùng trích từ Loud . [ Đọc tiếp ] " Cheers (Drink to That) " là một bài hát của nữ ca sĩ người Barbados Rihanna nằm trong album phòng thu thứ năm của cô, Loud (2010). Bài hát này được sáng tác bởi The Runners gồm hai thành viên Andrew Harr, Jermaine Jackson, cùng với Stacy Barthe, Laura "LP" Pergolizzi, Corey Gibson, Chris Ivery và Rihanna. LP cho biết cô đã sáng tác ca khúc bằng ukulele , còn The Runners thì phụ trách toàn bộ khâu sản xuất cho ca khúc. Các nhà phê bình xếp "Cheers (Drink to That)" thuộc thể loại pop rock , reggae pha trộn với các yếu tố nhạc rock . Đây là một bài hát tiệc tùng kể về những thú vui chơi vào cuối tuần, với đoạn điệp khúc "yeah-e-yeah" được sample từ một bài hát của Avril Lavigne , " I'm with You " (2002). Tại Hoa Kỳ, hãng đĩa Def Jam Recordings phát hành "Cheers (Drink to That)" lên đài phát thanh hit đương đại và rhythmic đương đại vào ngày 2 tháng 8 năm 2011, trở thành đĩa đơn thứ bảy và là đĩa đơn cuối cùng trích từ Loud . [ Đọc tiếp ] Bài chọn lọc tuần sau Khởi nghĩa Lam Sơn là một cuộc kháng chiến của người Việt do Lê Lợi lãnh đạo nhằm chống lại sự cai trị của nhà Minh , bắt đầu từ đầu năm 1418 và kết thúc cuối năm 1427 với thắng lợi của Nghĩa quân Lam Sơn cùng sự rút lui về nước của quân Minh sau hội thề Đông Quan . Năm 1407, Đại Minh sáp nhập toàn bộ lãnh thổ Đại Ngu của nhà Hồ , thành lập tỉnh Giao Chỉ . Sau khi thiết lập nền cai trị, Minh Thành Tổ thi hành chính sách Hán hóa một cách quyết liệt nhằm đồng hóa người Việt. Chính sách này gây ra sự bất mãn trong dân chúng, dẫn tới sự bùng nổ của hàng loạt các cuộc khởi nghĩa lớn nhỏ trên khắp Giao Chỉ nhưng tất cả đều thất bại. [ Đọc tiếp ] Khởi nghĩa Lam Sơn là một cuộc kháng chiến của người Việt do Lê Lợi lãnh đạo nhằm chống lại sự cai trị của nhà Minh , bắt đầu từ đầu năm 1418 và kết thúc cuối năm 1427 với thắng lợi của Nghĩa quân Lam Sơn cùng sự rút lui về nước của quân Minh sau hội thề Đông Quan . Năm 1407, Đại Minh sáp nhập toàn bộ lãnh thổ Đại Ngu của nhà Hồ , thành lập tỉnh Giao Chỉ . Sau khi thiết lập nền cai trị, Minh Thành Tổ thi hành chính sách Hán hóa một cách quyết liệt nhằm đồng hóa người Việt. Chính sách này gây ra sự bất mãn trong dân chúng, dẫn tới sự bùng nổ của hàng loạt các cuộc khởi nghĩa lớn nhỏ trên khắp Giao Chỉ nhưng tất cả đều thất bại. [ Đọc tiếp ] Sửa Sửa ← Tuần trước Tuần sau → Nội dung theo lĩnh vực Công nghệ Đời sống thường nhật Khoa học tự nhiên Khoa học xã hội Nghệ thuật Xã hội Công nghệ Đời sống thường nhật Khoa học tự nhiên Khoa học xã hội Nghệ thuật Xã hội Công nghệ Du hành không gian Apollo 4 Apollo 5 Apollo 6 Apollo 7 Apollo 8 Giao thông Boeing 747 Boeing 767 Mật mã học Mật mã Caesar Đời sống thường nhật Ẩm thực Bánh mì Việt Nam Pisco sour Thể thao Aikido Arsenal F.C. Cảng Sài Gòn 0–2 Tổng cục Đường sắt (1976) Chung kết Cúp FA 1927 Giải vô địch bóng đá châu Âu 2012 John Terry Manchester United F.C. Maurice Richard Siêu cúp Anh 1998 Thế vận hội Mùa hè 1896 Thierry Henry Trò chơi video Air Bejeweled 2 Clannad Final Fantasy Grand Theft Auto V Kanon Ketsuban Key Little Busters! Red Dead Redemption Resident Evil 2 Rewrite Khoa học tự nhiên Hóa học Acid hydrochloric Bảng tuần hoàn Caesi Fluor Franci Kẽm Urani Khí tượng học Bão Cecil (1985) Bão Marco (2008) Biến đổi khí hậu Lũ lụt miền Trung Việt Nam tháng 11 năm 1999 Khoa học Trái Đất Kiến tạo mảng Lịch sử Trái Đất Trái Đất Tương lai của Trái Đất Sinh học Sinh học lý thuyết Cổ khuẩn Công nghệ nano DNA Di truyền học DNA Giới thiệu về virus Hệ miễn dịch Lịch sử sinh học Lông bay Sự kiện tuyệt chủng kỷ Creta-Paleogen Tiến hóa Trao đổi chất Virus Sinh vật Acrocanthosaurus Bộ Cá da trơn Chorioactis geaster Cynops pyrrhogaster Họ Trèo cây Nhàn mào Ó cá Ovalipes catharus Pyrocephalus obscurus Reinwardtoena reinwardti Seorsumuscardinus Squatina squatina Tắc kè lùn quần đảo Virgin Tê giác Java Thú mỏ vịt Thiên văn học 243 Ida Cận Tinh Vệ tinh Callisto Vệ tinh Enceladus Vệ tinh Europa Vệ tinh Ganymede Hành tinh Hệ Mặt Trời IK Pegasi Vệ tinh Io Johannes Kepler Khí quyển Sao Mộc Lịch sử thiên văn học Lỗ đen Mặt Trăng Mặt Trời Messier 87 Nhật thực Vệ tinh Oberon Sao Sao Hỏa Sao Hải Vương Sao Kim Sao Mộc Sao Thiên Vương Sao Thổ Sao Thủy Sao Diêm Vương Siêu tân tinh Siêu tân tinh loại Ia Sơn Án Sự hình thành và tiến hóa của Hệ Mặt Trời Thuyết tương đối rộng Thiên hà Thiên Tiễn Tinh vân Con Cua Vệ tinh Titan Vùng H II Vụ Nổ Lớn Toán học Đại số Emmy Noether Georg Cantor Leonhard Euler Logarit Nhóm (toán học) Pi Vật lý học Đối xứng gương (lý thuyết dây) Electron Galileo Galilei Giới thiệu thuyết tương đối rộng Nguyên tử Photon Quark Robert Oppenheimer Stephen Hawking Tốc độ ánh sáng Vật lý học Y học Amphetamin Chu kỳ kinh nguyệt Hồi hải mã Tiểu não Ung thư Khoa học xã hội Chiến tranh Chương trình quân sự Dự án Manhattan Tác chiến chiều sâu Đơn vị quân đội và tàu chiến Akagi Alaska Bayern Bismarck Dreadnought Derfflinger Haruna Helgoland HMAS Australia (1911) HMS Ark Royal (91) HMS Hood (51) HMS Indefatigable (1909) HMS New Zealand (1911) HMS Lion (1910) HMS Princess Royal (1911) HMS Royal Oak (08) Kaga Kaiser König (lớp thiết giáp hạm) Mališan Moltke Nassau North Carolina Schutzstaffel SMS Prinzregent Luitpold SMS Bayern (1915) SMS Baden (1915) SMS Friedrich der Große (1911) SMS Goeben SMS Grosser Kurfürst (1913) SMS Helgoland SMS Kaiser (1911) SMS Kaiserin SMS König SMS König Albert SMS Kronprinz (1914) SMS Markgraf SMS Moltke (1910) SMS Oldenburg (1910) SMS Ostfriesland SMS Posen SMS Rheinland SMS Seydlitz SMS Thüringen SMS Von der Tann SMS Westfalen Thiết giáp hạm tiền-dreadnought USS Arizona (BB-39) USS Missouri (BB-63) USS Nevada (BB-36) Yamato Phi cơ quân sự Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Convair B-36 Peacemaker North American P-51 Mustang Quân nhân Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette Nghiêm Phục Vjekoslav Luburić Trận chiến và xung đột Cách mạng Tháng Bảy Chiến dịch Guadalcanal Chiến dịch Sao Thiên Vương Chiến dịch Blau Chiến dịch Mãn Châu (1945) Chiến dịch Barvenkovo-Lozovaya Chiến tranh Boshin Chiến tranh Crete (1645–1669) Chiến tranh Kim–Tống Chiến tranh Pháp–Đại Nam Chiến tranh Pháp-Phổ Cuộc hành quân Ten-Go Cuộc tấn công Matanikau Hải chiến Guadalcanal Khởi nghĩa Lam Sơn Trận Agincourt Trận Caen (1346) Trận Cannae Trận chiến biển Bismarck Trận chiến đảo Rennell Trận chiến đồi Edson Trận chiến Đông Solomon Trận chiến nước Pháp Trận chiến sân bay Henderson Trận Dyrrhachium (1081) Trận Gebora Trận Hà Lan Trận Iwo Jima Trận Osan Trận Smolensk (1941) Trận Tenaru Trận Trân Châu Cảng Trận Waterloo Trận Xích Bích Trận Yarmouk Địa lý Canada Đà Lạt Firenze Hà Nội Hồng Kông Indonesia Istanbul Madagascar Napoli Paris Phố cổ Hội An Quần đảo Falkland San Francisco Sông Columbia Tripura Vườn quốc gia Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng Washington, D.C. Ngôn ngữ học Giao tiếp Lịch sử Lịch sử thế giới Châu Á Lịch sử Đà Lạt Lịch sử Nhật Bản Nhà Đường Nhà Hán Nhà Minh Nhà Tống Thảm sát Batavia năm 1740 Châu Âu Đế quốc Đông La Mã Đế quốc Anh Hiệp ước Xô-Đức Mạng lưới điệp báo Portland Phục Hưng Thảm sát Katyn Thảm sát Ponary Trung Cổ Vương quốc Macedonia Châu Phi-Trung Đông Ai Cập cổ đại Úc và châu Đại Dương Chuyến hải trình của Janszoon 1605–06 Khác Lịch sử Hoàng gia, quân chủ và quý tộc Basiliscus Caterina de' Medici Cleopatra VII Elizabeth I của Anh Friedrich III, Hoàng đế Đức James II của Anh John Churchill, Công tước thứ 1 xứ Marlborough Lưu Bị Maximianus Menkauhor Kaiu Napoléon Bonaparte Suleiman I Thuận Trị Trần Nhân Tông Trần Thái Tông Trần Thánh Tông William III của Anh Tâm lý học Thiên kiến xác nhận Tôn giáo và triết học Học thuyết Conatus Hiện tượng 2012 Thiên thần sa ngã Throffer Triết học Triết học tinh thần Nhân vật triết học Emma Goldman Max Weber Nhân vật tôn giáo Anphong Nguyễn Hữu Long Emmanuel Nguyễn Hồng Sơn Đa Minh Đặng Văn Cầu Giuse Maria Trịnh Như Khuê Giuse Maria Trịnh Văn Căn Giuse Nguyễn Chí Linh Giuse Trần Văn Toản Nikon (thượng phụ Moskva) Phaolô Nguyễn Văn Bình Phaolô Tịnh Nguyễn Bình Tĩnh Phêrô Nguyễn Văn Khảm Phêrô Kiều Công Tùng Philípphê Nguyễn Kim Điền Thích Quảng Đức Thần và nhân vật tiền sử Thánh Giuse Tôn giáo và phong trào tôn giáo Lịch sử Công giáo Việt Nam (1975–1990) Nghệ thuật Âm nhạc Album 1000 Forms of Fear 1989 Channel Orange Dreamee Good Girl Gone Bad: Reloaded Help! 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" " What the Hell " " Wildest Dreams " " You Belong with Me " Nghệ sĩ âm nhạc Bob Dylan Brian Epstein Blackpink Céline Dion Cher Christina Aguilera Destiny's Child Eric Clapton Frédéric Chopin George Harrison John Lennon Katy Perry Lady Gaga Madonna Mariah Carey Maurice Ravel Max Steiner Michael Jackson Mỹ Tâm Paul McCartney Queen Ringo Starr Taylor Swift The Beatles Sự kiện và ngành âm nhạc The Red Tour Kiến trúc Kiến trúc Đà Lạt Palais Bourbon Tòa nhà Quốc hội Việt Nam Tượng Nữ thần Tự do Mỹ thuật Chiếc bè của chiến thuyền Méduse Lê Thị Lựu Lisa del Giocondo Rhinocerus The Sirens and Ulysses Ukiyo-e Phương tiện truyền thông và kịch nghệ Phim điện ảnh Avengers: Cuộc chiến vô cực Bản danh sách của Schindler Call Me by Your Name Captain America: Nội chiến siêu anh hùng Casablanca Dáng hình thanh âm Dòng máu anh hùng Đào, phở và piano Đập cánh giữa không trung Điệp vụ Boston Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind Giấc mơ danh vọng Hotel Chevalier How Brown Saw the Baseball Game Katsudō Shashin Kẻ hủy diệt 2: Ngày phán xét Kỵ sĩ bóng đêm Little Miss Sunshine Mùi cỏ cháy Mulholland Drive Người đẹp và quái vật Người Nhện: Vũ trụ mới Người Sắt Người tiễn đưa Nữ hoàng băng giá Song lang Sòng bạc hoàng gia Star Wars: Thần lực thức tỉnh Titanic The Beautician and the Beast Tội phạm nhân bản 2049 Vẻ đẹp Mỹ When Harry Met Sally... Xuân quang xạ tiết Your Name – Tên cậu là gì? Truyền hình Báo động khẩn, tình yêu hạ cánh " Dennō Senshi Porigon " Hậu duệ Mặt Trời Hẹn hò chốn công sở Những người bạn Truyền thông và kịch nghệ Diễn viên và nhà làm phim Alfred Hitchcock Angelina Jolie Audrey Hepburn Brie Larson Charlie Chaplin Đặng Nhật Minh Jake Gyllenhaal James Dean Ozu Yasujirō Robert Pattinson Trần Văn Thủy Walt Disney Nhà hát và opera Nhà hát Lớn Hà Nội Opera Việt Nam Văn học Sách thiếu nhi, manga và truyện tranh Allen Walker Cardcaptor Sakura Harry Potter và Hòn đá Phù thủy Tokyo Mew Mew Watchmen Nhân vật hư cấu Nancy Drew Tác phẩm phi hư cấu, tác phẩm cổ đại và thi ca Hanoi's War Kinh Thi " Ly tao " Thần thoại Hy Lạp Truyện kể Genji Văn sĩ và thi sĩ Anne Frank Franz Kafka James Joyce Thế Lữ Xã hội Chính trị Nhân vật Adolf Hitler Demosthenes Lê Duẩn Ngô Đình Cẩn Nguyễn Văn Thiệu Ronald Reagan Vu Thành Long William Wilberforce Sự kiện Bầu cử Chủ tịch Quốc hội và Chủ tịch nước Việt Nam tháng 5 năm 2024 Biểu tình bài Nhật tại Trung Quốc năm 2012 Biểu tình Phật giáo tại Huế 1993 Biểu tình Tây Nguyên 2004 Biểu tình Thái Bình 1997 Chủ nghĩa phục quốc Do Thái xét lại Vụ phát tán video Senkaku năm 2010 Vụ Trần Trường Du lịch Bảo tàng Louvre Hệ thống bảo tàng Paris Giáo dục Giáo dục Việt Nam Cộng hòa Thư viện Quốc gia Pháp Viện Viễn Đông Bác cổ Luật pháp Đạo luật và pháp chế Án lệ Việt Nam Nghị định 168/2024/NĐ–CP Hình sự và dân sự Guy Fawkes Vụ ám sát John F. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Portal:Current events Portal : Current events/July 2005 Portal Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version July 2005 was the seventh month of that common year. The month, which began on a Friday , ended on a Sunday after 31 days. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia's Current events Portal from July 2005. .mw-parser-output .current-events-main{margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.3em;background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);color:inherit;border:1px #cef2e0 solid}.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#cef2e0;color:inherit;font-weight:bold}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{background-color:#0b281a}}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{list-style:none;margin:0;font-size:small}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar li{display:inline-block;padding:0 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content{padding:0 0.3em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-content-heading{margin-top:0.3em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .current-events-more{border-width:2px;font-size:10pt;font-weight:bold;padding:0.3em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{margin:auto;text-align:center;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{display:inline-block;margin:0.5em;padding:0.5em;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a>div{font-weight:bold}@media all and (min-width:480px){.mw-parser-output .current-events-heading{align-items:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .current-events-title{flex:1}.mw-parser-output .current-events-navbar{flex:0 auto;text-align:right;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav{max-width:22em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-nav a{width:9em}} July 1, 2005 ( 2005-07-01 ) (Friday) edit history watch Iraq 's ambassador to the UN , Samir Sumaidaie , accuses U.S. Marines of the "cold-blooded murder" of his 21-year-old cousin during a June 25 raid of his home in Al Anbar province. (Reuters) Following a public statement from the denomination president on the eve of the event, the Congregationalist United Church of Christ begins their 5-day General Synod 25 in Atlanta, Georgia to debate a number of controversial resolutions, including same-sex marriage . Some are concerned about denominational schism . DailyBulletin.com Chicago Tribune [ permanent dead link ] Christian Science Monitor Washington Times UCC web page UCC news blog Indonesian police arrest 24 people suspected of involvement in the 2002 Bali bombings and a 2003 attack on the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta . ( BBC ) U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor announces her retirement after 24 years of service on the Court. ( n:United States Supreme Court Justice O'Connor to retire ) ( NYTimes.com ) The UK assumes the rotating presidency of the European Union amidst its funding crisis. ( BBC News ) The members of the Australian Senate elected at the election of 2004 take office, granting the government of John Howard control of both Houses of Parliament , the first time a government has had such power since 1981. (ABC News Online) Much of the government of Minnesota shuts down as the state legislature fails to pass a budget by the end of the fiscal year . (Wikinews) (Bloomberg) In the UK, cot death expert Sir Roy Meadow testifies before the General Medical Council hearing. He was involved with four court cases where four women were falsely accused of killing their children. Medical journal The Lancet defends him saying that he is just a " scapegoat " (BBC) (Scotsman) In the Democratic Republic of Congo , at least 10 people have died during protests over delay to the presidential elections. Opposition claims the numbers are closer to 42. (Wikinews) (BBC) In Germany, the Bundestag passes a Motion of no confidence in the government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder by 296 to 151. The vote, at Schröder's insistence, opens the way for new elections to be held on September 18. (Wikinews) (Deutsche Welle) (IHT) (BBC) Italian police in Genoa discover a parallel police force, called the Department of Anti-terrorism Strategic Studies, that was apparently founded to benefit from funding after 2004 Madrid bombings . The group's website is now down. (Google cache) [ permanent dead link ] (AKI) (AGI) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) A Toronto mosque makes history by hosting the first known Muslim prayer service in history to be led by a woman. (CBC) General Motors Corp. announces that it had its best month in 19 years in June 2005 , increasing total deliveries by 41% against June 2004, (GM website) Romania 's legal tender , leu was re-valued, 10,000 old lei becoming 1 new leu. Thus the ISO 4217 code was changed from ROL (Romanian leu) to RON (Romanian New leu). Lynching at Włodowo July 2, 2005 ( 2005-07-02 ) (Saturday) edit history watch On The McLaughlin Group programme, MSNBC 's political analyst Lawrence O'Donnell claims to have known that the identity of Matthew Cooper 's source in the Valerie Plame exposure scandal was Karl Rove . (Huffington Post) Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh unveils the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project amidst protests from fishermen and environmentalists . Nearly 600 are arrested. (Rediff) , (Reuters) The Live 8 concerts begin their globe-spanning tour in Tokyo . Several famous artists and musical groups are joining in this effort to raise awareness about poverty and AIDS in the leadup to the G8 summit and on the anniversary of the 1985 Live Aid concerts. (Wikinews) , (Wired) , (Globe and Mail) , (LA Times) . Related information: (Live 8 home page) , ONE Campaign , (AOL Music (live webcast)) In Australia , the place of the last stand of bushranger Ned Kelly in Glenrowan, Victoria , is made a national heritage site . (ABC) (Australian) Dave Zabriskie becomes the third American to ever wear the yellow leader's jersey in the Tour de France , beating fellow American Lance Armstrong by two seconds in the prologue stage. le Tour de France official website Former World No.1 Venus Williams comes back from match point down to defeat Lindsay Davenport in the longest ever Wimbledon Ladies' final of all time (4-6 7-6 9-7) for her third Wimbledon title and her first Grand Slam title since September 2001. July 3, 2005 ( 2005-07-03 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Roger Federer defeats Andy Roddick in the Men's Wimbledon Final in straight sets to capture his third consecutive Wimbledon crown and fifth Grand Slam title overall. [Newslink missing] Aviators Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz, flying a replica World War I Vickers Vimy bomber, re-enact the first non-stop transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown in 1919 , landing at Clifden , Connemara , Ireland at 1704 local time (1604 UTC), about 18 hours after they took off from St. John's, Newfoundland . (Bloomberg) Ihab al-Sherif , Egypt 's most senior envoy to Iraq is kidnapped by gunmen while buying a newspaper . He was to be promoted to ambassador , representing the first Arab nation to recognize the new Iraqi government. (Guardian) Albanians vote in parliamentary elections . Final results are expected in Tuesday (Reuters) (BBC) In Mexico , Enrique Peña of the Institutional Revolutionary Party wins election for a governor in the state of México . (Reuters) (Bloomberg) In Pristina , Kosovo , three bombs explode almost at the same time 9:30 PM. They explode near Kosovo's parliament building and EAR building; at the Commercial Bank near the OSCE building; and local United Nations peacekeeping headquarters. No injuries are reported. President Ibrahim Rugova and prime minister Bajram Kosumi state that the explosions were intended to "destabilize" the region prior to assessment of possibilities for future independence . (B92) (Reuters AlertNet) In Mauritius , parliamentary elections begin. The main rivals are prime minister Paul Bérenger of the Mauritian Militant Movement and Navin Ramgoolam of the opposition Social Alliance . (IOL) (BBC) In Malaysia , medical experts gather in a bird flu conference in Kuala Lumpur . (Channel News Asia) (BBC) In Japan , underwater volcano causes a column of steam near the island of Iwo Jima . (Mainichi Daily News) [ permanent dead link ] (Japan Today) (Reuters AlertNet) Computer microchip manufacturer AMD asks a Delaware court to order that third parties to its antitrust lawsuit against industry giant Intel , preserve certain documents in their possession that may be required as evidence. The court grants that request, ordering the third parties to suspend normal document destruction as to the documents described. (TechWorld) The first VODcast (RSS on-demand TV channel) was published. [Newslink missing] July 4, 2005 ( 2005-07-04 ) (Monday) edit history watch The Mexican Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the country's current opposition party that ruled for over 70 years, has claimed victory in elections for the governor of the country's most populated state, Mexico . (BBC) Elections in Burundi for the National Assembly begin under tight security. The voters will elect the first democratic government after the civil war. The vote is expected to favor the Hutu group Forces for the Defence of Democracy . The Hutu Forces for National Liberation are the only group that have not laid down their arms. (News24) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) The impactor of NASA probe Deep Impact successfully strikes comet Tempel 1 . (NASA) In Canada , Karla Homolka , who was connected to murders with her husband Paul Bernardo , is released from prison after 12 years. She gives an interview to French service of CBC, stating that she does not want to be "hunted down." (CTV) Archived 2005-12-01 at the Wayback Machine (CBC interview) (Canada.com) (Reuters) Mexican police believe that they have arrested Vicente Carrillo Fuentes , leader of a Juárez drug cartel . (Reuters AlertNet) In the Philippines , president Gloria Arroyo states that she would welcome impeachment proceedings as an opportunity to refute allegations about vote-rigging. The military has expressed its support of the president amid rumors of a coup . (Manila Times) (Sun Star) (Channel News Asia) In Israel , president Moshe Katsav states that he is worried about a possible assassination plot against Prime Minister of Israel Ariel Sharon . (Jerusalem Post) (Reuters) France abolishes the legal differences between legitimate and illegitimate children. The decree will take effect July 2006. (Daily Telegraph) [ permanent dead link ] In Malaysia , police arrest 21 members of religious group Sky Kingdom . (Malaysian Star) (BBC) In Sri Lanka , five men receive the death sentence for the assassination of judge Sarath Ambepitiya last November. (Colombo Page) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) (TamilNet) Shareholders of French liquor distributor Pernod Ricard approve its acquisition of Britain's Allied Domecq , parent company of US coffee and baked goods chain Dunkin' Donuts July 5, 2005 ( 2005-07-05 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Kansas City Southern Railway names Francisco Javier Rión as the new CEO, succeeding interim CEO Vicente Corta Fernandez , for its subsidiary Grupo Transportación Ferroviaria Mexicana . Before joining TFM, Rión was president of Bombardier 's Rail Control Solutions Division in London , England , from 2001 to 2005 , president and managing director of Bombardier's Mexican division from 1995 to 2001, and general director of Dina Autobuses/Consorción-Grupo Dina from 1991 to 1995. (Business Journal of Kansas City) (KCS) The Al Jazeera Network states it will be expanding by broadcasting English language content into the United States by March 2006. (CNN) The United Church of Christ becomes the first mainline U.S. Christian denomination to officially support same-sex marriages by passing a resolution calling for member churches to consider wedding policies "that do not discriminate against couples based on gender." It also asks churches to consider supporting legislation granting equal marriage rights to gay and lesbian couples and to work against laws banning gay marriage. (San Jose Mercury News) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) (Turkish Weekly) (United Church of Christ) (AP) Scientists uncover evidence that humans lived in the Americas 45,000 years ago, 30,000 years earlier than previously thought. (BBC) Elections in Albania : Vote tallying in the 2005 Albanian general election continues. Voter turnout was over 50% and results are expected later in the day. International observers, including OSCE , have expressed reservations about the voting process. Three people have been killed during the election. (Euro-Reporters) (Reuters) (Guardian Unlimited) In Indonesia , an earthquake ranking from 6.0-6.7 on the Richter scale hits Sumatra . No reports on any damage have yet been released. (Channel News Asia) (Malaysian Star) (Reuters AlertNet) In India , militants attack and try to storm a makeshift temple of Ram in Ayodhya , Uttar Pradesh ; most of them die in a firefight with the security forces. There are differing reports about the number of attackers and how many were killed. The temple site is a source of dispute between Muslims and Hindus . (Newindpress) (Rediff) (Reuters AlertNet) In Germany , Sven Jaschan , suspected creator of Sasser worm , goes on trial. (BBC) In Brazil , secretary general Silvio Pereira of the ruling Worker's Party resigns for the duration of the parliamentary inquiry into vote-buying. (BBC) In Iraq , gunmen attack envoys from Pakistan and Bahrain . The attacks come three days after Egypt's top envoy was ambushed in the street and injured. The attempted kidnappings are meant to discourage other nations from having ties with Iraq. (LA Times) Archived 2005-09-11 at the Wayback Machine The government of Indonesia announced the extension of its immunization campaign against polio . The second round in this campaign was originally scheduled to end yesterday. (Bloomberg) In Germany , workmen remove the unofficial Berlin Wall Freedom Memorial at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin , after the original builders refuse to obey a court order to do so. (Deutsche Welle) (IHT) In Peru , former president Alberto Fujimori receives new identity papers and may return to the country. Peru still wants him for charges of murder and corruption . (Reuters AlertNet) In Austria , state prosecutors investigate allegations that Iran 's president-elect Mahmoud Ahmadinejad would have been involved with the 1989 assassination of Kurdish leader Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou in Vienna . (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In France , large forest fires rage in the French Riviera . Authorities evacuate thousands. (BBC) Sudanese government and two rebels groups, including Sudan Liberation Movement and Justice and Equality Movement , sign a declaration of principles towards the peace talks . This ends three weeks of negotiations in the Nigerian capital Abuja . Talks are adjourned until August 24. (Reuters AlertNet) (Reuters) (BBC) United States The ABC reality series Dancing with the Stars premiered, Kelly Monaco won the competition. Yahoo! Answers , Yahoo! 's current question-and-answer service, is launched. Their first question is posted just a couple of hours after their 9 A.M. launch time. July 6, 2005 ( 2005-07-06 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch The European Parliament says there will be " No directive on software patents " by rejecting the proposed Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions by a 648-14 vote with 18 abstentions, ending four years of intense debate and lobbying . (BBC) (Forbes) (Bloomberg) (BusinessWeek) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) Twenty-four people are confirmed dead after more than 300 heavily-armed UN troops, assisted by the Haitian National Police, carry out a major pre-dawn military raid in Cité Soleil , one of the poorest communities in Port-au-Prince , Haiti , in what eyewitnesses claim was not a firefight , but a massacre, using machine guns , tanks , 83-CC grenades, and tear gas . (DemocracyNow.org) ; (HaitiAction) ; (BBC) (RBN) [ permanent dead link ] (video link, requires RealPlayer ) New York Times reporter Judith Miller is jailed for refusing to divulge her source in an investigation around the leak of a CIA operative's name. (CNN) (New York Times) The International Olympic Committee names London, United Kingdom as the site of the 2012 Summer Olympics . (BBC) (ABC) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (CNN) (Wikinews) In India, the opposition Bharatiya Janata Party calls for a nationwide strike in protest of the Tuesday attack on the Ayodhya site. The police are on high alert in case of religious violence. (Newindpress) (registration required), (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) (Bloomberg) In Bolivia , the senate decides to call for early elections. There will also be a referendum on regional autonomy next July. (Bloomberg) (BBC) In Burundi , the former Hutu rebel group Forces for the Defence of Democracy wins 58% of the vote in parliamentary elections. (News24) (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) Prince Albert II of Monaco admits publicly that he is a father of an illegitimate son by Nicole Coste (BBC) In Egypt , Cairo court postpones the trial of presidential candidate Ayman Nour until September 25 , allowing him to contest the election (Egypt election) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) In Chile , court strips Augusto Pinochet of presidential immunity from prosecution in the investigation of disappearance of political opponents in so-called Operation Colombo (IHT) (BBC) (Bloomberg) In China, explosion in a Zhengde shopping mall in Liaoyang County of Liaoning Province injures 47. According to local police, it was a case of attempted revenge (Xinhua) (China Daily) (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) Burma / Myanmar releases 249 dissidents from jail. Aung San Suu Kyi remains in house arrest (Democratic Voice of Burma) (Channel News Asia) In Nigeria , treason charges against 53 football players are dropped and changed to charges of membership of illegal organization . They are member of pro- Biafra group MASSOB (BBC) (Reuters SA) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) In Niger , thousands of people flee to Nigeria to escape crop failure and famine. Government says it cannot afford any food aid (AllAfrica) (subscription required), (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) In Somalia , interim president Abdullah Yusuf states that he's going to march towards Mogadishu from Jowhar , collecting support and militia as he goes (BBC) In India 1000 demonstrators protesting attack in Ayodhya clash with riot police in New Delhi. No group has claimed responsibility for the attack. There are small protests in other cities as well but police state that disturbances are minor compared to clashes in previous years. Congress president Sonia Gandhi warns that opposition should not "politicize" the incident (Newindpress) (registration required), (Reuters India) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) George W. Bush collides with a police officer while riding a bike. Bush suffers minor scrapes and the officer's ankle is injured. (Yahoo! News) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) In Rome, Italy , the soundtrack to The Passion of the Christ is performed as a world premiere after being as the #1 bestseller for soundtracks. July 7, 2005 ( 2005-07-07 ) (Thursday) edit history watch 7 July 2005 London bombings : Four explosions are reported on the London Underground and bus system, leading to the entire transport network being shut down. A previously unheard-of splinter group of al-Qaeda has claimed responsibility, though their involvement has not yet been verified. The attacks have left at least 50 people dead and roughly 700 others injured. (BBC (1)) (BBC (2)) (Wikinews) Malta becomes the 12th European Union member to ratify the EU constitution and the first to do so unanimously. (di-ve) In the Philippines , president Gloria Arroyo asks all the members of her cabinet to resign. (Channel News Asia) The United States raises the terror level from code yellow to code orange for mass transit systems in response to the London bombings . (Guardian) (EmergencyEmail) (CNN) (Wikinews) Egypt confirms its most senior envoy to Iraq , Ihab al-Sherif , has been killed after being kidnapped last week. A group related to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi has claimed responsibility. (CNN) (Guardian) Researchers halt a study in Africa after results indicate that circumcised men are 70% less likely to contract AIDS . The study will be presented at the Third International AIDS Society Conference on HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment later this month. Meanwhile, others argue that ritual circumcision increases the risk of infection because of poor sanitary conditions. (Advocate) (AllAfrica) The Brazilian congress announces a referendum on banning firearms sales. (Reuters AlertNet) In Turkey , a land mine placed on the tracks derails a freight train . There are no reports of casualties. (NTV-MSNBC) (Reuters AlertNet) In Hungary , a hoaxed bomb threat forces evacuation of three shopping malls . (Pestiside.Hu) (Reuters) In Mexico , the city of Nuevo Laredo chooses Omar Pimentel as the new chief of police. When gangsters assassinated the previous chief a month ago, Mexican federal police occupied the city and arrested the whole police force for investigation. (El Universal) (BBC) July 8, 2005 ( 2005-07-08 ) (Friday) edit history watch Following general elections in May, Ethiopia releases the first round of official results for 307 of 527 parliamentary seats. The ruling EPRDF has won 139 seats, while opposition parties CUD and UEDF won 93 and 42, respectively. Smaller parties and independent candidates won the remaining 33 seats. CUD and UEDF announced plans to form a coalition government. (BBC News) Hurricane Dennis , the first hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , approaches Cuba . It is heading towards the Gulf Coast of the United States , with landfall expected on Sunday or Monday. (NOAA) (Wikinews) In the Bulacan province of the Philippines , medical authorities report the country's first case of avian influenza . (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) (Science Daily) Also in the Philippines , resigned ministers, other politicians and businessmen call president Gloria Arroyo to resign as well and hand the reins of the country over to vice president Noli de Castro . (Channel News Asia) (ABS-CBN) (Reuters) Florida Governor Jeb Bush closes the inquiry into the case of Terri Schiavo , having been informed by prosecutors that there is no evidence of any crime leading to her 1990 collapse. (Reuters) File-swapping service iMesh confirms that it has entered into a licensing agreement with music giant Sony / BMG . The deal is widely considered a reaction to a recent decision by the U.S. Supreme Court threatening liability for file swapping software providers. July 9, 2005 ( 2005-07-09 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Authorities in the United Kingdom evacuate over 20,000 people from the centre of the city of Birmingham , Britain's second largest city. (BBC) (Chicago Tribune) [ permanent dead link ] (CBC) (Wikinews) . A "lights on" bill to resume normal government operation is approved in Minnesota . The Minnesota Legislature now has until July 14 to approve a budget . (Star Tribune) President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan says at a press conference that he does not believe that Osama bin Laden is in Afghanistan. CIA chief Porter Goss has said in a recent interview that he has an "excellent idea" of bin Laden's whereabouts. (Al-Jazeera) , (CNN) In Serbia a documentary film "The Truth" (Istina) made of footage filmed during the Yugoslav wars , and showing numerous war crimes committed against Serbs is introduced in the Sava Center in Belgrade , sparking public outrage. (SN) World leaders at the 31st G8 summit in Gleneagles , Scotland pledge 50 billion USD in aid to fight poverty in Africa (Reuters) , and US$3 billions to Palestinians for infrastructures . (ReutersAlert) July 10, 2005 ( 2005-07-10 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Ten Afghan soldiers are decapitated by Taliban insurgents in Afghanistan . (Guardian) Hurricane Dennis makes landfall in the United States, slamming into the Florida Panhandle with 120 mph winds. (CNN) Italy announces that it will begin its withdrawal of troops from Iraq in September by pulling 300 of its 3,000 soldiers out of the country. (Guardian) Luxembourg says "yes" to the EU Constitution in a referendum. (wikinews) Former rebel leader John Garang is sworn in as vice president of Sudan as part of the agreement ending the Second Sudanese Civil War . (Sudan Tribune) , (Boston Globe) In Azerbaijan , about 30,000 (other sources varying from 10,000 up to 50,000) opposition members demonstrated in the country's capital, calling for fair parliamentary elections. (Photos) Karl Rove 's lawyer, Robert Luskin , acknowledges that Rove was connected to the leak that led to the revelation of Valerie Plame 's position as a CIA agent. Luskin confirmed that Rove had been interviewed by Cooper for the article. It is unclear, however, what passed between Cooper and Rove. "Rove did not mention her name to Cooper," Luskin said. "This was not an effort to encourage Time [magazine] to disclose her identity. What he was doing was discouraging Time from perpetuating some statements that had been made publicly and weren't true." Luskin had previously said that Rove "absolutely did not identify Valerie Plame." (Newsweek) , (Washington Post) In Turkey , bomb in Cesme injures 22. Group called the Kurdish Liberation Hawks takes responsibility (Zaman Online) (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters) The Maccabiah Games have started. July 11, 2005 ( 2005-07-11 ) (Monday) edit history watch The Indonesian government asks TV stations to close down between 1 am and 5 am daily for six months in order to save energy after recent increases in the price of crude oil. Broadcasts of immensely-popular live European football matches which happen in the middle of the Indonesian night, are excluded from the shutdown. (BBC) The General Synod of the Church of England adopts a resolution "that the process for removing the legal obstacles to the ordination of women to the episcopate should now be set in train"; and schedules debate on the best form of legislation to achieve this for its February 2006 session. (BBC) The 17th Maccabiah Games are officially begun with a ceremony in Israel . More than 7000 Jewish athletes will compete on various sporting events. (Ynet) The body of a U.S. Navy SEAL has been found and recovered in Afghanistan , a senior defense official said Sunday. (CNN) In Kyrgyzstan , acting president Kurmanbek Bakiev wins presidential elections with 89% support so far (IHT) (Reuters) In China a mine explosion has killed 22 miners in Xinjiang province. 35 men were rescued while over 30 are still missing. (Xinhua) (China Daily) (Reuters) The Roman Catholic Church defrocks six New York priests accused of sexual abuse , returning them to lay status. (IHT) In the Netherlands , Mohammed Bouyeri , suspected killer of filmmaker Theo van Gogh , goes on trial (Expatica, Netherlands) (Reuters AlertNet) (Bloomberg) In Bosnia and Herzegovina , tens of thousands of people gather in Potocari to commemorate the Srebrenica massacre and rebury 610 victims (Reuters) (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) [ permanent dead link ] Mexican police releases Joaquín Romero Aparicio, who was falsely suspected of being a drug lord Vicente Carrillo Fuentes (El Universal) (Reuters) According to the United States Department of Labor , Enron agrees to $356.25 million settlement with employees whose retirement plans were ruined. They are likely to receive only 15–20% of that (Forbes) (Reuters) In Russia , state prosecutors begin investigation for alleged fraud and abuse of official position against former prime minister Mikhail Kasyanov . He is potential future presidential candidate (Moscow Times) (RIA Novosti) (Bloomberg) Sanjay Shah , man who has spent 13 months in Nairobi airport, goes through British citizenship ceremony (BBC) In Trinidad and Tobago , bomb explosion injures 13-15 people (sources disagree) in the capital Port of Spain (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) Brazilian police detains opposition congressman and bishop João Batista Ramos da Silva of the Liberal Front Party and six others who had been transporting $2.6 million in cash in seven suitcases (MercoPress) (Bloomberg) In Somalia , gunmen kill prominent peace activist Abdulkadir Yahya Ali (ReliefWeb) (Reuters AlertNet) July 12, 2005 ( 2005-07-12 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch London police identify four suspects in the 7 July 2005 London bombings ; all are British citizens apparently from Leeds , West Yorkshire , and at least one is believed to have died in the blasts. Raids find explosive materials and other forensic evidence. (Reuters) (BBC) Palestinian Islamic Jihad claims responsibility for two suicide bombings against Israelis . A car bomb detonates in the Shavey Shomron Israeli settlement on the West Bank causing no Israeli casualties. In Netanya , a suicide bomber kills three women at the HaSharon Mall. (Ynet) , (Haaretz) , (Ynet) , (BBC) In Monaco , Prince Albert is inaugurated as ruling prince, in succession to his father Prince Rainier who died in April. The unmarried Prince Albert acknowledged last week that he has a 22-month-old illegitimate son, Alexandre , and that there may be other paternity suits. (BBC) , (CNN) , (Mail&Guardian) According to the Cuban government, Hurricane Dennis killed 16 and caused $1.4 billion in damages. (Reuters) In Singapore , president Sellapan Ramanathan announces that he will seek re-election. Seventeen others have filed papers for candidacy (Channel News Asia) In China , the death toll of the Xinjiang mine explosion rises to 65. Eighteen are still missing. (Xinhua) (China Daily) (People's Daily) (Reuters) In Spain , a bomb explosion in Barcelona injures a policeman. (BBC) The European Court supports tighter controls over vitamin and mineral supplements. (ThisIsLondon) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) In Lebanon , a bomb explosion injures pro- Syrian defence minister Elias Murr . (Al-Jazeera) In France , bus company Transports Schiocchet Excursions sues a group of cleaning women for operating a carpool using their own cars, on the ground of "unfair competition". (Guardian) In Washington, D.C. , Presidential Press Secretary Scott McClellan refused for the second day in a row to respond to reporters' questions about Newsweek 's revelation that Karl Rove disclosed the identity of CIA agent Valerie Plame . McClellan had asserted Rove's innocence on many occasions in the past. The President , at a photo-op today, ignored reporters who asked if his pledge to fire any staffer involved was still operative. (Bloomberg) Stockholders of both Procter & Gamble and Gillette overwhelmingly approve a combination of the two huge consumer-product companies, although the deal faces regulatory scrutiny both in Europe and in the United States. (Forbes) US federal judge Barbara Jones denies former WorldCom CEO Bernie Ebbers , who faces up to 85 years in prison , a retrial in federal court (New York Times) (Reuters) In Costa Rica , fire in Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia Hospital in San José kills at least 18 (Reuters AlertNet) In Myanmar (Burma), the government begins a trial against Khin Nyunt , former prime minister, accused of bribery and corruption . The trial is held inside Insein prison in Rangoon . (Channel News Asia) (Irrawaddy) In Spain 's Basque region, four bombs explode near a power station at Amorebieta near Bilbao . Separatist group ETA claims responsibility (EITB) (EuroNews) (Reuters) In Somalia , United Nations World Food Programme threatens to stop food shipments to the country for ten years if the hijacked food ship and its crew are not released (BBC) (Reuters AlertNet) (AllAfrica) The European Court of Justice fines France €20 million ($24 million) for flouting European Union fishing quotas (Reuters) (BBC) In Fiji , head of the military, Frank Bainimarama threatens to declare martial law and oust the government if it gives amnesty to those involved with 2000 coup attempt (Fiji Times) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters AlertNet) Lord King of Wartnaby , mastermind of the privatisation of British Airways under former prime minister Margaret Thatcher and chairman of B.A. for 12 years, dies in his sleep. Thunder Horse PDQ , the largest semi-submersible oil platform in the world, was found listing badly after hurricane Dennis . July 13, 2005 ( 2005-07-13 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch The National Hockey League labor dispute , the longest work stoppage in North American professional sports , ends after 301 days. (CBC) Former Worldcom CEO Bernard Ebbers is sentenced to 25 years imprisonment for conspiracy , securities fraud and seven counts of making false SEC filings . (Bloomberg) U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist is hospitalized with a fever. There have been no indications when Rehnquist, who is fighting thyroid cancer , will be released. (CNN) (Reuters) NASA 's planned launch of STS-114 , Space Shuttle Discovery from pad 39B at the Kennedy Space Center at 3:51pm EDT (1951 UTC) is delayed due to a problem with the fuel level sensors. This would have been the first manned space launch by NASA since the loss of Columbia over 2 years ago. (CNN) (NASA) The Australian Government announces it will send back 150 élite Special Air Service troops to Afghanistan , to take part in covert operations and to help thwart a resurgent Taliban . A further 200 troops may also be dispatched to aid reconstruction efforts. (ABC News) The American Family Association , a Christian conservative activist group, announces an international boycott of Nike . In adding Nike to its ongoing boycotts of Kmart and the book One of the Guys by Robert Clark Young , the AFA argues that Nike promotes "a back door move to legalise homosexual marriage." (GayNZ.com) [ permanent dead link ] In Malaysia , ex-minister Osu Sukam , member of a ruling United Malays National Organisation party, resigns due to gambling debts totalling at least US$1.8 million. (Borneo Bulletin) [ permanent dead link ] (Channel News Asia) In China , the death toll in the Xinjiang mine explosion rises to 81, with two missing. (Xinhua) Geologists increase the alert status of Mount Merapi volcano in central Java in Indonesia . The volcano has shown increased activity since last Friday. (Jakarta Post) (Channel News Asia) In the Philippines , thousands of protestors gather in Manila to demand the resignation of president Gloria Arroyo , who has reshuffled her cabinet. The military is on alert in case of violence. (Sun Star) (Reuters) In Pakistan , a collision of three express trains near Ghotki leaves at least 120 dead after 13 carriages derail, according to Pakistan Railways and local police. (Reuters) (Al-Jazeera) (BBC) In Peru, thousands of demonstrators protest in Lima against a US trade pact that could lead to increase in the cost of medicines . (Reuters AlertNet) In Chile, the Senate reforms the country's constitution , decreasing power of the military in the upper house and reducing the presidential term for four years. The previous constitution is from the era of Augusto Pinochet . (Reuters) Spanish government approves pensions for people who fled Spain for the Soviet Union and South America as children during the Spanish Civil War and never returned. (Reuters) In Taiwan , a SWAT team apprehends wanted gang leader Chang Hsi-ming after a 30-minute gun battle in Shalu Township . (Taipei Times) (Channel News Asia) In Brazil, police raid the luxury good store Daslu and arrest the managers, including the owner Eliana Tranchesi , accused of tax evasion . (Bloomberg) (BBC) In Italy, police arrest 174 people in a crackdown on suspected Islamist militants. (AGI) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) In Japan, a group of 21 French speakers sue Shintaro Ishihara , governor of Tokyo , for calling French "a language which cannot count numbers". (Asahi Shimbun) (Reuters) The US State Department says it may withhold aid to Uzbekistan unless the Uzbek government agrees to an international inquiry about the unrest in Andijan . The official death toll has risen to 187. (BBC) (Baku Today) (Reuters AlertNet) (Eurasianet) Bones of a mammoth are found in Silicon Valley : Paleontologist Mark Goodwin said that bones discovered Saturday by Roger Castillo , an environmental activist, may be the femur , tusks and pelvic bones of a Columbian mammoth, a species of ancient elephant that roamed the area tens of thousands of years ago. (San Francisco Chronicle) July 14, 2005 ( 2005-07-14 ) (Thursday) edit history watch U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist announces he will not retire from the court as long as his health permits him to remain. In October of 2004 Rehnquist, 80, was diagnosed with thyroid cancer and underwent a tracheotomy . Yahoo News (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) 2005 Atlantic hurricane season : Rain from Hurricane Emily causes flooding and mudslides in Grenada , as the hurricane continues to grow to near Category 3 strength. (NOAA) , (CNN) Dana Galkowicz , an Israeli woman, 22, dies in the moshav of Netiv Ha'asara after Palestinian militants fire more than a dozen Qassam rockets . Hamas , Islamic Jihad and the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades all claimed responsibility, though Israel primarily suspects Hamas (Ynet) In the morning, a fifth person dies from injuries sustained in Tuesday's Netanya suicide bombing attack. (Ynet) People across Europe observe two minutes of silence in memory of those who died in the 7 July 2005 London bombings . (Wikinews) Russia demands that US extradite Leonid Nevzlin , ex-CEO of Yukos , to face various charges, including organizing a contract killing . Nevzlin addressed the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe on Wednesday in Washington, D.C. (Pravda) [ permanent dead link ] (Kommersant) (Reuters) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) In South Korea , one F-4E and one F-5F military jet fighter plane crash into the sea in two separate accidents. None of the four pilots survived. (Channel News Asia) (Bloomberg) (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) In New Zealand , Graham Capill , former leader of the Christian Heritage Party , is sentenced to nine years for sexual abuse of three young girls. (TVNZ) (New Zealand Herald) The 7th World Games are being opened in Duisburg /Germany. In the US, customs in New York airport have refused entry of British leading moderate Muslim theologian Zaki Badawi . Bawadi had been invited to a talk in Chautauqua Institution . He had publicly condemned the bombings in London (USA Today) , (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) In Haiti , Jacques Roche , kidnapped prominent journalist and poet, is found dead. Police says he was tortured and shot. Roche was kidnapped July 10 (Reuters) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) In Zimbabwe , court jails a male athlete, who went by the name Samukeliso Sithole , for 3.5 years for masquerading as a female in women's sports. Sithole had said that he has both male and female sexual organs (Reuters) (BBC) In Isiolo , Kenya , catholic missionary and bishop Luigi Locati is shot to death (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) July 15, 2005 ( 2005-07-15 ) (Friday) edit history watch Seven Palestinians are killed by Israeli Air Force missile attacks on the Gaza Strip and West Bank , including at least four Hamas militants. Five other Palestinian civilian bystanders are injured in the attacks. According to CNN all the 7 were militants, whereas the BBC says four were. The attack was carried out amid a barrage of Qassam rockets . (BBC) (CNN) (Reuters) The chemist Magdi al-Nashar , sought by British police in relation to the 7 July London bombings , has been arrested in Egypt . (BBC) In the Philippines , opposition demonstrators demanding resignation of president Gloria Arroyo seize the building of the Department of Agriculture and smash windows before dispersing before police. Her political opponents in the senate want to begin impeachment procedures (ABS-CBN) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) Governor Luis Singson , claims that he has a tape of a conversation where the jailed president Joseph Estrada is planning to return to power by disposing of whoever would lead the transitional government after Arroyo resigns. (ABS-CBN) (INQ7) 5.0 Richter scale earthquake hits central Philippines . There are no reports of any casualties (Channel News Asia) Paediatrician Sir Roy Meadow is struck off the medical register by the General Medical Council after finding that he had committed "serious professional misconduct" relating to his testimony as an expert witness in the trial of Sally Clark . (BBC) The United States opens its borders to Canadian live cattle after legal action in its courts . (CBC) July 16, 2005 ( 2005-07-16 ) (Saturday) edit history watch 60 people are believed to have died following an Equatair Antonov plane crash in Equatorial Guinea . (BBC) (MSN) A suicide bomber detonates explosives near an LPG (propane) fuel tanker parked near a gas station south of Baghdad , sparking a massive explosion that kills more than 60 people and wounds as many as 100 in one of the worst insurgent attacks to hit the area since the US occupation of Iraq . (CNN) The English version of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is released at midnight local time across the UK, Ireland and North America (CNN) (Wikinews) KMT chairmanship election, 2005 : Ma Ying-jeou defeats Wang Jin-pyng in a vote for the chairmanship of the Kuomintang (KMT) by 72% to 28% in the first direct election for the post in the party's history. (BBC) July 17, 2005 ( 2005-07-17 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Disneyland celebrates its 50th Anniversary. Former British Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath dies at his Salisbury home at the age of 89. (BBC) Time correspondent Matthew Cooper reveals that last week he told a grand jury that Karl Rove —a top White House political adviser to U.S. President George W. Bush — was the first to reveal Valerie Plame 's identity as a CIA agent. (BBC) Fourteen Spanish Firefighters have died while attempting to battle a forest fire in the central province of Guadalajara . (BBC) According to the Military of Pakistan , 17 people have died, including a Pakistani soldier, following clashes on the border with Afghanistan . (BBC) Conflict in Iraq : A fuel truck bomb kills 98 people south of Baghdad as three more suicide car bombers strike the Iraqi capital. (Economic Times) Israeli–Palestinian conflict : A Palestinian man is shot dead near the Israeli settlement of Netzarim in the Gaza Strip . Israel Defence Force sources claim he was armed. (BBC) (Euronews) (ABC News Online) Two Hamas mortars injure five residents of the Israeli settlement of Neve Dekalim in the Gaza Strip . Four Qassam rockets land on Israeli territory but no injuries are reported. An Israeli Air Force missile strike on a car in Beit Lahia misses the car but seriously wounds a Palestinian bystander. Two members of the Popular Resistance Committees are believed to have been in the car. (BBC) (Ha'aretz) (Reuters) Israeli troops mass for a military offensive on the Gaza Strip border prior to a visit to Israel by US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice . (BBC) Thailand declares emergency in three southern provinces of Narathiwat , Pattani and Yala because of increasing violence of Muslim insurgency . (Bangkok Post) (The Nation, Thailand) (Channel News Asia) In Yemen , president Ali Abdullah Saleh announces that he won't seek re-election next year. (Yemeni Observer) (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters AlertNet) In Egypt , presidential feminist aspirant Nawal El Saadawi pulls out of the race due to restrictive election regulations for first-time candidates. (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters) In Germany, the Party of Democratic Socialism renames itself The Party of the Left. in a plan to join forces with the Labour and Social Justice Party . (Deutsche Welle) (Reuters) In The United Kingdom, Britain's Sunni Council announces a fatwa against suicide bombings . (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) In Nigeria , Amaka Anajemba is sentenced for two years involvement with a money transfer scam worth $242 million. (IOL) (Forbes) (BBC) Representatives of Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement reach a tentative peace settlement in negoations in Helsinki , Finland. They intend to sign a formal truce in August 15 . (Jakarta Post) (Reuters) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Turkey , Kurdistan Workers' Party has denied that it had anything to do with a minibus bombing in Kuşadası that killed five people. Turkish authorities have blamed the Party. (BBC) In India, the government has dismissed a claim of Sunni Waqf Board that it should own the Taj Mahal . (BBC) US golfer Tiger Woods wins his second Open Championship title on the Old Course at St Andrews . July 18, 2005 ( 2005-07-18 ) (Monday) edit history watch Eight former Serbian secret police officers, and supporters of Slobodan Milošević , have been found guilty of the murder of former President Ivan Stambolić and sentenced to between 15 and 40 years in prison . (BBC) The Federal Constitutional Court , the highest Court in Germany , has ordered the release of Mamoun Darkazanli who has been accused by Spain of having funded the September 11, 2001 attacks . (BBC) Hurricane Emily slams into the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . Tens of thousands of tourists and residents were evacuated from the beach resorts in and around Cancún and Cozumel in the state of Quintana Roo . (BBC) , (CBC) , (Reuters) In Taiwan , authorities evacuate hundreds of people when Typhoon Haitang hits the country. The typhoon is heading towards Okinawa (Taipei Times) (Channel News Asia) (Japan Today) (Bloomberg) In Australia , Indigenous leaders pay tribute to Sir Ronald Wilson , white Indigenous rights campaigner, who died last Friday (ABC) (The Australian) (SBS) In Malaysia , a group of 30 people attacks the religious commune of Sky Kingdom (Malaysian Star) (BBC) In Lebanon , the Parliament grants amnesty to the imprisoned Lebanese Forces leader Samir Geagea . Geagea was arrested since 1994 . (AlJazeera) (Ya Libnan) (Newsday) In Morocco , Ali Salem Tamek , human rights activist and supporter of independence of Western Sahara , is arrested when he returns from Europe . Government accuses him of fomenting riots (Al-JAzeera) The European Union is planning an operation to monitor peace process in Aceh (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) According to AIDS study of United Nations Council of Foreign Relations , most of the HIV strains in Asia originate from Myanmar (Burma). Study used genetic fingerprinting to find spread of the virus strains (Reuters) In Ukraine , president Viktor Yushchenko wants to abolish traffic police because it is too corrupted (BBC) (MosNews) General William Westmoreland , once the commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam , dies peacefully in a retirement home in South Carolina . (Globe and Mail) July 19, 2005 ( 2005-07-19 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Three British Soldiers are to face war crimes charges as well as criminal charges at a Court-Martial following the death of a detainee in Iraq in September 2003 . (BBC) 6 killed in Srinagar blast near school. The suicide bomber rammed his car on a passing army jeep, causing a massive explosion. Pakistani group Hizbul Mujahideen is suspected to be behind the attack. (Rediff) US President George W. Bush has nominated federal appeals court judge John Roberts to replace Sandra Day O'Connor . Wikinews (AP/Yahoonews) According to reports from Russia , at least 14 people have been killed and several injured in an explosion in Chechnya . (BBC) In the Philippines , President Gloria Arroyo announces that she intends to form a truth commission to investigate charges of poll fraud against her. (Channel News Asia) (BBC) The Canadian Senate passes Bill C-38 to legalize same-sex marriage in Canada . The bill will become law when it receives Royal Assent from Governor General Adrienne Clarkson , scheduled for tomorrow. (CBC) Prime Minister Manmohan Singh of India addresses joint session of US Congress in his historic visit to the US . (BBC) (Rediff) In Thailand , dozens of newspapers editors of Thai Journalist's Association protest against new emergency laws that include media censorship and phone tapping (Channel News Asia) (Index) (Reuters AlertNet) UK court sentences Afghan warlord Faryadi Sarwar Zardad for 20 years in jail for war crimes (Telegraph) [ permanent dead link ] (Al-Jazeera) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) Former Bosnian Croat soldier Miroslav Bralo pleads guilty for war crimes in the UN war crimes tribunal in the Hague (Reuters AlertNet) (FENA) [ permanent dead link ] In Lebanon , prime minister Fouad Siniora announces his new cabinet after long negotiations. Cabinet members include representative of Hezbollah when Christian leader Michel Aoun refuses to join (Daily Star) (Monday Morning, Lebanon) (Al-Jazeera) (BBC) In Spain , huge forest fire continues to rage, threatening villages of Selas and Ablanque . A group of ten day-trippers has confessed being responsible for the start of the fire and one of them has been charged (EITB) (BBC) July 20, 2005 ( 2005-07-20 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch Hurricane Emily makes landfall along the northeast coast of Mexico, about 75 miles south of the Mexico–United States border , with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph, causing damage along the coast. In Texas, flooding and tornadoes have been reported from the effects of Emily. (CBS news) Police in Pakistan have detained about 200 suspected Islamist extremists in a series of raids on religious schools, mosques and other properties. (BBC) Canada becomes the 4th nation in the world to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide. (National Post) In mainland China , authorities evacuate more than a million people from Fujian and Zhejiang provinces due to Typhoon Haitang . In Taiwan , death toll rises to 7 with one missing and 31 injured. The typhoon also causes significant agricultural damage (People's Daily) (Xinhua) (Taipei Times) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) Government of Thailand changes the new emergency laws, weakening two articles that would have, among other things, enforced curfews and censorship of personal communication. (Bangkok Post) [ permanent dead link ] Saudi Arabian long-time ambassador to the US, prince Bandar bin Sultan , resigns for "personal reasons" (New York Times) (Al-Jazeera) (Bloomberg) In Yemen , 8-13 people die during demonstrations against oil price increases (Al-Jazeera) (MENAFN) (Reuters AlertNet) Indonesian government confirms first deaths connected to bird flu (Reuters) In China, coal mine explosion in Shaanxi province kills 24–26 (Xinhua) (China Daily) (Reuters) In Brazil , Delubio Soares , former treasurer for the ruling Worker's Party , admits in a parliamentary hearing that the party did not declare contributions worth $17 million (Bloomberg) (BBC) Indian Army announces that it has unveiled a scam where contractors responsible for transportation of fuel to depots of its Northern Command had sold off the fuel and filled the tanks with water (Times of India) (NDTV) James Doohan , the actor best known for playing Scotty on Star Trek: The Original Series and the first seven Star Trek films , dies at his home in Redmond, Washington . July 21, 2005 ( 2005-07-21 ) (Thursday) edit history watch In Maharashtra , India, the state Assembly unanimously adopts a Bill amending the Bombay Police Act, 1951 which will ban dance bars across the state. (IndianExpress) Kenyan legislators approve a constitution which critics say leaves too much power in the hands of the President . (BBC) . German President Horst Köhler agrees to dissolve parliament. He calls for earlier elections in mid-September 2005. BBC News . - see German federal election, 2005 After a blitz of detentions of suspected militants and Islamists , Pakistan 's President Pervez Musharraf calls for a holy war against preachers of hate and announces steps to curb militant Islamic schools and groups. (Reuters) Tatarstan : On the feast day of the holy icon " Theotokos of Kazan ", in the presence of the crowd of 10,000 pilgrims , Patriarch Alexius II and the President of Tatarstan place at the newly-restored Annunciation Cathedral of the Kazan Kremlin the holiest copy of the long-lost icon, which was presented to Russia by Pope John Paul II shortly before his death. (Asianews) Conflict in Iraq : Algeria 's two most senior diplomatic staff in Iraq are kidnapped from outside a restaurant in the western Mansour district. (BBC) Parts of the London Underground are evacuated , as British police are investigating reports of three separate incidents involving minor explosions in Shepherd's Bush , Warren Street and Oval underground stations. There are also reports of an incident on the no. 26 bus in Hackney, East London. There are no reported casualties and police are not yet treating the incidents as "major". (BBC) The People's Bank of China announces a 2 percent revaluation of its currency, the Renminbi (yuan), and says the yuan will no longer be pegged to the US dollar , instead trading within a narrow range against a market basket of currencies. (AP) In Morocco , authorities detain five supporters of Western Saharan independence for their alleged part in violent demonstrations last May. (Al-Jazeera) Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono orders the army to stop offensive against separatist rebels in Aceh after the acceptance of the new peace deal. (Channel News Asia) (Bloomberg) In Mexico, police are looking for kidnapped soccer coach Omar Romano . (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Rwanda , gacaca court investigating the Rwandan genocide summons Thaddee Ntihinyurwa , head of the Catholic Church in the country, to testify. (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In China , a group of farmers in Shengyou village in Hebei province that demonstrated over seizure of an arable land for the power plant, win in a dispute. (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) Malaysian government also remove the ringgit 's peg to US dollar . (Straits Times, Malaysia) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters) African Development Bank elects Donald Kaberuka , former finance minister of Rwanda , as president. (AFDB) (Forbes) In the Republic of Congo , trial of sixteen military and security officer begins. They are accused of killing 353. refugees who disappeared 1999 in the so-called Beach case . (World Peace Herald) (Reuters) (BBC) In China, a dam collapses in Yunnan province. At least 15 dead and 23 injured. (Xinhua) (China Daily) The Maccabiah games has finished. July 22, 2005 ( 2005-07-22 ) (Friday) edit history watch A bomb explodes from beneath a car in the Lebanese capital of Beirut causing injuries, but no deaths. (BBC) About 88 people are killed and 200 injured in a series of car bombs in the Egyptian resort of Sharm el-Sheikh at about 0100 local time (2200 UTC Friday). (BBC) Malaysian Prime Minister Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi says that he feels it is his duty to prevent Islam and its symbols from being used to propagate violence. He has set three missions for himself – continuing to remind the world community to understand the root causes of terrorism, explaining that Islam is a religion of peace and opposed to violence, and showcasing Malaysia as a modern Islamic country and a safe place to invest and visit. (The Star) (Iranian Quran News Agency) [ permanent dead link ] (Islam Online) Berlin , Germany: a small plane crashes near the Reichstag and the Federal Chancellor's Office , killing the pilot. Suicide suspected, rather than terrorism. (Deutsche Welle) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Dubai, police are on alert due to the wedding of Junaid Miandad and Mahrukh Ibrahim. Junaid is the son of former Pakistani cricket captain Javed Miandad . Mahrukh is the daughter of India's most wanted crime boss , Dawood Ibrahim . (Sify) Microsoft announces that the former codenamed "Windows Longhorn" will now officially be known as " Windows Vista ". The first beta test will be launched on August 3. In Mumbai , India, LeT militant and alleged Al-Qaida operative, Mohammed Afroze , is convicted of criminal conspiracy, conspiracy to disturb relations between friendly nations, and forging documents. However, he is acquitted on charges of waging war against the nation. (NDTV) At least 36 people are dead after two days of violent fuel riots in Yemen . (BBC) At least 15 people are killed when a dam collapses in south-west China . (BBC) Jean Charles de Menezes , suspected of being an attempted suicide bomber , having been chased by plainclothes police has been reportedly pinned to the ground then shot five times at Stockwell tube station in London , and has been confirmed dead by the police. (Wikinews) , (the Guardian) , (BBC) (CNN) (Sky) . The man was actually an innocent Brazilian killed without cause. A mosque in east London and the surrounding area is evacuated for an hour following receipt of a bomb warning. The all-clear is given after the mosque is searched by police. (Wikinews) , (Sky News) Two ships collide off Japan's Chiba prefecture and the Chinese -crewed freighter Wei Hang 9 sinks. One crewmember is dead, with 8 missing. (Japan Today) (Xinhua) (Reuters) The Pentagon confirms that 52 detainees of the Guantanamo camp have gone on hunger strike . (New York Times) (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) Leaked excerpts from the United Nations ' report into Zimbabwe 's Operation Murambatsvina state that the operation has been a "disastrous venture" that has violated international law and created a grave humanitarian crisis . It further suggests that the act might qualify as a crime against humanity and urged Zimbabwe to prosecute those responsible. (Guardian) . The insolvent car-building company MG Rover Group is bought by the Nanjing Automobile Group for around 53 million pounds. (BBC) (Times Online) July 23, 2005 ( 2005-07-23 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Human rights campaigners in Gujarat , India, have condemned a new school textbook introduced last year by the Bharatiya Janata Party which is seen to praise Adolf Hitler and barely mention the holocaust . (BBC) The strongest earthquake to hit Tokyo in more than a decade strikes eastern Japan at 4:35 p.m. local time, injuring at least 27 people, rattling buildings and disrupting train and plane services. (CBC) British police admit that the man killed yesterday by undercover officers had no connection to the suicide bombings or attempted bombings of previous days and weeks. Metropolitan Police has described the killing as a "tragedy". The victim, Jean Charles de Menezes , 27, was Brazilian. (BBC) Rep. Barbara Lee (D-CA) introduces a Congressional Resolution of Inquiry which, if passed, will require the White House and the U.S. State Department to "transmit all information relating to communication with officials of the United Kingdom between January 1, 2002, and October 16, 2002, relating to the policy of the United States with respect to Iraq." (Wikinews) A team of scientists from the UK and Australia state that they have found high concentrations of arsenic from the hair of King George III . Medication containing arsenic could have caused him bouts of madness (Scotsman) (News-medical.net) (Reuters) In Spain , bomb explodes in Santiago de Compostela near regional savings bank Caixa Galicia . There are no casualties. Government blames Galician separatists. Police have arrested two people (EITB) (Reuters) Cuba releases three dissidents , including leader Marta Beatriz Roque . 17 others are still incarcerated after crackdown in Friday (Cubanet) (Reuters) In Colombia , president Álvaro Uribe signs a controversial law that is meant to encourage paramilitary groups and guerrillas to disarm (BBC) In Burma / Myanmar , Khin Nyunt , former prime minister, receives a suspended sentence of 44 years in prison for corruption (Irrawaddy) (Democratic Voice of Burma) 3 bombs hit the Naama Bay area of Sharm el-Sheikh , Egypt, killing 88 people. July 23, 2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks . July 24, 2005 ( 2005-07-24 ) (Sunday) edit history watch Francis Ona , the leader of the former Bougainville Revolutionary Army , has died in village on Bougainville following a short illness. Ona led the bloody 10-year secessionist war against Papua New Guinea that ended in 1997 . (ABC News) (ABC News) A magnitude 7.2 earthquake occurs off the Nicobar Islands at 1542 UTC , near the epicentre of the 26 December 2004 earthquake . (USGS) . USGS reports the quake was felt in Chennai , India , and Phuket , Thailand . (USGS) 56 people die in Nigeria when a bus travelling from Lagos crashes and falls off a bridge into the Gadar Tamburawa river , just south of Kano . It is believed that the driver fell asleep as he drove. (BBC) Conflict in Iraq : At least 39 people, mostly civilians , have been killed when a Suicide Truck Bomb exploded at a police station in the Iraqi Capital of Baghdad . (BBC) , (the Guardian) Israeli-Palestinian Conflict : Two Israeli civilians and two Palestinian terrorists have been killed. The Israelis were killed by Palestinian terrorists on the Kisufim road in the Gaza Strip , and the IDF Engineering forces killed the two terrorists. The al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades , the Popular Resistance Committees and Islamic Jihad all claimed responsibility for the attack. (BBC) A Palestinian attempted suicide bomber from Jebaliya was caught near Kibbutz Nir Am , near Sderot , just outside the Gaza Strip . (Reuters) , (Ynet) American cyclist and cancer survivor Lance Armstrong wins his seventh consecutive Tour de France . Armstrong has announced that this will be his last tour and he will be retiring from the sport. (Letour.fr) (BBC) The United States wins the 2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup , defeating Panama after two overtime rounds and a penalty shootout. (Los Angeles Times) In Southwest China , authorities are investigating deaths of 17 farm workers who died of an unidentified disease (Xinhua) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters) In South Korea , hundreds of people gather to the funeral of Yi Gu , the last heir of the former Joseon Dynasty . Yi Gu died in July 16 (Channel News Asia) In Zambia , authorities arrest Michael Sata , leader of Patriotic Front , for sedition for inciting miners to riot (AllAfrica) (Reuters SA) Guinea-Bissau presidential election, 2005 : Guinea-Bissau votes in a second round of presidential elections . Candidates are the ruling party candidate Malam Bacai Sanhá and former military ruler João Bernardo Vieira . Results are expected next week (Reuters) (BBC) Dawood Ibrahim 's daughter marries Javed Miandad 's son in Dubai . (Rediff) (WorldEscape) July 25, 2005 ( 2005-07-25 ) (Monday) edit history watch Israel has summoned the ambassador from the Vatican to explain why the Pope did not condemn Palestinian militant attacks on Israelis, in a statement on Sunday, July 24, Pope Benedict XVI said that he deplored attacks in "countries including Egypt, Turkey, Iraq and Britain". (BBC) Bilateral negotiations have resumed between the US and North Korea . (BBC) . The Service Employees International Union and the Teamsters , the two largest unions in the AFL–CIO , announce their intentions to leave the labor federation, underscoring a major schism within the U.S. labour movement . (IHT) Two men, one today, one yesterday, have been arrested in the New Southgate area of London during police investigations into the recent London bombings . (Daily Mail) (This is London) [ permanent dead link ] At least five people have been killed after grenades were thrown at a night-club and official residences in Ethiopia 's Somali region. (BBC) A mystery illness spreading through Western China has claimed its 17th victim. Doctors have confirmed the disease is neither bird flu nor SARS (BBC) . Chinese health officials announce that autopsies point to Streptococcosis II as the probable culprit. (Xinhuanet) . Conflict in Iraq : Sunni Arab representatives appointed to the committee tasked with writing up a new Constitution of Iraq have ended their boycott. (BBC) At least seven people have died following a twin suicide car bomb attack on police checkpoints in the centre of Baghdad . (BBC) The New Zealand general election 2005 is set for Saturday September 17, 2005. (NZ Herald) (Stuff.co.nz) (Reuters) Philippine electoral crisis, 2005 : Opposition files impeachment complaint against president Gloria Arroyo for election fraud . President has declared a day a holiday and intends to make a key policy speech. (SABC) (Sun Star) (Manila Bulletin) (Philstar) [ permanent dead link ] (Channel News Asia) (Reuters) Brazil hosts annual AIDS conference in Rio de Janeiro . (BBC) Italian court issues arrest warrants of new 6 CIA operatives for involvement of kidnapping of Osama Mustafa Hassan (ANSA, Italy) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) (BBC) In Lebanon , Samir Geagea , former Maronite militia chief, leaves prison (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters) In Senegal , former prime minister Idrissa Seck is arrested for "endangering national security" (AllAfrica) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Sri Lanka , investigators that investigate alleged misappropriation of funds of tsunami relief after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake , state that they have not found any evidence of wrongdoing. Opposition United National Party claims that prime minister Mahinda Rajapaksa had siphoned off 83 million rupees to his own constituency (Reuters AlertNet) In Brazil, Paulo Henrique Machado , priest who led the support group of victims of the Nova Iguacu massacre , is shot to death in Rio de Janeiro (BBC) Denmark protests over visit of Canadian defense minister Bill Graham to disputed Hans Island near Greenland (CBC) (BBC) In Malawi , president Bingu wa Mutharika bans all exports of maize and fertilizers to alleviate the food crisis in the country (IOL) (BBC) July 26, 2005 ( 2005-07-26 ) (Tuesday) edit history watch Conflict in Iraq : At least 12 workers have been shot dead as they are driven away from the state owned factory they work at, in the Abu Ghraib area, by insurgents . (BBC) Insurgents have released a video showing the two Diplomatic staff from Algeria kidnapped from Baghdad last week. (BBC) Over 200 people have been killed in intense rain storms in Maharashtra , India, described by the Chief Minister of the state as the heaviest recorded rainfall in a single day in India. One third of the state Capital , Mumbai , is said to be underwater causing more than a two hundred thousand people to be stranded in offices and roads for about 24 hours. (Rediff) , (BBC) Several protesters have been injured again in India on this second day of protests. (BBC) The Space Shuttle Discovery lifts off at 1039 EST this morning on mission STS-114 . The NASA commentator says during launch "Lift-off, lift-off, and return to America's journey to the Moon, Mars, and beyond". (BBC) . Lebanese Christian militia leader, Samir Geagea , has been released from prison after 11 years. (BBC) South Korean ambassador to the US, Hong Seok-Hyun , resigns for alleged involvement with slush fund scandal of illegal donations during a presidential campaign in 1997 (Chosun Ilbo) (Channel News Asia) Burma / Myanmar forgoes 2006 chairmanship of ASEAN (Channel News Asia) At least 1,000 protesters have staged a demonstration outside the main US base of Bagram in Afghanistan . (BBC) In the Netherlands, Mohammed Bouyeri receives life sentence for murder of Theo van Gogh (Expatica) (IHT) (Al-Jazeera) In Canada, geneticists in the University of Alberta are testing hairs that allegedly belong to sasquatch (CBC) (Reuters) In Israel , there are reports that Jewish ultranationalists have cast a Pulsa diNura death curse over Ariel Sharon (Ynet) (Reuters Alertnet) Chilean judge Sergio Muñoz calls for search of new suspected secret foreign accounts of Augusto Pinochet (International Justice Tribune) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) In Mexico, court rules that there is insufficient evidence to try former president Luis Echeverría for genocide for a student massacre in 1971 (Reuters AlertNet) In Israel , Omri Sharon , MP and son of Ariel Sharon , is indicted for involvement in illegal campaign contributions, perjury and forging documents. Omri Sharon states that he would give up his parliamentary immunity and stand trial (Jerusalem Post) (Haaretz) [ permanent dead link ] (Arutz Sheva) (Reuters) In Somalia , transitional president Abdullahi Yusuf arrives in the town of Jowhar , intending to make it a base for his new government (BBC) In Nepal , king's court sentences Sher Bahadur Deuba and three others to two years in jail for alleged embezzling . Deuba denounces the sentence as " character assassination ". (Kantipur Online) (rising Nepal) (Reuters AlertNet) July 27, 2005 ( 2005-07-27 ) (Wednesday) edit history watch British " Shoot to Kill " Police Policy: The British Police member who shot an innocent Brazilian man seven times in the head and once in the shoulder has been given a free holiday, paid for by Scotland Yard . (BBC News) Sir Ian Blair , Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police has told Channel 4 news that on seven separate occasions British police have come close to killing suspected Suicide Bombers who it transpired were not Suicide Bombers. (The Times) , (Financial Times) Conflict in Iraq : Two US Troops were killed following a bomb in Baghdad . (BBC News) Two Algerian diplomatic staff who had been kidnapped by insurgents have been killed. (BBC News) At least five people have died following an apparent Suicide Bomb blast outside a hospital in the Iraqi Capital , Baghdad . (BBC News) The interim Prime Minister of Iraq , Ibrahim Jaafari , has called on US troops to leave Iraq soon. (BBC News) , ( The Christian Science Monitor ) Seven Iraqi soldiers, guarding a water plant north of Baghdad , have been shot and killed by Insurgents . (KCTV) 2005 Maharashtra floods : The death toll from the series of heavy monsoon rains and landslides they have triggered has been raised to at least 418 people in India's western state of Maharashtra . ( ExpressIndia ) [ permanent dead link ] NASA postpones indefinitely future launches of the Space Shuttle after a piece of insulation broke off the Space Shuttle external tank during the July 26 launch of the Discovery . (Yahoo News) (SpaceDaily) In Australia , New South Wales premier Bob Carr resigns and announces his disengagement from politics (ABC) (SBS) [ permanent dead link ] Malaysia takes chairmanship of the ASEAN Standing Committee (Channel News Asia) In China , the human death toll from an outbreak of the pig pathogen Streptococcus suis is 24. 21 are in critical condition and number of infections has increased to 117 BBC In Kyrgyzstan , about 400 Vamshi Uzbek refugees who fled from Uzbekistan after crushing of an uprising last May will be moved to Romania (BBC News) (MosNews) (Reuters) An explosion destroys an ONGC oil-drilling platform in the Bombay High field area late in the afternoon. The blast occurred possibly after a shipping vessel docked nearby collided with the platform during high tide . ( Express India ) [ permanent dead link ] (NDTV) (Reuters AlertNet) In Spain , police arrests 6 suspected members of the Basque separatist group ETA (EITB) (Reuters) In France , court in Angers sentences 62 members of a child sex ring to up to 28 years in jail. Trial lasted 5 months (Euronews) (Reuters) Other French court in Bonneville finds 13 people and companies guilty of manslaughter for the March 24 1999 Mont Blanc tunnel fire . Gerard Roncoli, the French head of security, received six months in jail and 24 months of suspended sentence (Euronews) (BBC News) (IHT) Microsoft releases Windows Vista Beta 1, the first beta version of Windows Vista codenamed " Longhorn ". July 28, 2005 ( 2005-07-28 ) (Thursday) edit history watch Conflict in Iraq : Two people have died following an explosion which destroyed a train tanker carrying oil, believed to have been caused by a bomb on the tracks. [Death Toll Confirmed] (BBC) Six Iraqi soldiers have died following clashes in two Baghdad streets. (BBC) Israeli–Palestinian conflict : A Palestinian man has been shot dead by Israeli soldiers, who had suspected him of involvement in a suicide bombing . (BBC) Seven people have been killed and 38 others injured in an explosion on a moving passenger train in India. (BBC) The Provisional IRA issues a statement formally ordering an end to the armed campaign it has pursued since 1969 and ordering all its units to dump their arms, with effect from 1600 BST today (1500 UTC). The IRA has been on "cease-fire" since 1996 and said it would follow a democratic path ending more than 30 years of violence. It will not, however, disband. (BBC) (RTE) (Guardian) (Transcript of Statement) The strongest tornado in Britain in 25 years, rating a 2 on the Fujita scale , hits Birmingham , damaging homes and injuring 20 people. (BBC) The Islamic Human Rights Commission has released a statement which claims that the number of attacks on South Asians in the UK has risen 13 fold since the July 2005 London bombings . (BBC) Ugandans are voting in a referendum to decide whether to readopt a multi-party system (East African) [ permanent dead link ] (AllAfrica) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In India, Lal Krishna Advani of the Bharatiya Janata Party and seven others are charged with inciting riots in Ayodhya in 1992 (Newindpress) (The Hindu) In the United States, the House of Representatives approves the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement , 217-215, sending the approved treaty to President George W. Bush . (Yahoo!) The United States, China, India, Japan, South Korea and Australia have formed a partnership aiming to cut the emissions of gasses that lead to global warming. The agreement is known as the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate . In the US, a number of American-Muslim scholars announce a fatwa that condemns terrorism and religious extremism (U.S State Department) (Reuters AlertNet) In Serbia , Ljiljana Zelen-Karadžić, wife of Radovan Karadžić , goes public to ask her husband to give himself up (Fena) [ permanent dead link ] (B92) (IHT) (Reuters) Poland recalls its ambassador to Belarus and demands that the European Union impose sanctions after Belarusian police storms the offices of the country's Polish minority (EUobserver) (Reuters AlertNet) (IHT) In Canada, gene lab confirms that alleged sasquatch hairs actually belong to a bison (CBC) (Reuters) In Bulgaria , Bulgarian Socialist Party fails to form a government due to hung parliament. President Georgi Parvanov approaches the National Movement Simeon II of former king Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Euronews) (Reuters) (Sofia News Agency) In Guinea-Bissau , electoral commission declares João Bernardo Vieira winner of the presidential election with a 52-55% majority (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) The UK government imposes a travel ban on Kenyan transport minister Chris Murungaru , who is investigated for corruption, forbidding him from visiting Britain (BBC) (KBC) (AllAfrica) July 29, 2005 ( 2005-07-29 ) (Friday) edit history watch Astronomers have discovered a large new trans-Neptunian object , now called Eris , which is larger than Pluto . (Sky and Telescope) . Also announced today was the discovery of two other large new Kuiper Belt objects, Haumea ( (136108) 2003 EL 61 ) and Makemake ( (136472) 2005 FY 9 ). New observations reveal Haumea to be about 70% the diameter of Pluto. The object is also orbited by two moons . (New Scientist) Following a militant attack at Srinagar 's city centre at Lal Chowk more than 10 people have been left injured. (Rediff) Hamas , the main Palestinian opposition party in the Palestinian Authority , hold a mass wedding on the West Bank in which 226 couples performed the Nikah . (BBC) The remaining three London bombing suspects have been arrested after raids in the UK and Italy. (BBC) The President of Pakistan , Pervez Musharraf , has announced that all foreign students (around 1,400) are to leave the nation's Madrassas and go home. (BBC) Conflict in Iraq : At least 25 New Iraqi Army recruits have been killed following an apparent suicide bomb attack in Rabia , near Mosul , in North West Iraq . (BBC) Indian officials have raised the death toll of those suspected dead in the 2005 Maharashtra floods to more than 800. (BBC) Indian bomb disposal experts have found traces of explosive in the train which exploded on Thursday killing 7 people. (BBC) BBC News has been told, by the activist settler Noam Livnat, that 20,000 Israeli soldiers had signed a petition vowing to block any attempt at removing Israeli settlements from the Gaza Strip . (BBC) In Vietnam , death toll on bird flu rises to 42. (Thahn Nien News) (Reuters AlertNet) Initial results show that Ugandans have voted for a return to multi-party politics in a national constitutional referendum . The poll was marred by a low turnout . (BBC) Robert Kilroy-Silk resigns as leader from Veritas , the UK political party he founded. (Guardian) July 30, 2005 ( 2005-07-30 ) (Saturday) edit history watch Thousands of Czech riot police disperse the crowd at the annual free electronic music festival " CzechTek ", leaving dozens injured. (CBC) Conflict in Iraq : At least two British private security agents have been killed following an attack on a convoy in Basra , south Iraq . (BBC) Lawyers for the former President of Iraq , Saddam Hussein , claim he was attacked by an unidentified man after questioning by the Iraqi special tribunal on Thursday; however the United States denies the event. (BBC) Uzbekistan has reportedly given the United States six months to move out of a key base used for operations in Afghanistan . (BBC) Russia begins to withdraw its troops from the military bases in Georgia (Mosnews) (Messenger, Georgia) [ permanent dead link ] (Euronews) July 31, 2005 ( 2005-07-31 ) (Sunday) edit history watch More torrential monsoon rains have returned to Mumbai in India , as it tries to recover from the recent floods . The death toll in the floods rises to about 1,000. (BBC) 7 more suspects are arrested in Brighton following the 21 July 2005 London bombings . (BBC) Wim Duisenberg , the former head of the Rabobank , the Central Bank of the Netherlands and the European Central Bank , is found dead in the pool of his villa in the south of France . His death seems to have been caused by a cardiac arrest. (BBC) Chile 's Christian Democratic Party declares Michelle Bachelet as the presidential candidate of the ruling coalition (Mercopress) (BBC) Russia 's defence minister Sergei Ivanov bars the country's defense ministry from contacting ABC News after the channel broadcast an interview with Chechen rebel Shamil Basayev (RIA Novosti) (Mosnews) (Al-Jazeera) (BBC) In Côte d'Ivoire , former rebels known as the New Forces refuse to disarm before legislative reforms (BBC) (Reuters AlertNet) Indonesian pilot Pollycarpus Budihari Priyanto is charged with involvement with the murder of Munir Said Thalib (Jakarta Post) (BBC) In India , separatist group National Socialist Council of Nagaland extends its ceasefire with the government by six months (Newindpress) (India Daily) (Reuters India) In Iran former president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani appeals for the release of an imprisoned dissident writer Akbar Ganji . Ganji has been in a hunger strike for more than 50 days and is possibly near death (Reporters Without Borders) (IRNA) Atkins Nutritionals , Inc., a company founded by the late diet guru Robert Atkins to promote low-carb products, enters chapter 11 due to a loss of public interest. (Fox News) edit history watch Iraq 's ambassador to the UN , Samir Sumaidaie , accuses U.S. Marines of the "cold-blooded murder" of his 21-year-old cousin during a June 25 raid of his home in Al Anbar province. (Reuters) Following a public statement from the denomination president on the eve of the event, the Congregationalist United Church of Christ begins their 5-day General Synod 25 in Atlanta, Georgia to debate a number of controversial resolutions, including same-sex marriage . Some are concerned about denominational schism . DailyBulletin.com Chicago Tribune [ permanent dead link ] Christian Science Monitor Washington Times UCC web page UCC news blog Indonesian police arrest 24 people suspected of involvement in the 2002 Bali bombings and a 2003 attack on the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta . ( BBC ) U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor announces her retirement after 24 years of service on the Court. ( n:United States Supreme Court Justice O'Connor to retire ) ( NYTimes.com ) The UK assumes the rotating presidency of the European Union amidst its funding crisis. ( BBC News ) The members of the Australian Senate elected at the election of 2004 take office, granting the government of John Howard control of both Houses of Parliament , the first time a government has had such power since 1981. (ABC News Online) Much of the government of Minnesota shuts down as the state legislature fails to pass a budget by the end of the fiscal year . (Wikinews) (Bloomberg) In the UK, cot death expert Sir Roy Meadow testifies before the General Medical Council hearing. He was involved with four court cases where four women were falsely accused of killing their children. Medical journal The Lancet defends him saying that he is just a " scapegoat " (BBC) (Scotsman) In the Democratic Republic of Congo , at least 10 people have died during protests over delay to the presidential elections. Opposition claims the numbers are closer to 42. (Wikinews) (BBC) In Germany, the Bundestag passes a Motion of no confidence in the government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder by 296 to 151. The vote, at Schröder's insistence, opens the way for new elections to be held on September 18. (Wikinews) (Deutsche Welle) (IHT) (BBC) Italian police in Genoa discover a parallel police force, called the Department of Anti-terrorism Strategic Studies, that was apparently founded to benefit from funding after 2004 Madrid bombings . The group's website is now down. (Google cache) [ permanent dead link ] (AKI) (AGI) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) A Toronto mosque makes history by hosting the first known Muslim prayer service in history to be led by a woman. (CBC) General Motors Corp. announces that it had its best month in 19 years in June 2005 , increasing total deliveries by 41% against June 2004, (GM website) Romania 's legal tender , leu was re-valued, 10,000 old lei becoming 1 new leu. Thus the ISO 4217 code was changed from ROL (Romanian leu) to RON (Romanian New leu). Lynching at Włodowo edit history watch On The McLaughlin Group programme, MSNBC 's political analyst Lawrence O'Donnell claims to have known that the identity of Matthew Cooper 's source in the Valerie Plame exposure scandal was Karl Rove . (Huffington Post) Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh unveils the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project amidst protests from fishermen and environmentalists . Nearly 600 are arrested. (Rediff) , (Reuters) The Live 8 concerts begin their globe-spanning tour in Tokyo . Several famous artists and musical groups are joining in this effort to raise awareness about poverty and AIDS in the leadup to the G8 summit and on the anniversary of the 1985 Live Aid concerts. (Wikinews) , (Wired) , (Globe and Mail) , (LA Times) . Related information: (Live 8 home page) , ONE Campaign , (AOL Music (live webcast)) In Australia , the place of the last stand of bushranger Ned Kelly in Glenrowan, Victoria , is made a national heritage site . (ABC) (Australian) Dave Zabriskie becomes the third American to ever wear the yellow leader's jersey in the Tour de France , beating fellow American Lance Armstrong by two seconds in the prologue stage. le Tour de France official website Former World No.1 Venus Williams comes back from match point down to defeat Lindsay Davenport in the longest ever Wimbledon Ladies' final of all time (4-6 7-6 9-7) for her third Wimbledon title and her first Grand Slam title since September 2001. edit history watch Roger Federer defeats Andy Roddick in the Men's Wimbledon Final in straight sets to capture his third consecutive Wimbledon crown and fifth Grand Slam title overall. [Newslink missing] Aviators Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz, flying a replica World War I Vickers Vimy bomber, re-enact the first non-stop transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown in 1919 , landing at Clifden , Connemara , Ireland at 1704 local time (1604 UTC), about 18 hours after they took off from St. John's, Newfoundland . (Bloomberg) Ihab al-Sherif , Egypt 's most senior envoy to Iraq is kidnapped by gunmen while buying a newspaper . He was to be promoted to ambassador , representing the first Arab nation to recognize the new Iraqi government. (Guardian) Albanians vote in parliamentary elections . Final results are expected in Tuesday (Reuters) (BBC) In Mexico , Enrique Peña of the Institutional Revolutionary Party wins election for a governor in the state of México . (Reuters) (Bloomberg) In Pristina , Kosovo , three bombs explode almost at the same time 9:30 PM. They explode near Kosovo's parliament building and EAR building; at the Commercial Bank near the OSCE building; and local United Nations peacekeeping headquarters. No injuries are reported. President Ibrahim Rugova and prime minister Bajram Kosumi state that the explosions were intended to "destabilize" the region prior to assessment of possibilities for future independence . (B92) (Reuters AlertNet) In Mauritius , parliamentary elections begin. The main rivals are prime minister Paul Bérenger of the Mauritian Militant Movement and Navin Ramgoolam of the opposition Social Alliance . (IOL) (BBC) In Malaysia , medical experts gather in a bird flu conference in Kuala Lumpur . (Channel News Asia) (BBC) In Japan , underwater volcano causes a column of steam near the island of Iwo Jima . (Mainichi Daily News) [ permanent dead link ] (Japan Today) (Reuters AlertNet) Computer microchip manufacturer AMD asks a Delaware court to order that third parties to its antitrust lawsuit against industry giant Intel , preserve certain documents in their possession that may be required as evidence. The court grants that request, ordering the third parties to suspend normal document destruction as to the documents described. (TechWorld) The first VODcast (RSS on-demand TV channel) was published. [Newslink missing] edit history watch The Mexican Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the country's current opposition party that ruled for over 70 years, has claimed victory in elections for the governor of the country's most populated state, Mexico . (BBC) Elections in Burundi for the National Assembly begin under tight security. The voters will elect the first democratic government after the civil war. The vote is expected to favor the Hutu group Forces for the Defence of Democracy . The Hutu Forces for National Liberation are the only group that have not laid down their arms. (News24) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) The impactor of NASA probe Deep Impact successfully strikes comet Tempel 1 . (NASA) In Canada , Karla Homolka , who was connected to murders with her husband Paul Bernardo , is released from prison after 12 years. She gives an interview to French service of CBC, stating that she does not want to be "hunted down." (CTV) Archived 2005-12-01 at the Wayback Machine (CBC interview) (Canada.com) (Reuters) Mexican police believe that they have arrested Vicente Carrillo Fuentes , leader of a Juárez drug cartel . (Reuters AlertNet) In the Philippines , president Gloria Arroyo states that she would welcome impeachment proceedings as an opportunity to refute allegations about vote-rigging. The military has expressed its support of the president amid rumors of a coup . (Manila Times) (Sun Star) (Channel News Asia) In Israel , president Moshe Katsav states that he is worried about a possible assassination plot against Prime Minister of Israel Ariel Sharon . (Jerusalem Post) (Reuters) France abolishes the legal differences between legitimate and illegitimate children. The decree will take effect July 2006. (Daily Telegraph) [ permanent dead link ] In Malaysia , police arrest 21 members of religious group Sky Kingdom . (Malaysian Star) (BBC) In Sri Lanka , five men receive the death sentence for the assassination of judge Sarath Ambepitiya last November. (Colombo Page) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) (TamilNet) Shareholders of French liquor distributor Pernod Ricard approve its acquisition of Britain's Allied Domecq , parent company of US coffee and baked goods chain Dunkin' Donuts edit history watch Kansas City Southern Railway names Francisco Javier Rión as the new CEO, succeeding interim CEO Vicente Corta Fernandez , for its subsidiary Grupo Transportación Ferroviaria Mexicana . Before joining TFM, Rión was president of Bombardier 's Rail Control Solutions Division in London , England , from 2001 to 2005 , president and managing director of Bombardier's Mexican division from 1995 to 2001, and general director of Dina Autobuses/Consorción-Grupo Dina from 1991 to 1995. (Business Journal of Kansas City) (KCS) The Al Jazeera Network states it will be expanding by broadcasting English language content into the United States by March 2006. (CNN) The United Church of Christ becomes the first mainline U.S. Christian denomination to officially support same-sex marriages by passing a resolution calling for member churches to consider wedding policies "that do not discriminate against couples based on gender." It also asks churches to consider supporting legislation granting equal marriage rights to gay and lesbian couples and to work against laws banning gay marriage. (San Jose Mercury News) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) (Turkish Weekly) (United Church of Christ) (AP) Scientists uncover evidence that humans lived in the Americas 45,000 years ago, 30,000 years earlier than previously thought. (BBC) Elections in Albania : Vote tallying in the 2005 Albanian general election continues. Voter turnout was over 50% and results are expected later in the day. International observers, including OSCE , have expressed reservations about the voting process. Three people have been killed during the election. (Euro-Reporters) (Reuters) (Guardian Unlimited) In Indonesia , an earthquake ranking from 6.0-6.7 on the Richter scale hits Sumatra . No reports on any damage have yet been released. (Channel News Asia) (Malaysian Star) (Reuters AlertNet) In India , militants attack and try to storm a makeshift temple of Ram in Ayodhya , Uttar Pradesh ; most of them die in a firefight with the security forces. There are differing reports about the number of attackers and how many were killed. The temple site is a source of dispute between Muslims and Hindus . (Newindpress) (Rediff) (Reuters AlertNet) In Germany , Sven Jaschan , suspected creator of Sasser worm , goes on trial. (BBC) In Brazil , secretary general Silvio Pereira of the ruling Worker's Party resigns for the duration of the parliamentary inquiry into vote-buying. (BBC) In Iraq , gunmen attack envoys from Pakistan and Bahrain . The attacks come three days after Egypt's top envoy was ambushed in the street and injured. The attempted kidnappings are meant to discourage other nations from having ties with Iraq. (LA Times) Archived 2005-09-11 at the Wayback Machine The government of Indonesia announced the extension of its immunization campaign against polio . The second round in this campaign was originally scheduled to end yesterday. (Bloomberg) In Germany , workmen remove the unofficial Berlin Wall Freedom Memorial at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin , after the original builders refuse to obey a court order to do so. (Deutsche Welle) (IHT) In Peru , former president Alberto Fujimori receives new identity papers and may return to the country. Peru still wants him for charges of murder and corruption . (Reuters AlertNet) In Austria , state prosecutors investigate allegations that Iran 's president-elect Mahmoud Ahmadinejad would have been involved with the 1989 assassination of Kurdish leader Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou in Vienna . (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In France , large forest fires rage in the French Riviera . Authorities evacuate thousands. (BBC) Sudanese government and two rebels groups, including Sudan Liberation Movement and Justice and Equality Movement , sign a declaration of principles towards the peace talks . This ends three weeks of negotiations in the Nigerian capital Abuja . Talks are adjourned until August 24. (Reuters AlertNet) (Reuters) (BBC) United States The ABC reality series Dancing with the Stars premiered, Kelly Monaco won the competition. Yahoo! Answers , Yahoo! 's current question-and-answer service, is launched. Their first question is posted just a couple of hours after their 9 A.M. launch time. edit history watch The European Parliament says there will be " No directive on software patents " by rejecting the proposed Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions by a 648-14 vote with 18 abstentions, ending four years of intense debate and lobbying . (BBC) (Forbes) (Bloomberg) (BusinessWeek) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) Twenty-four people are confirmed dead after more than 300 heavily-armed UN troops, assisted by the Haitian National Police, carry out a major pre-dawn military raid in Cité Soleil , one of the poorest communities in Port-au-Prince , Haiti , in what eyewitnesses claim was not a firefight , but a massacre, using machine guns , tanks , 83-CC grenades, and tear gas . (DemocracyNow.org) ; (HaitiAction) ; (BBC) (RBN) [ permanent dead link ] (video link, requires RealPlayer ) New York Times reporter Judith Miller is jailed for refusing to divulge her source in an investigation around the leak of a CIA operative's name. (CNN) (New York Times) The International Olympic Committee names London, United Kingdom as the site of the 2012 Summer Olympics . (BBC) (ABC) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (CNN) (Wikinews) In India, the opposition Bharatiya Janata Party calls for a nationwide strike in protest of the Tuesday attack on the Ayodhya site. The police are on high alert in case of religious violence. (Newindpress) (registration required), (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) (Bloomberg) In Bolivia , the senate decides to call for early elections. There will also be a referendum on regional autonomy next July. (Bloomberg) (BBC) In Burundi , the former Hutu rebel group Forces for the Defence of Democracy wins 58% of the vote in parliamentary elections. (News24) (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) Prince Albert II of Monaco admits publicly that he is a father of an illegitimate son by Nicole Coste (BBC) In Egypt , Cairo court postpones the trial of presidential candidate Ayman Nour until September 25 , allowing him to contest the election (Egypt election) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) In Chile , court strips Augusto Pinochet of presidential immunity from prosecution in the investigation of disappearance of political opponents in so-called Operation Colombo (IHT) (BBC) (Bloomberg) In China, explosion in a Zhengde shopping mall in Liaoyang County of Liaoning Province injures 47. According to local police, it was a case of attempted revenge (Xinhua) (China Daily) (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) Burma / Myanmar releases 249 dissidents from jail. Aung San Suu Kyi remains in house arrest (Democratic Voice of Burma) (Channel News Asia) In Nigeria , treason charges against 53 football players are dropped and changed to charges of membership of illegal organization . They are member of pro- Biafra group MASSOB (BBC) (Reuters SA) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) In Niger , thousands of people flee to Nigeria to escape crop failure and famine. Government says it cannot afford any food aid (AllAfrica) (subscription required), (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) In Somalia , interim president Abdullah Yusuf states that he's going to march towards Mogadishu from Jowhar , collecting support and militia as he goes (BBC) In India 1000 demonstrators protesting attack in Ayodhya clash with riot police in New Delhi. No group has claimed responsibility for the attack. There are small protests in other cities as well but police state that disturbances are minor compared to clashes in previous years. Congress president Sonia Gandhi warns that opposition should not "politicize" the incident (Newindpress) (registration required), (Reuters India) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) George W. Bush collides with a police officer while riding a bike. Bush suffers minor scrapes and the officer's ankle is injured. (Yahoo! News) (Link dead as of 04:20, 16 January 2007 (UTC)) In Rome, Italy , the soundtrack to The Passion of the Christ is performed as a world premiere after being as the #1 bestseller for soundtracks. edit history watch 7 July 2005 London bombings : Four explosions are reported on the London Underground and bus system, leading to the entire transport network being shut down. A previously unheard-of splinter group of al-Qaeda has claimed responsibility, though their involvement has not yet been verified. The attacks have left at least 50 people dead and roughly 700 others injured. (BBC (1)) (BBC (2)) (Wikinews) Malta becomes the 12th European Union member to ratify the EU constitution and the first to do so unanimously. (di-ve) In the Philippines , president Gloria Arroyo asks all the members of her cabinet to resign. (Channel News Asia) The United States raises the terror level from code yellow to code orange for mass transit systems in response to the London bombings . (Guardian) (EmergencyEmail) (CNN) (Wikinews) Egypt confirms its most senior envoy to Iraq , Ihab al-Sherif , has been killed after being kidnapped last week. A group related to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi has claimed responsibility. (CNN) (Guardian) Researchers halt a study in Africa after results indicate that circumcised men are 70% less likely to contract AIDS . The study will be presented at the Third International AIDS Society Conference on HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment later this month. Meanwhile, others argue that ritual circumcision increases the risk of infection because of poor sanitary conditions. (Advocate) (AllAfrica) The Brazilian congress announces a referendum on banning firearms sales. (Reuters AlertNet) In Turkey , a land mine placed on the tracks derails a freight train . There are no reports of casualties. (NTV-MSNBC) (Reuters AlertNet) In Hungary , a hoaxed bomb threat forces evacuation of three shopping malls . (Pestiside.Hu) (Reuters) In Mexico , the city of Nuevo Laredo chooses Omar Pimentel as the new chief of police. When gangsters assassinated the previous chief a month ago, Mexican federal police occupied the city and arrested the whole police force for investigation. (El Universal) (BBC) edit history watch Following general elections in May, Ethiopia releases the first round of official results for 307 of 527 parliamentary seats. The ruling EPRDF has won 139 seats, while opposition parties CUD and UEDF won 93 and 42, respectively. Smaller parties and independent candidates won the remaining 33 seats. CUD and UEDF announced plans to form a coalition government. (BBC News) Hurricane Dennis , the first hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , approaches Cuba . It is heading towards the Gulf Coast of the United States , with landfall expected on Sunday or Monday. (NOAA) (Wikinews) In the Bulacan province of the Philippines , medical authorities report the country's first case of avian influenza . (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) (Science Daily) Also in the Philippines , resigned ministers, other politicians and businessmen call president Gloria Arroyo to resign as well and hand the reins of the country over to vice president Noli de Castro . (Channel News Asia) (ABS-CBN) (Reuters) Florida Governor Jeb Bush closes the inquiry into the case of Terri Schiavo , having been informed by prosecutors that there is no evidence of any crime leading to her 1990 collapse. (Reuters) File-swapping service iMesh confirms that it has entered into a licensing agreement with music giant Sony / BMG . The deal is widely considered a reaction to a recent decision by the U.S. Supreme Court threatening liability for file swapping software providers. edit history watch Authorities in the United Kingdom evacuate over 20,000 people from the centre of the city of Birmingham , Britain's second largest city. (BBC) (Chicago Tribune) [ permanent dead link ] (CBC) (Wikinews) . A "lights on" bill to resume normal government operation is approved in Minnesota . The Minnesota Legislature now has until July 14 to approve a budget . (Star Tribune) President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan says at a press conference that he does not believe that Osama bin Laden is in Afghanistan. CIA chief Porter Goss has said in a recent interview that he has an "excellent idea" of bin Laden's whereabouts. (Al-Jazeera) , (CNN) In Serbia a documentary film "The Truth" (Istina) made of footage filmed during the Yugoslav wars , and showing numerous war crimes committed against Serbs is introduced in the Sava Center in Belgrade , sparking public outrage. (SN) World leaders at the 31st G8 summit in Gleneagles , Scotland pledge 50 billion USD in aid to fight poverty in Africa (Reuters) , and US$3 billions to Palestinians for infrastructures . (ReutersAlert) edit history watch Ten Afghan soldiers are decapitated by Taliban insurgents in Afghanistan . (Guardian) Hurricane Dennis makes landfall in the United States, slamming into the Florida Panhandle with 120 mph winds. (CNN) Italy announces that it will begin its withdrawal of troops from Iraq in September by pulling 300 of its 3,000 soldiers out of the country. (Guardian) Luxembourg says "yes" to the EU Constitution in a referendum. (wikinews) Former rebel leader John Garang is sworn in as vice president of Sudan as part of the agreement ending the Second Sudanese Civil War . (Sudan Tribune) , (Boston Globe) In Azerbaijan , about 30,000 (other sources varying from 10,000 up to 50,000) opposition members demonstrated in the country's capital, calling for fair parliamentary elections. (Photos) Karl Rove 's lawyer, Robert Luskin , acknowledges that Rove was connected to the leak that led to the revelation of Valerie Plame 's position as a CIA agent. Luskin confirmed that Rove had been interviewed by Cooper for the article. It is unclear, however, what passed between Cooper and Rove. "Rove did not mention her name to Cooper," Luskin said. "This was not an effort to encourage Time [magazine] to disclose her identity. What he was doing was discouraging Time from perpetuating some statements that had been made publicly and weren't true." Luskin had previously said that Rove "absolutely did not identify Valerie Plame." (Newsweek) , (Washington Post) In Turkey , bomb in Cesme injures 22. Group called the Kurdish Liberation Hawks takes responsibility (Zaman Online) (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters) The Maccabiah Games have started. edit history watch The Indonesian government asks TV stations to close down between 1 am and 5 am daily for six months in order to save energy after recent increases in the price of crude oil. Broadcasts of immensely-popular live European football matches which happen in the middle of the Indonesian night, are excluded from the shutdown. (BBC) The General Synod of the Church of England adopts a resolution "that the process for removing the legal obstacles to the ordination of women to the episcopate should now be set in train"; and schedules debate on the best form of legislation to achieve this for its February 2006 session. (BBC) The 17th Maccabiah Games are officially begun with a ceremony in Israel . More than 7000 Jewish athletes will compete on various sporting events. (Ynet) The body of a U.S. Navy SEAL has been found and recovered in Afghanistan , a senior defense official said Sunday. (CNN) In Kyrgyzstan , acting president Kurmanbek Bakiev wins presidential elections with 89% support so far (IHT) (Reuters) In China a mine explosion has killed 22 miners in Xinjiang province. 35 men were rescued while over 30 are still missing. (Xinhua) (China Daily) (Reuters) The Roman Catholic Church defrocks six New York priests accused of sexual abuse , returning them to lay status. (IHT) In the Netherlands , Mohammed Bouyeri , suspected killer of filmmaker Theo van Gogh , goes on trial (Expatica, Netherlands) (Reuters AlertNet) (Bloomberg) In Bosnia and Herzegovina , tens of thousands of people gather in Potocari to commemorate the Srebrenica massacre and rebury 610 victims (Reuters) (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) [ permanent dead link ] Mexican police releases Joaquín Romero Aparicio, who was falsely suspected of being a drug lord Vicente Carrillo Fuentes (El Universal) (Reuters) According to the United States Department of Labor , Enron agrees to $356.25 million settlement with employees whose retirement plans were ruined. They are likely to receive only 15–20% of that (Forbes) (Reuters) In Russia , state prosecutors begin investigation for alleged fraud and abuse of official position against former prime minister Mikhail Kasyanov . He is potential future presidential candidate (Moscow Times) (RIA Novosti) (Bloomberg) Sanjay Shah , man who has spent 13 months in Nairobi airport, goes through British citizenship ceremony (BBC) In Trinidad and Tobago , bomb explosion injures 13-15 people (sources disagree) in the capital Port of Spain (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) Brazilian police detains opposition congressman and bishop João Batista Ramos da Silva of the Liberal Front Party and six others who had been transporting $2.6 million in cash in seven suitcases (MercoPress) (Bloomberg) In Somalia , gunmen kill prominent peace activist Abdulkadir Yahya Ali (ReliefWeb) (Reuters AlertNet) edit history watch London police identify four suspects in the 7 July 2005 London bombings ; all are British citizens apparently from Leeds , West Yorkshire , and at least one is believed to have died in the blasts. Raids find explosive materials and other forensic evidence. (Reuters) (BBC) Palestinian Islamic Jihad claims responsibility for two suicide bombings against Israelis . A car bomb detonates in the Shavey Shomron Israeli settlement on the West Bank causing no Israeli casualties. In Netanya , a suicide bomber kills three women at the HaSharon Mall. (Ynet) , (Haaretz) , (Ynet) , (BBC) In Monaco , Prince Albert is inaugurated as ruling prince, in succession to his father Prince Rainier who died in April. The unmarried Prince Albert acknowledged last week that he has a 22-month-old illegitimate son, Alexandre , and that there may be other paternity suits. (BBC) , (CNN) , (Mail&Guardian) According to the Cuban government, Hurricane Dennis killed 16 and caused $1.4 billion in damages. (Reuters) In Singapore , president Sellapan Ramanathan announces that he will seek re-election. Seventeen others have filed papers for candidacy (Channel News Asia) In China , the death toll of the Xinjiang mine explosion rises to 65. Eighteen are still missing. (Xinhua) (China Daily) (People's Daily) (Reuters) In Spain , a bomb explosion in Barcelona injures a policeman. (BBC) The European Court supports tighter controls over vitamin and mineral supplements. (ThisIsLondon) [ permanent dead link ] (BBC) In Lebanon , a bomb explosion injures pro- Syrian defence minister Elias Murr . (Al-Jazeera) In France , bus company Transports Schiocchet Excursions sues a group of cleaning women for operating a carpool using their own cars, on the ground of "unfair competition". (Guardian) In Washington, D.C. , Presidential Press Secretary Scott McClellan refused for the second day in a row to respond to reporters' questions about Newsweek 's revelation that Karl Rove disclosed the identity of CIA agent Valerie Plame . McClellan had asserted Rove's innocence on many occasions in the past. The President , at a photo-op today, ignored reporters who asked if his pledge to fire any staffer involved was still operative. (Bloomberg) Stockholders of both Procter & Gamble and Gillette overwhelmingly approve a combination of the two huge consumer-product companies, although the deal faces regulatory scrutiny both in Europe and in the United States. (Forbes) US federal judge Barbara Jones denies former WorldCom CEO Bernie Ebbers , who faces up to 85 years in prison , a retrial in federal court (New York Times) (Reuters) In Costa Rica , fire in Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia Hospital in San José kills at least 18 (Reuters AlertNet) In Myanmar (Burma), the government begins a trial against Khin Nyunt , former prime minister, accused of bribery and corruption . The trial is held inside Insein prison in Rangoon . (Channel News Asia) (Irrawaddy) In Spain 's Basque region, four bombs explode near a power station at Amorebieta near Bilbao . Separatist group ETA claims responsibility (EITB) (EuroNews) (Reuters) In Somalia , United Nations World Food Programme threatens to stop food shipments to the country for ten years if the hijacked food ship and its crew are not released (BBC) (Reuters AlertNet) (AllAfrica) The European Court of Justice fines France €20 million ($24 million) for flouting European Union fishing quotas (Reuters) (BBC) In Fiji , head of the military, Frank Bainimarama threatens to declare martial law and oust the government if it gives amnesty to those involved with 2000 coup attempt (Fiji Times) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters AlertNet) Lord King of Wartnaby , mastermind of the privatisation of British Airways under former prime minister Margaret Thatcher and chairman of B.A. for 12 years, dies in his sleep. Thunder Horse PDQ , the largest semi-submersible oil platform in the world, was found listing badly after hurricane Dennis . edit history watch The National Hockey League labor dispute , the longest work stoppage in North American professional sports , ends after 301 days. (CBC) Former Worldcom CEO Bernard Ebbers is sentenced to 25 years imprisonment for conspiracy , securities fraud and seven counts of making false SEC filings . (Bloomberg) U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist is hospitalized with a fever. There have been no indications when Rehnquist, who is fighting thyroid cancer , will be released. (CNN) (Reuters) NASA 's planned launch of STS-114 , Space Shuttle Discovery from pad 39B at the Kennedy Space Center at 3:51pm EDT (1951 UTC) is delayed due to a problem with the fuel level sensors. This would have been the first manned space launch by NASA since the loss of Columbia over 2 years ago. (CNN) (NASA) The Australian Government announces it will send back 150 élite Special Air Service troops to Afghanistan , to take part in covert operations and to help thwart a resurgent Taliban . A further 200 troops may also be dispatched to aid reconstruction efforts. (ABC News) The American Family Association , a Christian conservative activist group, announces an international boycott of Nike . In adding Nike to its ongoing boycotts of Kmart and the book One of the Guys by Robert Clark Young , the AFA argues that Nike promotes "a back door move to legalise homosexual marriage." (GayNZ.com) [ permanent dead link ] In Malaysia , ex-minister Osu Sukam , member of a ruling United Malays National Organisation party, resigns due to gambling debts totalling at least US$1.8 million. (Borneo Bulletin) [ permanent dead link ] (Channel News Asia) In China , the death toll in the Xinjiang mine explosion rises to 81, with two missing. (Xinhua) Geologists increase the alert status of Mount Merapi volcano in central Java in Indonesia . The volcano has shown increased activity since last Friday. (Jakarta Post) (Channel News Asia) In the Philippines , thousands of protestors gather in Manila to demand the resignation of president Gloria Arroyo , who has reshuffled her cabinet. The military is on alert in case of violence. (Sun Star) (Reuters) In Pakistan , a collision of three express trains near Ghotki leaves at least 120 dead after 13 carriages derail, according to Pakistan Railways and local police. (Reuters) (Al-Jazeera) (BBC) In Peru, thousands of demonstrators protest in Lima against a US trade pact that could lead to increase in the cost of medicines . (Reuters AlertNet) In Chile, the Senate reforms the country's constitution , decreasing power of the military in the upper house and reducing the presidential term for four years. The previous constitution is from the era of Augusto Pinochet . (Reuters) Spanish government approves pensions for people who fled Spain for the Soviet Union and South America as children during the Spanish Civil War and never returned. (Reuters) In Taiwan , a SWAT team apprehends wanted gang leader Chang Hsi-ming after a 30-minute gun battle in Shalu Township . (Taipei Times) (Channel News Asia) In Brazil, police raid the luxury good store Daslu and arrest the managers, including the owner Eliana Tranchesi , accused of tax evasion . (Bloomberg) (BBC) In Italy, police arrest 174 people in a crackdown on suspected Islamist militants. (AGI) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) In Japan, a group of 21 French speakers sue Shintaro Ishihara , governor of Tokyo , for calling French "a language which cannot count numbers". (Asahi Shimbun) (Reuters) The US State Department says it may withhold aid to Uzbekistan unless the Uzbek government agrees to an international inquiry about the unrest in Andijan . The official death toll has risen to 187. (BBC) (Baku Today) (Reuters AlertNet) (Eurasianet) Bones of a mammoth are found in Silicon Valley : Paleontologist Mark Goodwin said that bones discovered Saturday by Roger Castillo , an environmental activist, may be the femur , tusks and pelvic bones of a Columbian mammoth, a species of ancient elephant that roamed the area tens of thousands of years ago. (San Francisco Chronicle) edit history watch U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice William Rehnquist announces he will not retire from the court as long as his health permits him to remain. In October of 2004 Rehnquist, 80, was diagnosed with thyroid cancer and underwent a tracheotomy . Yahoo News (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) 2005 Atlantic hurricane season : Rain from Hurricane Emily causes flooding and mudslides in Grenada , as the hurricane continues to grow to near Category 3 strength. (NOAA) , (CNN) Dana Galkowicz , an Israeli woman, 22, dies in the moshav of Netiv Ha'asara after Palestinian militants fire more than a dozen Qassam rockets . Hamas , Islamic Jihad and the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades all claimed responsibility, though Israel primarily suspects Hamas (Ynet) In the morning, a fifth person dies from injuries sustained in Tuesday's Netanya suicide bombing attack. (Ynet) People across Europe observe two minutes of silence in memory of those who died in the 7 July 2005 London bombings . (Wikinews) Russia demands that US extradite Leonid Nevzlin , ex-CEO of Yukos , to face various charges, including organizing a contract killing . Nevzlin addressed the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe on Wednesday in Washington, D.C. (Pravda) [ permanent dead link ] (Kommersant) (Reuters) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) In South Korea , one F-4E and one F-5F military jet fighter plane crash into the sea in two separate accidents. None of the four pilots survived. (Channel News Asia) (Bloomberg) (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) In New Zealand , Graham Capill , former leader of the Christian Heritage Party , is sentenced to nine years for sexual abuse of three young girls. (TVNZ) (New Zealand Herald) The 7th World Games are being opened in Duisburg /Germany. In the US, customs in New York airport have refused entry of British leading moderate Muslim theologian Zaki Badawi . Bawadi had been invited to a talk in Chautauqua Institution . He had publicly condemned the bombings in London (USA Today) , (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) In Haiti , Jacques Roche , kidnapped prominent journalist and poet, is found dead. Police says he was tortured and shot. Roche was kidnapped July 10 (Reuters) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)) In Zimbabwe , court jails a male athlete, who went by the name Samukeliso Sithole , for 3.5 years for masquerading as a female in women's sports. Sithole had said that he has both male and female sexual organs (Reuters) (BBC) In Isiolo , Kenya , catholic missionary and bishop Luigi Locati is shot to death (Reuters AlertNet) (Link dead as of 00:39, 15 January 2007 (UTC)), (BBC) edit history watch Seven Palestinians are killed by Israeli Air Force missile attacks on the Gaza Strip and West Bank , including at least four Hamas militants. Five other Palestinian civilian bystanders are injured in the attacks. According to CNN all the 7 were militants, whereas the BBC says four were. The attack was carried out amid a barrage of Qassam rockets . (BBC) (CNN) (Reuters) The chemist Magdi al-Nashar , sought by British police in relation to the 7 July London bombings , has been arrested in Egypt . (BBC) In the Philippines , opposition demonstrators demanding resignation of president Gloria Arroyo seize the building of the Department of Agriculture and smash windows before dispersing before police. Her political opponents in the senate want to begin impeachment procedures (ABS-CBN) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) Governor Luis Singson , claims that he has a tape of a conversation where the jailed president Joseph Estrada is planning to return to power by disposing of whoever would lead the transitional government after Arroyo resigns. (ABS-CBN) (INQ7) 5.0 Richter scale earthquake hits central Philippines . There are no reports of any casualties (Channel News Asia) Paediatrician Sir Roy Meadow is struck off the medical register by the General Medical Council after finding that he had committed "serious professional misconduct" relating to his testimony as an expert witness in the trial of Sally Clark . (BBC) The United States opens its borders to Canadian live cattle after legal action in its courts . (CBC) edit history watch 60 people are believed to have died following an Equatair Antonov plane crash in Equatorial Guinea . (BBC) (MSN) A suicide bomber detonates explosives near an LPG (propane) fuel tanker parked near a gas station south of Baghdad , sparking a massive explosion that kills more than 60 people and wounds as many as 100 in one of the worst insurgent attacks to hit the area since the US occupation of Iraq . (CNN) The English version of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is released at midnight local time across the UK, Ireland and North America (CNN) (Wikinews) KMT chairmanship election, 2005 : Ma Ying-jeou defeats Wang Jin-pyng in a vote for the chairmanship of the Kuomintang (KMT) by 72% to 28% in the first direct election for the post in the party's history. (BBC) edit history watch Disneyland celebrates its 50th Anniversary. Former British Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath dies at his Salisbury home at the age of 89. (BBC) Time correspondent Matthew Cooper reveals that last week he told a grand jury that Karl Rove —a top White House political adviser to U.S. President George W. Bush — was the first to reveal Valerie Plame 's identity as a CIA agent. (BBC) Fourteen Spanish Firefighters have died while attempting to battle a forest fire in the central province of Guadalajara . (BBC) According to the Military of Pakistan , 17 people have died, including a Pakistani soldier, following clashes on the border with Afghanistan . (BBC) Conflict in Iraq : A fuel truck bomb kills 98 people south of Baghdad as three more suicide car bombers strike the Iraqi capital. (Economic Times) Israeli–Palestinian conflict : A Palestinian man is shot dead near the Israeli settlement of Netzarim in the Gaza Strip . Israel Defence Force sources claim he was armed. (BBC) (Euronews) (ABC News Online) Two Hamas mortars injure five residents of the Israeli settlement of Neve Dekalim in the Gaza Strip . Four Qassam rockets land on Israeli territory but no injuries are reported. An Israeli Air Force missile strike on a car in Beit Lahia misses the car but seriously wounds a Palestinian bystander. Two members of the Popular Resistance Committees are believed to have been in the car. (BBC) (Ha'aretz) (Reuters) Israeli troops mass for a military offensive on the Gaza Strip border prior to a visit to Israel by US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice . (BBC) A Palestinian man is shot dead near the Israeli settlement of Netzarim in the Gaza Strip . Israel Defence Force sources claim he was armed. (BBC) (Euronews) (ABC News Online) Two Hamas mortars injure five residents of the Israeli settlement of Neve Dekalim in the Gaza Strip . Four Qassam rockets land on Israeli territory but no injuries are reported. An Israeli Air Force missile strike on a car in Beit Lahia misses the car but seriously wounds a Palestinian bystander. Two members of the Popular Resistance Committees are believed to have been in the car. (BBC) (Ha'aretz) (Reuters) Israeli troops mass for a military offensive on the Gaza Strip border prior to a visit to Israel by US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice . (BBC) Thailand declares emergency in three southern provinces of Narathiwat , Pattani and Yala because of increasing violence of Muslim insurgency . (Bangkok Post) (The Nation, Thailand) (Channel News Asia) In Yemen , president Ali Abdullah Saleh announces that he won't seek re-election next year. (Yemeni Observer) (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters AlertNet) In Egypt , presidential feminist aspirant Nawal El Saadawi pulls out of the race due to restrictive election regulations for first-time candidates. (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters) In Germany, the Party of Democratic Socialism renames itself The Party of the Left. in a plan to join forces with the Labour and Social Justice Party . (Deutsche Welle) (Reuters) In The United Kingdom, Britain's Sunni Council announces a fatwa against suicide bombings . (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) In Nigeria , Amaka Anajemba is sentenced for two years involvement with a money transfer scam worth $242 million. (IOL) (Forbes) (BBC) Representatives of Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement reach a tentative peace settlement in negoations in Helsinki , Finland. They intend to sign a formal truce in August 15 . (Jakarta Post) (Reuters) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Turkey , Kurdistan Workers' Party has denied that it had anything to do with a minibus bombing in Kuşadası that killed five people. Turkish authorities have blamed the Party. (BBC) In India, the government has dismissed a claim of Sunni Waqf Board that it should own the Taj Mahal . (BBC) US golfer Tiger Woods wins his second Open Championship title on the Old Course at St Andrews . edit history watch Eight former Serbian secret police officers, and supporters of Slobodan Milošević , have been found guilty of the murder of former President Ivan Stambolić and sentenced to between 15 and 40 years in prison . (BBC) The Federal Constitutional Court , the highest Court in Germany , has ordered the release of Mamoun Darkazanli who has been accused by Spain of having funded the September 11, 2001 attacks . (BBC) Hurricane Emily slams into the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . Tens of thousands of tourists and residents were evacuated from the beach resorts in and around Cancún and Cozumel in the state of Quintana Roo . (BBC) , (CBC) , (Reuters) In Taiwan , authorities evacuate hundreds of people when Typhoon Haitang hits the country. The typhoon is heading towards Okinawa (Taipei Times) (Channel News Asia) (Japan Today) (Bloomberg) In Australia , Indigenous leaders pay tribute to Sir Ronald Wilson , white Indigenous rights campaigner, who died last Friday (ABC) (The Australian) (SBS) In Malaysia , a group of 30 people attacks the religious commune of Sky Kingdom (Malaysian Star) (BBC) In Lebanon , the Parliament grants amnesty to the imprisoned Lebanese Forces leader Samir Geagea . Geagea was arrested since 1994 . (AlJazeera) (Ya Libnan) (Newsday) In Morocco , Ali Salem Tamek , human rights activist and supporter of independence of Western Sahara , is arrested when he returns from Europe . Government accuses him of fomenting riots (Al-JAzeera) The European Union is planning an operation to monitor peace process in Aceh (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) According to AIDS study of United Nations Council of Foreign Relations , most of the HIV strains in Asia originate from Myanmar (Burma). Study used genetic fingerprinting to find spread of the virus strains (Reuters) In Ukraine , president Viktor Yushchenko wants to abolish traffic police because it is too corrupted (BBC) (MosNews) General William Westmoreland , once the commander of U.S. forces in Vietnam , dies peacefully in a retirement home in South Carolina . (Globe and Mail) edit history watch Three British Soldiers are to face war crimes charges as well as criminal charges at a Court-Martial following the death of a detainee in Iraq in September 2003 . (BBC) 6 killed in Srinagar blast near school. The suicide bomber rammed his car on a passing army jeep, causing a massive explosion. Pakistani group Hizbul Mujahideen is suspected to be behind the attack. (Rediff) US President George W. Bush has nominated federal appeals court judge John Roberts to replace Sandra Day O'Connor . Wikinews (AP/Yahoonews) According to reports from Russia , at least 14 people have been killed and several injured in an explosion in Chechnya . (BBC) In the Philippines , President Gloria Arroyo announces that she intends to form a truth commission to investigate charges of poll fraud against her. (Channel News Asia) (BBC) The Canadian Senate passes Bill C-38 to legalize same-sex marriage in Canada . The bill will become law when it receives Royal Assent from Governor General Adrienne Clarkson , scheduled for tomorrow. (CBC) Prime Minister Manmohan Singh of India addresses joint session of US Congress in his historic visit to the US . (BBC) (Rediff) In Thailand , dozens of newspapers editors of Thai Journalist's Association protest against new emergency laws that include media censorship and phone tapping (Channel News Asia) (Index) (Reuters AlertNet) UK court sentences Afghan warlord Faryadi Sarwar Zardad for 20 years in jail for war crimes (Telegraph) [ permanent dead link ] (Al-Jazeera) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) Former Bosnian Croat soldier Miroslav Bralo pleads guilty for war crimes in the UN war crimes tribunal in the Hague (Reuters AlertNet) (FENA) [ permanent dead link ] In Lebanon , prime minister Fouad Siniora announces his new cabinet after long negotiations. Cabinet members include representative of Hezbollah when Christian leader Michel Aoun refuses to join (Daily Star) (Monday Morning, Lebanon) (Al-Jazeera) (BBC) In Spain , huge forest fire continues to rage, threatening villages of Selas and Ablanque . A group of ten day-trippers has confessed being responsible for the start of the fire and one of them has been charged (EITB) (BBC) edit history watch Hurricane Emily makes landfall along the northeast coast of Mexico, about 75 miles south of the Mexico–United States border , with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph, causing damage along the coast. In Texas, flooding and tornadoes have been reported from the effects of Emily. (CBS news) Police in Pakistan have detained about 200 suspected Islamist extremists in a series of raids on religious schools, mosques and other properties. (BBC) Canada becomes the 4th nation in the world to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide. (National Post) In mainland China , authorities evacuate more than a million people from Fujian and Zhejiang provinces due to Typhoon Haitang . In Taiwan , death toll rises to 7 with one missing and 31 injured. The typhoon also causes significant agricultural damage (People's Daily) (Xinhua) (Taipei Times) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters AlertNet) Government of Thailand changes the new emergency laws, weakening two articles that would have, among other things, enforced curfews and censorship of personal communication. (Bangkok Post) [ permanent dead link ] Saudi Arabian long-time ambassador to the US, prince Bandar bin Sultan , resigns for "personal reasons" (New York Times) (Al-Jazeera) (Bloomberg) In Yemen , 8-13 people die during demonstrations against oil price increases (Al-Jazeera) (MENAFN) (Reuters AlertNet) Indonesian government confirms first deaths connected to bird flu (Reuters) In China, coal mine explosion in Shaanxi province kills 24–26 (Xinhua) (China Daily) (Reuters) In Brazil , Delubio Soares , former treasurer for the ruling Worker's Party , admits in a parliamentary hearing that the party did not declare contributions worth $17 million (Bloomberg) (BBC) Indian Army announces that it has unveiled a scam where contractors responsible for transportation of fuel to depots of its Northern Command had sold off the fuel and filled the tanks with water (Times of India) (NDTV) James Doohan , the actor best known for playing Scotty on Star Trek: The Original Series and the first seven Star Trek films , dies at his home in Redmond, Washington . edit history watch In Maharashtra , India, the state Assembly unanimously adopts a Bill amending the Bombay Police Act, 1951 which will ban dance bars across the state. (IndianExpress) Kenyan legislators approve a constitution which critics say leaves too much power in the hands of the President . (BBC) . German President Horst Köhler agrees to dissolve parliament. He calls for earlier elections in mid-September 2005. BBC News . - see German federal election, 2005 After a blitz of detentions of suspected militants and Islamists , Pakistan 's President Pervez Musharraf calls for a holy war against preachers of hate and announces steps to curb militant Islamic schools and groups. (Reuters) Tatarstan : On the feast day of the holy icon " Theotokos of Kazan ", in the presence of the crowd of 10,000 pilgrims , Patriarch Alexius II and the President of Tatarstan place at the newly-restored Annunciation Cathedral of the Kazan Kremlin the holiest copy of the long-lost icon, which was presented to Russia by Pope John Paul II shortly before his death. (Asianews) Conflict in Iraq : Algeria 's two most senior diplomatic staff in Iraq are kidnapped from outside a restaurant in the western Mansour district. (BBC) Parts of the London Underground are evacuated , as British police are investigating reports of three separate incidents involving minor explosions in Shepherd's Bush , Warren Street and Oval underground stations. There are also reports of an incident on the no. 26 bus in Hackney, East London. There are no reported casualties and police are not yet treating the incidents as "major". (BBC) The People's Bank of China announces a 2 percent revaluation of its currency, the Renminbi (yuan), and says the yuan will no longer be pegged to the US dollar , instead trading within a narrow range against a market basket of currencies. (AP) In Morocco , authorities detain five supporters of Western Saharan independence for their alleged part in violent demonstrations last May. (Al-Jazeera) Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono orders the army to stop offensive against separatist rebels in Aceh after the acceptance of the new peace deal. (Channel News Asia) (Bloomberg) In Mexico, police are looking for kidnapped soccer coach Omar Romano . (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Rwanda , gacaca court investigating the Rwandan genocide summons Thaddee Ntihinyurwa , head of the Catholic Church in the country, to testify. (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In China , a group of farmers in Shengyou village in Hebei province that demonstrated over seizure of an arable land for the power plant, win in a dispute. (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) Malaysian government also remove the ringgit 's peg to US dollar . (Straits Times, Malaysia) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters) African Development Bank elects Donald Kaberuka , former finance minister of Rwanda , as president. (AFDB) (Forbes) In the Republic of Congo , trial of sixteen military and security officer begins. They are accused of killing 353. refugees who disappeared 1999 in the so-called Beach case . (World Peace Herald) (Reuters) (BBC) In China, a dam collapses in Yunnan province. At least 15 dead and 23 injured. (Xinhua) (China Daily) The Maccabiah games has finished. edit history watch A bomb explodes from beneath a car in the Lebanese capital of Beirut causing injuries, but no deaths. (BBC) About 88 people are killed and 200 injured in a series of car bombs in the Egyptian resort of Sharm el-Sheikh at about 0100 local time (2200 UTC Friday). (BBC) Malaysian Prime Minister Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi says that he feels it is his duty to prevent Islam and its symbols from being used to propagate violence. He has set three missions for himself – continuing to remind the world community to understand the root causes of terrorism, explaining that Islam is a religion of peace and opposed to violence, and showcasing Malaysia as a modern Islamic country and a safe place to invest and visit. (The Star) (Iranian Quran News Agency) [ permanent dead link ] (Islam Online) Berlin , Germany: a small plane crashes near the Reichstag and the Federal Chancellor's Office , killing the pilot. Suicide suspected, rather than terrorism. (Deutsche Welle) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Dubai, police are on alert due to the wedding of Junaid Miandad and Mahrukh Ibrahim. Junaid is the son of former Pakistani cricket captain Javed Miandad . Mahrukh is the daughter of India's most wanted crime boss , Dawood Ibrahim . (Sify) Microsoft announces that the former codenamed "Windows Longhorn" will now officially be known as " Windows Vista ". The first beta test will be launched on August 3. In Mumbai , India, LeT militant and alleged Al-Qaida operative, Mohammed Afroze , is convicted of criminal conspiracy, conspiracy to disturb relations between friendly nations, and forging documents. However, he is acquitted on charges of waging war against the nation. (NDTV) At least 36 people are dead after two days of violent fuel riots in Yemen . (BBC) At least 15 people are killed when a dam collapses in south-west China . (BBC) Jean Charles de Menezes , suspected of being an attempted suicide bomber , having been chased by plainclothes police has been reportedly pinned to the ground then shot five times at Stockwell tube station in London , and has been confirmed dead by the police. (Wikinews) , (the Guardian) , (BBC) (CNN) (Sky) . The man was actually an innocent Brazilian killed without cause. A mosque in east London and the surrounding area is evacuated for an hour following receipt of a bomb warning. The all-clear is given after the mosque is searched by police. (Wikinews) , (Sky News) Two ships collide off Japan's Chiba prefecture and the Chinese -crewed freighter Wei Hang 9 sinks. One crewmember is dead, with 8 missing. (Japan Today) (Xinhua) (Reuters) The Pentagon confirms that 52 detainees of the Guantanamo camp have gone on hunger strike . (New York Times) (BBC) (Al-Jazeera) Leaked excerpts from the United Nations ' report into Zimbabwe 's Operation Murambatsvina state that the operation has been a "disastrous venture" that has violated international law and created a grave humanitarian crisis . It further suggests that the act might qualify as a crime against humanity and urged Zimbabwe to prosecute those responsible. (Guardian) . The insolvent car-building company MG Rover Group is bought by the Nanjing Automobile Group for around 53 million pounds. (BBC) (Times Online) edit history watch Human rights campaigners in Gujarat , India, have condemned a new school textbook introduced last year by the Bharatiya Janata Party which is seen to praise Adolf Hitler and barely mention the holocaust . (BBC) The strongest earthquake to hit Tokyo in more than a decade strikes eastern Japan at 4:35 p.m. local time, injuring at least 27 people, rattling buildings and disrupting train and plane services. (CBC) British police admit that the man killed yesterday by undercover officers had no connection to the suicide bombings or attempted bombings of previous days and weeks. Metropolitan Police has described the killing as a "tragedy". The victim, Jean Charles de Menezes , 27, was Brazilian. (BBC) Rep. Barbara Lee (D-CA) introduces a Congressional Resolution of Inquiry which, if passed, will require the White House and the U.S. State Department to "transmit all information relating to communication with officials of the United Kingdom between January 1, 2002, and October 16, 2002, relating to the policy of the United States with respect to Iraq." (Wikinews) A team of scientists from the UK and Australia state that they have found high concentrations of arsenic from the hair of King George III . Medication containing arsenic could have caused him bouts of madness (Scotsman) (News-medical.net) (Reuters) In Spain , bomb explodes in Santiago de Compostela near regional savings bank Caixa Galicia . There are no casualties. Government blames Galician separatists. Police have arrested two people (EITB) (Reuters) Cuba releases three dissidents , including leader Marta Beatriz Roque . 17 others are still incarcerated after crackdown in Friday (Cubanet) (Reuters) In Colombia , president Álvaro Uribe signs a controversial law that is meant to encourage paramilitary groups and guerrillas to disarm (BBC) In Burma / Myanmar , Khin Nyunt , former prime minister, receives a suspended sentence of 44 years in prison for corruption (Irrawaddy) (Democratic Voice of Burma) 3 bombs hit the Naama Bay area of Sharm el-Sheikh , Egypt, killing 88 people. July 23, 2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks . edit history watch Francis Ona , the leader of the former Bougainville Revolutionary Army , has died in village on Bougainville following a short illness. Ona led the bloody 10-year secessionist war against Papua New Guinea that ended in 1997 . (ABC News) (ABC News) A magnitude 7.2 earthquake occurs off the Nicobar Islands at 1542 UTC , near the epicentre of the 26 December 2004 earthquake . (USGS) . USGS reports the quake was felt in Chennai , India , and Phuket , Thailand . (USGS) 56 people die in Nigeria when a bus travelling from Lagos crashes and falls off a bridge into the Gadar Tamburawa river , just south of Kano . It is believed that the driver fell asleep as he drove. (BBC) Conflict in Iraq : At least 39 people, mostly civilians , have been killed when a Suicide Truck Bomb exploded at a police station in the Iraqi Capital of Baghdad . (BBC) , (the Guardian) Israeli-Palestinian Conflict : Two Israeli civilians and two Palestinian terrorists have been killed. The Israelis were killed by Palestinian terrorists on the Kisufim road in the Gaza Strip , and the IDF Engineering forces killed the two terrorists. The al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades , the Popular Resistance Committees and Islamic Jihad all claimed responsibility for the attack. (BBC) A Palestinian attempted suicide bomber from Jebaliya was caught near Kibbutz Nir Am , near Sderot , just outside the Gaza Strip . (Reuters) , (Ynet) Two Israeli civilians and two Palestinian terrorists have been killed. The Israelis were killed by Palestinian terrorists on the Kisufim road in the Gaza Strip , and the IDF Engineering forces killed the two terrorists. The al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades , the Popular Resistance Committees and Islamic Jihad all claimed responsibility for the attack. (BBC) A Palestinian attempted suicide bomber from Jebaliya was caught near Kibbutz Nir Am , near Sderot , just outside the Gaza Strip . (Reuters) , (Ynet) American cyclist and cancer survivor Lance Armstrong wins his seventh consecutive Tour de France . Armstrong has announced that this will be his last tour and he will be retiring from the sport. (Letour.fr) (BBC) The United States wins the 2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup , defeating Panama after two overtime rounds and a penalty shootout. (Los Angeles Times) In Southwest China , authorities are investigating deaths of 17 farm workers who died of an unidentified disease (Xinhua) (Channel News Asia) (Reuters) In South Korea , hundreds of people gather to the funeral of Yi Gu , the last heir of the former Joseon Dynasty . Yi Gu died in July 16 (Channel News Asia) In Zambia , authorities arrest Michael Sata , leader of Patriotic Front , for sedition for inciting miners to riot (AllAfrica) (Reuters SA) Guinea-Bissau presidential election, 2005 : Guinea-Bissau votes in a second round of presidential elections . Candidates are the ruling party candidate Malam Bacai Sanhá and former military ruler João Bernardo Vieira . Results are expected next week (Reuters) (BBC) Dawood Ibrahim 's daughter marries Javed Miandad 's son in Dubai . (Rediff) (WorldEscape) edit history watch Israel has summoned the ambassador from the Vatican to explain why the Pope did not condemn Palestinian militant attacks on Israelis, in a statement on Sunday, July 24, Pope Benedict XVI said that he deplored attacks in "countries including Egypt, Turkey, Iraq and Britain". (BBC) Bilateral negotiations have resumed between the US and North Korea . (BBC) . The Service Employees International Union and the Teamsters , the two largest unions in the AFL–CIO , announce their intentions to leave the labor federation, underscoring a major schism within the U.S. labour movement . (IHT) Two men, one today, one yesterday, have been arrested in the New Southgate area of London during police investigations into the recent London bombings . (Daily Mail) (This is London) [ permanent dead link ] At least five people have been killed after grenades were thrown at a night-club and official residences in Ethiopia 's Somali region. (BBC) A mystery illness spreading through Western China has claimed its 17th victim. Doctors have confirmed the disease is neither bird flu nor SARS (BBC) . Chinese health officials announce that autopsies point to Streptococcosis II as the probable culprit. (Xinhuanet) . Conflict in Iraq : Sunni Arab representatives appointed to the committee tasked with writing up a new Constitution of Iraq have ended their boycott. (BBC) At least seven people have died following a twin suicide car bomb attack on police checkpoints in the centre of Baghdad . (BBC) Sunni Arab representatives appointed to the committee tasked with writing up a new Constitution of Iraq have ended their boycott. (BBC) At least seven people have died following a twin suicide car bomb attack on police checkpoints in the centre of Baghdad . (BBC) The New Zealand general election 2005 is set for Saturday September 17, 2005. (NZ Herald) (Stuff.co.nz) (Reuters) Philippine electoral crisis, 2005 : Opposition files impeachment complaint against president Gloria Arroyo for election fraud . President has declared a day a holiday and intends to make a key policy speech. (SABC) (Sun Star) (Manila Bulletin) (Philstar) [ permanent dead link ] (Channel News Asia) (Reuters) Brazil hosts annual AIDS conference in Rio de Janeiro . (BBC) Italian court issues arrest warrants of new 6 CIA operatives for involvement of kidnapping of Osama Mustafa Hassan (ANSA, Italy) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) (BBC) In Lebanon , Samir Geagea , former Maronite militia chief, leaves prison (Al-Jazeera) (Reuters) In Senegal , former prime minister Idrissa Seck is arrested for "endangering national security" (AllAfrica) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In Sri Lanka , investigators that investigate alleged misappropriation of funds of tsunami relief after 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake , state that they have not found any evidence of wrongdoing. Opposition United National Party claims that prime minister Mahinda Rajapaksa had siphoned off 83 million rupees to his own constituency (Reuters AlertNet) In Brazil, Paulo Henrique Machado , priest who led the support group of victims of the Nova Iguacu massacre , is shot to death in Rio de Janeiro (BBC) Denmark protests over visit of Canadian defense minister Bill Graham to disputed Hans Island near Greenland (CBC) (BBC) In Malawi , president Bingu wa Mutharika bans all exports of maize and fertilizers to alleviate the food crisis in the country (IOL) (BBC) edit history watch Conflict in Iraq : At least 12 workers have been shot dead as they are driven away from the state owned factory they work at, in the Abu Ghraib area, by insurgents . (BBC) Insurgents have released a video showing the two Diplomatic staff from Algeria kidnapped from Baghdad last week. (BBC) At least 12 workers have been shot dead as they are driven away from the state owned factory they work at, in the Abu Ghraib area, by insurgents . (BBC) Insurgents have released a video showing the two Diplomatic staff from Algeria kidnapped from Baghdad last week. (BBC) Over 200 people have been killed in intense rain storms in Maharashtra , India, described by the Chief Minister of the state as the heaviest recorded rainfall in a single day in India. One third of the state Capital , Mumbai , is said to be underwater causing more than a two hundred thousand people to be stranded in offices and roads for about 24 hours. (Rediff) , (BBC) Several protesters have been injured again in India on this second day of protests. (BBC) The Space Shuttle Discovery lifts off at 1039 EST this morning on mission STS-114 . The NASA commentator says during launch "Lift-off, lift-off, and return to America's journey to the Moon, Mars, and beyond". (BBC) . Lebanese Christian militia leader, Samir Geagea , has been released from prison after 11 years. (BBC) South Korean ambassador to the US, Hong Seok-Hyun , resigns for alleged involvement with slush fund scandal of illegal donations during a presidential campaign in 1997 (Chosun Ilbo) (Channel News Asia) Burma / Myanmar forgoes 2006 chairmanship of ASEAN (Channel News Asia) At least 1,000 protesters have staged a demonstration outside the main US base of Bagram in Afghanistan . (BBC) In the Netherlands, Mohammed Bouyeri receives life sentence for murder of Theo van Gogh (Expatica) (IHT) (Al-Jazeera) In Canada, geneticists in the University of Alberta are testing hairs that allegedly belong to sasquatch (CBC) (Reuters) In Israel , there are reports that Jewish ultranationalists have cast a Pulsa diNura death curse over Ariel Sharon (Ynet) (Reuters Alertnet) Chilean judge Sergio Muñoz calls for search of new suspected secret foreign accounts of Augusto Pinochet (International Justice Tribune) [ permanent dead link ] (Reuters) In Mexico, court rules that there is insufficient evidence to try former president Luis Echeverría for genocide for a student massacre in 1971 (Reuters AlertNet) In Israel , Omri Sharon , MP and son of Ariel Sharon , is indicted for involvement in illegal campaign contributions, perjury and forging documents. Omri Sharon states that he would give up his parliamentary immunity and stand trial (Jerusalem Post) (Haaretz) [ permanent dead link ] (Arutz Sheva) (Reuters) In Somalia , transitional president Abdullahi Yusuf arrives in the town of Jowhar , intending to make it a base for his new government (BBC) In Nepal , king's court sentences Sher Bahadur Deuba and three others to two years in jail for alleged embezzling . Deuba denounces the sentence as " character assassination ". (Kantipur Online) (rising Nepal) (Reuters AlertNet) edit history watch British " Shoot to Kill " Police Policy: The British Police member who shot an innocent Brazilian man seven times in the head and once in the shoulder has been given a free holiday, paid for by Scotland Yard . (BBC News) Sir Ian Blair , Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police has told Channel 4 news that on seven separate occasions British police have come close to killing suspected Suicide Bombers who it transpired were not Suicide Bombers. (The Times) , (Financial Times) The British Police member who shot an innocent Brazilian man seven times in the head and once in the shoulder has been given a free holiday, paid for by Scotland Yard . (BBC News) Sir Ian Blair , Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police has told Channel 4 news that on seven separate occasions British police have come close to killing suspected Suicide Bombers who it transpired were not Suicide Bombers. (The Times) , (Financial Times) Conflict in Iraq : Two US Troops were killed following a bomb in Baghdad . (BBC News) Two Algerian diplomatic staff who had been kidnapped by insurgents have been killed. (BBC News) At least five people have died following an apparent Suicide Bomb blast outside a hospital in the Iraqi Capital , Baghdad . (BBC News) The interim Prime Minister of Iraq , Ibrahim Jaafari , has called on US troops to leave Iraq soon. (BBC News) , ( The Christian Science Monitor ) Seven Iraqi soldiers, guarding a water plant north of Baghdad , have been shot and killed by Insurgents . (KCTV) Two US Troops were killed following a bomb in Baghdad . (BBC News) Two Algerian diplomatic staff who had been kidnapped by insurgents have been killed. (BBC News) At least five people have died following an apparent Suicide Bomb blast outside a hospital in the Iraqi Capital , Baghdad . (BBC News) The interim Prime Minister of Iraq , Ibrahim Jaafari , has called on US troops to leave Iraq soon. (BBC News) , ( The Christian Science Monitor ) Seven Iraqi soldiers, guarding a water plant north of Baghdad , have been shot and killed by Insurgents . (KCTV) 2005 Maharashtra floods : The death toll from the series of heavy monsoon rains and landslides they have triggered has been raised to at least 418 people in India's western state of Maharashtra . ( ExpressIndia ) [ permanent dead link ] NASA postpones indefinitely future launches of the Space Shuttle after a piece of insulation broke off the Space Shuttle external tank during the July 26 launch of the Discovery . (Yahoo News) (SpaceDaily) In Australia , New South Wales premier Bob Carr resigns and announces his disengagement from politics (ABC) (SBS) [ permanent dead link ] Malaysia takes chairmanship of the ASEAN Standing Committee (Channel News Asia) In China , the human death toll from an outbreak of the pig pathogen Streptococcus suis is 24. 21 are in critical condition and number of infections has increased to 117 BBC In Kyrgyzstan , about 400 Vamshi Uzbek refugees who fled from Uzbekistan after crushing of an uprising last May will be moved to Romania (BBC News) (MosNews) (Reuters) An explosion destroys an ONGC oil-drilling platform in the Bombay High field area late in the afternoon. The blast occurred possibly after a shipping vessel docked nearby collided with the platform during high tide . ( Express India ) [ permanent dead link ] (NDTV) (Reuters AlertNet) In Spain , police arrests 6 suspected members of the Basque separatist group ETA (EITB) (Reuters) In France , court in Angers sentences 62 members of a child sex ring to up to 28 years in jail. Trial lasted 5 months (Euronews) (Reuters) Other French court in Bonneville finds 13 people and companies guilty of manslaughter for the March 24 1999 Mont Blanc tunnel fire . Gerard Roncoli, the French head of security, received six months in jail and 24 months of suspended sentence (Euronews) (BBC News) (IHT) Microsoft releases Windows Vista Beta 1, the first beta version of Windows Vista codenamed " Longhorn ". edit history watch Conflict in Iraq : Two people have died following an explosion which destroyed a train tanker carrying oil, believed to have been caused by a bomb on the tracks. [Death Toll Confirmed] (BBC) Six Iraqi soldiers have died following clashes in two Baghdad streets. (BBC) Two people have died following an explosion which destroyed a train tanker carrying oil, believed to have been caused by a bomb on the tracks. [Death Toll Confirmed] (BBC) Six Iraqi soldiers have died following clashes in two Baghdad streets. (BBC) Israeli–Palestinian conflict : A Palestinian man has been shot dead by Israeli soldiers, who had suspected him of involvement in a suicide bombing . (BBC) Seven people have been killed and 38 others injured in an explosion on a moving passenger train in India. (BBC) The Provisional IRA issues a statement formally ordering an end to the armed campaign it has pursued since 1969 and ordering all its units to dump their arms, with effect from 1600 BST today (1500 UTC). The IRA has been on "cease-fire" since 1996 and said it would follow a democratic path ending more than 30 years of violence. It will not, however, disband. (BBC) (RTE) (Guardian) (Transcript of Statement) The strongest tornado in Britain in 25 years, rating a 2 on the Fujita scale , hits Birmingham , damaging homes and injuring 20 people. (BBC) The Islamic Human Rights Commission has released a statement which claims that the number of attacks on South Asians in the UK has risen 13 fold since the July 2005 London bombings . (BBC) Ugandans are voting in a referendum to decide whether to readopt a multi-party system (East African) [ permanent dead link ] (AllAfrica) (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) In India, Lal Krishna Advani of the Bharatiya Janata Party and seven others are charged with inciting riots in Ayodhya in 1992 (Newindpress) (The Hindu) In the United States, the House of Representatives approves the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement , 217-215, sending the approved treaty to President George W. Bush . (Yahoo!) The United States, China, India, Japan, South Korea and Australia have formed a partnership aiming to cut the emissions of gasses that lead to global warming. The agreement is known as the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate . In the US, a number of American-Muslim scholars announce a fatwa that condemns terrorism and religious extremism (U.S State Department) (Reuters AlertNet) In Serbia , Ljiljana Zelen-Karadžić, wife of Radovan Karadžić , goes public to ask her husband to give himself up (Fena) [ permanent dead link ] (B92) (IHT) (Reuters) Poland recalls its ambassador to Belarus and demands that the European Union impose sanctions after Belarusian police storms the offices of the country's Polish minority (EUobserver) (Reuters AlertNet) (IHT) In Canada, gene lab confirms that alleged sasquatch hairs actually belong to a bison (CBC) (Reuters) In Bulgaria , Bulgarian Socialist Party fails to form a government due to hung parliament. President Georgi Parvanov approaches the National Movement Simeon II of former king Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Euronews) (Reuters) (Sofia News Agency) In Guinea-Bissau , electoral commission declares João Bernardo Vieira winner of the presidential election with a 52-55% majority (Reuters AlertNet) (BBC) The UK government imposes a travel ban on Kenyan transport minister Chris Murungaru , who is investigated for corruption, forbidding him from visiting Britain (BBC) (KBC) (AllAfrica) edit history watch Astronomers have discovered a large new trans-Neptunian object , now called Eris , which is larger than Pluto . (Sky and Telescope) . Also announced today was the discovery of two other large new Kuiper Belt objects, Haumea ( (136108) 2003 EL 61 ) and Makemake ( (136472) 2005 FY 9 ). New observations reveal Haumea to be about 70% the diameter of Pluto. The object is also orbited by two moons . (New Scientist) Following a militant attack at Srinagar 's city centre at Lal Chowk more than 10 people have been left injured. (Rediff) Hamas , the main Palestinian opposition party in the Palestinian Authority , hold a mass wedding on the West Bank in which 226 couples performed the Nikah . (BBC) The remaining three London bombing suspects have been arrested after raids in the UK and Italy. (BBC) The President of Pakistan , Pervez Musharraf , has announced that all foreign students (around 1,400) are to leave the nation's Madrassas and go home. (BBC) Conflict in Iraq : At least 25 New Iraqi Army recruits have been killed following an apparent suicide bomb attack in Rabia , near Mosul , in North West Iraq . (BBC) Indian officials have raised the death toll of those suspected dead in the 2005 Maharashtra floods to more than 800. (BBC) Indian bomb disposal experts have found traces of explosive in the train which exploded on Thursday killing 7 people. (BBC) BBC News has been told, by the activist settler Noam Livnat, that 20,000 Israeli soldiers had signed a petition vowing to block any attempt at removing Israeli settlements from the Gaza Strip . (BBC) In Vietnam , death toll on bird flu rises to 42. (Thahn Nien News) (Reuters AlertNet) Initial results show that Ugandans have voted for a return to multi-party politics in a national constitutional referendum . The poll was marred by a low turnout . (BBC) Robert Kilroy-Silk resigns as leader from Veritas , the UK political party he founded. (Guardian) edit history watch Thousands of Czech riot police disperse the crowd at the annual free electronic music festival " CzechTek ", leaving dozens injured. (CBC) Conflict in Iraq : At least two British private security agents have been killed following an attack on a convoy in Basra , south Iraq . (BBC) Lawyers for the former President of Iraq , Saddam Hussein , claim he was attacked by an unidentified man after questioning by the Iraqi special tribunal on Thursday; however the United States denies the event. (BBC) Uzbekistan has reportedly given the United States six months to move out of a key base used for operations in Afghanistan . (BBC) Russia begins to withdraw its troops from the military bases in Georgia (Mosnews) (Messenger, Georgia) [ permanent dead link ] (Euronews) edit history watch More torrential monsoon rains have returned to Mumbai in India , as it tries to recover from the recent floods . The death toll in the floods rises to about 1,000. (BBC) 7 more suspects are arrested in Brighton following the 21 July 2005 London bombings . (BBC) Wim Duisenberg , the former head of the Rabobank , the Central Bank of the Netherlands and the European Central Bank , is found dead in the pool of his villa in the south of France . His death seems to have been caused by a cardiac arrest. (BBC) Chile 's Christian Democratic Party declares Michelle Bachelet as the presidential candidate of the ruling coalition (Mercopress) (BBC) Russia 's defence minister Sergei Ivanov bars the country's defense ministry from contacting ABC News after the channel broadcast an interview with Chechen rebel Shamil Basayev (RIA Novosti) (Mosnews) (Al-Jazeera) (BBC) In Côte d'Ivoire , former rebels known as the New Forces refuse to disarm before legislative reforms (BBC) (Reuters AlertNet) Indonesian pilot Pollycarpus Budihari Priyanto is charged with involvement with the murder of Munir Said Thalib (Jakarta Post) (BBC) In India , separatist group National Socialist Council of Nagaland extends its ceasefire with the government by six months (Newindpress) (India Daily) (Reuters India) In Iran former president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani appeals for the release of an imprisoned dissident writer Akbar Ganji . Ganji has been in a hunger strike for more than 50 days and is possibly near death (Reporters Without Borders) (IRNA) Atkins Nutritionals , Inc., a company founded by the late diet guru Robert Atkins to promote low-carb products, enters chapter 11 due to a loss of public interest. (Fox News) .mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar{clear:right;max-width:350px;width:100%;margin:auto;padding:0.2em;font-size:88%;line-height:1.5;border-spacing:3px;border:1px solid #cedff2;text-align:center;background-color:#f5faff;color:black}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar tbody a{font-weight:bold;width:100%;display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-archive{margin:8px 0 0 0}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption{font-weight:bold;background-color:#cedff2;line-height:1.6;padding:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:first-child{float:left;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar caption span:last-child{float:right;width:calc(14% + 6px)}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar th{width:14%}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td{padding-top:3px;padding-bottom:5px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .current-events-calendar-footer td a{font-weight:normal;width:initial} ◀ July 2005 ▶ S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Deaths in July July 29: Pat McCormick July 26: Alexander Golitzen July 20: James Doohan July 18: William Westmoreland July 17: Geraldine Fitzgerald July 17: Edward Heath July 2: Ernest Lehman July 1: Luther Vandross edit sidebar S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Deaths in July July 29: Pat McCormick July 26: Alexander Golitzen July 20: James Doohan July 18: William Westmoreland July 17: Geraldine Fitzgerald July 17: Edward Heath July 2: Ernest Lehman July 1: Luther Vandross edit sidebar July 29: Pat McCormick July 26: Alexander Golitzen July 20: James Doohan July 18: William Westmoreland July 17: Geraldine Fitzgerald July 17: Edward Heath July 2: Ernest Lehman July 1: Luther Vandross edit sidebar .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Current events by month v t e 2009 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2008 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2007 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2006 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2005 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2004 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2003 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2002 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2001 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2000 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2005 by day July 2005 Months in the 2000s Current events archives Webarchive template wayback links This page was last edited on 29 April 2023, at 03:57 (UTC) . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–5 of 5 results for author: Rahmatullaev, T Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10254 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Authors: Irina Abdullaeva , Anton Vasiliuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Zagorulko Ivan , Maxim Kurkin , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode sp… ▽ More We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs' ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10254 [ pdf , ps , other ] NoReGeo: Non-Reasoning Geometry Benchmark Authors: Irina Abdullaeva , Anton Vasiliuk , Elizaveta Goncharova , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Zagorulko Ivan , Maxim Kurkin , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode sp… ▽ More We present NoReGeo, a novel benchmark designed to evaluate the intrinsic geometric understanding of large language models (LLMs) without relying on reasoning or algebraic computation. Unlike existing benchmarks that primarily assess models' proficiency in reasoning-based geometry-where solutions are derived using algebraic methods-NoReGeo focuses on evaluating whether LLMs can inherently encode spatial relationships and recognize geometric properties directly. Our benchmark comprises 2,500 trivial geometric problems spanning 25 categories, each carefully crafted to be solvable purely through native geometric understanding, assuming known object locations. We assess a range of state-of-the-art models on NoReGeo, including frontier models like GPT-4, observing that even the most advanced systems achieve an overall maximum of 65% accuracy in binary classification tasks. Further, our ablation experiments demonstrate that such geometric understanding does not emerge through fine-tuning alone, indicating that effective training for geometric comprehension requires a specialized approach from the outset. Our findings highlight a significant gap in current LLMs' ability to natively grasp geometric concepts, providing a foundation for future research toward models with true geometric cognition. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2508.19428 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.LO cs.SC Heterogeneous LLM Methods for Ontology Learning (Few-Shot Prompting, Ensemble Typing, and Attention-Based Taxonomies) Authors: Aleksandra Beliaeva , Temurbek Rahmatullaev Abstract : We present a comprehensive system for addressing Tasks A, B, and C of the LLMs4OL 2025 challenge, which together span the full ontology construction pipeline: term extraction, typing, and taxonomy discovery. Our approach combines retrieval-augmented prompting, zero-shot classification, and attention-based graph modeling -- each tailored to the demands of the respective task. For Task A, we jointly… ▽ More We present a comprehensive system for addressing Tasks A, B, and C of the LLMs4OL 2025 challenge, which together span the full ontology construction pipeline: term extraction, typing, and taxonomy discovery. Our approach combines retrieval-augmented prompting, zero-shot classification, and attention-based graph modeling -- each tailored to the demands of the respective task. For Task A, we jointly extract domain-specific terms and their ontological types using a retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) pipeline. Training data was reformulated into a document to terms and types correspondence, while test-time inference leverages semantically similar training examples. This single-pass method requires no model finetuning and improves overall performance through lexical augmentation Task B, which involves assigning types to given terms, is handled via a dual strategy. In the few-shot setting (for domains with labeled training data), we reuse the RAG scheme with few-shot prompting. In the zero-shot setting (for previously unseen domains), we use a zero-shot classifier that combines cosine similarity scores from multiple embedding models using confidence-based weighting. In Task C, we model taxonomy discovery as graph inference. Using embeddings of type labels, we train a lightweight cross-attention layer to predict is-a relations by approximating a soft adjacency matrix. These modular, task-specific solutions enabled us to achieve top-ranking results in the official leaderboard across all three tasks. Taken together these strategies showcase the scalability, adaptability, and robustness of LLM-based architectures for ontology learning across heterogeneous domains. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 26 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. MSC Class: 68T30; 68T50; 68T07; 68U15 ACM Class: I.2.4; I.2.7; H.3.1; H.3.3; I.2.6 arXiv:2508.19428 [ pdf , other ] Heterogeneous LLM Methods for Ontology Learning (Few-Shot Prompting, Ensemble Typing, and Attention-Based Taxonomies) Authors: Aleksandra Beliaeva , Temurbek Rahmatullaev Abstract : We present a comprehensive system for addressing Tasks A, B, and C of the LLMs4OL 2025 challenge, which together span the full ontology construction pipeline: term extraction, typing, and taxonomy discovery. Our approach combines retrieval-augmented prompting, zero-shot classification, and attention-based graph modeling -- each tailored to the demands of the respective task. For Task A, we jointly… ▽ More We present a comprehensive system for addressing Tasks A, B, and C of the LLMs4OL 2025 challenge, which together span the full ontology construction pipeline: term extraction, typing, and taxonomy discovery. Our approach combines retrieval-augmented prompting, zero-shot classification, and attention-based graph modeling -- each tailored to the demands of the respective task. For Task A, we jointly extract domain-specific terms and their ontological types using a retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) pipeline. Training data was reformulated into a document to terms and types correspondence, while test-time inference leverages semantically similar training examples. This single-pass method requires no model finetuning and improves overall performance through lexical augmentation Task B, which involves assigning types to given terms, is handled via a dual strategy. In the few-shot setting (for domains with labeled training data), we reuse the RAG scheme with few-shot prompting. In the zero-shot setting (for previously unseen domains), we use a zero-shot classifier that combines cosine similarity scores from multiple embedding models using confidence-based weighting. In Task C, we model taxonomy discovery as graph inference. Using embeddings of type labels, we train a lightweight cross-attention layer to predict is-a relations by approximating a soft adjacency matrix. These modular, task-specific solutions enabled us to achieve top-ranking results in the official leaderboard across all three tasks. Taken together these strategies showcase the scalability, adaptability, and robustness of LLM-based architectures for ontology learning across heterogeneous domains. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 26 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. MSC Class: 68T30; 68T50; 68T07; 68U15 ACM Class: I.2.4; I.2.7; H.3.1; H.3.3; I.2.6 arXiv:2508.05305 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL SONAR-LLM: Autoregressive Transformer that Thinks in Sentence Embeddings and Speaks in Tokens Authors: Nikita Dragunov , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov , Anton Razzhigaev Abstract : The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid… ▽ More The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid objective retains the semantic abstraction of LCM while eliminating its diffusion sampler and restoring a likelihood-based training signal. Across model sizes from 39M to 1.3B parameters, SONAR-LLM attains competitive generation quality. We report scaling trends, ablations, benchmark results, and release the complete training code and all pretrained checkpoints to foster reproducibility and future research. △ Less Submitted 7 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.05305 [ pdf , ps , other ] SONAR-LLM: Autoregressive Transformer that Thinks in Sentence Embeddings and Speaks in Tokens Authors: Nikita Dragunov , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Andrey Kuznetsov , Anton Razzhigaev Abstract : The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid… ▽ More The recently proposed Large Concept Model (LCM) generates text by predicting a sequence of sentence-level embeddings and training with either mean-squared error or diffusion objectives. We present SONAR-LLM, a decoder-only transformer that "thinks" in the same continuous SONAR embedding space, yet is supervised through token-level cross-entropy propagated via the frozen SONAR decoder. This hybrid objective retains the semantic abstraction of LCM while eliminating its diffusion sampler and restoring a likelihood-based training signal. Across model sizes from 39M to 1.3B parameters, SONAR-LLM attains competitive generation quality. We report scaling trends, ablations, benchmark results, and release the complete training code and all pretrained checkpoints to foster reproducibility and future research. △ Less Submitted 7 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2502.15007 [ pdf , other ] cs.CL cs.AI LLM-Microscope: Uncovering the Hidden Role of Punctuation in Context Memory of Transformers Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Polina Druzhinina , Ivan Oseledets , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our a… ▽ More We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our analysis also shows a strong correlation between contextualization and linearity, where linearity measures how closely the transformation from one layer's embeddings to the next can be approximated by a single linear mapping. These findings underscore the hidden importance of filler tokens in maintaining context. For further exploration, we present LLM-Microscope, an open-source toolkit that assesses token-level nonlinearity, evaluates contextual memory, visualizes intermediate layer contributions (via an adapted Logit Lens), and measures the intrinsic dimensionality of representations. This toolkit illuminates how seemingly trivial tokens can be critical for long-range understanding. △ Less Submitted 20 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: accepted to NAACL 2025 arXiv:2502.15007 [ pdf , other ] LLM-Microscope: Uncovering the Hidden Role of Punctuation in Context Memory of Transformers Authors: Anton Razzhigaev , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Elizaveta Goncharova , Polina Druzhinina , Ivan Oseledets , Andrey Kuznetsov Abstract : We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our a… ▽ More We introduce methods to quantify how Large Language Models (LLMs) encode and store contextual information, revealing that tokens often seen as minor (e.g., determiners, punctuation) carry surprisingly high context. Notably, removing these tokens -- especially stopwords, articles, and commas -- consistently degrades performance on MMLU and BABILong-4k, even if removing only irrelevant tokens. Our analysis also shows a strong correlation between contextualization and linearity, where linearity measures how closely the transformation from one layer's embeddings to the next can be approximated by a single linear mapping. These findings underscore the hidden importance of filler tokens in maintaining context. For further exploration, we present LLM-Microscope, an open-source toolkit that assesses token-level nonlinearity, evaluates contextual memory, visualizes intermediate layer contributions (via an adapted Logit Lens), and measures the intrinsic dimensionality of representations. This toolkit illuminates how seemingly trivial tokens can be critical for long-range understanding. △ Less Submitted 20 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: accepted to NAACL 2025 arXiv:2502.07987 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Universal Adversarial Attack on Aligned Multimodal LLMs Authors: Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Polina Druzhinina , Nikita Kurdiukov , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Andrey Kuznetsov , Anton Razzhigaev Abstract : We propose a universal adversarial attack on multimodal Large Language Models (LLMs) that leverages a single optimized image to override alignment safeguards across diverse queries and even multiple models. By backpropagating through the vision encoder and language head, we craft a synthetic image that forces the model to respond with a targeted phrase (e.g., "Sure, here it is") or otherwise unsaf… ▽ More We propose a universal adversarial attack on multimodal Large Language Models (LLMs) that leverages a single optimized image to override alignment safeguards across diverse queries and even multiple models. By backpropagating through the vision encoder and language head, we craft a synthetic image that forces the model to respond with a targeted phrase (e.g., "Sure, here it is") or otherwise unsafe content -- even for harmful prompts. In experiments on the SafeBench and MM-SafetyBench benchmarks, our method achieves higher attack success rates than existing baselines, including text-only universal prompts (e.g., up to 81% on certain models). We further demonstrate cross-model universality by training on several multimodal LLMs simultaneously. Additionally, a multi-answer variant of our approach produces more natural-sounding (yet still malicious) responses. These findings underscore critical vulnerabilities in current multimodal alignment and call for more robust adversarial defenses. We will release code and datasets under the Apache-2.0 license. Warning: some content generated by Multimodal LLMs in this paper may be offensive. △ Less Submitted 4 June, 2025; v1 submitted 11 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: Added benchmarks, baselines, author, appendix ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.10 arXiv:2502.07987 [ pdf , ps , other ] Universal Adversarial Attack on Aligned Multimodal LLMs Authors: Temurbek Rahmatullaev , Polina Druzhinina , Nikita Kurdiukov , Matvey Mikhalchuk , Andrey Kuznetsov , Anton Razzhigaev Abstract : We propose a universal adversarial attack on multimodal Large Language Models (LLMs) that leverages a single optimized image to override alignment safeguards across diverse queries and even multiple models. By backpropagating through the vision encoder and language head, we craft a synthetic image that forces the model to respond with a targeted phrase (e.g., "Sure, here it is") or otherwise unsaf… ▽ More We propose a universal adversarial attack on multimodal Large Language Models (LLMs) that leverages a single optimized image to override alignment safeguards across diverse queries and even multiple models. By backpropagating through the vision encoder and language head, we craft a synthetic image that forces the model to respond with a targeted phrase (e.g., "Sure, here it is") or otherwise unsafe content -- even for harmful prompts. In experiments on the SafeBench and MM-SafetyBench benchmarks, our method achieves higher attack success rates than existing baselines, including text-only universal prompts (e.g., up to 81% on certain models). We further demonstrate cross-model universality by training on several multimodal LLMs simultaneously. Additionally, a multi-answer variant of our approach produces more natural-sounding (yet still malicious) responses. These findings underscore critical vulnerabilities in current multimodal alignment and call for more robust adversarial defenses. We will release code and datasets under the Apache-2.0 license. Warning: some content generated by Multimodal LLMs in this paper may be offensive. △ Less Submitted 4 June, 2025; v1 submitted 11 February, 2025; originally announced February 2025. Comments: Added benchmarks, baselines, author, appendix ACM Class: I.2.7; I.2.10 About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Smjernice za uređivanje novosti Stavljaju se vijesti iz Hrvatske ili vijesti iz drugih zemalja koje se tiču Hrvatske i hrvatskih državljana (npr. uspjesi hrvatskih športaša na nekom međudržavnom natjecanju, uspjesi hrvatski znanstvenika i umjetnika koji žive u dijaspori a od velikog su značaja za Hrvatsku i svijet itd., međudržavni sporazumi i ugovori koji se tiču Hrvatske i sl.). Pri odabiru takvih vijesti mora se paziti koliko bi vijest zanimala hrvatsku javnost i koliko je ona bitna za Hrvatsku. Vijesti ne smiju biti iste tematike (npr. sve športske). U vijesti ne stavljati nikakve crne kronike (prometne nesreće, ubojstva i sl. osim ako je životno stradala neka osoba s vodeće političke scene). Ne stavljati više od pet ili šest vijesti. Vijest mora biti kratka, sažeta i jasna. Vijest se može popratiti manjom slikom (od 80 do 120px). Novosti Novosti su jedna od rubrika na glavnoj stranici Wikipedije na hrvatskom jeziku. U toj rubrici navode se one vijesti koje su na neki način važne za Hrvatsku. Novosti su jedna od rubrika na glavnoj stranici Wikipedije na hrvatskom jeziku. U toj rubrici navode se one vijesti koje su na neki način važne za Hrvatsku. Trenutačne novosti .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} vidi raspravi uredi 13. siječnja – Hrvatski ovčar proglašen je nematerijalnim kulturnim dobrom Republike Hrvatske . 31. prosinca – Hrvatski radio pokrenuo je maraton „100 glasova u 100 sati za 100 godina” na Drugom programu s ciljem rušenja Guinnessovog rekorda za najveći broj voditelja u radijskom maratonu. Rekord je postignut na Novu godinu u sklopu obilježavanja stote obljetnice HRT -a. 24. prosinca – Diljem Hrvatske slavi se Badnjak . 18. prosinca – HNK Rijeka izborila je europsko proljeće prvi put nakon 1980. godine. 7. prosinca – Hrvatski plivač Jere Hribar na Europskom prvenstvu u plivanju na kratkim bazenima u Lublinu osvojio je tri medalje: zlato na 50 m slobodno, srebro na 100 m slobodno i broncu u hrvatskoj štafeti 4 × 50 m slobodno. Nedavne smrti : Ante Grgurević , Miroslav Sinčić , Vesna Gorše Arhiv vidi raspravi uredi 13. siječnja – Hrvatski ovčar proglašen je nematerijalnim kulturnim dobrom Republike Hrvatske . 31. prosinca – Hrvatski radio pokrenuo je maraton „100 glasova u 100 sati za 100 godina” na Drugom programu s ciljem rušenja Guinnessovog rekorda za najveći broj voditelja u radijskom maratonu. Rekord je postignut na Novu godinu u sklopu obilježavanja stote obljetnice HRT -a. 24. prosinca – Diljem Hrvatske slavi se Badnjak . 18. prosinca – HNK Rijeka izborila je europsko proljeće prvi put nakon 1980. godine. 7. prosinca – Hrvatski plivač Jere Hribar na Europskom prvenstvu u plivanju na kratkim bazenima u Lublinu osvojio je tri medalje: zlato na 50 m slobodno, srebro na 100 m slobodno i broncu u hrvatskoj štafeti 4 × 50 m slobodno. Nedavne smrti : Ante Grgurević , Miroslav Sinčić , Vesna Gorše Arhiv Arhivirane novosti po godinama: 2005. • 2006. • 2007. • 2008. • 2009. • 2010. • 2011. • 2012. • 2013. • 2014. • 2015. • 2016. • 2017. • 2018. • 2019. • 2020. • 2021. • 2022. • 2023. • 2024. • 2025. Smjernice za uređivanje novosti Stavljaju se vijesti iz Hrvatske ili vijesti iz drugih zemalja koje se tiču Hrvatske i hrvatskih državljana (npr. uspjesi hrvatskih športaša na nekom međudržavnom natjecanju, uspjesi hrvatski znanstvenika i umjetnika koji žive u dijaspori a od velikog su značaja za Hrvatsku i svijet itd., međudržavni sporazumi i ugovori koji se tiču Hrvatske i sl.). Pri odabiru takvih vijesti mora se paziti koliko bi vijest zanimala hrvatsku javnost i koliko je ona bitna za Hrvatsku. Vijesti ne smiju biti iste tematike (npr. sve športske). U vijesti ne stavljati nikakve crne kronike (prometne nesreće, ubojstva i sl. osim ako je životno stradala neka osoba s vodeće političke scene). Ne stavljati više od pet ili šest vijesti. Vijest mora biti kratka, sažeta i jasna. Vijest se može popratiti manjom slikom (od 80 do 120px). Stavljaju se vijesti iz Hrvatske ili vijesti iz drugih zemalja koje se tiču Hrvatske i hrvatskih državljana (npr. uspjesi hrvatskih športaša na nekom međudržavnom natjecanju, uspjesi hrvatski znanstvenika i umjetnika koji žive u dijaspori a od velikog su značaja za Hrvatsku i svijet itd., međudržavni sporazumi i ugovori koji se tiču Hrvatske i sl.). Pri odabiru takvih vijesti mora se paziti koliko bi vijest zanimala hrvatsku javnost i koliko je ona bitna za Hrvatsku. Vijesti ne smiju biti iste tematike (npr. sve športske). U vijesti ne stavljati nikakve crne kronike (prometne nesreće, ubojstva i sl. osim ako je životno stradala neka osoba s vodeće političke scene). Ne stavljati više od pet ili šest vijesti. Vijest mora biti kratka, sažeta i jasna. Vijest se može popratiti manjom slikom (od 80 do 120px). Aktualno Pomoć Ova stranica posljednji je put uređivana 27. listopada 2025. u 17:47. Page was rendered with Parsoid . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Methodology 3 Use of BookScan 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links BookScan العربية تۆرکجه Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Industry Book Publishing Founded 2001 Headquarters Woking , United Kingdom Services Publishing Parent .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} NIQ Circana (United States) NIQ Circana (United States) Website Circana BookScan homepage BookScan is a data provider for the book publishing industry that compiles point of sale data for book sales, owned by Circana in the United States and NIQ in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa, Italy, Spain, Brazil, Mexico, and Poland. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] In the United States, Nielsen sold BookScan to NPD in 2017, and the service was renamed NPD BookScan in that territory. [ 5 ] Elsewhere in the world, Nielsen BookScan continued to operate as an independent service. In March 2023, the official name for the service became Circana BookScan. [ 6 ] History Following the success of Nielsen SoundScan which tracked point of sale figures for music, the Nielsen Company decided to launch a similar service for book sales which had been established and was owned by UK based Whitaker & Sons Ltd. [ 7 ] Nielsen BookScan was launched in January 2001. [ 1 ] Previously, tracking of book sales, such as by the New York Times Best Seller list , was done without raw numbers. The New York Times would survey hundreds of outlets to estimate which books were selling the most copies, and would publish rankings but not figures. Only the publisher of a book tracked how many copies had been sold, but rarely shared this data. BookScan operated under Nielsen in the US until 2016 when it was acquired by The NPD Group from Nielsen's U.S. market information and research services for the book industry. In the U.S. the service has been a part of NPD Book since January, 2017. [ 8 ] In the rest of the world the BookScan service is owned by NIQ . [ 9 ] NIQ was formed from the divestiture of consumer intelligence business of the Nielsen Holdings (known as NielsenIQ) to private equity firm Advent International in March 2021. [ 10 ] Since October 2022, the American Booksellers Association has been BookScan’s official aggregator for independent bookstore data. [ 11 ] In March 2023, following the merger of The NPD Group and IRI to form a new company called Circana, NPD BookScan was rebranded as Circana BookScan. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Methodology BookScan relies on point of sale data from a number of major book sellers. In 2009, BookScan's US Consumer Market Panel covered 75% of retail sales. Use of BookScan BookScan was initially greeted with scepticism, but is now widely used by both the publishing industry and the media. [ 2 ] Publishers use the numbers to track the success of their rivals. The media uses the figures as a reference to gauge a title's success. Daniel Gross of Slate has noted the increase of pundits using the figures to disparage each other. [ 1 ] BookScan also provided previously unavailable metrics on books published by multiple publishers, such as classic novels in the public domain which may be published by many different houses. Previously, no single entity had figures for the sales of these books; publishers and bookstores only knew their own sales. Slate noted that Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice was available from Amazon in 130 different editions; prior to BookScan there was no way to tabulate total sales. By summing BookScan data, however, Pride and Prejudice was reported to command sales of 110,000 a year, nearly 200 years after being published. [ 3 ] BookScan records cash register sales of books by tracking ISBNs when a clerk scans the barcode. BookScan only tracks print book sales, thus excluding ebook sales from major e-tailers such as Amazon Kindle , Barnes & Noble Nook , Kobo , Apple , and Google Play . BookScan likewise does not include non-retail sales through channels such as libraries, nor specialty retailers who do not report to the service. [ 14 ] The weekend edition of the Wall Street Journal carried bestseller lists from BookScan data (non-fiction and fiction lists broken into traditional book, ebook, and combined lists) until the fall of 2023. [ 15 ] NIQ offers the BookScan service in 10 territories outside the U.S.: the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa, Italy, Spain, Brazil and Mexico, with Poland next to launch. [ 16 ] [ 9 ] [ 17 ] References ^ a b c Daniel Gross . " Why writers never reveal how many books their buddies have sold ." Slate , June 2, 2006. Retrieved on January 5, 2008. ^ a b Jim Milliot and Steven Zeitchik. " Bookscan: Acceptance, And Questions, Grow ." Publishers Weekly , January 12, 2004. Retrieved on January 5, 2008. ^ a b Adelle Waldman . " Cents and Sensibility; The surprising truth about sales of classic novels ." Slate , April 2, 2003. Retrieved on January 5, 2008. ^ Anna Weinberg. " Nielsen BookScan Releases Potter Sales Figures Archived 2007-10-15 at the Wayback Machine ." The Book Standard , July 21, 2005. Retrieved on January 5, 2008. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "NPD Buys Nielsen's Book Services" . PublishersWeekly.com . Retrieved 2019-07-30 . ^ "Circana BookScan Overview" . the American Booksellers Association . Retrieved 2025-07-16 . ^ "The hit makers | The Bookseller" . www.thebookseller.com . Retrieved 2019-07-26 . ^ "Nielsen Sells BookScan, Other U.S. Book Industry Services to NPD Group" . American Booksellers Association . 2017-01-20 . Retrieved 2018-07-04 . ^ a b "Measure" . Nielsen Book UK . Retrieved 2019-07-23 . ^ "Nielsen Announces Completion of Sale Of Global Connect Business to Advent International" . Nielsen Holdings . 2021-03-05 . Retrieved 2024-08-29 . ^ "Circana BookScan Overview" . the American Booksellers Association . Retrieved 2025-07-16 . ^ Cader, Michael (2023-03-20). "Real Book Sales Data, Now with A New Name" . Publishers Lunch . Retrieved 2025-07-16 . ^ "NPD BookScan Becomes Circana Books" . icv2.com . Retrieved 2025-07-16 . ^ "Everything You Wanted to Know about Book Sales (But Were Afraid to Ask)" . 30 June 2016. ^ Milliot, Jim (7 November 2023). "The 'Wall Street Journal' Drops Its Bestseller Lists" . Publishers Weekly . Retrieved 22 March 2025 . ^ Marktdaten in den USA , Börsenblatt für den Deutschen Buchhandel , January 20, 2017 ^ Gupta, Kanishka (11 November 2017). "Decoding a bestseller: How Nielsen BookScan is changing some aspects of Indian publishing" . Scroll.in . Retrieved 21 April 2020 . Further reading Andrews, Kurt; Napoli, Philip (2006), "Changing Market Information Regimes: A Case Study of the Transition to the BookScan Audience Measurement System in the U.S. Book Publishing Industry", Journal of Media Economics , 19 (1): 33– 54, doi : 10.1207/s15327736me1901_3 , S2CID 154342742 . External links Nielsen BookScan , year 2017 Nielsen BookScan .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Books v t e Production Binding Covers dust jackets Design Editing Illustration Illuminated manuscripts Printing edition history incunabula instant book limited edition Publishing advance copy hardcover paperback Size Typesetting Volume (bibliography) Collection (publishing) Book series Binding Covers dust jackets dust jackets Design Editing Illustration Illuminated manuscripts Illuminated manuscripts Printing edition history incunabula instant book limited edition edition history incunabula instant book limited edition Publishing advance copy hardcover paperback advance copy hardcover paperback Size Typesetting Volume (bibliography) Collection (publishing) Book series Consumption Awards Bestsellers list Bibliography Bibliomania ( tsundoku ) Bibliophilia Bibliotherapy Bookmarks Bookselling blurbs book towns history used Censorship Clubs Collecting Digitizing Bookworm (insect) Furniture bookcases bookends Library Print culture Reading literacy Reviews Awards Bestsellers list list Bibliography Bibliomania ( tsundoku ) Bibliophilia Bibliotherapy Bookmarks Bookselling blurbs book towns history used blurbs book towns history used Censorship Clubs Collecting Digitizing Bookworm (insect) Furniture bookcases bookends bookcases bookends Library Print culture Reading literacy literacy Reviews By country Brazil China France Germany Italy Japan Netherlands Pakistan Spain United Kingdom United States Brazil China France Germany Italy Japan Netherlands Pakistan Spain United Kingdom United States Other Genres non-fiction novel imaginary miniature pop-up textbook Grimoire Formats audiobooks Ebooks Folio Coffee table book Genres non-fiction novel imaginary miniature pop-up textbook non-fiction novel imaginary miniature pop-up textbook Grimoire Formats audiobooks Ebooks Folio audiobooks Ebooks Folio Coffee table book Related Banned books Book burning incidents Nazi Book curses Book packaging Book swapping Book tour Conservation and restoration Dog ears History of books scroll codex Intellectual property ISBN Outline Preservation The Philobiblon World Book Day World Book Capital Banned books Book burning incidents Nazi incidents Nazi Book curses Book packaging Book swapping Book tour Conservation and restoration Dog ears History of books scroll codex scroll codex Intellectual property ISBN Outline Preservation The Philobiblon World Book Day World Book Capital Outline Category Portal Outline Category Portal v t e Nielsen Holdings v t e Units Gracenote Nielsen Audio Nielsen Media Research Gracenote Nielsen Audio Nielsen Media Research Former services and units NielsenIQ National Consumer Panel Nielsen BookScan (outside the United States) Nielsen Business Media Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems Nielsen SoundScan Nielsen VideoScan NielsenIQ National Consumer Panel Nielsen BookScan (outside the United States) National Consumer Panel Nielsen BookScan (outside the United States) Nielsen Business Media Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems Nielsen SoundScan Nielsen VideoScan Bookselling Companies established in 2001 Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 July 2025, at 12:45 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . 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Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. 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ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . 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Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. 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Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . 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Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). 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Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Roman consul IV 315 with Licinius Succeeded by Antonius Caecina Sabinus Vettius Rufinus Preceded by Licinius Crispus Roman consul V–VI 319–320 with Licinius II Constantine II Succeeded by Crispus Constantine II Preceded by Sex. Anicius Paulinus Julius Julianus Roman consul VII 326 with Constantius II Succeeded by Flavius Constantius Valerius Maximus Preceded by Januarinus Vettius Iustus Roman consul VIII 329 with Constantine II Succeeded by Gallicanus Aurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus Legendary titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus King of Britain Succeeded by Octavius v t e History of the Catholic Church v t e General History of the Catholic Church By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven Catholic Bible Biblical canon Vulgate Crusading movement History of the Roman Curia Religious institutes Christian monasticism Catholic culture Art Role in civilization Vatican City Papal States Latin Church Eastern Catholic Churches History of Catholic theology History of the Catholic Church By country or region By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven First 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Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Category : Survival analysis العربية Deutsch Español فارسی 한국어 Italiano 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Türkçe Українська Category Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Wikidata item Subcategories This category has only the following subcategory. S Statistical reliability (1 C, 18 P) Pages in category "Survival analysis" The following 51 pages are in this category, out of 51 total. This list may not reflect recent changes . Survival analysis A Accelerated failure time model B Bayesian survival analysis Buffered probability of exceedance C Censoring (statistics) Continuum structure function D De Moivre's law Discrete Weibull distribution Discrete-time proportional hazards E Exponential distribution Exponential-logarithmic distribution Exponentiated Weibull distribution F Failure modes, effects, and diagnostic analysis Failure rate Fides (reliability) First-hitting-time model Frequency of exceedance G Gamma distribution Gompertz distribution H Hazard ratio Hypertabastic survival models I Intelligent maintenance system K Kaniadakis Gamma distribution Kaniadakis Weibull distribution Kaplan–Meier estimator L Life table Lindy effect Log-logistic distribution Logrank test Lusser's law M Maintenance-free operating period Mean time between failures Mean time to failure N Nelson–Aalen estimator O Orthogonal array testing P Poly-Weibull distribution Power-on hours Prognostics Proportional hazards model R Recurrent event analysis Reliability (statistics) Reliability engineering Reliability theory of aging and longevity Residence time (statistics) S Sexually active life expectancy Statistical assembly Statistical interference Survival function T Time-varying covariate U Unobserved heterogeneity in duration models W Weibull distribution Statistical analysis Risk analysis Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 4 January 2026, at 01:46 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 January Toggle January subsection 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 2 References 3 External links Deaths in 2026 العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano کٲشُر Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The following notable deaths occurred in 2026. Names are reported under the date of death, in alphabetical order. A typical entry reports information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent nationality (if applicable), what subject was noted for, cause of death (if known), and a reference. January 17 16 Olena Grechanina , 90, Ukrainian scientist. [ 1 ] Ratbek hadji Nysanbayev , 85, Kazakh religious figure, supreme mufti of Kazakhstan (1990–2000). [ 2 ] (death announced on this date) 15 Abdullahi Abubakar , 90, Nigerian Islamic cleric and humanitarian. [ 3 ] Ante Grgurević , 50, Croatian basketball player ( Split , Lugano Tigers ) and coach (Split). [ 4 ] Rafael Gvaladze , 78, Azerbaijani jurist, judge of the Constitutional Court (1998–2025). [ 5 ] Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark , 83, Greek-Spanish royal. [ 6 ] Kim Sin-yong , 80, South Korean writer. [ 7 ] Mutumwa Mawere , 66, Zimbabwean-South African mining industry executive. [ 8 ] Kenny Morris , 68, English drummer ( Siouxsie and the Banshees ). [ 9 ] (death announced on this date) Edgar Salvé , 79, Belgian Olympic middle-distance runner ( 1968 , 1972 ). [ 10 ] Ajay Varma , 62, Indian cricketer ( Bengal ). [ 11 ] Gagik Yeganyan , 69, Armenian politician. [ 12 ] 14 Layonel Adams , 31, Russian footballer ( Banants , Cerceda , Isloch Minsk Raion ), fall. [ 13 ] Dmitri Akimov , 45, Russian footballer ( Metallurg Lipetsk , Sibir Novosibirsk , Rostov ). [ 14 ] Aroha Awarau , 49, New Zealand playwright and journalist. [ 15 ] Namirembe Bitamazire , 84, Ugandan academic and politician, MP (2001–2011). [ 16 ] Alfonso Castellanos , 91, Colombian radio broadcaster and journalist. [ 17 ] Jean-Hugues Colonna , 91, French politician, deputy (1981–1988). [ 18 ] (death announced on this date) Valeria Fedeli , 76, Italian politician, minister of education (2016–2018) and senator (2013–2022). [ 19 ] Oleksandr Kabanov , 52, Ukrainian politician, deputy (since 2019). [ 20 ] Kim Min-jae , 53, South Korean baseball player ( Lotte Giants , Hanwha Eagles ) and coach ( Doosan Bears ), cancer. [ 21 ] Rick Link , 66, American professional wrestler, trainer and promoter. [ 22 ] Nie Weiping , 73, Chinese Go player. [ 23 ] Melania Pérez [ es ] , 76, Argentine singer. [ 24 ] Ricard Pérez Casado , 80, Spanish politician, mayor of Valencia (1979–1988) and deputy (2000–2004). [ 25 ] Seppo Reijonen , 81, Finnish Olympic ski jumper ( 1968 ). [ 26 ] Jean Rossier , 81, Belgian biologist and academic. [ 27 ] (death announced on this date) Ernestine Russell , 87, Canadian Olympic gymnast ( 1956 , 1960 ). [ 28 ] Ado Schlier , 90, German radio personality ( Radio Salzburg , Bayerischer Rundfunk ). [ 29 ] Vera Valdez , 89, Brazilian model. [ 30 ] Quemil Yambay , 87, Paraguayan musician and composer. [ 31 ] Igor Zolotovitskiy , 64, Russian actor ( Taxi Blues , Luna Park , Composition for Victory Day ), academic and television director, cancer. [ 32 ] 13 Scott Adams , 68, American cartoonist ( Dilbert ), prostate cancer. [ 33 ] Iqbal Athas , 81, Sri Lankan journalist ( The Sunday Times , Jane's Defence Weekly ). [ 34 ] Lina Bernardi [ it ] , 87, Italian actress ( The Story of Piera , The Last Kiss , The Embalmer ). [ 35 ] Alfred Blumstein , 95, American scientist. [ 36 ] Mark Brnovich , 59, American politician and attorney, Arizona attorney general (2015–2023), heart attack. [ 37 ] Paola Cardia [ it ] , 73, Italian footballer ( national team ). [ 38 ] David Collier , 70, English sports administrator, chief executive of the England and Wales Cricket Board (2004–2014). [ 39 ] Claudette Colvin , 86, American civil rights activist ( Browder v. Gayle ). [ 40 ] Indira Devi Dhanrajgir , 95, Indian poet and socialite. [ 41 ] Catherine Duprat , 89, French historian. [ 42 ] Barbara Eustachiewicz , 87, Polish Olympic gymnast ( 1960 , 1964 ). [ 43 ] Jesse Flis , 92, Canadian politician, MP (1979–1984, 1988–1997). [ 44 ] Bir Bhadra Hagjer , 75, Indian politician, Assam MLA (2016–2021). [ 45 ] Ali Hassan , 61, Mozambican footballer ( Sporting , Vitória de Setúbal , national team ), cancer. [ 46 ] Hun Yuan , 81, Taiwanese religious leader, founder of Weixinism . [ 47 ] Heiki Kranich , 64, Estonian politician, twice MP , minister of finance (1994) and environment (1999–2003). [ 48 ] Jason Lafreniere , 59, Canadian ice hockey player ( Quebec Nordiques , Tampa Bay Lightning , New York Rangers ). [ 49 ] (death announced on this date) Blanche Marvin , 100, American-born British theatre critic, producer and writer. [ 50 ] Doug McConnell , 80, American television journalist. [ 51 ] Bruce McLeod , 96, Canadian clergyman, moderator of the United Church of Canada (1972–1974). [ 52 ] Rolando Nannicini , 79, Italian politician, deputy (2001–2013). [ 53 ] Seán Ó Sé , 89, Irish tenor singer. [ 54 ] Ivan Onufriyev , 58, Russian footballer ( Geolog Tyumen , MTsOP-Metallurg Verkhnyaya Pyshma , Dynamo Stavropol ). [ 55 ] Annemarie Prins , 93, Dutch actress ( Accused , Memory Lane ), director and writer. [ 56 ] Renzo Ragonesi [ it ] , 82, Italian footballer ( Venezia , Reggiana , Modena ). [ 57 ] Jean-Loup Trassard , 92, French photographer. [ 58 ] (death announced on this date) Rudolf Urc [ sk ] , 88, Slovak director of documentary and animated films and academic. [ 59 ] George Vassiliou , 94, Cypriot politician, president (1988–1993) and MP (1996–2001), respiratory infection. [ 60 ] David Webb , 60, British-born Hong Kong activist investor, prostate cancer. [ 61 ] Hans Wiktorsson [ sv ] , 75, Swedish actor ( The Painter , Kurt Olssons julkalender ), complications from a brain injury. [ 62 ] Brian Wilshire , 81, Australian radio broadcaster ( 2GB ). [ 63 ] Razmik Zohrabyan , 75, Armenian politician, MP (2007–2017). [ 64 ] 12 Oba C. D. Akran , 89, Nigerian politician and traditional ruler. [ 65 ] Mahmoud Al-Astal , Palestinian police chief, shot. [ 66 ] Sheila Bernette , 94, English singer ( The Good Old Days , The Black and White Minstrel Show ) and actress ( The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins ). [ 67 ] Paul Clauson , 76, Australian politician, Queensland MP (1985–1989), attorney-general (1986–1989). [ 68 ] Rolland Courbis , 72, French football player ( Monaco ) and manager ( Bordeaux , Marseille ). [ 69 ] Bill Courtney , 55, American college basketball coach ( Cornell Big Red , Miami Hurricanes , Temple Owls ). [ 70 ] Mochammad Djamhari , 82, Indonesian military officer and politician, Regent of Bekasi Regency (1993–1998). [ 71 ] John Forté , 50, American rapper ( Refugee Camp All-Stars ) and producer ( The Score ). [ 72 ] Rick Garcia , 69, American LGBTQ activist. [ 73 ] Mohammad Ilyas , 79, Pakistani cricketer ( Lahore , Pakistan International Airlines , national team ), cancer. [ 74 ] Asda Jayanama , 84, Thai diplomat. [ 75 ] Robert Jensen , 52, Dutch television personality ( Jensen! ), cardiac arrest. [ 76 ] Jayashree Kabir , 73, Indian actress ( Pratidwandi , Simana Periye , Rupali Saikate ). [ 77 ] Robert V. Kohn , 72, American mathematician, cancer. [ 78 ] Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin , 26, British guitarist ( Black Midi ). [ 79 ] (death announced on this date) Jan Mårtenson , 92, Swedish author and diplomat, ambassador to Switzerland and Liechtenstein (1993–1995). [ 80 ] Eddie McCreadie , 85, Scottish football player ( Chelsea , national team ) and manager (Chelsea). [ 81 ] Luigi Nicolais , 83, Italian engineer and politician, minister for public administration (2006–2008), deputy (2008–2012), and president of the National Research Council (2012–2016). [ 82 ] Alain Orsoni , 71, French politician, Corsican independence militant ( FLNC ) and football executive ( AC Ajaccio ), shot. [ 83 ] Mario Rigutti , 99, Italian astronomer. [ 84 ] Roland Riz , 98, Italian politician, deputy (1958–1963, 1968–1987), senator (1987–1996). [ 85 ] Catherine Samie , 92, French actress ( Lovers of Paris , The Old Maid , They Came Back ). [ 86 ] Michel Tombereau , 80, French painter, complications from influenza. [ 87 ] Karen Vold , 86, American Hall of Fame trick rider. [ 88 ] Martin Willich , 80, German politician, member of the Hamburg Parliament (1974–1995). [ 89 ] Isaac Witz , 91, Austrian-born Israeli immunologist. [ 90 ] Benjaminas Zelkevičius , 81, Lithuanian football player ( Žalgiris Vilnius , Shakhtar Donetsk ) and manager ( national team ). [ 91 ] 11 Pavel Akishev , 42, Russian baseball player ( national team ). [ 92 ] (death announced on this date) Gabriel Barkay , 81, Israeli archaeologist. [ 93 ] Alberto Benzoni , 90, Italian journalist and politician. [ 94 ] Louis E. Brus , 82, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (2023). [ 95 ] Thomas Causey , 76, American sound engineer ( Dick Tracy , Star Trek Generations , Escape from New York ). [ 96 ] Giancarlo Cauteruccio , 69, Italian theatre actor and director. [ 97 ] Richard Codey , 79, American politician, governor of New Jersey (2004–2006), member of the New Jersey Senate (1982–2024). [ 98 ] Marcus Gilbert , 67, British actor ( Army of Darkness , The Masks of Death , Rambo III ), throat cancer. [ 99 ] Dave Giusti , 86, American baseball player ( Houston Astros , Pittsburgh Pirates ), World Series champion ( 1971 ). [ 100 ] Robert Hopkins , 64, English footballer ( Birmingham City , West Bromwich Albion , Shrewsbury Town ). [ 101 ] Bennie Carlton Keel , 91, American archaeologist. [ 102 ] Ueli Kestenholz , 50, Swiss snowboarder, Olympic bronze medallist ( 1998 ), avalanche. [ 103 ] Mukharby Kirzhinov , 77, Russian weightlifter, Olympic champion ( 1972 ). [ 104 ] Kōtarō Kodama , 91, Japanese politician, mayor of Akitakata (1980–2008). [ 105 ] Nelson Manrique , 78, Peruvian historian and sociologist. [ 106 ] Titina Medeiros , 48, Brazilian actress ( Cheias de Charme , A Lei do Amor , Now Generation ), pancreatic cancer. [ 107 ] Ahmad Melli , 76–77, Syrian actor. [ 108 ] Miquel Naudí , 77, Andorran politician, member of the General Council (1981–1983). [ 109 ] Takashi Ono , 97, Japanese-born American mathematician. [ 110 ] Park Soon-yong , 81, South Korean lawyer, prosecutor general (1999–2001). [ 111 ] Miroslava Pešíková , 79, Czech dancer and ballet master. [ 112 ] Clarence Pierce , 97, American politician, member of the Mississippi House of Representatives (1952–1984). [ 113 ] Eugen Pojoni , 84, Romanian footballer ( Viitorul București , Crișul Oradea , UTA Arad ). [ 114 ] Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell , Samoan politician, MLA (2021–2025). [ 115 ] Samir Putatundu , 73, Indian politician. [ 116 ] Nasser bin Radan Al Rashid Al Wadaei , Saudi longevity claimant. [ 117 ] Grete Salomonsen , 74, Norwegian film director ( Kamilla and the Thief , Yohan: The Child Wanderer ). [ 118 ] Robert G. Shulman , 101, American biophysicist. [ 119 ] Aniceto Sobrepeña , 77, Filipino banker and public servant. [ 120 ] Prashant Tamang , 43, Indian singer ( Indian Idol ) and actor ( Paatal Lok ), cardiac arrest. [ 121 ] Sergio Tarquinio , 100, Italian painter. [ 122 ] Trevor A. Toussaint , 65, British actor ( Hollyoaks ). [ 123 ] John Wallace , 76, Scottish trumpeter, composer and arts educator. [ 124 ] Herman Wouters , 85, Belgian politician, mayor of Grobbendonk (1989–1997). [ 125 ] 10 Sturla Böðvarsson , 80, Icelandic politician, minister of communications and transportation (1999–2007), president of the Althing (2007–2009). [ 126 ] Manoel Carlos , 92, Brazilian television writer ( Por Amor , Laços de Família , Mulheres Apaixonadas ). [ 127 ] Daniel Colson , 82, French sociologist and academic. [ 128 ] Yolande Viviane Compaoré , Burkinabe politician, governor of Nord Region . [ 129 ] Erich von Däniken , 90, Swiss author and ufologist ( Chariots of the Gods? ). [ 130 ] Distorted Humor , 32, American Thoroughbred racehorse and sire, euthanized. [ 131 ] Sergey Galkov , 60, Russian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 1988 ). [ 132 ] Richard Hynes , 81, British biologist. [ 133 ] (death announced on this date) Jim Hartung , 65, American gymnast, Olympic champion ( 1984 ), and coach. [ 134 ] Mario Jacquet [ es ] , 79, Paraguayan footballer ( Cerro Porteño , Real Oviedo , Real Valladolid ). [ 135 ] Włodzimierz Jakubowski , 86, Polish football player ( Lech Poznań ) and manager ( Mieszko Gniezno , Bałtyk Gdynia ). [ 136 ] Kathy Javner , 52, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (since 2018), breast cancer. [ 137 ] Yeison Jiménez , 34, Colombian singer, plane crash . [ 138 ] Václav Klučka , 72, Czech politician, deputy (1992–1996, 2006–2017). [ 139 ] Robert Kostelka , 92, American politician, member of the Louisiana State Senate (2003–2016). [ 140 ] Derek Martin , 92, British actor ( Law & Order , Eldorado , EastEnders ). [ 141 ] Marco Proaño Maya , 80, Ecuadorian politician, three-time deputy . [ 142 ] Davinder Singh , 73, Indian field hockey player, Olympic champion ( 1980 ). [ 143 ] Ivan Štampach , 79, Czech religionist and theologian. [ 144 ] Thierry Steimetz , 42, French footballer ( Amnéville , Metz , Homburg ), cancer. [ 145 ] Orazio Svelto , 89, Italian physicist. [ 146 ] Isabel Veloso , 19, Brazilian social media influencer, complications from bone marrow transplant. [ 147 ] Manolo Villaverde , 91, Cuban-American actor ( ¿Qué Pasa, USA? , Taina , Wiseguy ). [ 148 ] Prawase Wasi , 93, Thai hematologist. [ 149 ] Bob Weir , 78, American Hall of Fame musician ( Grateful Dead ) and songwriter (" Sugar Magnolia ", " One More Saturday Night "), complications from cancer. [ 150 ] Robert Wolgemuth , 77, American author, chairman of the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association . [ 151 ] 9 Ai , 49, Japanese Western chimpanzee , subject of cognition studies, multiple organ failure. [ 152 ] Zeno Bianu , 75, French writer. [ 153 ] Andrés Caniulef , 48, Chilean journalist, heart attack. [ 154 ] T. K. Carter , 69, American actor ( The Thing , Punky Brewster , Runaway Train ). [ 155 ] Robert Croft , 91, American freediver. [ 156 ] Jean-Louis Duplat , 88, Belgian magistrate. [ 157 ] Beatriz González , 93, Colombian painter, sculptor and art historian. [ 158 ] Ulf Granberg , 80, Swedish comics creator and editor ( The Phantom ). [ 159 ] Jitka Gruntová , 80, Czech politician, deputy (2002–2006). [ 160 ] Hans Herrmann , 97, German racing driver ( Formula One ). [ 161 ] Sandra Hester , 68, American socio-political activist. [ 162 ] Pirkko Ikonen , 98, Finnish politician, MP (1983–1991). [ 163 ] Heber Jentzsch , 90, American Scientology executive ( Church of Scientology International ), actor and journalist ( Los Angeles Free Press ). [ 164 ] (death announced on this date) Manfred Kuhmichel , 82, German politician, member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia (1990–2012). [ 165 ] Lê Văn Dũng , 80, Vietnamese military officer and politician, chief of the general staff (1998–2001). [ 166 ] Khawlhring Lalremruata , 38, Indian cricketer ( Mizoram ), heart attack. [ 167 ] Diane Munday , 94, British political activist, co-founder of the British Pregnancy Advisory Service . [ 168 ] Valery Noskov [ ru ] , 59, Russian biathlete. [ 169 ] Tina Packer , 87, British actress ( David Copperfield , Doctor Who ) and stage director, co-founder of Shakespeare & Company . [ 170 ] Zelico Petrovic [ it ] , 77, Yugoslav-born Italian footballer ( Taranto , Rimini , Catania ). [ 171 ] Larry Snook , 84, American politician. [ 172 ] Terry Sullivan , 87, British drummer ( Renaissance ). [ 173 ] Josep Maria Triginer , 82, Spanish politician. [ 174 ] Eleni Varikas , 76, Greek-born French political philosopher and academic, lung cancer. [ 175 ] Yao Chiang-lin [ zh ] , 75, Taiwanese politician. [ 176 ] Vincenzo Zarri , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Bologna (1976–1988) and bishop of Forlì-Bertinoro (1988–2005). [ 177 ] 8 Dolores Ashcroft-Nowicki , 96, British occult writer. [ 178 ] Musa Gibril Bala Gaye , 79, Gambian economist and politician, minister of finance (2003–2009) and foreign affairs (2005). [ 179 ] Murat Bisembin , 53, Kazakh actor, cancer. [ 180 ] Loraine Braham , 87, Australian politician, member (1994–2008) and speaker (1997–1999, 2001–2005) of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly . [ 181 ] Günther Brendel , 95, German painter, graphic artist and academic. [ 182 ] Heloísa de Carvalho , 56, Brazilian writer and political activist. [ 183 ] Václav Cigler , 96, Czech sculptor and visual artist. [ 184 ] Conrado Corsalette , 47, Brazilian journalist. [ 185 ] Mieczysław Czerniawski , 77, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991, 1993–2005). [ 186 ] Nelly Chatué Diop , 41, Cameroonian computer scientist. [ 187 ] Jean-Luc Domenach , 80, French historian, sinologist and political scientist. [ 188 ] Jim Furlong , 85, Canadian football player ( Calgary Stampeders ). [ 189 ] Sergio Goizauskas , 69, Argentine-born French cartoonist. [ 190 ] Vijay Singh Gond , 68, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (1980–2007, since 2024), kidney failure. [ 191 ] Dave Hitchcock , 76, English record producer ( In the Land of Grey and Pink , Foxtrot , The Snow Goose ) and accountant. [ 192 ] Jian Shuisheng [ zh ] , 96, Chinese academic. [ 193 ] Philippe Junot , 85, French venture capitalist and property developer. [ 194 ] Madalitso Kazombo , 46, Malawian politician, first deputy speaker of the National Assembly (2019–2025), asthma attack. [ 195 ] Dieudonné Larose , 80, Haitian singer. [ 196 ] Rhoda Levine , 93, American opera director and choreographer. [ 197 ] (death announced on this date) Elisa Lisboa [ pt ] , 81, Portuguese actress ( Sabor da Paixão , Morangos com Açúcar , A Impostora ). [ 198 ] Evgeny Lyubivyi , 51, Russian politician. [ 199 ] Antonino Mangano [ it ] , 75, Italian marathon and middle-distance runner. [ 200 ] Guy Moon , 63, American composer ( The Fairly OddParents , Big Time Rush , Danny Phantom ), traffic collision. [ 201 ] Jafar Nainggolan , 79, Indonesian politician, MP (2009–2014). [ 202 ] Hiroshi Nakamura , 93, Japanese surrealist painter, pancreatic cancer. [ 203 ] Álvaro Peña-Rojas , 82, Chilean-German singer and songwriter. [ 204 ] Howard Riley , 87, English footballer ( Leicester City , Walsall , Barrow ). [ 205 ] Astrid Roemer , 78, Surinamese-Dutch writer and teacher. [ 206 ] Kjersti Scheen , 82, Norwegian journalist and writer. [ 207 ] Uljana Semjonova , 73, Latvian basketball player, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1980 ). [ 208 ] Sir Tim Shadbolt , 78, New Zealand politician, mayor of Waitemata City (1983–1989) and Invercargill (1993–1995, 1998–2022). [ 209 ] Meinam Bhorot Singh , 75, Indian politician, Manipur MLA (2002–2007). [ 210 ] Mojtaba Tarshiz , 47, Iranian footballer ( Shahr Khodro F.C. , Sanat Mes Kerman F.C. , Gostaresh Foulad F.C. ), shot . [ 211 ] Matthew Taylor , 57–58, American musician ( Bellini ) and artist, heart attack. [ 212 ] Wim Van Belleghem , 62, Belgian Olympic rower ( 1988 , 1992 ), world champion ( 1987 ). [ 213 ] Paul Calvin Visser , 89, American politician, mayor of Flint, Michigan (1973–1975). [ 214 ] Terry Yorath , 75, Welsh football player ( Leeds United , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 215 ] 7 Ali Ardestani , Iranian convicted spy, execution by hanging. [ 216 ] Madjoulba Batocfetou , Togolese agronomic engineer. [ 217 ] James Bernard , American music journalist and magazine editor ( The Source , XXL ). [ 218 ] (death announced on this date) Ihor Blazhkov , 89, Ukrainian conductor. [ 219 ] Albert Bourgi , 90, French jurist. [ 220 ] Raffaella Bragazzi , 66, Italian television presenter and radio host. [ 221 ] Frank S. Cerveny , 92, American Episcopalian clergyman, bishop of Florida (1974–1992). [ 222 ] Camilo Isaac Chavarría , 27, Panamanian model ( Mister Panamá ) and reality show contestant ( Calle 7 ), heart attack. [ 223 ] Martin Chivers , 80, English footballer ( Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur , national team ). [ 224 ] Ángel Coerezza , 92, Argentine football referee ( AFA ). [ 225 ] John W. Derr , 84, American politician, member of the Maryland Senate (1983–1999), cancer. [ 226 ] Hiroya Ebina , 67, Japanese politician, mayor of Kushiro (2008–2024), member of the Hokkaido Legislative Assembly (1999–2008), cardiac arrest. [ 227 ] Tony Field , 79, English footballer ( Blackburn Rovers , Southport , Memphis Rogues ). [ 228 ] Vera Frances , 95, English actress ( Back-Room Boy , King Arthur Was a Gentleman , It's That Man Again ). [ 229 ] Madhav Gadgil , 83, Indian ecologist. [ 230 ] Renee Good , 37, American poet and writer, shot . [ 231 ] Domenico Graziani , 81, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Cassano all'Jonio (1999–2006) and archbishop of Crotone-Santa Severina (2006–2019). [ 232 ] Glenn Hall , 94, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , St. Louis Blues ), Stanley Cup champion ( 1952 , 1961 ). [ 233 ] Sidney de Jong , 46, Dutch Olympic baseball player ( 2004 , 2008 ). [ 234 ] Rebecca Kilgore , 76, American jazz vocalist. [ 235 ] Jon Lindsay , 90, American politician, member of the Texas Senate (1997–2007). [ 236 ] Uri Lupolianski , 74, Israeli politician, mayor of Jerusalem (2003–2008) and founder of Yad Sarah . [ 237 ] Ian McCrae , 84, Scottish rugby union player ( Gordonians , national team ). [ 238 ] Randy McMillan , 67, American football player ( Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts ). [ 239 ] Roberto Mondragón , 85, American politician, lieutenant governor of New Mexico (1971–1975, 1979–1983). [ 240 ] Kabindra Purkayastha , 94, Indian politician, MP (1991–2014). [ 241 ] Howard Sanderford , 90, American politician, member of the Alabama House of Representatives (1989–2022). [ 242 ] Dietrich Stratmann , 88, German politician, member of the Landtag of Lower Saxony (1982–2003). [ 243 ] Seydou Madani Sy , 92, Senegalese jurist and politician, minister of justice (1986–1990). [ 244 ] Kim Thorson , 93, Canadian politician, Saskatchewan MLA (1956–1960, 1971–1975). [ 245 ] Billy Truax , 82, American football player ( Los Angeles Rams , Dallas Cowboys ). [ 246 ] Chiara Valentini , 84, Italian journalist and writer. [ 247 ] Murad Wahba , 99, Egyptian writer, philosopher and academic. [ 248 ] Athol Webb , 90, Australian footballer ( Melbourne ). [ 249 ] 6 Ang Ziming [ zh ] , 65, Chinese academic. [ 250 ] Joe Arlooktoo , 86, Canadian visual artist and politician, Northwest Territories MLA (1979–1991). [ 251 ] (death announced on this date) Odette Bergoffen , 101, French resistance fighter. [ 252 ] Andrzej Bogusławski , 94, Polish philologist and semanticist. [ 253 ] Ron Boswell , 85, Australian politician, senator (1983–2014). [ 254 ] John Cunningham , 93, American actor ( Titanic , Company , Mystic Pizza ). [ 255 ] Dick Dull , 80, American athletic director ( Maryland Terrapins ). [ 256 ] V. K. Ebrahimkunju , 73, Indian politician, Kerala MLA (2011–2021). [ 257 ] Anna Eder [ de ] , 75, German politician, mayor of Deggendorf (2000–2012). [ 258 ] Johannes Fabian , 88, German anthropologist. [ 259 ] Alex Felipe , 32, Brazilian futsal player ( Sporting CP , Norilsk Nickel , national team ). [ 260 ] Angella D. Ferguson , 100, American pediatrician. [ 261 ] Edith M. Flanigen , 96, American chemist. [ 262 ] Robert Goebbels , 81, Luxembourgish politician, minister for the economy (1989–1999) and energy (1994–1999), signatory of the Schengen Agreement . [ 263 ] Suresh Kalmadi , 81, Indian politician and sports administrator, MP (1982–2014) and president of the IOA (1996–2011). [ 264 ] Doug LaMalfa , 65, American politician, member of the U.S. House of Representatives (since 2013), heart attack. [ 265 ] József Láyer , 70, Hungarian politician, MP (1998–2006). [ 266 ] Jim McBride , 78, American country music songwriter (" Chasing That Neon Rainbow ", " (Who Says) You Can't Have It All ", " Chattahoochee "). [ 267 ] Jack McGregor , 91, American politician and sports team owner, member of the Pennsylvania State Senate (1963–1970) and founder of the Pittsburgh Penguins . [ 268 ] Kathleen Muxel , 54, German politician, member of the Landtag of Brandenburg (since 2019). [ 269 ] Raffaele Nogaro , 92, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Sessa Aurunca (1982–1990) and of Caserta (1990–2009). [ 270 ] James E. O'Grady , 96, American law enforcement officer, Cook County sheriff (1986–1990). [ 271 ] Saeid Pirdoost , 85, Iranian actor ( Snake Fang , Son of Adam, Daughter of Eve , Great Award ), cancer. [ 272 ] Claude Pivi , 66, Guinean military officer, complications from diabetes. [ 273 ] Jaap Pop , 84, Dutch politician, mayor of Haarlem (1995–2006). [ 274 ] David Quail , 88, South African politician and educator, member of the Gauteng Provincial Legislature (1999–2009). [ 275 ] Nihal Seneviratne , 91, Sri Lankan civil servant, secretary general of the Parliament of Sri Lanka (1981–1994). [ 276 ] Baghir Suleimanov , 66, Azerbaijani petroleum scientist. [ 277 ] Béla Tarr , 70, Hungarian film director ( Sátántangó , Werckmeister Harmonies , The Turin Horse ). [ 278 ] Jerry Thomas , 90, American baseball player ( Minnesota Golden Gophers ). [ 279 ] Gianpaolo Tosel [ it ] , 85, Italian magistrate. [ 280 ] Robert Vicot , 94, French football player ( SC Toulon ) and manager ( Paris Saint-Germain FC , Gabon national team ). [ 281 ] Anatoly Yevtushenko , 91, Russian handball coach, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1988 ). [ 282 ] Zhang Shaokang [ zh ] , 90, Chinese scholar. [ 283 ] Zhou Liwei [ zh ] , 94, Chinese electro-optics professor. [ 284 ] 5 Ahn Sung-ki , 74, South Korean actor ( Silmido , Two Cops , Radio Star ), blood cancer. [ 285 ] Aldrich Ames , 84, American counterintelligence officer ( CIA ) and convicted Soviet-era spy. [ 286 ] Bonifacio Ávila , 75, Colombian Olympic boxer ( 1972 ). [ 287 ] Herbert Beck , 84, German art historian. [ 288 ] Andrew Bodnar , 71, English bass guitarist ( The Rumour ) and songwriter (" I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass "). [ 289 ] (death announced on this date) Andrew Carter , 86, English composer ( Benedicite ) and conductor. [ 290 ] Tom Cherones , 86, American television director ( Seinfeld , NewsRadio , Ellen ), complications from Alzheimer's disease. [ 291 ] Beatriz de Lenclós [ es ] , 102, Spanish dancer. [ 292 ] Jim Dennison , 87, American football coach ( Akron Zips , Walsh Cavaliers ). [ 293 ] Marian Diamond , 89, English actress ( Subterfuge , Goodbye Gemini , The Lord of the Rings ). [ 294 ] Miklós Dudás , 34, Hungarian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 2012 ), world champion ( 2014 ). [ 295 ] Mike Embro , 63, Canadian drummer ( Razor ). [ 296 ] (death announced on this date) Aoi Fujino , 27, Japanese gravure idol , rhabdomyosarcoma . [ 297 ] Paolo Gillet , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Albano (1993–2005). [ 298 ] Pier Francesco Guarguaglini , 88, Italian defense industry executive, chairman of Finmeccanica (2002–2011). [ 299 ] Bruce Hammock , 78, American entomologist. [ 300 ] Ad van Kempen , 81, Dutch actor ( 1-900 , 'n Beetje Verliefd , Winter in Wartime ), prostate cancer. [ 301 ] Wiktor Kinecki , 96, Polish politician, MP (1976–1980). [ 302 ] José Mingorance , 87, Spanish football player ( Espanyol , national team ) and manager ( Granada ). [ 303 ] Reza Moradi Abdolvand , 18, Iranian protester, shot. [ 304 ] Jawann Oldham , 68, American basketball player ( Chicago Bulls , Houston Rockets , New York Knicks ). [ 305 ] Induratana Paribatra , 103, Thai royal. [ 306 ] Molly Parkin , 93, Welsh painter, novelist and journalist. [ 307 ] Christos Politis [ el ] , 83, Greek actor ( Lampsi ). [ 308 ] Bob Pulford , 89, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Toronto Maple Leafs , Los Angeles Kings ), coach ( Chicago Blackhawks ), and executive, NHLPA president (1967–1972), four-time Stanley Cup champion. [ 309 ] Cosimo Scaglioso , 89, Italian politician, senator (1994–1996). [ 310 ] Elle Simone , 49, American chef ( America's Test Kitchen ) and food stylist. [ 311 ] Miroslav Stárek [ cs ] , 77, Czech footballer ( Sparta Prague , Slavia Prague , Mladá Boleslav ). [ 312 ] Elsje de Wijn , 82, Dutch actress ( De stille Oceaan , For a Lost Soldier , Het 14e kippetje ) and singer. [ 313 ] Ken Wilcock , 91, British sprinter. [ 314 ] (death announced on this date) Mike Wilson , 66, British kart racer, six-time world champion . [ 315 ] Jiří Witzany [ cs ] , 84, Czech academic and rector of ČVUT (2000–2006). [ 316 ] Wu Lintao [ zh ] , 105, Chinese politician. [ 317 ] 4 Forest Able , 93, American basketball player ( Syracuse Nationals ). [ 318 ] Ali Abu al-Ragheb , 79, Jordanian politician, prime minister (2000–2003). [ 319 ] Fazl-ur-Raheem Ashrafi , 81, Pakistani Islamic scholar, patron of Wifaq-ul-Madaris al-Arabia . [ 320 ] Céline Bellot , 55, Canadian criminologist and academic, breast cancer. [ 321 ] Mario Blasone [ it ] , 85, Italian basketball player. [ 322 ] Bob Boyer , 93, Canadian professional wrestler. [ 323 ] David Branch , 77, Canadian ice hockey administrator, commissioner of the OHL (1979–2024) and president of the CHL (1996–2019). [ 324 ] Calbo , 52, French rapper ( Ärsenik ). [ 325 ] Germaine Cousin-Zermatten , 100, Swiss herbalist. [ 326 ] Kamiel Dierckx [ nl ] , 84, Belgian basketball player ( Belgian Lions ). [ 327 ] Frank Dunlop , 98, British theatre director. [ 328 ] Manuel Fernández Ilarraza , 85, Spanish gynaecologist and politician, president of the Parliament of La Rioja (1987–1988). [ 329 ] Miloslav Fiala , 97, Czech Roman Catholic priest. [ 330 ] Andy Friendly , 74, American television producer ( Entertainment Tonight ). [ 331 ] L. Ganesan , 91, Indian politician, MP (1980–1986, 2004–2009). [ 332 ] Anne-Claire Goulon , 51, French businesswoman, breast cancer. [ 333 ] Vicki L. Gregory , 75, American academic and librarian. [ 334 ] Michel Griffon , 77, French agronomist. [ 335 ] Roger Guesnerie , 82–83, French economist and academic. [ 336 ] Denise Harlow , 55, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (2010–2018), cancer. [ 337 ] Bobby Holmes , 93, Scottish footballer ( St Mirren ). [ 338 ] (death announced on this date) Nora Ikstena , 56, Latvian writer and cultural manager. [ 339 ] Klaus Keitel , 86, German politician, member (1990–2002) and president (1990–1998) of the Landtag of Saxony-Anhalt . [ 340 ] Kim Young-in [ ko ] , 85, South Korean actor ( Dachimawa Lee , No Blood No Tears , Arahan ). [ 341 ] Milorad Kosanović , 75, Serbian football player ( Proleter Zrenjanin , Vojvodina ) and manager ( Malta national team ). [ 342 ] Bernard Lemoux , 83, French businessman, president of Stade Rennais FC (1973–1977). [ 343 ] George C. Lodge , 98, American politician. [ 344 ] Oscar Lofton , 87, American football player ( Boston Patriots ) and coach ( Southeastern Louisiana Lions ). [ 345 ] Naser Toure Mahama , 60, Ghanaian politician, MP (since 2012). [ 346 ] Miloslav Masopust , 101, Czech general. [ 347 ] Giorgos Papadakis [ el ] , 74, Greek journalist and television presenter, heart attack. [ 348 ] Daniel Pelletti , 77, Belgian painter. [ 349 ] Jules Radich , 71, New Zealand politician, mayor of Dunedin (2022–2025), heart attack. [ 350 ] Michael Reagan , 80, American political commentator. [ 351 ] Marissa Sanchez , 69, Filipino tennis player. [ 352 ] Jacqueline Schaeffer , 91, French psychoanalyst. [ 353 ] Steve Sheetz , 77, American convenience store operator, CEO and president of Sheetz, Inc. (1984–1995). [ 354 ] Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo , 79, Indian historian and archaeologist. [ 355 ] Ralph L. Thomas , 86, Brazilian-born Canadian film director ( The Terry Fox Story , Apprentice to Murder , Ticket to Heaven ) and screenwriter, complications from heart disease. [ 356 ] Horacio Usandizaga , 85, Argentine politician, senator (1995–2003) and mayor of Rosario (1983–1989), complications from multiple strokes. [ 357 ] Mary White , 81, Irish businesswoman and politician, senator (2002–2016). [ 358 ] Xiao Zhuang , 92–93, Chinese photographer. [ 359 ] Teresa Zalewska , 83, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991). [ 360 ] 3 Hushang Ansary , 98, Iranian-American diplomat and politician, minister of finance (1974–1977) and information (1971–1974), ambassador to the United States (1967–1969), cardiac arrest. [ 361 ] Joan Costa Armengol [ es ] , 91, Spanish journalist. [ 362 ] Jamil Azar , 89, Jordanian journalist and broadcaster, founder of Al Jazeera . [ 363 ] Dietmar Bachmann , 91, Austrian politician, member of the Landtag of Tyrol (1965–1994). [ 364 ] Claude-Inga Barbey , 64, Swiss comedian, writer, and actress ( The Death of Mario Ricci ). [ 365 ] Stephen E. Braude , 80, American philosopher. [ 366 ] Natale Carlotto , 94, Italian politician, senator (1987–1994) and deputy (1976–1987). [ 367 ] Francesco Paolo Casavola , 94, Italian jurist, president of the Constitutional Court (1992–1995). [ 368 ] Frédéric Cerdal , 81, French actor and stage director. [ 369 ] Maria Eugènia Cuenca , 78, Spanish politician, member of the Catalan parliament (1999–2006) and the Congress of Deputies (1986–1992). [ 370 ] Tony Dennis , 63, Canadian football player ( Saskatchewan Roughriders ), multiple organ failure. [ 371 ] Dong Xiaoping [ zh ] , 75, Chinese folklorist. [ 372 ] Gerry Gable , 88, British political activist and magazine editor ( Searchlight ). [ 373 ] Bret Hanna-Shuford , 46, American actor ( Paramour , Amazing Grace , The Wolf of Wall Street ), cancer. [ 374 ] Franz Herre , 99, German journalist and biographer. [ 375 ] Marvalene Hughes , 88, American educator and academic administrator. [ 376 ] Mesut İktu , 78, Turkish operatic baritone. [ 377 ] Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo , 89, Colombian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Pereira (1984–1987), bishop of Málaga–Soatá (1987–2001) and of Buga (2001–2012). [ 378 ] Nalani Kanakaʻole , 79, American kumu hula . [ 379 ] Latif Karimi , Iranian protester, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps brigadier general, shot . [ 380 ] Michael Kemner , 72, German bass guitarist ( Fehlfarben ), cancer. [ 381 ] David M. Maddox , 87, American army general. [ 382 ] Guðmundur Oddur Magnússon , 70, Icelandic artist and academic. [ 383 ] Sir Graham McCamley , 93, Australian beef producer. [ 384 ] John Meredith , 85, English footballer ( Doncaster Rovers , Chesterfield , Gillingham ). [ 385 ] Errol Moorcroft , 85, South African politician, member of the House of Assembly (1981–1987, 1989–1994) and National Assembly (1999–2004). [ 386 ] Dastagir Hossain Nira , 60, Bangladeshi footballer ( Dhaka Abahani , Mohammedan , national team ), cardiac arrest. [ 387 ] Pa O'Dwyer , 40, Irish strongman. [ 388 ] Sverre Anker Ousdal , 81, Norwegian actor ( Insomnia , Flight of the Eagle , The Last Place on Earth ). [ 389 ] Andrzej Paczkowski , 87, Polish historian. [ 390 ] Dimitar Penev , 80, Bulgarian football player ( CSKA Sofia , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 391 ] Jenny Plocki , 100, French women's rights activist. [ 392 ] Rolf Riehm , 88, German composer ( Sirenen ), oboist and academic ( Musikhochschule Frankfurt ). [ 393 ] Randy Riley , 63, American librarian. [ 394 ] Eva Schloss , 96, Austrian-British Holocaust survivor and memoirist. [ 395 ] Robert K. Tanenbaum , 83, American trial attorney and novelist, mayor of Beverly Hills, California (1988–1989, 1992–1993), cancer. [ 396 ] Nam Singh Thapa , 79, Nepali Olympic boxer ( 1964 ), cancer. [ 397 ] Samuel O. Thier , 88, American doctor and academic, president of Brandeis University (1991–1994). [ 398 ] Ivan Varshavsky , 87, Russian engineer and railway track foreman. [ 399 ] Wang Zheng , 64, Chinese vice admiral. [ 400 ] Terry Wharton , 83, English footballer ( Wolverhampton Wanderers , Bolton Wanderers , Crystal Palace ). [ 401 ] William H. Yohn Jr. , 90, American jurist and politician, judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania (since 1991), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1968–1980). [ 402 ] Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi , 76, Indonesian Muslim scholar. [ 403 ] Mirosław Zdanowicz [ pl ] , 88, Polish social activist. [ 404 ] Zhang Kerang [ zh ] , 78, Chinese Peking opera actor. [ 405 ] 2 Ritva Auvinen , 93, Finnish opera singer. [ 406 ] Ian Balding , 87, British horse trainer. [ 407 ] Sukumar Barua , 87, Bangladeshi poet. [ 408 ] Shyam Bihari Lal , 60, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (since 2017), heart attack. [ 409 ] Carmen Arnold Biucchi , Swiss numismatist and archaeologist. [ 410 ] Dominique Bucchini , 82, French politician, MEP (1979–1984) and mayor of Sartène (1977–2001). [ 411 ] Tony Carr , 98, Maltese session drummer and percussionist ( CCS , Hot Chocolate ). [ 412 ] Jean-Max Causse , 85, French actor ( I Stand Alone ). [ 413 ] Bohdan Chufus , 75, Ukrainian journalist, actor and singer. [ 414 ] Jenny Collins , 83, English radio presenter ( BBC Radio Merseyside ). [ 415 ] (death announced on this date) Miquel Contestí , 92, Spanish football executive, president of RCD Mallorca (1978–1992). [ 416 ] Sir Patrick Duffy , 105, British politician, MP (1963–1966, 1970–1992) and president of the NATO Assembly (1988–1990). [ 417 ] Toshio Fujii , 83, Japanese politician, member of the House of Councillors (1998–2004), heart failure. [ 418 ] Francis Grant , 101, British marine and World War II veteran. [ 419 ] Stephen E. Haggerty , 87, American geophysicist. [ 420 ] Evan Hammond , 45, Canadian radio host and sports broadcaster ( CJAV-FM ), stroke. [ 421 ] Sidney Kibrick , 97, American actor ( Our Gang ). [ 422 ] Kristi Kiick , 58, American academic. [ 423 ] Elbert Kimbrough , 87, American football player ( San Francisco 49ers , Los Angeles Rams , New Orleans Saints ). [ 424 ] Anna Kurek , 96, Polish nurse and Warsaw Uprising participant. [ 425 ] Paul C. Lambert , 97, American diplomat, ambassador to Ecuador (1990–1992). [ 426 ] Johnny Legend , 77, American rockabilly musician, film producer and wrestling manager, stroke and heart failure. [ 427 ] Vladimir Lukić , 92, Bosnian Serb politician, prime minister of Republika Srpska (1993–1994). [ 428 ] Ashok Gajanan Modak , 85, Indian politician and academic, Maharashtra MLC (1994–2006). [ 429 ] Con Pederson , 91, American visual effects artist ( 2001: A Space Odyssey , Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back , Garfield: The Movie ). [ 430 ] Valery Fyodorovich Plotnikov , 82, Russian photographer. [ 431 ] Tim Robertson , 81, English-born Australian actor ( Chances , Australia You're Standing In It , Stingers ). [ 432 ] (death announced on this date) Lajos Rovátkay , 92, Hungarian-born German harpsichordist and musicologist. [ 433 ] Saleh Rusheidat , 80, Jordanian politician, member of the House of Representatives (1993–1997) and Senate (since 2009). [ 434 ] Edith Renfrow Smith , 111, American supercentenarian. [ 435 ] Phoenix Spicer , 23, Australian footballer ( North Melbourne ). [ 436 ] Ivanne Trebbi , 97, Italian partisan and politician, deputy (1979–1987). [ 437 ] Jim Willis , 98, American baseball player ( Chicago Cubs ). [ 438 ] Robert Wolski , 43, Polish Olympic high jumper ( 2004 ), traffic collision. [ 439 ] Nellie Wong , 91, American poet. [ 440 ] 1 Marat Amankulov , 55, Kyrgyz politician, MP (2015–2021). [ 441 ] Yvan Aumont , 87, French engineer and journalist ( Lys rouge ). [ 442 ] Alan Baker , 81, English footballer ( Aston Villa ). [ 443 ] Allyn Bromley , 97, American visual artist and art educator. [ 444 ] Xesús Cañedo [ es ] , 67, Spanish politician, co-founder of the Partíu Asturianista . [ 445 ] Lana Chornohorska , 26, Ukrainian soldier. [ 446 ] Diane Crump , 77, American jockey and horse trainer, glioblastoma. [ 447 ] Nexhat Daci , 81, Kosovan politician, acting president (2006) and chairman of the Assembly (2001–2006). [ 448 ] Brian Doyle , 90, Canadian writer. [ 449 ] Yehezkel Dror , 97, Austrian-born Israeli political scientist. [ 450 ] Imants Freibergs , 91, Latvian computer scientist, first gentleman (1999–2007). [ 451 ] James Grauerholz , 72, American writer, pneumonia. [ 452 ] Mohamed Harbi , 92, Algerian historian. [ 453 ] Huang Dongbi , 86, Chinese diplomat. [ 454 ] Jeon Jun-ho [ ko ] , 50, South Korean baseball player ( Hyundai Unicorns , Woori Heroes , SK Wyverns ), lung cancer. [ 455 ] Victoria Jones , 34, American actress. [ 456 ] Morris Kahn , 95, South African-born Israeli telecommunications industry executive, founder of Golden Pages , Amdocs and the Aurec Group . [ 457 ] Andrey Khoroshev [ ru ] , 66, Russian actor and screenwriter ( Engineering Red , 8 ½ $ , Admiral ). [ 458 ] Harvey C. Krautschun , 76, American politician, member of the South Dakota House of Representatives (1985–1996). [ 459 ] Hiroshi Kume , 81, Japanese television host, lung cancer. [ 460 ] John Langdon , 79, American typographer and graphic designer. [ 461 ] Arno Liiver , 71, Estonian actor ( Spring , Summer , Autumn ). [ 462 ] Lin Chaoqiang , 92, Chinese aerodynamicist. [ 463 ] Arnold Long , 85, British cricketer ( Sussex , MCC , Surrey ), cancer. [ 464 ] Volodymyr Marchenko , 103, Ukrainian mathematician ( Marchenko equation , Marchenko–Pastur distribution ). [ 465 ] Hélio Mauro , 83, Brazilian politician, deputy (1975–1978), mayor of Goiânia (1978–1979), cardiac arrest. [ 466 ] Paul McCullagh Jr. , 25, Northern Irish boxer, bone cancer. [ 467 ] Colin McDonald , 95, English footballer ( Burnley , Headington United , national team ). [ 468 ] Enric Mestre , 89, Spanish sculptor. [ 469 ] Mukhsin Mukhamadiev , 59, Tajik-Russian football player ( Tajikistan national team , Russia national team ) and manager (Tajikistan national team). [ 470 ] Sir James Munby , 77, English judge, president of the Family Division (2013–2018). [ 471 ] Hubertus von Pilgrim , 94, German sculptor. [ 472 ] Gregory de Polnay , 82, English actor ( Dixon of Dock Green , Doctor Who , Howards' Way ). [ 473 ] Dame Karen Poutasi , 76, New Zealand public health official, director general of health (1995–2006). [ 474 ] Candy Raymond , 75, Australian actress ( Don's Party , Number 96 , Prisoner ). [ 475 ] (death announced on this date) Amit Saar , 47, Israeli intelligence officer, head of the Military Intelligence Research Department (2020–2024), brain cancer. [ 476 ] Roland Schäfer , 76, German politician, mayor of Bergkamen (1998–2020). [ 477 ] Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo , 80, Angolan Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Luanda (1990–1992) and bishop of Mbanza Congo (1992–2008). [ 478 ] Margaret Anne Staggers , 79, American politician, member of the West Virginia House of Delegates (2007–2014). [ 479 ] Hessy Levinsons Taft , 91, German chemist and child model. [ 480 ] Ruben Yesayan , 79, Russian-Armenian test pilot. [ 481 ] Yuen Cheung-yan , 68, Hong Kong actor ( The Miracle Fighters , Drunken Tai Chi , Flying Dagger ), director, and martial arts choreographer. [ 482 ] Valentin Zakharov , 92, Russian figure skater. [ 483 ] References ^ На 91-му році життя померла фахівчиня у галузі медичної генетики Олена Гречаніна ^ First mufti of Kazakhstan passes away ^ Plateau Imam who shielded 262 Christians during attack is dead ^ Preminuo je Ante Grgurević (51), jedan od najomiljenijih splitskih košarkaša i trenera! Bio je sinonim za borbenost (in Croatian) ^ Rafael Qvaladze vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Muere Irene de Grecia, hermana y fiel escudera de la reina Sofía (in Spanish) ^ '한국의 장 주네' 김신용 시인 별세…향년 81세 (in Korean) ^ Zimbabwean Tycoon Mutumwa Mawere Dies in SA Days After 66th Birthday ^ Siouxsie And the Banshees Drummer Kenny Morris Has Died ^ Athlétisme : décès d’Edgar Salvé, ex-champion d’Europe indoor du 1.500 m (in French) ^ বাংলার প্রাক্তন ক্রিকেটার অজয় ভার্মা প্রয়াত, শোকের ছায়া ময়দানে (in Bengali) ^ Մահացել է Գագիկ Եգանյանը (in Armenian) ^ Воспитанник ЦСКА найден мертвым в Подмосковье (in Russian) ^ Умер Дмитрий Акимов (in Russian) ^ Queer Māori Playwright Aroha Awarau Passes Away Peacefully in Ponsonby ^ Uganda mourns loss of education pioneer Namirembe Bitamazire ^ Murió el periodista colombiano Alfonso Castellanos (in Spanish) ^ Ancien député et père d'Yvan Colonna, Jean-Hugues Colonna est mort (in French) ^ È morta Valeria Fedeli, ex ministra dell’Istruzione (in Italian) ^ Помер народний депутат від "Слуги народу" Олександр Кабанов: перші подробиці (in Ukrainian) ^ Former Lotte Coach Kim Min-jae, National Team Shortstop, Dies ^ Rick Link Passes Away ^ Chinese Go legend Nie Weiping passes away ^ Adiós a Melania Pérez, voz emblema de la música argentina y del Festival de Cosquín (in Spanish) ^ Fallece el exalcalde de València Ricard Pérez Casado a los 80 años (in Spanish) ^ Jyväskylässä vaikuttanut olympiaurheilija Seppo Reijonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Décès de Jean Rossier, président de Parole et Musique (in French) ^ Ernestine Russell Weaver, two-time Canadian Olympian and legendary U.S. coach, passes away at age 87 ^ Radio-Legende Ado Schlier mit 90 Jahren in Würzburg gestorben (in German) ^ Morre a atriz e modelo Vera Barreto Leite Valdez aos 89 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Fallece el músico Quemil Yambay, ícono del folclore paraguayo (in Spanish) ^ Умер Игорь Золотовицкий (in Russian) ^ Scott Adams, Creator of the ‘Dilbert’ Comic Strip, Dies at 68 ^ Veteran journalist Iqbal Athas passes away ^ Addio a Lina Bernardi, l’attrice di Latina aveva lavorato con i più grandi registi (in Italian) ^ Alfred Blumstein ^ Former Arizona Attorney General Mark Brnovich dies at age 59 ^ Capoterra, addio alla calciatrice Paola Cardia, 74 anni, nota Paoletta: il centrocampo era il suo mondo (in Italian) ^ Former ECB chief executive David Collier dies aged 70 ^ Claudette Colvin, US civil rights pioneer, dies at 86 ^ Regal Nizam-era Socialite Indira Devi Passes Away ^ Mort de Catherine Duprat, historienne de la Révolution française (in French) ^ Nie żyje Barbara Eustachiewicz-Kowal, wybitna polska gimnastyczka sportowa (in Polish) ^ Odszedł Jesse Philip Flis (1933–2026) – rozmowa z 2018 r. (in Polish) ^ Assam: Retired IAS officer Bir Bhadra Hagjer passes away at 75 ^ Mozambique: Footballer Ali Hassan passes away at 61 ^ 混元禪師圓寂!曾腎臟萎縮病危、長期糖尿病 醫示警6徵兆快就醫 (in Chinese) ^ Suri endine poliitik Heiki Kranich (in Estonian) ^ 97 Play Off Champion Jason Lafreniere Passes Away, aged 59 ^ Theatre world pays tribute to Blanche Marvin, who has died aged 100 ^ Doug McConnell, longtime host of OpenRoad with Doug McConnell and Friends, dies ^ Bruce McLeod, 25th Moderator of The United Church of Canada, Dies at Age 97 ^ Addio a Rolando Nannicini, il cordoglio del mondo politico (in Italian) ^ Renowned Cork singer Seán Ó Sé dies aged 89 ^ Ушёл из жизни бывший футболист тюменского «Геолога» Иван Онуфриев (in Russian) ^ Voor theatermaker Annemarie Prins was maatschappijkritiek en engagement tweede natuur (in Dutch) ^ Lutto nel calcio, si è spento l'ex calciatore della Spal: vinse un campionato di Serie C (in Italian) ^ « Écrivain de l’agriculture » et photographe, le Mayennais Jean-Loup Trassard est décédé (in French) ^ Zomrel režisér, dramaturg a publicista Rudolf Urc, významná osobnosť slovenskej kinematografie (in Slovak) ^ Former Cyprus President George Vassiliou, who put the country on the path to EU membership, has died ^ Hong Kong corporate governance activist David Webb dies at 60 ^ ”Arne” i Kurt Olsson död (in Swedish) ^ Veteran 2GB radio announcer Bruce Wilshire has died aged 81 ^ Մահացել է հայ քաղաքական գործիչ, ՀՀԿ առանցքային ներկայացուցիչ Ռազմիկ Զոհրաբյանը (in Armenian) ^ Oba Babatunde Akran of Badagry dies at 89 ^ Israeli-backed group kills a senior Hamas police officer in Gaza, threatens more attacks ^ BBC's Good Old Days and Coronation Street star and singer Sheila Bernette dies aged 94 ^ Clauson, Paul John ^ Entraîneur français emblématique, Rolland Courbis est mort (in French) ^ George Mason Athletics Mourns The Loss of Longtime Assistant Bill Courtney ^ Mantan Bupati Bekasi Mochammad Djamhari Tutup Usia di Bandung (in Indonesian) ^ John Forté, celebrated recording artist, dies suddenly at 50 ^ Rick Garcia, activist and leader in Chicago's LGBTQ+ civil rights movement, dies at 69 ^ Ex-cricketer Mohammad Ilyas passes away in Lahore ^ สิ้น “อัษฎา ชัยนาม” อดีตเอกอัครราชทูตและผู้แทนถาวรไทยประจำUN ถึงแก่อนิจกรรม (in Thai) ^ Presentator Robert Jensen (52) overleden aan hartstilstand (in Dutch) ^ Renowned actress Jayasree Kabir passes away in London ^ Professor Emeritus Robert Kohn (1953-2026) ^ Black Midi Co-Founder Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin Dies at 26 ^ Author Jan Mårtenson dies at 92 ^ Eddie McCreadie – 1940-2026 ^ Morto Luigi Nicolais, è stato presidente della fondazione Reggia di Carditello (in Italian) ^ Alain Orsoni, ancien dirigeant nationaliste, abattu lors des obsèques de sa mère en Corse (in French) ^ Mario Rigutti (in Italian) ^ Südtirol trauert um Roland Riz (in German) ^ Décès de Catherine Samie, pilier de la Comédie-Française (in French) ^ e peintre nîmois Michel Tombereau est mort (in French) ^ Hall of Fame Trick Rider and Wife of Hall of Fame Stock Contractor Passes Away ^ „Einer der besten Debattenredner": Martin Willich ist tot (in German) ^ הפקולטה למדעי החיים מרכינה ראשה בצער על פטירתו של פרופ' יצחק (איציק) ויץ ז"ל (in Hebrew) ^ Mirė legendinis Lietuvos futbolo treneris Benjaminas Zelkevičius (in Lithuanian) ^ Умер бывший бейсболист сборной России Павел Акишев (in Russian) ^ The Passing of Dr. Gabriel Barkay ^ Addio Alberto Benzoni. Socialista di valore dallo sguardo acuto (in Italian) ^ Brus, Rice alumnus and Nobel laureate, passes away at 82 ^ Thomas Causey, Sound Mixer on ‘Dick Tracy,’ ‘Broadcast News’ and ‘Defending Your Life,’ Dies at 76 ^ [1] (in Italian) ^ Richard Codey, former governor of New Jersey, dies at 79 ^ Marcus Gilbert 1958 - 2026 RIP ^ Pirates World Series champion Dave Giusti dies at age 86 ^ Clubs pay tribute to former player Hopkins ^ Bernie Carlton Keel ^ Ueli Kestenholz, snowboarder e sportivo estremo svizzero, è morto travolto da una valanga (in Italian) ^ Ушел из жизни олимпийский чемпион по тяжелой атлетике (in Russian) ^ 児玉更太郎さん(こだま・こうたろう=元安芸高田市長) (in Japanese) (subscription required) ^ Falleció el huancaíno Nelson Manrique, referente de las ciencias sociales del Perú (in Spanish) ^ Morre a atriz Titina Medeiros, aos 48 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Veteran Syrian Actor Ahmad Melli dies at 80 ^ Mor als 77 anys Miquel Naudí, qui va ser conseller general entre 1981 i 1983 i conseller comunal de Canillo (in Catalan) ^ Takashi Ono, 1928–2026 ^ 박순용(전 검찰총장)씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Zemřela Miroslava Pešíková, osobnost našeho baletu a sólistka Národního divadla (in Czech) ^ Clarence Pierce ^ Doliu la UTA Arad » Eugen Pojoni, dublu campion al României, a murit la 84 de ani (in Romanian) ^ Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell passes away ^ Veteran Left leader Samir Putatundu dies following prolonged illness ^ Saudi Arabia’s oldest man dies at 142, leaves 134 children and grandchildren ^ Filmskaper Grete Salomonsen Hynnekleiv er død (in Norwegian) ^ Robert G. Shulman, Yale biophysicist and pioneer of spectroscopy ^ Aniceto “Chito” Sobrepeña, veteran public servant and corporate leader, dies at 77 ^ Singer-actor Prashant Tamang passes away at 43 in Delhi ^ Addio a Sergio Tarquinio, una vita lunga un secolo tra fumetto e arte (in Italian) ^ ‘Enigmatic’ Hollyoaks star Trevor A Toussaint dies aged 65 ^ Tributes paid to 'extraordinary musician' John Wallace ^ Oud-burgemeester van Grobbendonk Herman Wouters overleden in ziekenhuis (in Dutch) ^ Andlát: Sturla Böðvarsson (in Icelandic) ^ Manoel Carlos, autor de grandes novelas da TV brasileira, morre aos 92 anos no Rio (in Portuguese) ^ Daniel Colson (1943-2026) ^ Former Burkinabe minister Viviane Compaoré found murdered ^ Schweizer Autor und Publizist Erich von Däniken ist gestorben (in German) ^ Leading Sire Distorted Humor Dies at 33 ^ Умер призер чемпионатов мира по гребле на байдарках Сергей Галков (in Russian) ^ In Memoriam: Richard Hynes ^ Husker Legend Jim Hartung Passes Away ^ Fallece el exblanquivioleta Mario Jacquet a los 79 años (in Spanish) ^ Zmarł Włodzimierz Jakubowski (in Polish) ^ Sitting Maine representative Kathy Javner dies of cancer ^ Atención: en accidente de avioneta esta tarde en Paipa (Boyacá) muere el cantante Yeison Jiménez y sus músicos (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel opavský politik, bývalý poslanec Václav Klučka (in Czech) ^ Former Louisiana State Senator Robert Kostelka dies at 92 ^ EastEnders actor Derek Martin dies aged 92 ^ Fallece Marco Proaño Maya, exvicepresidente del Congreso Nacional (in Spanish) ^ Hockey Olympian Davinder Singh Garcha passes away ^ Zemřel religionista Ivan Štampach. Spojoval křesťanství s otevřeností a dialogem (in Czech) ^ Monsieur Thierry STEINMETZ footballeur professionnel (in French) ^ Addio a Orazio Svelto, pioniere della ricerca sui laser in Italia (in Italian) ^ Isabel Veloso Dead: Influencer Dies at Age 19 After Battling Hodgkin’s Lymphoma ^ Fallece el actor cubano Manolo Villaverde, el querido Pepe en "¿Qué pasa USA? (in Spanish) ^ Honoured health reformer Prawase dies aged 93 ^ Bob Weir, co-founder of rock group the Grateful Dead, dies at age 78 ^ Robert Wolgemuth, Best-Selling Christian Author and Husband of Nancy DeMoss, Dies at 77 ^ Genius Chimpanzee Ai Dies at Age 49, Primate Known for Enthusiastic Role in Research on Learning, Memory ^ Zéno Bianu (1950-2025) (in French) ^ Muere el periodista Andrés Caniulef a los 48 años de edad - Chilevisión (in Spanish) ^ 'The Thing' Actor T.K. Carter Dead at 69 ^ Father of American Freediving Bob Croft Dies Aged 91 ^ Décès de Jean-Louis Duplat, ancien président de la Commission bancaire (in French) ^ Murió la maestra Beatriz González, ícono del arte colombiano (in Spanish) ^ Serieskaparen Ulf Granberg död (in Swedish) ^ Zemřela PaedDr. Jitka Gruntová (in Czech) ^ Porsche mourns the loss of Hans Herrmann ^ Longtime New Orleans activist Sandra Wheeler Hester dies ^ Entinen keskisuomalainen kansanedustaja Pirkko Ikonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Heber Jentzsch Dead at 90: Scientology's Longtime 'President' Dies Years After Being Transferred to a Nursing Home ^ CDU Essen trauert um Manfred Kuhmichel (in German) ^ Đại tướng, Anh hùng LLVT nhân dân Lê Văn Dũng – Một cuộc đời trọn vẹn với non sông (in Vietnamese) ^ Former Ranji Trophy Cricketer from Mizoram Dies After Collapsing During Match ^ Humanists UK mourns Diane Munday, leading campaigner for the Abortion Act (1931-2026) ^ Ушел из жизни Валерий Носков (in Russian) ^ Shakespeare and Company Founding Artistic Director Tina Packer dies ^ Ci lascia Zelico Petrovic, stagioni meravigliose a Taranto (in Italian) ^ Larry Snook ^ Renaissance drummer Terry Sullivan has died ^ Muere Josep Maria Triginer, fundador del PSC y firmante de los Pactos de la Moncloa (in Spanish) ^ Eleni Varikas: the years with the FI in Greece ^ 前中常委「姚董」姚江臨辭世 國民黨工感念:他永遠走在第一線 (in Chinese) ^ Bishop Vincenzo Zarri † ^ Farewell to a great lady ^ Celebrating the Life and Legacy of Musa Gibril Bala Gaye ^ Танымал қазақстандық актер Мұрат Бисенбин өмірден өтті (in Kazakh) ^ Loraine Braham, trailblazing Northern Territory politician dies, aged 87 ^ Maler Günther Brendel gestorben (in German) ^ Filha de Olavo de Carvalho é encontrada morta (in Portuguese) ^ Zemřel sochař Václav Cigler, bylo mu 96 let. Poprvé v historii použil optické sklo k tvorbě uměleckého díla (in Czech) ^ Jornalista Conrado Corsalette morre em São Paulo aos 47 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Nie żyje były poseł i prezydent Łomży. Mieczysław Czerniawski miał 77 lat (in Polish) ^ Nelly Chatue-Diop, pionnière de la crypto pour tous en Afrique, est morte (in French) ^ La disparition de Jean-Luc Domenach (in French) ^ Former all-star linebacker, Grey Cup champion with Stamps, Jim Furlong, dead at 85 ^ Serguei, dessinateur au « Monde » depuis quarante-cinq ans, est mort (in French) ^ Veteran SP Leader, Eight-Time MLA Vijay Singh Gond Passes Away at 68 ^ Foxtrot producer David Hitchcock has passed away ^ 痛别!简水生院士逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Mort de l’ex-mari de Caroline de Monaco, le déchirant message de sa fille Victoria Junot : "À mon papa légendaire…" (in French) ^ Malawi Mourns Former Deputy Speaker Madalitso Kazombo ^ Larose, whose signature voice helped shape Haitian music, dies at 80 ^ Obituary: Opera Director Rhoda Levine Dies at 93 ^ Atriz Elisa Lisboa morreu aos 81 anos (in Portuguese) ^ В Кургане погиб экс-глава Калининграда Евгений Любивый (in Russian) ^ Padova piange Antonino Mangano, il maestro dell’atletica veneta (in Italian) ^ Guy Moon Dies: Emmy-Nominated ‘Fairly OddParents’ Composer Was 63 ^ Politikus Demokrat dan Mantan Ketua Komisi IV DPR RI, Kolonel (Purn) Jafar Nainggolan Wafat (in Indonesian) ^ 画家・中村宏さん死去 砂川闘争描いた「ルポルタージュ絵画」:朝日新聞 (in Japanese) ^ El Punk está de luto: falleció el gran músico Álvaro Peña Rojas (1943-2026) (in Spanish) ^ Howard Riley: 1938–2026 ^ Schrijfster Astrid Roemer overleden (in Dutch) ^ Kjersti Scheen (in Norwegian) ^ Sēru vēsts: mūžībā devusies Latvijas un pasaules basketbola leģenda Uļjana Semjonova (in Latvian) ^ Sir Tim Shadbolt has died at age 78 ^ Manipur BJP leader Meinam Bhorot Singh dies after prolonged illness in Imphal ^ جمهوری اسلامی مجتبی ترشیز، بازیکن پیشین تراکتور و همسرش را به قتل رساند (in Persian) ^ Matthew Taylor RIP ^ Le sport belge en deuil : le rameur Wim Van Belleghem, le seul Belge champion du monde en aviron, est décédé (in French) ^ Paul Visser ^ Terry Yorath obituary ^ Iran executes a man convicted of spying for Israel's Mossad ^ Madjoulba Batocfetou, patron de l'ICAT s'est éteint (in French) ^ James Bernard, founding editor of ‘The Source’ and co-founder of ‘XXL,’ dies ^ Помер український композитор Блажков, Гордон, 8.1.2026, автор - Ельчін Садаєв (in Ukrainian) ^ Mort d'Albert Bourgi, professeur de droit et figure du socialisme en Afrique (in French) ^ È morta Raffaella Bragazzi, storica voce di «Ok, il prezzo è giusto», aveva 66 anni (in Italian) ^ Frank Stanley Cerveny ^ Muere "El Chiri", excompetidor de Calle y beisbolista chiricano (in Spanish) ^ Obituary | Martin Chivers ^ Falleció Ángel Coerezza, uno de los mejores árbitros argentinos y ejemplo de persona (in Spanish) ^ John Witt Derr ^ 北海道・前釧路市長の蝦名大也さん(67)死去 議員秘書や北海道議などを経て4期16年釧路市長 防災インフラの整備に尽力 関係者からも悼む声 (in Japanese) ^ Former Memphis Rogues soccer star Tony Field dies at 79 ^ Vera Frances dead: Child star dies surrounded by family as tributes pour in ^ Madhav Gadgil (1942-2026) ^ Woman killed by ICE in Minneapolis identified ^ Morto monsignor Domenico Graziani, fu vescovo di Cassano e arcivescovo di Crotone (in Italian) ^ Hall, ironman goaltender with record 502 consecutive starts, dies at 94 ^ Sidney de Jong ^ Rebecca, Becky, Roo: Missing Miss Kilgore ^ Jon Lindsay, the longest-serving Harris County judge, dies at 90 ^ Former Jerusalem mayor Uri Lupolianski dies at 74 ^ Obituary: Ian McCrae ^ Former Colts RB Randy McMillan dies at 67 ^ New Mexico remembers former lieutenant governor, musician ^ Kabindra Purkayastha, the Patriarch of Assam BJP Passes Away at 94 ^ Former State Rep. Howard Sanderford dies at 90 ^ Dietrich Stratmann (in German) ^ Death of Seydou Madani Sy, former Minister of Justice and first Senegalese rector of UCAD ^ Kim Thorson ^ Hall of Fame tight end Billy Truax dies at 82 ^ Muore a 84 anni la giornalista parmigiana Chiara Valentini, è stata la biografa di Berlinguer (in Italian) ^ وفاة المفكر والفيلسوف المصري مراد وهبة عن 100 عام (in Arabic) ^ Vale Athol Webb | Melbourne mourns premiership hero ^ 云南省民间文艺家协会第六届副主席昂自明逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Former MLA and mayor Joe Arlooktoo passes away at 86 ^ Elle avait risqué sa vie pour en sauver d'autres : Odette Bergoffen, Juste parmi les Nations, est morte à 101 ans (in French) ^ Odszedł Profesor Andrzej Bogusławski (in Polish) ^ Former Queensland senator Ron 'Bozzie' Boswell dies aged 85 ^ John Cunningham, Veteran Broadway Actor, Dies at 93 ^ Former Maryland AD Dick Dull Passes Away ^ V.K. Ebrahim Kunju, IUML leader and former Kerala Minister, passes away ^ Deggendorfs frühere Oberbürgermeisterin Anna Eder ist gestorben (in German) ^ Johannes Fabian (in Dutch) ^ В Ухте скончался 32-летний нападающий МФК «Норильский никель» Алекс Фелипе (in Russian) ^ Angella Ferguson ^ Edith Flanigen ^ Schengen signatory Robert Goebbels passes away at 81 ^ Former Union minister Suresh Kalmadi passes away at 81 after prolonged illness ^ Doug LaMalfa, California Republican congressman, dies aged 65 ^ Elhunyt Láyer József volt országgyűlési képviselő (in Hungarian) ^ Alabama Music Hall of Famer, Huntsville native Jim McBride, dies at 78 ^ Jack McGregor, original founder of Pittsburgh Penguins, dies at 91 ^ AfD-Landtagsabgeordnete Muxel gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Raffaele Nogaro † ^ James E. O'Grady ^ Veteran Iranian actor Saeid Pirdoost passes away ^ Guinea ex-security chief convicted over crimes against humanity dies ^ Oud-burgemeester Jaap Pop overleden (in Dutch) ^ DA Gauteng mourns passing of former MPL David Quail ^ Obituary: Nihal Seneviratne ^ Bağır Süleymanov vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Meghalt Tarr Béla (in Hungarian) ^ Jerry Thomas, MVP of 1956 College World Series with Gophers, dies at 90 ^ Morto Gianpaolo Tosel, è stato per anni giudice sportivo della Serie A: aveva 85 anni (in Italian) ^ Le PSG en deuil, une figure historique du club s'est éteinte (in French) ^ Не стало Анатолия Евтушенко (in Russian) ^ 著名文艺理论家、北大中文系教授张少康逝世 (in Chinese) ^ 周立伟院士逝世:他“创立了自己的科学学派” (in Chinese) ^ South Korean Film Legend Ahn Sung-ki Dies at 75 ^ Aldrich Ames, CIA officer convicted of spying for Russia, dies at age 84 ^ Luto en el boxeo colombiano por la muerte del legendario 'Bony' Ávila (in Spanish) ^ Mustergültiger Aufklärer (in German) ^ Bassist Andrew Bodnar (o.a. Graham Parker & The Rumour) overleden (in Dutch) ^ Andrew Carter - In Memoriam ^ Tom Cherones, Emmy-Winning ‘Seinfeld’ Director and Producer, Dies at 86 ^ Fallece Beatriz de Lenclós, la gran vedette vitoriana que marcó época (in Spanish) ^ Jim Dennison, winningest football coach at Akron and Walsh, dies ^ Marian Diamond: Miriam Margolyes pays tribute to 'dear friend' after Jackanory star's death aged 89 ^ Meghalt Dudás Miki (in Hungarian) ^ Razor – Former Drummer Mike Embro Dead At 63 ^ 元グラドル藤乃あおいさんが死去、27歳 親族が発表 23年に希少がんを公表 闘病続けていた (in Japanese) ^ Bishop Paolo Gillet † ^ Morto Pier Francesco Guarguaglini, Crosetto: uomo di intelligenza e visione (in Italian) ^ Bruce Hammock: 1947-2026 ^ Acteur Ad van Kempen overleden op 81-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Odszedł na Wieczną Wartę Druh harcmistrz Wiktor Kinecki (in Polish) ^ Fallece José Mingorance, leyenda de la época dorada del Córdoba CF en Primera División (in Spanish) ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن رضا مرادی عبدالوند ششمین جانباخته اعتراضات شهر ازنا (in Persian) ^ Jawann Oldham, a basketball star at Cleveland High, Seattle U, dies at 68 ^ “พระองค์หญิงอินทุรัตนา บริพัตร” (พระวรวงศ์เธอ พระองค์เจ้าอินทุรัตนา) สิ้นพระชนม์ สิริพระชันษา ๑๐๓ ปี (in Thai) ^ Artist and fashion writer Molly Parkin dies ^ Χρήστος Πολίτης: Πέθανε τη Δευτέρα και τον βρήκε ο αδελφός του νεκρό μια μέρα αργότερα (in Greek) ^ Pulford, 4-time Stanley Cup champion with Maple Leafs, dies at 89 ^ La città piange Cosimo Scaglioso. Fu docente emerito e senatore (in Italian) ^ Chef and food stylist Elle Simone Scott dies at 49 ^ Zemřel specialista na pokutové kopy. Brankář si zachytal za Slavii i Spartu (in Czech) ^ Karel-zangeres Elsje de Wijn overleden op 82-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Tribute to Sutton Harrier Ken Wilcock, who has died aged 91 ^ Mike Wilson (1959-2026): The King of Karting takes his final bow ^ Po těžké nemoci zemřel bývalý rektor ČVUT Jiří Witzany, bylo mu 84 let (in Czech) ^ 105岁东北妇运工作开拓者之一、黑龙江省妇联原主任吴琳涛逝世 (in Chinese) ^ WKU Athletics Hall of Famer Forest "Frosty" Able Passes Away ^ رئيس الوزراء الأسبق علي ابو الراغب في ذمة الله (in Arabic) ^ Jamia Ashrafia head Maulana Ashrafi passes away ^ Pionnière du travail social sur l’itinérance et le profilage, la chercheuse Céline Bellot s’éteint (in French) ^ Ci ha lasciati coach Mario Blasone. Le condoglianze del presidente Petrucci. Disposto minuto di silenzio (in Italian) ^ Robert Gerald Boyer ^ OHL, CHL Mourn the Loss of David Branch, Transformative Commissioner and Hockey Visionary ^ Le rappeur Calbo, membre du duo emblématique Ärsenik, est mort à l’âge de 52 ans (in French) ^ Gardienne des remèdes d'antan, la Valaisanne Germaine Cousin-Zermatten s'est éteinte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Le magicien de bal Kamiel Dierckx est décédé à l’âge de 84 ans (in French) ^ Edinburgh's last star director has died, at 97 ^ Muere Manuel Fernández Ilarraza, expresidente del Parlamento (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel kněz Miloslav Fiala (in Czech) ^ Andy Friendly Dies: First ‘Entertainment Tonight’ Producer, Son Of Legendary CBS Newsman Fred Friendly Was 74 ^ Veteran Dravidian ideologue L. Ganesan no more ^ Anne-Claire Goulon, ex-dirigeante du groupe Livio, s'est éteinte à 51 ans (in French) ^ Vicki Gregory ^ Hommage à Michel Griffon (in French) ^ Hommage à Roger Guesnerie (in French) ^ Former Portland lawmaker Denise Harlow dies at 55 ^ Bobby Holmes ^ Mūžībā devusies rakstniece Nora Ikstena (in Latvian) ^ Erster Landtagspräsident von Sachsen-Anhalt ist verstorben (in German) ^ '원조 스턴트맨'…60년간 배우 활동한 김영인씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Na svoj rođendan preminuo Milorad Kosanović (in Serbian) ^ Stade Rennais : l'ancien président du club Bernard Lemoux est décédé (in French) ^ George Lodge ^ Oscar Warren Lofton ^ Ayawaso East MP Mahama Naser Toure dies after short illness ^ Zemřel válečný veterán Miloslav Masopust (in Czech) ^ Έφυγε από τη ζωή ο Γιώργος Παπαδάκης ύστερα από έμφραγμα (in Greek) ^ La Louvière perd l'un de ses artistes emblématiques : Daniel Pelletti a tiré sa révérence à l'âge de 77 ans (in French) ^ Former mayor of Dunedin Jules Radich dies ^ Michael Reagan, Eldest Son Of Ronald Reagan, Has Died ^ ‘70s PHL tennis star Marissa Sanchez dies at 69 ^ Décès de Jacqueline Schaeffer (1934-2026) (in French) ^ Former Sheetz president and CEO Steve Sheetz dies at age 77 ^ Khadial King Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo Passes Away at 80 ^ Ralph L. Thomas, ‘The Terry Fox Story’ Director and Journalist, Dies at 86 ^ Murió Horacio Usandizaga, histórico dirigente de la UCR y primer intendente de Rosario tras el regreso de la democracia (in Spanish) ^ ‘She was a force of nature’ – Mary White, former senator and founder of Lir Chocolates, dies aged 81 ^ 著名摄影家、新中国第一批女摄影记者晓庄逝世,享年94岁 (in Chinese) ^ Zmarła Pani Teresa Zalewska (in Polish) ^ Hushang Ansary (98) overleden (in Dutch) ^ S’ha mort el periodista Joan Armengol a 91 anys (in Catalan) ^ وفاة الإعلامي الأردني جميل عازر أحد مؤسسي قناة “الجزيرة” القطرية (in Arabic) ^ Langjähriger Tiroler ÖVP-Mandatar Bachmann 91-jährig verstorben (in German) ^ La comédienne genevoise Claude-Inga Barbey s'en est allée (in French) ^ Stephen Edward Braude ^ Morto a 94 anni l'ex senatore Natale Carlotto (in Italian) ^ Morto Francesco Paolo Casavola, il diritto come missione (in Italian) ^ Il prêtait sa voix à une légende du cinéma : le comédien français Frédéric Cerdal nous a quittés à l'âge de 81 ans (in French) ^ Mor Maria Eugènia Cuenca, la primera dona que va ser consellera de la Generalitat (in Catalan) ^ Obit: Former Windsor CFL receiver Tony Dennis dies after multiple organ failure ^ 著名民俗学家、教育家、北京师大教授董晓萍逝世,享年75岁 (in Chinese) ^ Gerry Gable (1937–2026) ^ Broadway Alum Bret Hanna-Shuford Passes Away at 46 ^ Franz Herre (in German) ^ Marvalene Hughes ^ Opera sanatçısı Prof. Dr. Mesut İktu vefat etti (in Turkish) ^ Bishop Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo † ^ Nālani Kanakaʻole, revered Kumu Hula and cultural matriarch, passes at 79 ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن لطیف کریمی با شلیک مستقیم نیروهای حکومتی/ تلاش حکومت برای مصادره و وارونهسازی واقعیت (in Persian) ^ Zum Tod des Fehlfarben-Bassisten Michael Kemner: Ohne Atempause Rockgeschichte gemacht (in German) ^ E-News — January 2026 ^ Goddur er látinn (in Icelandic) ^ Tributes flow for founding father of Australian beef industry, Sir Graham McCamley ^ John Meredith (1940 – 2026) ^ Former DA Federal Chairperson Errol Moorcroft Has Passed Away ^ Former Bangladesh footballer Golam Dostogir no more ^ Strongman turned hilarious Instagram star dies aged 40 ^ Sverre Anker Ousdal er død (in Norwegian) ^ Zmarł prof. Andrzej Paczkowski, jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich historyków (in Polish) ^ The great coach and football player Dimitar Penev has passed away ^ Jenny Plocki, rescapée de la rafle du Vél' d'Hiv et témoin du siècle, est morte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Komponist Rolf Riehm ist gestorben: Immer mit Einspruch (in German) ^ Randy Joseph Riley ^ In memoriam – Eva Schloss-Geiringer ^ Former Deputy Chief Counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations, Robert K. Tanenbaum, has died at the age of 83 ^ Nam Singh Thapa, Nepal's first Olympian, dies ^ Remembering Samuel O. Thier, IOM President (1985-1991) ^ В Тынде умер легендарный строитель БАМа Иван Варшавский (in Russian) ^ 海军原副政委王征中将逝世,享年64岁 (in Chinese) ^ Terry Wharton | 1942-2026 ^ Yohn, William Hendricks, Jr. ^ Pimpinan PMDG Gontor KH Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi wafat (in Indonesian) ^ Zmarł Mirosław Zdanowicz - przedsiębiorca i legenda sportu (in Polish) ^ 著名京剧表演艺术家、马连良先生入室弟子张克让逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Ihana ja ihmeellinen karjalainen, muistelee Sinikka Sokka tätiään Ritva Auvista (in Finnish) ^ Ian Balding, legendary trainer of Mill Reef, dies aged 87 ^ Rhymester Sukumar Barua passes away ^ Shyam Bihari Lal, BJP MLA, dies in Bareilly a day after celebrating his 60th birthday, CM Yogi expresses grief ^ In memoriam: Carmen Arnold-Biucchi, respected numismatist and educator ^ Ancien président de l'Assemblée de Corse et maire de Sartène, Dominique Bucchini est décédé (in French) ^ Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies aged 98 ^ Jean-Max Causse, exploitant de cinémas et grand nom de la cinéphilie parisienne, est mort (in French) ^ Odesa reports the death of artist Bohdan Chufus ^ BBC Radio Merseyside founding member dies as tributes paid ^ Mor Miquel Contestí, històric expresident del RCE Mallorca (in Catalan) ^ Sir Patrick Duffy, Britain’s oldest living former MP, passes away at the age of 105 ^ 藤井俊男さん死去 元民主党参院議員 (in Japanese) ^ D-Day veteran who escorted allied troops landing in Normandy dies aged 101 ^ Diamond legend Steve Haggerty has died ^ 'He was awesome': Fans grieve death of beloved Island radio host ^ Sidney Kibrick, Last of the 'Our Gang' Kids, Dies at 97 ^ Kristi L. Kiick ^ Elbert Leon Kimbrough ^ Anna Kurek, medic of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, has died ^ Paul Lambert ’46, Former Trustee, Dies at 97 ^ Daily Update: NJPW Wrestle Kingdom 20, CMLL Sin Salida, Johnny Legend ^ Преминуо проф. Владимир Лукић (in Serbian) ^ Former MLC Ashok Modak passes away at 85 ^ Con Pederson, ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ Special Effects Supervisor, Dies at 91 ^ В Петербурге умер снимавший Высоцкого фотограф Валерий Плотников (in Russian) ^ Vale: Tim Robertson ^ Rovátkay Lajostól búcsúzunk (in Hungarian) ^ PM Mourns Former Deputy Prime Minister, Minister Saleh Irshaidat ^ Edith Renfrow Smith, a 'memory keeper' and living link to history, dies at 111 ^ Former AFL player Phoenix Spicer dies as heartbroken family and football figures pay tribute ^ Ivonne Trebbi è morta, addio alla partigiana Bruna. Aveva 97 anni (in Italian) ^ James Gladden Willis ^ Tragiczna śmierć polskiego olimpijczyka. Robert Wolski nie żyje (in Polish) ^ Remembering Nellie Wong ^ Former Speaker of Bishkek City Council Marat Amankulov passes away ^ Communiqué d'Action française – Un camelot du roi exemplaire (in French) ^ Walsall confirm death of former Saddlers and Aston Villa creative favourite Alan Baker ^ Allyn Bromley-Baron ^ Fallece Xesús Cañedo, referente del asturianismo político y cultural (in Spanish) ^ "Це велика втрата": на фронті загинула операторка дронів і мисткиня Лана Чорногорська (in Ukrainian) ^ Diane Crump, the first female jockey to race in the Kentucky Derby, dies at 77 ^ Figura e shquar e politikës dhe shkencës - liderët politikë shprehin dhimbjen dhe mirënjohjen për Nexhat Dacin (in Albanian) ^ Brian Doyle, celebrated Ottawa author, dies at age 90 ^ פרופסור יחזקאל דרור, חתן פרס ישראל, מת בגיל 98 (in Hebrew) ^ Ex-president Vīķe-Freiberga's husband Imants Freibergs dies ^ Obituary #8: James Grauerholz ^ وفاة مؤرخ الثورة الجزائرية محمد حربي (in Arabic) ^ 中国驻瓦努阿图原大使、驻美国芝加哥原总领事黄东璧逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Hyundai Dynasty's 2006 Win Rate King Jeon Joon-ho Dies ^ Victoria Jones, daughter of Tommy Lee Jones, found dead in San Francisco ^ Billionaire philanthropist Morris Kahn dies at 95 ^ Умер известный телеведущий Андрей Хорошев (in Russian) ^ Harvey C. Krautschun ^ Famed TV presenter Hiroshi Kume passes away at 81 ^ Remembering John Langdon ^ Suri Arno Talit kehastanud näitleja Arno Liiver (in Estonian) ^ 我国空气动力学界先驱、西北工业大学资深教授林超强逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Arnold Long (1940-2026) - Obituary ^ З глибоким сумом сповіщаємо, що 1 січня ц.р. на 104-му році пішов із життя видатний український математик та організатор науки академік НАН України Володимир Олександрович Марченко (in Ukrainian) ^ Ex-prefeito de Goiânia na década de 1970, Hélio Mauro Umbelino Lobo morre em Anápolis (in Portuguese) ^ Paul McCullagh Jr: Boxer dies age 25 as father confirms heartbreaking cause of death ^ Burnley pay tribute to their former great and England goalkeeper Colin McDonald ^ Fallece a los 89 años Enric Mestre, referente mundial de la cerámica (in Spanish) ^ Умер бывший футболист "Спартака" Мухсин Мухамадиев (in Russian) ^ Death of Sir James Munby ^ Skulpteur der Erinnerung (in German) ^ Monsieur Gregory, Peter de Polnay ^ Dame Karen Poutasi, first female director-general of health, dies aged 76 ^ Tributes paid to Australian actor Candy Raymond who has died aged 75 ^ Amit Saar, top IDF intelligence officer on Oct. 7, dies of cancer at 47 ^ 31 Jahre für Bergkamen: Früherer Bürgermeister Roland Schäfer gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo, O.F.M. Cap. † ^ Former Fayette County delegate and physician Dr. Margaret Staggers has passed away ^ Jewish woman whose baby photo was chosen by Goebbels as Aryan exemplar dies at 91 ^ Умер заслуженный летчик-испытатель Рубен Есаян, критиковавший «Сухой суперджет» (in Russian) ^ 港星病逝!享壽69歲 妻證實噩耗 (in Chinese) ^ Ушел из жизни первый советский фигурист – участник чемпионатов Европы и мира Захаров Валентин Дмитриевич (in Russian) External links The Guardian (UK) obituaries The Telegraph (UK) obituaries The Irish Times obituaries Obituaries, Irish Examiner Obituaries, Chicago Tribune Obituaries, Los Angeles Times The New York Times , obituaries The Washington Post obituaries The Sydney Morning Herald (Australia) obituaries .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). 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Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilly_Cooper#cite_note-156
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . OCLC 61029662 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Julian, Orations 1.18.b. ^ Origo Constantini 35. ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 148–149. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF) . Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 4 : 1+3–26. doi : 10.2307/1291047 . JSTOR 1291047 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. ^ Majeska, George P (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-101-8 . Retrieved 15 April 2017 – via Google Knihy. ^ Edward J. Watts (2020). The Final Pagan Generation: Rome's Unexpected Path to Christianity . University of California Press. p. 83. 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"Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . 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ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. 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Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Footnotes Wikipedia : Alternatives to the "Expand" template Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This page is currently inactive and is retained for historical reference. Either the page is no longer relevant or consensus on its purpose has become unclear. To revive discussion, seek broader input via a forum such as the village pump . This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:ALTEXPAND WP:ALTEXPAND WP:EXPANDALTS WP:EXPANDALTS WP:ALTEXPAND WP:ALTEXPAND WP:EXPANDALTS WP:EXPANDALTS The purpose of a cleanup template message (see Wikipedia:Template messages/Cleanup ) is to alert other editors that an article has a problem that needs addressing. Some of them address specific issues, such as a lack of references, a promotional tone, an intro that's too short or too long. Others are fairly vague — "may need copy-editing," "may need reorganization," etc. Whatever the case, most of them at least address a particular issue that can easily be discerned by other editors. One of the cleanup templates, the now-deprecated {{ expand }} , stated the obvious — if an article is featured-article or at least good-article quality, then it's most likely written out as fully as possible. [ 1 ] Far too often, {{ expand }} was just slapped on willy-nilly because someone notices that the article's a little short. What's more, the second sentence of the template almost always gets ignored: "Further information might be found on the talk page." Well, yes, that is the place where the content of the article is supposed to be discussed. Again, the template is only stating the obvious — that is, whenever the person that adds the template decides to address the expansion on the talk page. What's more, the {{ expand }} template originated from a now-obsolete portion of the project: Wikipedia:Requests for expansion , which dated back to 2003 if not earlier. [ 2 ] In November 2008, the backlog at Requests for expansion was only piling up higher and higher without anyone seeming to take care of it, and as a result, the project was tagged as inactive. Not that the backlog has gone down, either; Category:Articles to be expanded is closing in on 100,000 articles. There are more useful templates that can indicate that a section of an article is underdeveloped. In fact, some of them are even cousins of {{ expand }} . One is {{ Expand section }} ; while not too much of an improvement, it at least narrows the problem down to a specific section. This template also allows the tagger to add a brief explanation of what needs expansion in that section, something that {{ Expand }} did not. For a myriad of reasons, including the points stated above, the "Expand" template was finally deleted in January 2011 (three weeks after this was written) after a very long Templates for Discussion and an even longer deletion review . [ 3 ] In short, there are far better ways to say "hey, this article needs more information". Find a more specific template. Notify an experienced user and/or a WikiProject. Be bold and take up the expansion yourself. Footnotes ^ From Wikipedia:Featured article criteria : "A featured article[…]neglects no major facts or details and places the subject in context[.]" ^ The earliest preserved edit is dated 4 April 2004, but that diff shows that it existed since at least July 2003. ^ TFD came to a consensus of "delete". Due to the heavy amount of transclusions, the template was placed in the holding cell and taken to DRV before many instances of it could be removed. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Glossary of linear algebra Tiếng Việt Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This glossary of linear algebra is a list of definitions and terms relevant to the field of linear algebra , the branch of mathematics concerned with linear equations and their representations as vector spaces . For a glossary related to the generalization of vector spaces through modules , see glossary of module theory . A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E H I L M N O R S T U V Z Notes ^ James & James 1992 , p. 7. ^ a b c James & James 1992 , p. 27. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 66. ^ Curtis, page 155 ^ Curtis, page 116 ^ a b c d e f James & James 1992 , p. 263. ^ James & James 1992 , pp. 80, 135. ^ Dickson, page 3 ^ James & James 1992 , p. 251. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 252. ^ Bourbaki 1989 , p. 232. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 111. ^ Williams 2014 , p. 407. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 389. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 463. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 441. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 442. ^ James & James 1992 , p. 452. References Curtis, Charles W. (1968) Linear Algebra: an introductory approach , second edition, Allyn & Bacon Dickson, L. E (1914) Linear Algebras via Internet Archive .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} James, Robert C. ; James, Glenn (1992). Mathematics Dictionary (5th ed.). Chapman and Hall. ISBN 978-0442007416 . Bourbaki, Nicolas (1989). Algebra I . Springer. ISBN 978-3540193739 . Williams, Gareth (2014). Linear algebra with applications (8th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Linear algebra v t e Outline Glossary Template:Matrix classes Outline Glossary Template:Matrix classes Linear equations Linear equation System of linear equations Determinant Minor Cauchy–Binet formula Cramer's rule Gaussian elimination Gauss–Jordan elimination Overcompleteness Strassen algorithm Linear equation System of linear equations Determinant Minor Cauchy–Binet formula Cramer's rule Gaussian elimination Gauss–Jordan elimination Overcompleteness Strassen algorithm Matrices Matrix Matrix addition Matrix multiplication Basis transformation matrix Characteristic polynomial Spectrum Trace Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace Cayley–Hamilton theorem Jordan normal form Weyr canonical form Rank Inverse , Pseudoinverse Adjugate , Transpose Dot product Symmetric matrix , Skew-symmetric matrix Orthogonal matrix , Unitary matrix Hermitian matrix , Antihermitian matrix Positive-(semi)definite Pfaffian Projection Spectral theorem Perron–Frobenius theorem Diagonal matrix , Triangular matrix , Tridiagonal matrix Block matrix Sparse matrix Hessenberg matrix , Hessian matrix Vandermonde matrix Stochastic matrix , Toeplitz matrix , Circulant matrix , Hankel matrix (0,1)-matrix List of matrices Matrix Matrix addition Matrix multiplication Basis transformation matrix Characteristic polynomial Spectrum Trace Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace Cayley–Hamilton theorem Jordan normal form Weyr canonical form Rank Inverse , Pseudoinverse Adjugate , Transpose Dot product Symmetric matrix , Skew-symmetric matrix Orthogonal matrix , Unitary matrix Hermitian matrix , Antihermitian matrix Positive-(semi)definite Pfaffian Projection Spectral theorem Perron–Frobenius theorem Diagonal matrix , Triangular matrix , Tridiagonal matrix Block matrix Sparse matrix Hessenberg matrix , Hessian matrix Vandermonde matrix Stochastic matrix , Toeplitz matrix , Circulant matrix , Hankel matrix (0,1)-matrix List of matrices Matrix decompositions Cholesky decomposition LU decomposition QR decomposition Polar decomposition Spectral theorem Singular value decomposition Higher-order singular value decomposition Schur decomposition Schur complement Haynsworth inertia additivity formula Reducing subspace Cholesky decomposition LU decomposition QR decomposition Polar decomposition Spectral theorem Singular value decomposition Higher-order singular value decomposition Schur decomposition Schur complement Haynsworth inertia additivity formula Reducing subspace Relations and computations Matrix equivalence Matrix congruence Matrix similarity Matrix consimilarity Row equivalence Elementary row operations Householder transformation Least squares Linear least squares Gram–Schmidt process Woodbury matrix identity Matrix equivalence Matrix congruence Matrix similarity Matrix consimilarity Row equivalence Elementary row operations Householder transformation Least squares Linear least squares Gram–Schmidt process Woodbury matrix identity Vector spaces Vector space Linear combination Linear span Linear independence Basis , Hamel basis Change of basis Dimension theorem for vector spaces Hamel dimension Examples of vector spaces Linear map Shear mapping Squeeze mapping Linear subspace Row and column spaces , Null space Rank–nullity theorem Nullity theorem Cyclic subspace Dual space , Linear functional Category of vector spaces Vector space Linear combination Linear span Linear independence Basis , Hamel basis Change of basis Dimension theorem for vector spaces Hamel dimension Examples of vector spaces Linear map Shear mapping Squeeze mapping Linear subspace Row and column spaces , Null space Rank–nullity theorem Nullity theorem Cyclic subspace Dual space , Linear functional Category of vector spaces Structures Topological vector space Normed vector space Inner product space Euclidean space Orthogonality Orthogonal complement Orthogonal projection Orthogonal group Pseudo-Euclidean space Null vector Indefinite orthogonal group Orientation Improper rotation Symplectic structure Topological vector space Normed vector space Inner product space Euclidean space Orthogonality Orthogonal complement Orthogonal projection Orthogonal group Pseudo-Euclidean space Null vector Indefinite orthogonal group Orientation Improper rotation Symplectic structure Multilinear algebra Multilinear algebra Tensor Tensors (classical) Component-free treatment of tensors Outer product Tensor algebra Exterior algebra Symmetric algebra Clifford algebra Geometric algebra Bivector Multivector Gamas's theorem Multilinear algebra Tensor Tensors (classical) Component-free treatment of tensors Outer product Tensor algebra Exterior algebra Symmetric algebra Clifford algebra Geometric algebra Bivector Multivector Gamas's theorem Affine and projective Affine space Affine transformation , Affine group , Affine geometry Affine coordinate system , Flat (geometry) Cartesian coordinate system Euclidean group Poincaré group Galilean group Projective space Projective transformation Projective geometry Projective linear group Quadric Affine space Affine transformation , Affine group , Affine geometry Affine coordinate system , Flat (geometry) Cartesian coordinate system Euclidean group Poincaré group Galilean group Projective space Projective transformation Projective geometry Projective linear group Quadric Numerical linear algebra Numerical linear algebra Floating-point arithmetic Numerical stability Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms Sparse matrix Comparison of linear algebra libraries Numerical linear algebra Floating-point arithmetic Numerical stability Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms Sparse matrix Comparison of linear algebra libraries Category Category Linear algebra Glossaries of mathematics Articles with short description Short 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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"Between the Covers by Jilly Cooper review – as fresh as ever" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 December 2025 . ^ Moses, Claire (17 October 2024). "Jilly Cooper on Adapting Her Naughty Romance, 'Rivals,' for Disney+" . The New York Times . Retrieved 22 January 2025 . ^ a b c d "Desmond Elliott" . The Daily Telegraph . 30 August 2003. p. 29 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Harrison, Bernice (25 May 2013). "Jilly the filly buster" . The Irish Times . ^ "Jilly Cooper loved Hay so much she wants to base her next novel in Wales" . Hay Festival. 31 May 2018. ^ Matthews, Rachel (15 February 2020). "Mount! author Jilly Cooper: 'When I was younger, I ricocheted from one unsuitable man to another' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 15 February 2020 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Fendley, Alison (9 March 1994). "And, after the break, Chapter Four..." Evening Standard . p. 191 . Retrieved 7 July 2025 . ^ a b King, Francis (16 November 1975). "Jungle warfare in the block" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 14 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Salutes to her". Evening Standard . 30 December 1975. p. 15. ^ "Emily by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Berridge, Elizabeth (6 November 1975). "Recent Fiction" . The Daily Telegraph . p. 13. Archived from the original on 22 June 2025 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Butler, Tony (12 November 1976). "Cooking ... for the love of it!" . Evening Herald . p. 13 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ a b Waugh, Auberon (6 July 1976). "Bella won't let you down!" . Evening Standard . p. 18 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: Harriet" . The Bookseller . 10 July 1976. p. 7. ^ Monks, John (23 July 1976). "Jolly hockey sticks, it's Jilly" . Western Daily Press . p. 8. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "Harriet by Jilly Cooper" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . 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Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ "High drama at sea" . Burton Observer and Chronicle . 1 December 1978. p. 9 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Elliott, Desmond (28 March 1978). "Just a rumour" . Liverpool Daily Post (Merseyside ed.) . p. 2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (1978). Imogen . Corgi Books. pp. frontispiece. ^ "New in paperback". The Bookseller . 7 July 1979. p. 84. ^ "Novels in brief" . The Observer . 31 December 1978. p. 25 . Retrieved 8 June 2025 . ^ "Books of the Times" . Wokingham Times . 18 October 1979. p. 33. Archived from the original on 7 June 2025 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ Dark Allure of the Côte d'Azur: Beauty, Leisure and Violence on the French Riviera since the Eighteenth Century . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. 27 January 2025. ISBN 978-3-11-145132-9 . Archived from the original on 17 July 2025 . Retrieved 12 August 2025 . ^ Probert, Rebecca (6 September 2012). The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Turner, Graham (27 March 1994). "How to Write a Best-Seller" . Sunday Telegraph . p. 37 . Retrieved 28 May 2025 . ^ "Hardbacks." Books. Sunday Times , June 12, 1988, 15[S5]. The Sunday Times Historical Archive. ^ Lewis, Tim (29 September 2024). " 'Are you good in bed?' Jilly Cooper on horses, lefties and which fictional character she would like to sleep with" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Bell, Jane (13 May 1992). "Jilly Makes a Mint". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 6. ^ "Judging a Book by its Bonk" . Avidly . 19 February 2013 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Flood, Alison (10 September 2016). "Jilly Cooper: 'People were always coming up to us at parties and asking us to bed' " . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 April 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1992). Polo: A Legend of Fair Women and Brave Men . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-13552-8 . ^ Vlietstra, Amanda (13 September 2016). "5 (slightly naughty) reasons we're overexcited about Jilly Cooper's new book" . Horse & Hound . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ "A love letter to Jilly Cooper" . Red Online . 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 January 2025 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ a b c d Flood, Alison (9 August 2010). "Jilly Cooper: Queen of the bonkbuster" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 October 2024 . ^ Walter, Natascha (22 May 1993). "The art of coarse litrutshire" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 7 July 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Oates, Quentin (30 April 1993). "Jilly goes solo – super". The Bookseller . p. 46. ^ Agg, Jennie (9 February 2023). Life, Almost: Miscarriage, Misconceptions and a Search for Answers from the Brink of Motherhood . Random House. ISBN 978-1-5291-9294-0 . ^ a b "Classical Music: Sex, Chopin and subterfuge - Music, Arts & Entertainment - The Independent" . Independent.co.uk . 26 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010 . Retrieved 13 April 2025 . ^ Rasmussen, Sonja. "24 May 1996". Aberdeen Evening Express . p. 25. ^ a b Morley, Christopher (11 April 1996). "A wild tale of sex and drugs and barcarolles". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 14. ^ Campbell-Alexander, Melanie (25 April 1996). "Appassionata". Country Life . p. 85. ^ Ryan, Liz (19 April 1996). "Pointless orchestra tale is the pits". Evening Herald . p. 22. ^ Roberts, Gabriel (14 May 1999). "Jolly Jilly scores with new bonkbuster". Gloucester Citizen . p. 11. ^ a b c d e f g h Patterson, Ian (17 May 2017). "Miss Dior, Prodigally Applied" . London Review of Books . Vol. 39, no. 10. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Barker, Christine (15 May 1999). "True blue Jilly scores another winner". Birmingham Daily Post . p. 60. ^ a b MacFarlane, Robert (5 May 2002). "Laughing all the way to the bonk" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Letts, Quentin (11 April 2012). "Fumbling for right touch in Larkshire" . The Standard . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Holden, Wendy (13 May 2002). "Foreskin Saga". New Statesman . Vol. 131, no. 4587. ISSN 1364-7431 . ^ Elliott, Giles. "Da Vinci doubles up: Dan Brown's novel takes the top two spots in the chart with sales of his books set to pass 10 million in the UK this week." The Bookseller , no. 5230, 19 May 2006, p. 17. ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 April 2006). "Jilly Cooper goes back to school" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 7 July 2016 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Martin, Tim (20 May 2006). "Wicked! by Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Briscoe, Joanna (13 May 2006). "Larks with toffs and oiks!" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ a b Laing, Olivia (12 September 2010). "Jump! by Jilly Cooper" . The Observer . Retrieved 26 April 2021 . ^ "Jilly Cooper takes revenge on critic by naming goat after her" . The Daily Telegraph . London. 11 October 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 April 2018 . ^ "Jilly Cooper - Meet the Author - Suffolk Libraries" . www.suffolklibraries.co.uk . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Radloff, Lili. "Book review: Mount by Jilly Cooper" . Life . Archived from the original on 22 April 2025 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper's ninth 'bonkbuster' falls short" . www.stuff.co.nz . Archived from the original on 15 July 2023 . Retrieved 25 May 2025 . ^ Bird, Orlando (8 September 2016). "Mount! by Jilly Cooper, review – 'back to basics' " . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 21 April 2025 . ^ Williams, Zoe (8 November 2023). "Bonk hard and start a business! 10 life lessons I learned from Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ "The best novels of 2023" . The Week . 10 February 2023 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Thorp, Clare. "From Riders to Tackle! – how Britain loves Jilly Cooper's raunchy novels" . www.bbc.com . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Silver, Madeleine (20 April 2024). " 'Bonkbuster' queen Jilly Cooper to swap horses for football" . Horse & Hound . Archived from the original on 20 April 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Cooke, Rachel (12 November 2023). "Tackle! review – Jilly Cooper takes on the beautiful game" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly's age of anxiety" . The Gloucestershire Echo . 13 December 1993. p. 9 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Williamson, Charlotte (3 March 2013). "Why our mongrels are a dying breed" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 23 March 2021 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ "Leafing through the history of Jackanory on World Book Day" . BBC . Archived from the original on 18 August 2025 . Retrieved 18 August 2025 . ^ St Claire, Lynne (23 January 1987). "24 hour TV" . Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 23 August 2025 . ^ a b c Obituary: Leo Cooper , The Daily Telegraph , 2 December 2013. ^ "About Jilly" . The official website of Dame Jilly Cooper . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b Cooper, Jilly (17 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper interview" . The Daily Telegraph . Interviewed by Grice, Elizabeth. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019 . Retrieved 15 January 2026 . ^ Barber, Richard (7 April 2017). "Jilly Cooper: 'My books are my babies' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ Horwell, Veronica (6 October 2025). "Dame Jilly Cooper obituary" . The Guardian . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "A Sporting Life – Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Field . 14 October 2024 . Retrieved 8 October 2025 . ^ Barber, Michael (3 December 2013). "Leo Cooper obituary: Publisher of military history books and husband of Jilly Cooper" . The Guardian . Retrieved 7 May 2020 . ^ Davies, Karin (2 September 1990). "Fiction into fact" . UPI . ^ Kennedy, Philippa (26 September 2010). "Jilly Cooper is still riding high" . The National . ^ "Women and gender in the Conservative party archive" . 24 November 2015. ^ Cooper, Jilly (16 February 2003). "Cover story: The voices for and against war" . The Sunday Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 29 February 2016 . ^ Pool, Hannah; Pool, Hannah Azieb (26 April 2007). "Question time" . The Guardian . ^ "The end is neigh: even Jilly Cooper has dumped Dave" . 3 December 2012. ^ Butterworth, Benjamin (29 July 2018). "Jilly Cooper says she loves being wolf-whistled as she criticises #MeToo movement" . The i Paper . Retrieved 28 February 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper: why I will write just one more novel" . Yorkshire Post . 25 October 2016 [8 October 2016]. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Glancy, Josh (28 July 2024). "Jilly Cooper: 'Upper classes are unbelievable, they just love sex' " . The Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2024 . Retrieved 22 April 2025 . ^ Clegg, Harry (24 June 1991). "Novelist is riding to rescue of wildlife heritage" . The Citizen . p. 8 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ De la Mare, Tess (11 November 2025). "Jilly Cooper died from head injury, says coroner" . BBC News . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ a b "Jilly Cooper: Best-selling author of Rivals and Riders dies at 88" . BBC News . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Camilla's tribute to 'legend' Dame Jilly Cooper after author's death aged 88" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "Author Jilly Cooper has passed away at 88" . Euro Weekly News . 6 October 2025. ^ a b "Queen pays tribute to 'legend' Jilly Cooper after author dies aged 88 – live updates" . BBC News . ^ Grant, Russell (6 October 2025). "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV" . X . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ a b "Tributes pour in from Rivals cast in honour of Dame Jilly Cooper" . The Independent . 6 October 2025 . Retrieved 6 October 2025 . ^ "No. 64269" . The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 2023. p. N9. ^ University Announces Honorary Awards Archived 19 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine University of Gloucestershire ^ "Dame Jilly Cooper (1937-2025) - ARU" . www.aru.ac.uk . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper is our author of the year" . Harper's BAZAAR . 5 December 2024 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . ^ a b Oldham, Nick (17 January 1997). "Jilly's Street? It's not such a novel idea" . Telegraph and Argus . p. 3 . Retrieved 7 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Race Record & Form" . Racing Post . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper (IRE) | Horse Profile" . Sky Sports . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Kerridge, Jake (12 July 2019). "Jilly Cooper on the Comedy Women in Print Prize: 'Men are funnier than women? Rubbish!' " . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 11 November 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper honoured with Comedy Women In Print prize" . Irish Independent . 10 July 2019 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ Loffhagen, Emma (4 November 2025). "Sara Pascoe's novel wins inaugural Jilly Cooper award" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 9 November 2025 . ^ "It's Awfully Bad For Your Eyes, Darling (Production)" . www.phill.co.uk . Archived from the original on 8 October 2025 . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Storah, Peter (18 November 1971). "Jilly gets her own laugh show". Lancashire Telegraph . No. 23646. p. 2. ^ "You're a glamorous lot, says author Jilly ..." Western Daily Press . 22 February 1985. p. 7. Archived from the original on 8 July 2025 . Retrieved 8 July 2025 . ^ Macdonald, Keith (6 April 1977). "Eleanor misses out on Romance" . Manchester Evening News . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ Mitchell, Linton (17 February 1977). "Return to romance" . Reading Evening Post . p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Things go so wrong for Emily" . Evening Sentinel . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Television and radio" . Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph . 6 April 1977. p. 2 . Retrieved 22 June 2025 . ^ "Drama for the 80s" . The Observer . 2 September 1979. p. 35 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ Howard, Geoffrey (31 August 1979). "Highlights on radio" . Ealing and Acton Gazette . p. 15 . Retrieved 21 June 2025 . ^ a b Richardson, Anna (27 July 2007). "Jilly romps to ITV" . The Bookseller . p. 34. ^ Coming Up Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine thecustard.tv ^ Dowell, Ben (12 February 2009). "ITV delays single dramas in downturn" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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CISIA Consorzio Interuniversitario Sistemi Integrati per l'Accesso, Italy CISPA - Helmholtz Center for Information Security, Germany Cito City College Norwich, United Kingdom City College Plymouth, United Kingdom City Lit, United Kingdom City of Bristol College, United Kingdom City of Glasgow College, United Kingdom City of Hope City of Wolverhampton College, United Kingdom City University of applied sciences Bremen, Germany City University of Hong Kong City University of Hong Kong (DongGuan), China City University of Macau, Macao City, University of London, United Kingdom Civil Aviation Flight University Of China Civil Aviation University of China Ciência Viva, Portugal Clackamas Community College Claremont Graduate University Claremont McKenna College Clemson University Cleveland State University CMR University, India CNAG - Centro Nacional de Analisis Genomico, Spain CNEN - Comissao Nacional de Energia Nuclear, Brazil CNES, France CNOUS - LesCrous, France CNOUS - Personnel, France CNPEM - Centro Nacional de Pesquisa em Energia e Materiais, Brazil CNPQ - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico, Brazil CNR Institute for Computational Linguistics "Antonio Zampolli", Italy CNR Institute of Informatics and Telematics, Italy CNRS - Units staff, France Coast Community College District Coast Mountain College, Canada Coastal Carolina University Cochin University of Science and Technolgy - CUSAT, India Coconino County Community College Codarts University of the Arts COG Vallei & Gelderland - Midden Coimbatore Institute of Technology, India Colchester Institute, United Kingdom Coleg Cambria, United Kingdom Coleg Ceredigion, United Kingdom Coleg Gwent, United Kingdom Coleg Sir Gar, United Kingdom Coleg y Cymoedd, United Kingdom Colgate University College of Business Education - (CBE), Tanzania College of Eastern Idaho College of International Business ISM Slovakia in Prešov College of Marin College of Music Nuremberg, Germany College of New Caledonia, Canada College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan College of Polytechnics Jihlava, Czech Republic College of Science & Technology Ningbo University, China College of Southern Nevada College of the Rockies, Canada College360, Denmark Collegium Carolinum, Germany Collège Boréal, Canada Collège de Maisonneuve, Canada Colorado College Colorado Mesa University Colorado School of Mines Colorado State University System Columbia College Columbia University COMBONI S.S BURUNGIRA, Uganda Comenius University, Slovakia Commerzbibliothek Hamburg, Germany Commonwealth University of Pennsylvania Communication University of China Communication University of Zhejiang, China Complutense University of Madrid, Spain Comprehensive high school mubende, Uganda Comrat State University, Republic of Moldova COMUE de Toulouse, France Comunidad San Juan Bosco - comunidadsanjuanbosco, Ecuador Concordia University of Edmonton, Canada Concordia University, Canada Conestoga College, Canada Confederation College of Applied Arts and Technology, Canada Congreso de los Diputados, Spain Connecticut College Consejo de Aseguramiento de la Calidad de la Educación Superior - caces, Ecuador Consejo de Educacion Superior - ces, Ecuador Conservatoire for Dance and Drama, United Kingdom Conservatorio Claudio Monteverdi di Cremona, Italy Conservatorio di musica "G. 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Curio, Netherlands Curtin University, Australia CUSC - Centro Universitario Sao Camilo, Brazil CY Cergy Paris Université, France Cyber School Technology Solutions, Uganda Cybera, Canada Cyceron, France Cyprus Research and Academic Network Cyprus University of Technology Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Czech Language Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Czech National Bank, Czech Republic Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic Czestochowa University of Technology, Poland D DAAD ID, Germany Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea Daffodil International University, Bangladesh Dakabela Comprehensive Secondary School, Uganda Dakota State University Dalarna University, Sweden Dalhousie University, Canada Dalian Jiaotong University, China Dalian Maritime University, China Dalian Medical University, China Dalian University of Foreign Languages, China Dalian University of Technology, China DaLian University, China Dania Academy, Denmark Danish Cancer Society Danish Defence Library Center, Denmark Danish Museum of Energy Danish National Academy of Music, Denmark Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Denmark Danish School of Media and Journalism, Denmark Dar Al-Hekma University - 2 Dar Al-Hekma University, Saudi Arabia DARIAH, European Union Darlington College, United Kingdom Dartmouth College Daugavpils University, Latvia David Game College: DGHE, United Kingdom Davidson College Dawson College, Canada DCTerra, Netherlands De Montfort University, United Kingdom De Rooi Pannen De Vinci Higher Education (DVHE), France Deakin University, Australia Debrecen Reformed Theological University, Hungary Deccan college post-graduate and research institute, India Dedan Kimathi University of Technology, Kenya Defence Scientific Information and Documentation (DESIDOC), Delhi, India DEFITECH Deggendorf Institute of Technology, Germany DeiC – Danish e-Infrastructure Consortium, Denmark Delaware Valley University Delft University of Technology, Netherlands Deltares Deltion College Democritus University of Thrace, Greece Denison University Dennis Gabor University, Hungary Departament d'Educació - Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain Department for Work and Pensions, United Kingdom Department of Health (England), United Kingdom Department of Veterans Affairs, USA DePauw University Derby College, United Kingdom Desert Research Institute Design Academy Eindhoven Design School Kolding Deutsche Zentralbibliothek für Medizin (ZB MED), Germany Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Germany Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum GmbH (DKRZ), Germany Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Germany Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin (DRFZ), Germany DFKI GmbH, Germany DFN-AAI Integration + Test IdP, Germany DFN-CERT Services GmbH, Germany DFN-Verein Geschäftsstelle, Germany Dhanamanjuri University(DMU), India Dharma Gate Buddhist College, Hungary DHBW Heidenheim, Germany DHBW Heilbronn, Germany DHBW Karlsruhe, Germany DHBW Lörrach, Germany DHBW Mannheim, Germany DHBW Mosbach, Germany DHBW Praesidium, Germany DHBW Ravensburg, Germany DHBW Stuttgart, Germany DHBW Villingen-Schwenningen, Germany Dhofar University (shibboleth_IDP), Oman Diaconia University of Applied Sciences, Finland Dickinson College Dicle University, Turkey Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs DIFFER, Netherlands Digital Research Alliance of Canada - Staff DIPF | Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education, Germany Directorate General Of Meteorology, Oman Direção Geral do Ensino Superior, Portugal Direção-Geral do Território, Portugal District Library of Petr Bezruč in Opava, Czech Republic DLR - Deutsches Zentrum fuer Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V., Germany DOBA, Slovenia Dokkyo Medical University, Japan Dokkyo University, Japan Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Domingo Comin - domingocomin, Ecuador Doncaster College, United Kingdom Dongbei University of Finance and Economics, China DongGuan University of Techology, China Donghua University, China Donostia International Physics Center, Spain Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Germany Douglas College, Canada Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, India Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow, India Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, India Dr. Florer Memorial College Kaliro, Uganda Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, India Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee International Institute of Information Technology, Naya Raipur, India Dr.Mahalingam College of Engineering and Technology, India Drew University Drexel University Driestar educatief DTI University, Slovakia Duale Hochschule Sachsen, Germany Dublin Business School (uat), Ireland Dublin Business School, Ireland Dublin City University, Ireland Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, Ireland Dudley College, United Kingdom Duhaga Secondary School, Uganda Duke University Dumfries and Galloway College, United Kingdom Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art Design and Technology, Ireland Dundalk Institute of Technology, Ireland Dundee and Angus College, United Kingdom Duquesne University Durban University of Technology, South Africa Durham College and Ontario Tech University, Canada Duzce University, Turkey DZ e-Science GRID IDP, Algeria DZ e-Science MEDECINE IDP, Algeria Dzaipi Secondary School, Uganda DZNE Deutsches Zentrum fur Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, Germany E E-SCIENCE.PL, Poland E.S.S. Bilbao, Spain Ealing, Hammersmith & West London College, United Kingdom EAMAU East Berkshire College, United Kingdom East Bohemia Museum in Pardubice, Czech Republic East Carolina University East China Jiaotong University EAST CHINA NORMAL UNIVERSITY, China East China University of Political Science and Law East China University Of Science And Technology East China University Of Technology East Durham College, United Kingdom East Norfolk Sixth Form College, United Kingdom East Riding College, United Kingdom East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania East Surrey College, United Kingdom East Sussex College Group, United Kingdom Eastern Africa Statistical Training Centre (EASTC), Tanzania Eastern Education Group, United Kingdom Eastern Institute of Technology, Ningbo, China Eastern University Sri Lanka Eastleigh College (South Hampshire College Group), United Kingdom Eawag, Switzerland Ebenezer Schools, Uganda Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, Germany EBMSP - Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Saude Publica, Brazil EBSCO Information Services EBSERH - Empresa Brasileira de Servicos Hospitalares, Brazil Ecam LaSalle, France Eckerd College ECN3, France Ecole Centrale de Lyon, France Ecole Centrale Méditerranée, France Ecole des beaux-arts de Nantes Saint-Nazaire, France ECOLE DES CADRES TOGO Ecole Nationale des Chartes - PSL, European Union Ecole nationale des ponts et chaussees, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Clermont-Ferrand, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Lyon, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Nancy, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Nantes (ENSA Nantes), France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Normandie, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Paris - La Villette, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Paris - Malaquais, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Paris-est, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Toulouse, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture et de Paysage de Lille, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers - MFA, European Union Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie Paris, France Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Paysage Versailles-Marseille, France Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse (ENVT), France Ecole navale, France Ecole Normale Supérieure Ecole Normale Supérieure - PSL, European Union Ecole Normale Supérieure Paris-Saclay (2), France Ecole Polytechnique - Palaiseau, France Ecole Polytechnique de Ouagadougou (EPO) Ecole Supérieure d'Agriculture d'Angers, France Ecole Supérieure d'Art et Design Le Havre Rouen, France Economic & Social Research Council, United Kingdom EDHEC Business School Edinburgh College, United Kingdom Edinburgh Napier University, United Kingdom Ediofe Girls Secondary School, Uganda Eduard Petiska Library, Czech Republic Educación de Navarra, Spain EducaMadrid, Spain Education and Research Library of Pilsen Region, Czech Republic Education Nationale - academies accesses, France Education Partnership North East, United Kingdom Education Training Collective, United Kingdom Educational Research Centre, Ireland EDUCAUSE eduGAIN Access Check eduID (NL), Netherlands eduID Sri Lanka eduID Sweden eduID.africa Proxy IdP eduID.bf: The Burkina Faso Identity Federation eduID.hu Virtual Home (VHO), Hungary eduID.it, Italy eduID.tg Federation, Togo EENet, Estonia Effat University, Saudi Arabia Efrei Egas Moniz, Cooperativa de Ensino Superior, Portugal Ege University, Turkey EGI Foundation, European Union EHESP - Ecole des hautes études en santé publique, France EHESS idp V3, France Eidg. Hochschule für Sport Magglingen, Switzerland EIGSI La Rochelle, France Eindhoven University of Technology EKC Group, United Kingdom Eko-Konnect Research and Education Initiative, Nigeria Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A, European Union ELI BEAMLINES, European Union Elisabeth TweeSteden Ziekenhuis Elon University EM-Normandie Business School (EM-Normandie) EMBRAPA - Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Brazil EMBRAPII - Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa e Inovacao Industrial, Brazil EMESCAM - Escola Superior de Ciencias da Santa Casa de Misericordia de Vitoria, Brazil Emily Carr University of Art and Design, Canada EMKTS Microsoft ENTRA emlyon business school Emory University Empa, Switzerland Empower International Academy, Uganda ENAC - Ecole Nationale de l'Aviation Civile, France ENAP - Escola Nacional de Administracao Publica, Brazil ENEA, Italy ENIB - Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Brest, France ENIM, Morocco ENISE, France Enna Kore University, Italy ENS de Lyon, France ENS Rennes, France ENSA Strasbourg, France ENSAB - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Bretagne, France EnsAD - École nationale supérieure des Arts Décoratifs, France ENSAE - École Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Administration Économique, France ENSAI - Ecole Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Analyse de l'Information, France ENSAIT - Roubaix, France ENSAM - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Montpellier, France ENSAPVS - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture Paris Val de Seine, France ENSASE - Ecole nationale supérieure d'architecture de Saint-Étienne, France ENSAV - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Versailles, France ENSCI ENSCM - Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, France ENSEA, France ENSFEA, France ensIIE, France ENSMA - Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Mécanique et d'Aérotechnique, France ENSSIB, France ENSTA Bretagne, France ENSTA Paris - Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées, France Entebbe Secondary School, Uganda ENTPE, France Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USA Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland EPFL, Switzerland EPHE - Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, France Episcopal Theological College of Pécs, Hungary Epping Forest College, United Kingdom Equality Challenge Unit, United Kingdom eRA Commons Erasmus MC, Netherlands Erasmus University Rotterdam ErasmusMais, Portugal Erciyes University, Turkey Erhvervsakademi MidtVest, Denmark Ernst-Abbe-Hochschule Jena, Germany Erzincan Binali Yildirim University, Turkey Erzurum Technical University, Turkey ESA ESAG-NDE ESAIP ESC PAU Business School, France ESCI-UPF School of International Business, Spain Escola d'Art i Superior de Disseny de les Illes Balears, Spain Escola Naval - Marinha Portuguesa, Portugal Escola Náutica Infante Dom Henrique, Portugal Escola Superior Agrária de Viseu, Portugal Escola Superior de Educação de Viseu, Portugal Escola Superior de Enfermagem do Porto, Portugal Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril, Portugal Escola Superior de Saude de Viseu, Portugal Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão de Lamego, Portugal Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão de Viseu, Portugal Escola Universitaria Salesiana de Sarria, Spain Escuela Politécnica Nacional - epn, Ecuador Escuela Superior de Administración y Dirección de Empresas, Spain Escuela Superior Politecnica Agropecuaria de Manabi - espam, Ecuador Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo - espoch, Ecuador Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral - espol, Ecuador ESD - Escola Superior de Defesa, Brazil ESG - Escola Superior de Guerra, Brazil Esher Sixth Form College, United Kingdom ESIBA ESIC Business and Marketing School, Spain ESIC University, Spain ESIEA - Ecole Supérieure d'Informatique Electronique Automatique, France Esigelec, France Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey Eskisehir Technical University, Turkey ESME - ENGINEERING SCHOOL OF ENERGY AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES, France ESMT Berlin ESnet ESO - European Southern Observatory ESPCI Paris, France ESPM - Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing, Brazil ESRF - European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France ESSEC BUSINESS SCHOOL, France Esslingen University of Applied Sciences, Germany Estonian Academy of Arts Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre Estonian Academy of Security Sciences Estonian Aviation Academy Estonian Business School Estonian Entrepreneurship University Of Applied Sciences Eszterházy Károly Catholic University, Hungary ETH Zurich, Switzerland Ethiopian Education and Research Network (EthERNet) EURAC EURECA-PRO IdP, Greece EURECOM, France Europa-Universität Flensburg, Germany Europa-Universität Viadrina, Germany Europe PMC Funders Group grantees European Fisheries Control Agency, Spain European Gravitational Observatory, Italy European Humanities University, Lithuania European Molecular Biology Laboratory - EMBL-EBI, United Kingdom European University Cyprus (EUC) European University Institute, European Union Evangelische Hochschule Berlin, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Bochum, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Dresden, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Freiburg, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Nuernberg, Germany Evangélikus Hittudományi Egyetem, Hungary Excelia Exeter College, United Kingdom Eötvös József College, Hungary Eötvös Loránd University Budapest, Hungary F FACAPE - Faculdade de Petrolina, Brazil Fachhochschule Potsdam, University of Applied Scienes, Germany Fachhochschule Westküste, Germany Faculty hospital Plzeň, Czech Republic Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Faculty of Mechanical and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo, Serbia Faculty of Medicine, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Faculty of organizational sciences, Serbia Faculty of Philology and Arts, Serbia Faculty of Philology. University of Belgrade, Serbia Faculty of Technology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Fairfield University IDM Fairleigh Dickinson University Fairleigh_Dickinson_University Falmouth University, United Kingdom FAMERP - Faculdade de Medicina de Rio Preto, Brazil Fanshawe College, Canada FAPEAL - Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa de Alagoas, Brazil FAPEPI - Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Piaui, Brazil FAPESP - Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa de Sao Paulo, Brazil Fareham College (South Hampshire College Group), United Kingdom Farnborough College of Technology, United Kingdom FASEC - Faculdade Serra Do Carmo, Brazil Fashion Retail Academy, United Kingdom FasoREN Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakif University, Turkey Fatima Aloi Comprehensive Girls SS, Uganda FCMSCSP - Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas da Santa Casa de Sao Paulo, Brazil FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal FCT|FCCN, Portugal FDF - Faculdade de Direito de Franca, Brazil Federacion Nacional de Identidades Mexicanas (FENIX), Mexico Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices FEESC - Fundacao de Ensino e Engenharia de Santa Catarina, Brazil FEEVALE - Universidade Feevale, Brazil Feide, Norway Fenerbahce University, Turkey FENIX, Mexico FEPECS - Fundacao de Ensino e Pesquisa em Ciencias da Saude, Brazil Ferdinand Porsche FernFH, Austria Ferdinand-Braun-Institute, Leibniz-Institut fuer Hoechstfrequenztechnik, Germany Ferenc II. Rákóczi County and City Library, Hungary Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, USA FESFSUS - Fundacao Estatal Saude da Familia, Brazil FFHS - Fernfachhochschule Schweiz, Switzerland FH CAMPUS 02, Austria FH Erfurt, Germany FH Joanneum, Austria FH Muenster, Germany FH Wien – University of Applied Sciences for Management & Communication, Austria FHGR - Fachhochschule Graubünden, Switzerland FHNW - Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz, Switzerland Fife College, United Kingdom Filmakademie Baden-Wuerttemberg (Prod), Germany Filmuniversity Babelsberg KONRAD WOLF, Germany FINEP - Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Brazil Finnish Environment Institute, Finland Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Finland Finnish Meteorological Institute, Finland FIOCRUZ - Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil Fircroft College of Adult Education, United Kingdom Firda Fire University in Warsaw, Poland FIZ Karlsruhe, Germany FJS - Fundacao Jose Silveira, Brazil Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Belgium Flatiron Institute FIDO Flensburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany Flinders University, Australia Florida A&M University (SSO) Florida Atlantic University Florida Gulf Coast University (Cirrus Bridge) Florida International University SSO Florida Polytechnic University Florida State University Florida State University - Staging Florida Universitària, Spain FMC - Faculdade de Medicina de Campos, Brazil FMI - Friedrich Miescher Institute, Switzerland FMP Berlin (AAI IdP), Germany FMSH Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, France FMU - Faculdades Metropolitanas Unidas Educacao, Brazil FMV Işık University, Turkey FNDE - Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Educacao, Brazil Folkwang University of the Arts, Germany Fondazione Bruno Kessler, European Union Fondazione Edmund Mach - Istituto Agrario di San Michele all'Adige, European Union Fondazione Telethon - TIGEM, Italy Fontys University of Applied Sciences Foothill-De Anza Community College District Fordham University FORMATEC Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V., Germany Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH (FZJ), Germany Fort Lewis College Fort Valley State University Forth Valley College of Further and Higher Education, United Kingdom Forum Groningen Foshan University, China Foundation for International Education, United Kingdom Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas (FORTH), Greece FPP - Faculdades Pequeno Principe, Brazil FPS - Faculdade Pernambucana de Saude, Brazil FPTI - Fundacao Parque Tecnologico Itaipu, Brazil Francis Ayume Memorial School Koboko, Uganda Francis Crick Institute, United Kingdom Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Germany Franklin & Marshall College Franklin College, United Kingdom Frantisek Krizik Grammar School and Primary School, s.r.o., European Union Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, Germany Fredericia College of Marine and Technical Engineering (FMS), Denmark Frederick University, Cyprus Free University of Bolzano, Italy Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Germany Fritz-Haber-Institut, Germany Fryske Akademy (KNAW), Netherlands FSCBH - Faculdade Santa Casa BH, Brazil FUCAPE - Fundacao Instituto Capixaba de Pesquisa em Cont. Econ. e Financas, Brazil Fudan University, China Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China Fujian Jiangxia University, China Fujian Medical University, China Fujian Normal University, China Fujian Police College, China Fujian University of Technology, China Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Fukuoka Gakuen Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Japan Fukushima Medical University, Japan Fukuyama University, Japan FUMEC - Fundacao Mineira de Educacao e Cultura, Brazil Funcionarios REUNA, Chile Fundacion Andaluza para Divulgacion de la Innovacion y el Conocimiento, Spain Fundacion Pablo VI, Spain Fundacion Renal Inigo Alvarez de Toledo, Spain Fundacion SEPI, Spain Fundació i2CAT, Internet i Innovació Digital a Catalunya, Spain Fundación Galileo Galilei - INAF, Spain Fundacon BCMaterials - Basque Center for Materials, Applicationsand Nanostructures, Spain FUNDAJ - Fundacao Joaquim Nabuco, Brazil Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Portugal FUNPEC - Fundacao Norte-Rio-Grandense de Pesquisa e Cultura, Brazil FURB - Fundacao Universidade Regional de Blumenau, Brazil FURG - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Brazil Furman University Furness College Organisation, United Kingdom Furtwangen University, Germany Future University Hakodate, Japan Fuyang Normal University, China Fuzhou University of International Studies and Trade, China Fuzhou University, China FWF Austrian Science Fund FWP - Fundacao Wilson Picler, Brazil FZI Forschungszentrum Informatik, Germany Fırat University, Turkey G GakuNin IdP, Japan Galatasaray University, Turkey Gandhigram Rural Institute, Tamil Nadu, India Gannan Normal University, China Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, China Garden City University College, Ghana GARNET IAM Workshop, Ghana GARR, Italy Gateshead College, United Kingdom Gateway Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Gautam Buddha University (Delhi NCR), India Gayaza High School, Uganda Gaziantep University, Turkey Gdańsk University of Technology, Poland Gdynia Maritime University, Poland Gebze Technical University, Turkey Genba Sopanrao Moze College Of Engineering ,Balewadi, Pune Gendarmerie and Coast Guard Academy, Turkey General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania Geological Survey of Slovenia GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany Georg-August University Göttingen, Germany George Mason University George Whitefield College, South Africa Georgetown University Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia State University GeoSphere Austria German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin), Germany German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA), Germany German Literature Archive Marbach, Germany German Maritime Museum (DSM) German Sport University Cologne, Germany Gerrit Rietveld Academie, Netherlands Gesellschaft für wissenschaftliche Datenverarbeitung mbH Göttingen, Germany GESIS – Leibniz-Institute for the Social Sciences Gettysburg College SSO GFZ Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences, Germany Ghanaian Academic and Research Network GHC - Grupo Hospitalar Conceicao, Brazil Ghent University, Belgium Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iaşi - TUIASI, Romania GIDP-RENAM, Republic of Moldova GIDP-USM, Republic of Moldova GIGA - Associacao GigaCandanga, Brazil Gimnazija Bežigrad high school GIP RENATER, France Giresun University, Turkey GITAM Deemed to be University Glasbena šola Kamnik, Slovenia Glasgow Clyde College, United Kingdom Glasgow Kelvin College, United Kingdom Glasgow School of Art (MyGSA), United Kingdom Glasir Tórshavn College, Faroe Islands Global Change Research Institute CAS, Czech Republic Gloucestershire College, United Kingdom Glyndwr University, United Kingdom Goa University, India Goce Delcev University, Stip, Macedonia Godalming College, United Kingdom Gokoseeds Secondary School, Uganda Goldsmiths, University of London, United Kingdom Google Government Engineering College, Bhuj, India Government Engineering College, Dahod, India Government Engineering College, Valsad, India Government ICT Centre Valtori, Finland Gower College Swansea, United Kingdom Graafschap College, Netherlands Grafisch Lyceum Rotterdam, Netherlands Grafisch Lyceum Utrecht, Netherlands Gran Telescopio de Canarias, Spain Grand Valley State University Grangegorman Development Agency, Ireland Grantham College, United Kingdom Graz University of Technology, Austria Great Basin College Great Plains Network Great Yarmouth College, United Kingdom Green University of Bangladesh GRENA Identity Provider, Georgia Grenoble Ecole de Management ( GEM ) Grenoble INP - 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Onlus, Italy IRCCS Auxologico - Milano, Italy IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Italy IRCCS Burlo Garofolo - Trieste, Italy IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, Italy IRCCS Centro Cardiologico Monzino - Milano, Italy IRCCS Centro Neurolesi 'Bonino Pulejo' - Messina, Italy IRCCS CRO di Aviano, Italy IRCCS CROB - Rionero in Vulture (PZ), Italy IRCCS Eugenio Medea, Italy IRCCS FBF - Brescia, Italy IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus, Italy IRCCS Fondazione G.B. 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Caporale", Italy IT Department of the Ministry of Higher Education and Science, Denmark IT University of Copenhagen, Denmark ITA - Instituto Tecnologico de Aeronautica, Brazil Italian Space Agency, Italy Itchen College, United Kingdom ITEP - Instituto de Tecnologia de Pernambuco, Brazil Ithaca College ITV - Instituto Tecnologico Vale IUCAA, India IUSS - University School for Advanced Studies Pavia, Italy Iwate University, Japan Izmir Democracy University, Turkey Izmir Institute of High Technology, Turkey Izmir Katip Celebi University yetkim.ikc.edu.tr, Turkey Izmir University of Economics, Turkey IZS del Mezzogiorno, Italy IZS della Sardegna, Italy IZS Delle Venezie - Legnaro, Italy IZS Sicilia, Italy IZUM, Slovenia İ İstanbul Kültür University, Turkey İzmir Bakırçay University, Turkey J J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the CAS, v.v.i, Czech Republic J. Paul Getty Trust J. Selye University, Slovakia Jabatan Pendidikan Politeknik dan Kolej Komuniti, Malaysia Jade Hochschule, Germany Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland Jahangirnagar University James Cook University, Australia James Madison University Jamia Hamdard University Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Poland Jan Drda´s Library, Czech Republic Jan Evangelista Purkyne University in Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic Jan Kochanowski University of Kielce, Poland Janacek Academy of Music and Performing Arts, Czech Republic Jananayak chandrashekhar University, India Jansons Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Japan Coast Guard Academy Japan Women's University Japanese Red Cross College of Nursing Jashore University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, India Jaypee University of Information Technology (JUIT), India Jazan University, Saudi Arabia Jewish Theological Seminary – University of Jewish Studies, Hungary Jianghan University, China Jiangnan University, China Jiangsu Normal University, China Jiangsu Second Normal University, China Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, China Jiangsu University of Technology, China Jiangsu University, China JiangXi Academy of Sciences, China Jiangxi Agricultural University, China Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, China Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, China Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, China Jiaxing University, China Jihlava Town Library, Czech Republic JiLIn Agricultural University, China Jilin International Studies University, China Jilin University, China Jimei University, China Jinan University, China Jinggangshan University, China Jining Medical University, China Jining University, China Jinja College School, Uganda Jinja Secondary School, Uganda Jinling Institute of Technology, China Jisc, United Kingdom Jisc: Digital Resources (Mimas IdP), United Kingdom Jiří Mahen Library in Brno, Czech Republic JK Lakshmipat University, India Johannelunds teologiska högskola, Sweden Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin John Ruskin College, United Kingdom Johns Hopkins Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute, Spain Joseph Chamberlain Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Joseph Haydn Private University, Austria Jouf University, Saudi Arabia Jožef Stefan Institute, Slovenia JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, India JUCC Institution Justice Institute of British Columbia, Canada Justis Publishing Limited Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany Jyväskylä University of Applied Sciences, Finland Ján Albrecht Music and Art Academy Banská Štiavnica Jönköping University, Sweden K K3 Bohumin - LIBRARY, Czech Republic Kabaale Sanje SSS, Uganda Kabale Secondary School, Uganda Kabale University, Uganda KABEZI SECONDARY SCHOOL, Uganda Kabulubulu Secondary School, Uganda Kadir Has University, Turkey Kafkas University, Turkey Kaggulwe Secondary School, Uganda KAGRA, Japan Kagunga Seed SS, Uganda Kagwara Seed Secondary School, Uganda Kahramanmaras Istiklal University, Turkey Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Turkey Kairuki University (KU), Tanzania Kajaani University of Applied Sciences, Finland Kakatiya University, India Kako Secondary School, Uganda Kalaidos University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, India Kalinga University Raipur, India Kambuga Secondary School, Uganda Kameruka Seed SS, Uganda Kamuli Girls Secondary School, Uganda Kamuzu University of Health Sciences - KUHES, Malawi Kanagawa University, Japan Kanazawa University, Japan Kangwon National University, Republic of Korea KANNUR UNIVERSITY, India Kanoni Secondary School, Uganda Kansanga Seed Secondary School, Uganda Kansas State University Kapeeka Secondary School, Uganda Kapeke Seed SS, Uganda Karabuk University, Turkey Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Turkey Karel Dvoracek Library, Czech Republic Karelia University of Applied Sciences, Finland Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Austria Karlshochschule International University, Germany Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Karlstad University, Sweden Karolinska Institutet, Sweden KARUNGU SEED SS, Uganda Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences (Deemed University) Kasana Vocational School, Uganda Kasawo Secondary School, Uganda Kasenyi ss, Uganda Kasese Secondary School, Uganda Kashi University, China Kastamonu University, Turkey Katholische Stiftungshochschule München., Germany Katolické gymnázium Třebíč, Czech Republic Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania Kauno kolegija Higher Education Institution, Lithuania Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra University, India Kazimierz Pułaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland Kazimierz Wielki University, Poland Kazo Primary school, Uganda KBFI, Estonia KCE's M. J. College, Jalgaon, India Kean University Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences Kedge Business School Keele University, United Kingdom Keio University, Japan Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Germany Kendal College, United Kingdom KENET Staff Identity Provider, Kenya Kennesaw State University Kensington and Chelsea College, United Kingdom Kent State University Kenya Education Network Kenya Education Network (KENET) Kenyatta University Kenyon College Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, Ukraine KHM-Museumsverband, Austria Khongnangthaba University Khulna University (KU), Bangladesh Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh Kiboga parents secondary school, Uganda Kibuli SS, Uganda Kidderminster College, United Kingdom Kidoko Secondary School, Uganda Kiel Institute for the world economy, Germany Kiel University of Applied Sciences, Germany Kielce University of Technology, Poland KIF-IDP, Kyrgyzstan Kigezi High School, Uganda Kiira college Butiki, Uganda Kiira Motors Corporation, Uganda Kikomeko Secondary School, Uganda Kilis 7 Aralik University, Turkey Kindai University, Japan King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Saudi Arabia King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz University Hospital, Saudi Arabia King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Saudi Arabia King Edward VI College, Stourbridge, United Kingdom King Edward VI College, United Kingdom King Fahad Medical City, Saudi Arabia King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Saudi Arabia King Saud University, Saudi Arabia King Solomon's College, Uganda King's College Budo, Uganda King's College London, United Kingdom Kingston Maurward College, United Kingdom Kingston University London, United Kingdom Kinyogoga Seed SS, Uganda Kirikkale University, Turkey Kirklareli University, Turkey Kirklees College, United Kingdom Kirsehir Ahi Evran University, Turkey Kisaana Secondary School, Uganda Kishinchand Chellaram Law College, India Kisowera Secondary School, Uganda Kisubi Schools, Uganda Kitabi Seminary School, Uganda Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan Kitante Hill School, Uganda Kitebi Secondary School, Uganda KIYANGA VOCATIONAL SECONDARY SCHOOL, Uganda Kiyuni ss, Uganda Kiyuya Seed Secondary School, Uganda Kiziba High School, Uganda Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences, Lithuania Klaipeda University, Lithuania Knihovna Bedřicha Beneše Buchlovana Uherské Hradiště, Czech Republic KNMI, Netherlands Knowsley College, United Kingdom Kobe City University of Foreign Studies, Japan Kobe Pharmaceutical University, Japan Kobwin Seed Secondary School, Uganda Koc University, Turkey Kocaeli University, Turkey Kochi University of Technology, Japan Kochi University, Japan Kodolányi János University, Hungary Koforidua Technical University, Ghana Kojja Secondary School, Uganda Kolej Komuniti 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Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Pasir Mas, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Pasir Salak, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Paya Besar, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Pekan, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Penampang, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Rembau, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Rompin, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti RTC Gopeng, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sabak Bernam, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sandakan, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Santubong, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sarikei, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Seberang Jaya, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Segamat 2, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Segamat, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Selandar, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Selayang, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Semporna, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Shah Alam, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sibu, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sik, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sungai Petani, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Sungai Siput, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Taiping, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Tambunan, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Tampin, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Tangga Batu, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Tanjong Karang, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti 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Information, Republic of Korea Korea National Open University, Republic of Korea Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Republic of Korea Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Republic of Korea Korea Research Institute of Ships and Ocean Engineering, Republic of Korea Korea University, Republic of Korea Koro senior secondary school, Uganda Kotelawala Defence University, Sri Lanka Kozminski University, Poland KPH Edith Stein, Austria Krakow University of Economics, Poland Krishna Kanta Handiqui Library of Gauhati University, India Kristianstad University, Sweden Kromeriz Public Library, Czech Republic KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden KTO Karatay University, Turkey KU Leuven Association, Belgium Kujawy and Pomorze University in Bydgoszcz, Poland KUMAMOTO GAKUEN UNIVERSITY Kumamoto University, Japan Kumar Bhaskar Varma Sanskrit And Ancient Studies University, India Kumaraguru College of Technology, India Kumasi Technical University, Ghana Kumaun University, India Kunming University of Science and Technology, China Kunsthochschule Bayern, Germany Kurukshetra University, India Kurume Institute of Technology, Japan Kutahya Dumlupinar University, Turkey Kutztown University Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Canada Kworus Secondary School, Uganda KWR Water Research Institute Kyambogo College School, Uganda Kyambogo University, Uganda Kyarusosi Secondary School, Uganda Kyeizooba Girls Secondary School, Uganda Kyetume School of nursing and Midwifery, Uganda Kyotera Central Secondary School, Uganda Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Japan Kyoto Tachibana University, Japan Kyoto University, Japan Kyungpook National University, Republic of Korea Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan Kyushu University, Japan Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary Kütahya Health Sciences University, Turkey L L'Institut Agro Dijon, France L'Institut Agro Montpellier, France L'Institut Agro Rennes-Angers, France L'Institut Agro, France L'Orientale - University of Naples, Italy L.E. College Morbi, India La Rochelle University, France LAB University of Applied Sciences, Finland Laboratory of Telematics, Bulgaria Laboratório de Instrumentação e Física Experimental de Partículas, Portugal Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia, Portugal Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Portugal Lafayette College Lake Albert SDA SS, Uganda Lake Tahoe Community College Lakehead University, Canada Lakes College West Cumbria, United Kingdom Lamar University Lambeth College, United Kingdom Lancaster and Morecambe College, United Kingdom Lancaster University, United Kingdom Landstede Groep (Landstede MBO, mbo Menso Alting, CSE Topsportacademie, StartCollege) Langara College, Canada Lango College, Uganda Lanzhou City University, China Lanzhou Jiaotong University, China Lanzhou University of Finance and Economics, China Lanzhou University of Technology, China Lanzhou University, China Lanzhou Universiy of Art and Science, China Lapland University of Applied Sciences, Finland Latvia University of Agriculture Latvian Academy of Culture Latvian Academy of Music Latvian College of Culture at the Latvian Academy of Culture Lauder Business School, Austria Laurea University of Applied Sciences, Finland Laurentian University, Canada Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, USA Le Cnam LEARN - Sri Lanka Learnmark Horsens, Denmark Leeds Arts University, United Kingdom Leeds Beckett University, United Kingdom Leeds City College, United Kingdom Leeds College of Building, United Kingdom Leeds Conservatoire, United Kingdom Leeds Trinity University, United Kingdom Leepfrog Technologies, Inc. Lefori Seed SS, Uganda Lehigh University Leibniz Association - Headquarters, Germany Leibniz Institut for Educational Trajectories - LIfBi, Germany Leibniz Institut für Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie, Hans-Knöll-Institut, Germany Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam, Germany Leibniz Institute for Catalysis - LIKAT, Germany Leibniz Institute for Materials Engineering - IWT, Germany Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Germany Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Germany Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change, Germany Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Germany Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Germany Leibniz Supercomputing Centre (LRZ), Germany Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany Leibniz-Institut fuer Analytische Wissenschaften - ISAS - e.V., Germany Leibniz-Institut fuer Wissensmedien, Germany Leibniz-Institut für Agrarentwicklung in Transformationsökonomien (IAMO), Germany Leibniz-Institut für Bildungsmedien, Germany Leibniz-Institut für Deutsche Sprache (IDS), Germany Leibniz-Institut für Ostseeforschung Warnemünde, Germany Leibniz-Institute for Agriculture Technology and Bioeconomics e.V. (ATB), Germany Leibniz-Institute of Atmospheric Physics IAP, Germany Leicester College, United Kingdom Leiden University, Netherlands Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum, Netherlands Leidse Instrumentmakers School Leidse Onderwijsinstellingen, Netherlands Leipzig University, Germany LeMoyne College Lentiz Onderwijsgroep, Netherlands LeShan Normal University, China Leuphana - University Lueneburg, Germany Lewisham Southwark College, United Kingdom Leyton Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Liaocheng University Dongchang College, China Liaocheng University, China Liaoning Normal University, China Liaoning Petrochemical University, China Liaoning University of Technology, China Liaoning University, China Liberty University Library and Information Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary Library in Třinec, Czech Republic Library of Dr. Emanuel Bořický, Czech Republic Library of the Hungarian Parliament, Hungary Liceo "E. Majorana" - Desio (MB), Italy Liege University - (ULiege / ULg), Belgium Liepaja University, Latvia Light Of Life International Christain School, Uganda LIGO Scientific Collaboration LIGO-India Scientific Collaboration LIGO-India Test Scientific Collaboration Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources - LUANAR, Malawi Lincoln College UK, United Kingdom Lincoln University, New Zealand LINEA - Laboratorio Insterinstitucional de e-Astronomia, Brazil Lingnan University, Hong Kong Link and Learn, Germany Linköping University, Sweden Linnaeus University, Sweden Linyi University, China LIPA Learning Services, United Kingdom Lira Town College, Uganda Lira University, Uganda Lisbon Nursing High School, Portugal LISER Lishui University, China Liszt Ferenc Academy of Music, Hungary Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre Lithuanian Energy Institute Lithuanian Sports University Lithuanian University of Health Sciences LIUC - Cattaneo University, Italy Liuzhou Institute of Technology, China Liverpool Hope University, United Kingdom Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom LMU - Le Mans University, France LNA - Laboratorio Nacional de Astrofisica, Brazil LNB, Latvia LNCC - Laboratorio Nacional de Computacao Cientifica, Brazil Lodz University of Technology, Poland Login.Gov, USA Lokman Hekim University, Turkey Lokopio Hills Technical Institute, Uganda Loma Linda University London Business School London Interdisciplinary School, United Kingdom London Library, United Kingdom London Metropolitan College London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom London School of Theology (Shibboleth), United Kingdom London School of Theology, United Kingdom London South Bank University, United Kingdom London South East Colleges (LSEC), United Kingdom London Studio Centre, United Kingdom Long Road Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Longley Park Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Loreto Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Los Rios Single Sign On Loughborough College, United Kingdom Loughborough University, United Kingdom Louisiana State University - AAD Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center - New Orleans Lowestoft College, United Kingdom Loyola Marymount University Loyola University Maryland Loyola University of Chicago LSE - London School of Economics and Political Science, United Kingdom LSU Health Shreveport LU OverLeaf users IdP, Latvia Lublin University of Technology, Poland Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu IdP, Romania Ludong University, China Ludovika University of Public Service, Hungary Ludwigshafen University of Business and Society, Germany LUISS, Italy Lukole Seed Secondary School, Uganda Lulea University of Technology, Sweden LUM Giuseppe Degennaro University, Italy LUMSA Università, Italy Lund University, Sweden Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology, China LUT University, Finland Luton Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Luxembourg Institute of Health Luxembourg School of Business Luzira Secondary School, Uganda Lycée Vauban M M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, India Maastricht University Medical Center, Netherlands Maastricht University, Netherlands Macalester College SSO Macau University of Science and Technology, Macao Macclesfield College, United Kingdom MacEwan University, Canada MACKENZIE - Instituto Presbiteriano Mackenzie, Brazil Macquarie University, Australia MaCTRI (MEaP Academy Community Training & Research Institute), United Kingdom Madurai Kamaraj University Maeen IdP, Saudi Arabia Maeen_Test, Saudi Arabia Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, Germany Magyar Táncművészeti Egyetem, European Union Mahango Seed SS, Uganda Maharaja Chhatrasal Bundelkhand University, India Maharaja Ranjit Singh Punjab Technical University, India Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India Mahindra University, India Majan University College(shibboleth), Oman Majlis Oman Majuli University of Culture, India Makerere College School (MACOS), Uganda Makerere University Business School, Uganda Makerere University School of Public Health, Uganda Makerere University, Uganda Malaghan Institute of Medical Research, New Zealand Malatya Turgut Özal University, Turkey Malawi College of Accountancy - MCA Malawi Research and Education Network - MAREN Malawi University of Business and Applied Sciences (MUBAS) Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST) Malaysian Research and Education Network (MYREN) Malmö University, Sweden Malone University Maltepe University, Turkey Mamba Seed secondary school, Uganda Mamita technical and business management institute, Uganda Management Development Institute Murshidabad, India Manav Rachana University, India Manchester Metropolitan University, United Kingdom Manhattan College Manipal University Jaipur Manipur University, India Manisa Celal Bayar University, Turkey Manjasi High School, Uganda Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, India Mardin Artuklu University, Turkey Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Poland Mariam High School, Uganda Marie Cederschiöld University College, Sweden Marijampole College, Lithuania Marin Community College District Marine Biological Association of the UK, United Kingdom Marine Biological Laboratory Marine Institute, Ireland Marino Institute of Education, Ireland Marist University Marmara University, Turkey Marnix Academie Marquette University IDP Marseille-Méditerrannée National Institute for Artistic Studies, France Marshall University Marstal School of Navigation, Denmark MARTEC Maritime and Polytechnic University College, Denmark Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany Mary Immaculate College, Ireland Maryhill School, Uganda Maryland Institute College of Art Marymount University Masaka Secondary School, Uganda Masaryk Memorial Cancer Institute (MMCI), Czech Republic Masaryk University, Czech Republic Masindi School, Uganda Mass General Brigham Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massey University, New Zealand MAST - Museu de Astronomia e Ciencias Afins, Brazil Matej Bel University, Slovakia Max Born Institute Berlin, IDP1, Germany Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Germany Max Planck Computing and Data Facility (MPCDF), Germany Max Planck Institut fuer Kohlenforschung, Germany Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Germany Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Germany Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Germany Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics, Germany Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (IPP), Germany Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Netherlands Max Planck Institute for Software Systems Max Planck Society (Administrative Headquarters), Germany Max Weber Foundation - German Humanities Institutes Abroad, Germany Max-Planck Institutes (in MetaDir of GWDG), Germany Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), Germany Max-Planck-Institute for Intelligent Systems, Germany Maynooth University, Ireland Mayo Clinic Mbale High School, Uganda Mbale school of clinical officers, Uganda Mbale Secondary School, Uganda Mbarara High School, Uganda Mbiriizi Seed Secondary School, Uganda MBO Amersfoort MBO Utrecht mboRijnland MBS - School of business McGill University, Canada MCI Internationale Hochschule, Austria McMaster University, Canada MCNC Employees MCOM - Ministerio das Comunicacoes, Brazil MCTI - Ministerio da Ciencia, Tecnologia e Inovacao, Brazil MEC - Ministerio da Educacao, Brazil MedHub Test Mediacollege Amsterdam Medical College of Wisconsin Medical Research Council, United Kingdom Medical University - Sofia, Bulgaria Medical University of Bialystok, Poland Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland Medical University of Graz, Austria Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria Medical University of Lodz, Poland Medical University of Lublin, Poland Medical University of Silesia, Poland Medical University of South Carolina Medical University of Vienna, Austria Medical University of Warsaw, Poland Medical University Pleven, Bulgaria Mediterranea - University of Reggio Calabria, Italy Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research, India MEF University, Turkey Meiji Gakuin University, Japan Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Japan Meiji University, Japan Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Mendel University in Brno - 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Fed. de Ciencias da Saude de Porto Alegre, Brazil UFDPAR - Universidade Federal do Delta do Parnaiba, Brazil UFERSA - UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL RURAL DO SEMI ARIDO, Brazil UFES - Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Brazil UFF - Universidade Federal Fluminense, Brazil UFFS - Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul, Brazil UFG - Universidade Federal de Goias, Brazil UFGD - Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados, Brazil UFJ - Universidade Federal de Jatai, Brazil UFJF - Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil UFLA - Universidade Federal de Lavras, Brazil UFMA - Universidade Federal do Maranhao, Brazil UFMG - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil UFMS - Fundacao Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil UFMT - Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso, Brazil UFNT - Universidade Federal do Norte do Tocantins, Brazil UFOB - Universidade Federal do Oeste da Bahia, Brazil UFOP - Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil UFOPA - Universidade Federal do Oeste do Para, Brazil UFPA - Universidade Federal do Para, Brazil UFPB - Universidade Federal da Paraiba, Brazil UFPE - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil UFPEL - Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Brazil UFPI - Universidade Federal do Piaui, Brazil UFPR - Universidade Federal do Parana, Brazil UFR - Universidade Federal de Rondonopolis, Brazil UFRA - Universidade Federal Rural da Amazonia, Brazil UFRB - Universidade Federal do Reconcavo da Bahia, Brazil UFRGS - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil UFRJ - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil UFRN - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil UFRPE - Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Brazil UFRR - Universidade Federal de Roraima, Brazil UFRRJ - Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil UFS - Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Brazil UFSB - Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, Brazil UFSC - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil UFSCAR - Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos, Brazil UFSJ - Universidade Federal de Sao Joao del Rei, Brazil UFSM - Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Brazil UFT - Universidade Federal do Tocantins, Brazil UFTM - Universidade Federal do Triangulo Mineiro, Brazil UFU - Universidade Federal de Uberlandia, Brazil UFV - Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Brazil UFVJM - Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Brazil Uganda Cancer Institue Uganda Christian University Uganda Institute of Allied Health and Management Sciences (UIAHMS) Uganda Martyrs Kayunga Secondary School Uganda Martyrs Seminary Namugongo Uganda Martyrs University Uganda Martyrs Vocational Secondary School Uganda National Council for Higher Education Uganda National Examinations Board Uganda Pentecostal University Uganda Rural Development and Training Programme Uganda Technical College Elgon Uganda Vice Chancellors Forum Uganda Virus Research Institute UGC DAE CSR Kolkata Centre, India UIIP NASB / BASNET, Belarus UIT, Morocco UK Data Archive, United Kingdom UK federation test IdP, United Kingdom UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA), United Kingdom UK Parliament, United Kingdom UK Research and Innovation ULAKBIM, Turkey ULisboa - Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal Ulm University, Germany Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea Ulster University, United Kingdom UM - University of Murcia, Spain UM5, Morocco Umbrella ID UMC - Organizacao Mogiana de Educacao e Cultura, Brazil UMC Groningen Umea University, Sweden UMIT Tirol – The Tyrolean Private University, Austria UNAERP - Associacao de Ensino de Ribeirao Preto, Brazil UNAM, Mexico UNB - Universidade de Brasilia, Brazil UNC Asheville UNCISAL - Universidade Estadual de Ciencias da Saude de Alagoas, Brazil UNDF - Universidade do Distrito Federal, Brazil UNEAL - Universidade Estadual de Alagoas, Brazil UNEB - Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Brazil UNEMAT - Fundacao Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Brazil UNESC - Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense UNESP - Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio de Mesquita Filho, Brazil UNESPAR - Universidade Estadual do Parana, Brazil UNF InCommon UNI-FACEF - Centro Universitario Municipal de Franca, Brazil UNIARP - Universidade Alto Vale do Rio do Peixe, Brazil UniBw Munich, Germany UNICAMP - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil UNICAP - Universidade Catolica de Pernambuco, Brazil UNICENTRO - Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste, Brazil UNICHRISTUS - Centro Universitario Unichristus, Brazil UNICID - Universidade Cidade de Sao Paulo, Brazil Unicon Gateway Unicon, Inc. Unicorn University UNICSUL - Universidade Cruzeiro do Sul, Brazil Unidad Educativa Fiscomisional Don Bosco La Tola - donboscolatola, Ecuador Unidad Educativa Fiscomisional Don Bosco Macas - donboscomacas, Ecuador Unidad Educativa Salesiana Cardenal Spellman - spellman, Ecuador Unidad Educativa Salesiana Cristóbal Colón - cristobalcolon, Ecuador Unidad Educativa Salesiana Domingo Savio Guayaquil - dsavio, Ecuador Unidad Educativa Salesiana San José - sanjosemanta, Ecuador Unidad Educativa San Felipe Neri - sfelipeneri, Ecuador Unidad Educativa San Juan Bosco de la ciudad de Zaruma - sjbzaruma, Ecuador Unidad Educativa Santo Tomas Apostol Riobamba - uestar, Ecuador Unidad educativa Tecnico Salesiano - uets, Ecuador UniDistance Suisse, Switzerland UNIFA - Universidade da Forca Aerea, Brazil UNIFACS - Universidade Salvador, Brazil UNIFAL-MG - Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Brazil UNIFAP - Universidade Federal do Amapa, Brazil UNIFAPCE - Centro Universitario Paraiso, Brazil UNIFATEA - Centro Universitario Teresa D Avila, Brazil UNIFEI - Universidade Federal de Itajuba, Brazil UNIFESP - Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, Brazil UNIFESSPA - Universidade Federal do Sul e Sudeste do Para, Brazil UNIFOR - Universidade de Fortaleza, Brazil UNIFRAN - Universidade de Franca, Brazil UNIGRANRIO - Universidade do Grande Rio, Brazil UNIJORGE - Centro Universitario Jorge Amado, Brazil UNIJUI - Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil UNILA - Universidade Federal da Integracao Latino-Americana, Brazil UNILAB - Univ. da Integracao Int. da Lusofonia Afro-Brasileira, Brazil UniLaSalle Institute, France UNIMONTES - Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros, Brazil UNINOVE - Universidade Nove de Julho, Brazil UNIOESTE - Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Parana, Brazil Union College Union Theological College, United Kingdom UNIP - Universidade Paulista, Brazil UNIPAMPA - Universidade Federal do Pampa, Brazil UNIPAR - Universidade Paranaense, Brazil UNIR - Fundacao Universidade Federal de Rondonia, Brazil UNIRIO - Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil UNIRITTER - Centro Universitario Ritter dos Reis, Brazil UNIRV - Universidade de Rio Verde, Brazil UNIS - Centro Universitario do Sul de Minas, Brazil UNISANTA - Instituto Superior de Educacao Santa Cecilia, Brazil UNISANTOS - Universidade Catolica de Santos, Brazil UNISC - Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul, Brazil UNISINOS - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Brazil UNISO - Universidade de Sorocaba, Brazil UNISUAM - Centro Universitario Augusto Motta, Brazil UNISUL - Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina, Brazil UNITAU - Universidade de Taubate, Brazil United Colleges Group, United Kingdom United International University, Bangladesh United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), USA United States Military Academy at West Point United Tribes Technical College UNITINS - Universidade Estadual do Tocantins, Brazil UNIUBE - Universidade de Uberaba, Brazil UNIVALE - Universidade Vale do Rio Doce, Brazil UNIVALI - Universidade do Vale do Itajai, Brazil UNIVAP - Universidade do Vale do Paraiba, Brazil UNIVAS - Universidade do Vale do Sapucai, Brazil UNIVASF - Universidade Federal do Vale do Sao Francisco, Brazil UNIVATES - Universidade do Vale do Taquari, Brazil Universcience-EPPDCSI, France Universidad a Distancia de Madrid, Spain Universidad Alfonso X El Sabio, Spain Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Universidad Bolivariana del Ecuador - ube Universidad Camilo Jose Cela, Spain Universidad Catolica de Avila, Spain Universidad Catolica de Cuenca - ucacue, Ecuador Universidad Catolica de Valencia, Spain Universidad Catolica San Antonio de Murcia, Spain Universidad Catolica Santiago de Guayaquil - ucsg, Ecuador Universidad Central del Ecuador - uce Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera, Spain Universidad CEU San Pablo, Spain Universidad de Alcalá, Spain Universidad de Alicante, Spain Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain Universidad de Cuenca - ucuenca, Ecuador Universidad de Cádiz, Spain Universidad de Córdoba, Spain Universidad de Deusto, Spain Universidad de Diseño, Innovacion y Tecnologia, Spain Universidad de Extremadura (via SIR2 Federation), Spain Universidad de Granada, Spain Universidad de Guadalajara, Mexico Universidad de Guayaquil - ug, Ecuador Universidad de Huelva, Spain Universidad de Jaén, Spain Universidad de la Laguna, Spain Universidad de la Rioja, Spain Universidad de las Americas - udla, Ecuador Universidad de las Artes - uartes, Ecuador Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE - espe, Ecuador Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain Universidad de León, Spain Universidad de Navarra, Spain Universidad de O'Higgins, Chile Universidad de Otavalo - uotavalo, Ecuador Universidad de Salamanca, Spain Universidad de Sevilla, Spain Universidad de Talca, Chile Universidad de Valladolid, Spain Universidad del Atlantico Medio, Spain Universidad del Azuay - uazuay, Ecuador Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile Universidad Estatal Amazónica - uea, Ecuador Universidad Estatal de Bolivar - ueb, Ecuador Universidad Europea Miguel de Cervantes, Spain Universidad Europea, Spain Universidad Iberoamericana del Ecuador - unibe Universidad Intercontinental de la Empresa, Spain Universidad Intercultural de las Nacionalidades y Pueblos Indigenas Amawtay Wasi - uaw, Ecuador Universidad Internacional de Andalucia, Spain Universidad Internacional de Catalunya, Spain Universidad Internacional del Ecuador - internacional Universidad Internacional Menendez Pelayo, Spain Universidad Isabel I, Spain Universidad Israel - uisrael, Ecuador Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí - uleam, Ecuador Universidad Loyola de Andalucía, Spain Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Spain Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo - unach, Ecuador Universidad Nacional de Educacion - unae, Ecuador Universidad Nacional de Loja - unl, Ecuador Universidad Nebrija, Spain Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Spain Universidad Politecnica de Cartagena, Spain Universidad Politecnica Estatal del Carchi - upec, Ecuador Universidad Politecnica Salesiana - ups, Ecuador Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Universidad Pontificia Comillas, Spain Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Spain Universidad Regional Amazónica Ikiam - ikiam, Ecuador Universidad Regional Autonoma de los Andes - uniandes, Ecuador Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain Universidad San Francisco de Quito - usfq, Ecuador Universidad San Gregorio de Portoviejo - sangregorio, Ecuador Universidad San Jorge, Spain Universidad Tecnica Estatal de Quevedo - uteq, Ecuador UNIVERSIDAD TECNOLOGICA DE PEREIRA, Colombia Universidad Tecnologica Indoamerica - uti, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Ambato - uta, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Babahoyo - utb, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi - utc, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Machala - utmachala, Ecuador Universidad Técnica de Manabi - utm, Ecuador Universidad Técnica del Norte - utn, Ecuador Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja - utpl, Ecuador Universidad Universidad Técnica Luis Vargas Torres - utelvt, Ecuador Universidad UTE - ute, Ecuador Universidad Villanueva, Spain Universidad YachayTech - yachaytech, Ecuador Universidade Aberta, Portugal Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, Portugal Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal Universidade da Coruña, Spain Universidade da Madeira, Portugal Universidade da Maia, Portugal Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Spain Universidade de Trás os Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal Universidade de Vigo, Spain Universidade dos Açores, Portugal Universidade Lusíada, Portugal Universidade Lusófona, Portugal Universidade Portucalense Infante D. Henrique, Portugal Universita' degli Studi di Milano, Italy Universita' degli studi di Sassari, Italy Universitair Medisch Centrum Utrecht, Netherlands Universitas XXI, Spain Universitat Abat Oliba CEU, Spain Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Spain Universitat de Barcelona, Spain Universitat de Girona, Spain Universitat de les Illes Balears, Spain Universitat de Lleida, Spain Universitat de Valencia, Spain Universitat de Vic - Universitat Central de Catalunya, Spain Universitat Jaume I, Spain Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain Universitat Ramon Llull, Spain Universite du Littoral Cote d'Opale (new), France Universite du Littoral Cote d'Opale, France Universite Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium Universite Norbert ZONGO Universite Saint-Louis - Bruxelles, Belgium Universiteit Antwerpen, Belgium Universiti Malaysia Pahang Universiti Malaysia Sabah Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia Universities of Wisconsin University "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" from Iasi, Romania University "Politehnica" from Bucharest, Romania University Alma Mater Europaea, Slovenia University At Albany, State University of New York University Carlos III of Madrid, Spain University Centre Quayside, United Kingdom University College Birmingham, United Kingdom University College Copenhagen University College Cork, Ireland University College Dublin, Ireland University College for Agricultural and Environmental Education, Austria University College for Teacher Education Burgenland, Austria University College of Teacher Education Carinthia, Austria University College of Teacher Education in Lower Austria University College of Teacher Education Styria, Austria University College of Teacher Education Tyrol, Austria University College of Teacher Education Vienna, Austria University College of Teacher Education Vienna/Krems (KPH), Austria University College of Teacher Education Vorarlberg, Austria University College Roosevelt University College School, United Kingdom University College South Denmark University College Stockholm, Sweden University Evry Val d'Essonne, France University Fernando Pessoa, Portugal University for Art and Design Linz, Austria University for Continuing Education Krems, Austria University for Foreigners Perugia, Italy University for music and theatre Leipzig, Germany University for the Creative Arts, United Kingdom University Grants Commission - 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Hochschule für Sport Magglingen, Switzerland EIGSI La Rochelle, France Eindhoven University of Technology EKC Group, United Kingdom Eko-Konnect Research and Education Initiative, Nigeria Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A, European Union ELI BEAMLINES, European Union Elisabeth TweeSteden Ziekenhuis Elon University EM-Normandie Business School (EM-Normandie) EMBRAPA - Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaria, Brazil EMBRAPII - Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa e Inovacao Industrial, Brazil EMESCAM - Escola Superior de Ciencias da Santa Casa de Misericordia de Vitoria, Brazil Emily Carr University of Art and Design, Canada EMKTS Microsoft ENTRA emlyon business school Emory University Empa, Switzerland Empower International Academy, Uganda ENAC - Ecole Nationale de l'Aviation Civile, France ENAP - Escola Nacional de Administracao Publica, Brazil ENEA, Italy ENIB - Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Brest, France ENIM, Morocco ENISE, France Enna Kore University, Italy ENS de Lyon, France ENS Rennes, France ENSA Strasbourg, France ENSAB - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Bretagne, France EnsAD - École nationale supérieure des Arts Décoratifs, France ENSAE - École Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Administration Économique, France ENSAI - Ecole Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Analyse de l'Information, France ENSAIT - Roubaix, France ENSAM - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Montpellier, France ENSAPVS - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture Paris Val de Seine, France ENSASE - Ecole nationale supérieure d'architecture de Saint-Étienne, France ENSAV - Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Versailles, France ENSCI ENSCM - Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier, France ENSEA, France ENSFEA, France ensIIE, France ENSMA - Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Mécanique et d'Aérotechnique, France ENSSIB, France ENSTA Bretagne, France ENSTA Paris - Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées, France Entebbe Secondary School, Uganda ENTPE, France Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USA Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland EPFL, Switzerland EPHE - Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, France Episcopal Theological College of Pécs, Hungary Epping Forest College, United Kingdom Equality Challenge Unit, United Kingdom eRA Commons Erasmus MC, Netherlands Erasmus University Rotterdam ErasmusMais, Portugal Erciyes University, Turkey Erhvervsakademi MidtVest, Denmark Ernst-Abbe-Hochschule Jena, Germany Erzincan Binali Yildirim University, Turkey Erzurum Technical University, Turkey ESA ESAG-NDE ESAIP ESC PAU Business School, France ESCI-UPF School of International Business, Spain Escola d'Art i Superior de Disseny de les Illes Balears, Spain Escola Naval - Marinha Portuguesa, Portugal Escola Náutica Infante Dom Henrique, Portugal Escola Superior Agrária de Viseu, Portugal Escola Superior de Educação de Viseu, Portugal Escola Superior de Enfermagem do Porto, Portugal Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril, Portugal Escola Superior de Saude de Viseu, Portugal Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão de Lamego, Portugal Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão de Viseu, Portugal Escola Universitaria Salesiana de Sarria, Spain Escuela Politécnica Nacional - epn, Ecuador Escuela Superior de Administración y Dirección de Empresas, Spain Escuela Superior Politecnica Agropecuaria de Manabi - espam, Ecuador Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo - espoch, Ecuador Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral - espol, Ecuador ESD - Escola Superior de Defesa, Brazil ESG - Escola Superior de Guerra, Brazil Esher Sixth Form College, United Kingdom ESIBA ESIC Business and Marketing School, Spain ESIC University, Spain ESIEA - Ecole Supérieure d'Informatique Electronique Automatique, France Esigelec, France Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey Eskisehir Technical University, Turkey ESME - ENGINEERING SCHOOL OF ENERGY AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES, France ESMT Berlin ESnet ESO - European Southern Observatory ESPCI Paris, France ESPM - Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing, Brazil ESRF - European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France ESSEC BUSINESS SCHOOL, France Esslingen University of Applied Sciences, Germany Estonian Academy of Arts Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre Estonian Academy of Security Sciences Estonian Aviation Academy Estonian Business School Estonian Entrepreneurship University Of Applied Sciences Eszterházy Károly Catholic University, Hungary ETH Zurich, Switzerland Ethiopian Education and Research Network (EthERNet) EURAC EURECA-PRO IdP, Greece EURECOM, France Europa-Universität Flensburg, Germany Europa-Universität Viadrina, Germany Europe PMC Funders Group grantees European Fisheries Control Agency, Spain European Gravitational Observatory, Italy European Humanities University, Lithuania European Molecular Biology Laboratory - EMBL-EBI, United Kingdom European University Cyprus (EUC) European University Institute, European Union Evangelische Hochschule Berlin, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Bochum, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Dresden, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Freiburg, Germany Evangelische Hochschule Nuernberg, Germany Evangélikus Hittudományi Egyetem, Hungary Excelia Exeter College, United Kingdom Eötvös József College, Hungary Eötvös Loránd University Budapest, Hungary FACAPE - Faculdade de Petrolina, Brazil Fachhochschule Potsdam, University of Applied Scienes, Germany Fachhochschule Westküste, Germany Faculty hospital Plzeň, Czech Republic Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Faculty of Mechanical and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo, Serbia Faculty of Medicine, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Faculty of organizational sciences, Serbia Faculty of Philology and Arts, Serbia Faculty of Philology. University of Belgrade, Serbia Faculty of Technology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka Fairfield University IDM Fairleigh Dickinson University Fairleigh_Dickinson_University Falmouth University, United Kingdom FAMERP - Faculdade de Medicina de Rio Preto, Brazil Fanshawe College, Canada FAPEAL - Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa de Alagoas, Brazil FAPEPI - Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Piaui, Brazil FAPESP - Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa de Sao Paulo, Brazil Fareham College (South Hampshire College Group), United Kingdom Farnborough College of Technology, United Kingdom FASEC - Faculdade Serra Do Carmo, Brazil Fashion Retail Academy, United Kingdom FasoREN Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakif University, Turkey Fatima Aloi Comprehensive Girls SS, Uganda FCMSCSP - Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas da Santa Casa de Sao Paulo, Brazil FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Portugal FCT|FCCN, Portugal FDF - Faculdade de Direito de Franca, Brazil Federacion Nacional de Identidades Mexicanas (FENIX), Mexico Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices FEESC - Fundacao de Ensino e Engenharia de Santa Catarina, Brazil FEEVALE - Universidade Feevale, Brazil Feide, Norway Fenerbahce University, Turkey FENIX, Mexico FEPECS - Fundacao de Ensino e Pesquisa em Ciencias da Saude, Brazil Ferdinand Porsche FernFH, Austria Ferdinand-Braun-Institute, Leibniz-Institut fuer Hoechstfrequenztechnik, Germany Ferenc II. Rákóczi County and City Library, Hungary Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, USA FESFSUS - Fundacao Estatal Saude da Familia, Brazil FFHS - Fernfachhochschule Schweiz, Switzerland FH CAMPUS 02, Austria FH Erfurt, Germany FH Joanneum, Austria FH Muenster, Germany FH Wien – University of Applied Sciences for Management & Communication, Austria FHGR - Fachhochschule Graubünden, Switzerland FHNW - Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz, Switzerland Fife College, United Kingdom Filmakademie Baden-Wuerttemberg (Prod), Germany Filmuniversity Babelsberg KONRAD WOLF, Germany FINEP - Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Brazil Finnish Environment Institute, Finland Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Finland Finnish Meteorological Institute, Finland FIOCRUZ - Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil Fircroft College of Adult Education, United Kingdom Firda Fire University in Warsaw, Poland FIZ Karlsruhe, Germany FJS - Fundacao Jose Silveira, Brazil Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Belgium Flatiron Institute FIDO Flensburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany Flinders University, Australia Florida A&M University (SSO) Florida Atlantic University Florida Gulf Coast University (Cirrus Bridge) Florida International University SSO Florida Polytechnic University Florida State University Florida State University - Staging Florida Universitària, Spain FMC - Faculdade de Medicina de Campos, Brazil FMI - Friedrich Miescher Institute, Switzerland FMP Berlin (AAI IdP), Germany FMSH Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, France FMU - Faculdades Metropolitanas Unidas Educacao, Brazil FMV Işık University, Turkey FNDE - Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Educacao, Brazil Folkwang University of the Arts, Germany Fondazione Bruno Kessler, European Union Fondazione Edmund Mach - Istituto Agrario di San Michele all'Adige, European Union Fondazione Telethon - TIGEM, Italy Fontys University of Applied Sciences Foothill-De Anza Community College District Fordham University FORMATEC Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V., Germany Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH (FZJ), Germany Fort Lewis College Fort Valley State University Forth Valley College of Further and Higher Education, United Kingdom Forum Groningen Foshan University, China Foundation for International Education, United Kingdom Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas (FORTH), Greece FPP - Faculdades Pequeno Principe, Brazil FPS - Faculdade Pernambucana de Saude, Brazil FPTI - Fundacao Parque Tecnologico Itaipu, Brazil Francis Ayume Memorial School Koboko, Uganda Francis Crick Institute, United Kingdom Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Germany Franklin & Marshall College Franklin College, United Kingdom Frantisek Krizik Grammar School and Primary School, s.r.o., European Union Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, Germany Fredericia College of Marine and Technical Engineering (FMS), Denmark Frederick University, Cyprus Free University of Bolzano, Italy Freie Universität Berlin, Germany Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Germany Fritz-Haber-Institut, Germany Fryske Akademy (KNAW), Netherlands FSCBH - Faculdade Santa Casa BH, Brazil FUCAPE - Fundacao Instituto Capixaba de Pesquisa em Cont. Econ. e Financas, Brazil Fudan University, China Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, China Fujian Jiangxia University, China Fujian Medical University, China Fujian Normal University, China Fujian Police College, China Fujian University of Technology, China Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Fukuoka Gakuen Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Japan Fukushima Medical University, Japan Fukuyama University, Japan FUMEC - Fundacao Mineira de Educacao e Cultura, Brazil Funcionarios REUNA, Chile Fundacion Andaluza para Divulgacion de la Innovacion y el Conocimiento, Spain Fundacion Pablo VI, Spain Fundacion Renal Inigo Alvarez de Toledo, Spain Fundacion SEPI, Spain Fundació i2CAT, Internet i Innovació Digital a Catalunya, Spain Fundación Galileo Galilei - INAF, Spain Fundacon BCMaterials - Basque Center for Materials, Applicationsand Nanostructures, Spain FUNDAJ - Fundacao Joaquim Nabuco, Brazil Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Portugal FUNPEC - Fundacao Norte-Rio-Grandense de Pesquisa e Cultura, Brazil FURB - Fundacao Universidade Regional de Blumenau, Brazil FURG - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Brazil Furman University Furness College Organisation, United Kingdom Furtwangen University, Germany Future University Hakodate, Japan Fuyang Normal University, China Fuzhou University of International Studies and Trade, China Fuzhou University, China FWF Austrian Science Fund FWP - Fundacao Wilson Picler, Brazil FZI Forschungszentrum Informatik, Germany Fırat University, Turkey GakuNin IdP, Japan Galatasaray University, Turkey Gandhigram Rural Institute, Tamil Nadu, India Gannan Normal University, China Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, China Garden City University College, Ghana GARNET IAM Workshop, Ghana GARR, Italy Gateshead College, United Kingdom Gateway Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Gautam Buddha University (Delhi NCR), India Gayaza High School, Uganda Gaziantep University, Turkey Gdańsk University of Technology, Poland Gdynia Maritime University, Poland Gebze Technical University, Turkey Genba Sopanrao Moze College Of Engineering ,Balewadi, Pune Gendarmerie and Coast Guard Academy, Turkey General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania Geological Survey of Slovenia GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany Georg-August University Göttingen, Germany George Mason University George Whitefield College, South Africa Georgetown University Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia State University GeoSphere Austria German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin), Germany German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA), Germany German Literature Archive Marbach, Germany German Maritime Museum (DSM) German Sport University Cologne, Germany Gerrit Rietveld Academie, Netherlands Gesellschaft für wissenschaftliche Datenverarbeitung mbH Göttingen, Germany GESIS – Leibniz-Institute for the Social Sciences Gettysburg College SSO GFZ Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences, Germany Ghanaian Academic and Research Network GHC - Grupo Hospitalar Conceicao, Brazil Ghent University, Belgium Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iaşi - TUIASI, Romania GIDP-RENAM, Republic of Moldova GIDP-USM, Republic of Moldova GIGA - Associacao GigaCandanga, Brazil Gimnazija Bežigrad high school GIP RENATER, France Giresun University, Turkey GITAM Deemed to be University Glasbena šola Kamnik, Slovenia Glasgow Clyde College, United Kingdom Glasgow Kelvin College, United Kingdom Glasgow School of Art (MyGSA), United Kingdom Glasir Tórshavn College, Faroe Islands Global Change Research Institute CAS, Czech Republic Gloucestershire College, United Kingdom Glyndwr University, United Kingdom Goa University, India Goce Delcev University, Stip, Macedonia Godalming College, United Kingdom Gokoseeds Secondary School, Uganda Goldsmiths, University of London, United Kingdom Google Government Engineering College, Bhuj, India Government Engineering College, Dahod, India Government Engineering College, Valsad, India Government ICT Centre Valtori, Finland Gower College Swansea, United Kingdom Graafschap College, Netherlands Grafisch Lyceum Rotterdam, Netherlands Grafisch Lyceum Utrecht, Netherlands Gran Telescopio de Canarias, Spain Grand Valley State University Grangegorman Development Agency, Ireland Grantham College, United Kingdom Graz University of Technology, Austria Great Basin College Great Plains Network Great Yarmouth College, United Kingdom Green University of Bangladesh GRENA Identity Provider, Georgia Grenoble Ecole de Management ( GEM ) Grenoble INP - 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University of Governance Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbuettel, Germany HES-SO - Haute Ecole Spécialisée de Suisse occidentale, Switzerland Hezhou University, China HFA - Hospital das Forcas Armadas, Brazil HfG Hochschule für Gestaltung Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany HfG Offenbach - University of Art and Design Offenbach am Main, Germany HfH - Interkantonale Hochschule für Heilpädagogik, Switzerland HFML-FELIX, Netherlands HfWU Nuertingen-Geislingen, Germany High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, Japan High school Jozeta Plecnika, Slovenia Highbury College, United Kingdom Higher Education Authority, Ireland Higher Education Information Technology South Africa (HEITSA) Higher Education Institution Albert Jacquard (HEAJ), Belgium Higher Education Institution of the Province of Liege (HEPL), Belgium Highlands College, United Kingdom Hillcroft College, United Kingdom Hills Road Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Hirosaki University, Japan Hiroshima Institute of Technology, Japan Hiroshima University, Japan Hitit University, Turkey HKAF Virtual Home, Hong Kong HKU SPACE HMV - Associacao Hospitalar Moinhos de Vento, Brazil Hochschule Aalen - Technik und Wirtschaft, Germany Hochschule Ansbach IDP, Germany Hochschule Biberach, Germany Hochschule Bielefeld, Germany Hochschule Bochum (University Of Applied Sciences), Germany Hochschule Bremerhaven University of Applied Sciences, Germany Hochschule Campus Wien – University of Applied Sciences, Austria Hochschule Coburg, Germany Hochschule Darmstadt, University of Applied Sciences, Germany Hochschule der Bayerischen Wirtschaft (HDBW), Germany Hochschule der Medien Stuttgart, Germany Hochschule Düsseldorf - University of Applied Sciences HSD, Germany Hochschule fuer bildende Kuenste Hamburg (HFBK) Hochschule fuer Musik Dresden, Germany Hochschule fuer Musik und Theater Hamburg (HfMT), Germany Hochschule Fulda, Germany Hochschule für den öffentlichen Dienst in Bayern - Fachbereich AIV in Hof, Germany Hochschule für Gesundheit, Germany Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln, Germany Hochschule für Musik und Theater München - 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Uganda. Huzhou University, China HWZ - Hochschule für Wirtschaft Zürich, Switzerland HZ University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Häme University of Applied Sciences, Finland Hólar University, Iceland i2basque, Spain IAC - Instituto Astrofísico de Canarias, Spain IAD-ARTS IAH Pirbright, United Kingdom iAMRES Web Single Sign-on Portal, Serbia Ian A. Young, United Kingdom IBA International Business Academy, Denmark Ibaraki University, Japan IBFD - International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation IBICT - Inst. Brasileiro de Info. em Ciencia e Tecnologia, Brazil Ibn Haldun University, Turkey Ibri Vocational College, Oman Icahn School of Medicine Network ICCU - Central Institute for the Union Catalogue, Italy Iceland University of the Arts ICER - Mali ICER - Uganda ICFO – The Institute of Photonic Sciences, Spain ICFUC - Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil ICHEC Brussels Management School, Belgium icipe ICN BUSINESS SCHOOL ID REUNA, Chile ID.me, USA Idaho State University IDE-JETRO, Japan Ideal Institute Of Management And Technology And School Of Law, India Identitas : RENATER Connect, France Idiap Research Institute, Switzerland IdP - College de France IDP - Instituto Brasileiro de Ensino, Desenvolvimento e Pesquisa de Brasilia, Brazil IdP 01 He-ferrer, European Union IDP LA-CoNGA physics IDP vetagro sup PROD, France IDSM - Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sutentavel Mamiraua, Brazil IE University, Spain IEC - Instituto Evandro Chagas, Brazil IEN - Instituto de Engenharia Nuclear, Brazil IFAC - Instituto Federal do Acre, Brazil IFAL - Instituto Federal de Alagoas, Brazil IFAM - Instituto Federal do Amazonas, Brazil IFAP - Instituto Federal do Amapa, Brazil IFB - Instituto Federal de Brasilia, Brazil IFBA - Instituto Federal da Bahia, Brazil IFBAIANO - Instituto Federal de Educacao, Ciencia e Tecnologia Baiano, Brazil IFC - Instituto Federal Catarinense, Brazil IFCE - Instituto Federal do Ceara, Brazil IFES - Instituto Federal do Espirito Santo, Brazil IFF - Instituto Federal de Educacao, Ciencia e Tecnologia Fluminense, Brazil IFFAR - Instituto Federal Farroupilha, Brazil IFG - Instituto Federal de Educacao Ciencia e Tecnologia de Goias, Brazil IFGOIANO - Instituto Federal Goiano, Brazil IFMA - Instituto Federal do Maranhao, Brazil IFMG - Instituto Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil IFMS - Instituto Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil IFMT - Instituto Federal de Mato Grosso, Brazil IFNMG - Instituto Federal do Norte de Minas Gerais, Brazil ifo Institute, Germany IFPA - Instituto Federal do Para, Brazil IFPB - Instituto Federal de Educacao da Paraiba, Brazil IFPE - Instituto Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil IFPI - Instituto Federal do Piaui, Brazil IFPR - Instituto Federal do Parana, Brazil IFREMER, France IFRJ - Instituto Federal de Educacao do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil IFRN - Instituto Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil IFRO - Instituto Federal de Rondonia, Brazil IFRR - Instituto Federal de Roraima, Brazil IFRS - Instituto Federal de Educacao Ciencia e Tecnologia do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil IFS - Instituto Federal de Sergipe, Brazil IFSC - Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil IFSERTAOPE - Instituto Federal do Sertao Pernambucano, Brazil IFSP - Instituto Federal de Educ. Ciencia e Tec. de Sao Paulo, Brazil IFSTTAR, France IFSUDESTEMG - Inst Fed de Educ Ciencia e Tec do Sudeste de MG, Brazil IFSUL - Instituto Federal Sul-rio-grandense, Brazil IFSULDEMINAS - Instituto Federal do Sul de Minas Gerais, Brazil IFTM - Instituto Federal do Triangulo Mineiro, Brazil IFTO - Instituto Federal do Tocantins, Brazil IFW Dresden, Germany Iganga High School, Uganda Iganga Secondary School, Uganda IGTF Certificate Proxy IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Netherlands IHES - Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, France Ihsan Dogramaci Bilkent University, Turkey IIITDM Jabalpur, India IIITDM Kancheepuram, India IISER Berhampur, India IIT - Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Italy IIT Bhubaneswar, India Ikwera girls SS, Uganda Illinois Institute of Technology NEW Illinois State University Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University - Cloud, Saudi Arabia Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University - SM, Saudi Arabia IMC University of Applied Sciences Krems/Austria IMDEA Network, Spain IME - Instituto Militar de Engenharia, Brazil imec IMIP - Instituto de Medicina Integral Prof. Fernando Figueira, Brazil IMPA - Instituto de Matematica Pura e Aplicada, Brazil Imperial College London, United Kingdom IMT Atlantique, France IMT Mines Albi, France IMT Mines Alès, France IMT Nord Europe, France IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy IMU University, Malaysia INALCO - Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales, France INC - Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Brazil INCA - Instituto Nacional de Cancer, Brazil INCAPER - Instituto de Pesquisa, Assistencia Tecnica e Extensao Rural, Brazil INCOR USP - Instituto do Coracao da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Sao Paulo, Brazil Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) Kottayam Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), Dharwad Indian Institute Of Information Technology Sonepat Indian Institute of Information Technology, Nagpur Indian Institute of Information Technology, Pune (IIIT Pune) Indian Institute of Information Technology, Una Indian Institute of Management Sirmaur Indian Institute of Management Visakhapatnam Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad Indian Institute Of Management–Bodh Gaya (IIM–Bodh Gaya) Indian Institute of Petroleum and Energy (IIPE) Indian Institute of Public Health Gandhinagar Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad Indian Institute of Technology Bhilai Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute Of Technology Dharwad Indian Institute Of Technology Gandhinagar Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad (IITH) Indian Institute of Technology Jammu Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur Indian Institute of Technology Madras Indian Institute of Technology Palakkad Indian Institute of Technology, Goa Indian Institute Of Technology–Ropar (IIT–Ropar) Indiana University Indiana University of Pennsylvania Indiid Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research(IGIDR), India Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), India Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, India Indira Group Of Institute, Pune Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology Delhi (IIIT-Delhi), India Industrial Technology Institute - Sri Lanka INED - Institut National d'Etudes Démographiques, France INERIS - Institut National de l'Environnement Industriel et des Risques, France INES - Instituto Nacional de Educacao de Surdos, Brazil Infectious Diseases Institute (IDI), Uganda INFLIBNET Staff [Parichay Identity Service], India INFLIBNET Test, India INFN - National Institute for Nuclear Physics, Italy Information Center of SMEC, China INHA - Institut National de l'Histoire de l'Art, France Inha University, Republic of Korea Inholland University of Applied Sciences INL- International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory INMETRO - Instituto Nacional de Metrologia Qualidade e Tecnologia, Brazil Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, China Inner Mongolia Normal University, China Inner Mongolia University of science and technology, China Inner Mongolia University of Technology, China Inner Mongolia University, China Inonu University, Turkey Inova Health System INPA - Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia, Brazil INPE - Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, Brazil INPO - Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Oceanicas, Brazil INPP - Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa do Pantanal, Brazil Inproxy-INFLIBNET Centre, India INRAE, France INRIA - Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et Automatique, France INRiM - Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica, Italy INSA - Instituto Nacional do Semiarido, Brazil INSA Centre Val de Loire, France INSA Lyon (SATOSA), France INSA Lyon, France INSA Rennes, France INSA Rouen Normandie, France INSA Strasbourg, France INSA Toulouse, France Insel Gruppe, Switzerland INSERM, France INSERM-Transfert, France INSHEA - Institut national supérieur de formation et de recherche pour l'éducation des jeunes handic, France INSPE de Bretagne, France INSPER - Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Brazil Inspire Education Group, United Kingdom Institut Africain d'Informatique, Représentation du Togo (IAI-TOGO) Institut Catholique de Toulouse - IdP Shibboleth, France Institut Curie - Research center, France Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya, Spain Institut Laue-Langevin, France Institut Mines Telecom Business School and Telecom SudParis (v4), European Union Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS - Universite du Quebec), Canada Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS), Canada Institut Optique Graduate School, France Institut Pasteur, France Institut Supérieur de Communication et Publicité Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS), Austria Institute for Advanced Study Institute for Basic Science, Republic of Korea Institute for Fiscal Studies, United Kingdom Institute for High Energy Physics, Spain Institute for Informatics and Automation Problems (IIAP, Armenia) Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM), Islamic Republic of Iran Institute for Social and Economic Change, India Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science - INESC TEC, Portugal Institute of Accelerating Systems and Applications - IASA, Greece Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, India Institute of Agricultural Economics and Information, Czech Republic Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Archaeological Heritage Brno, Czech Republic Institute of Archaeology of the CAS, Prague, Czech Republic Institute of Archeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic Institute of Atmospheric Physics CAS, Czech Republic Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sri Lanka Institute of Biophysics AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Biotechnology CAS, v.v.i., Czech Republic Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Communication and Computer Systems, Greece Institute of Computer Science AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Contemporary History, Czech Republic Institute of Czech Literature of the CAS, Czech Republic Institute of Earth Physics and Space Science, Hungary Institute of Engineering Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, Greece Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Experimental Medicine CAS, Czech Republic Institute of Geology AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Geonics of the CAS, Czech Republic Institute of Geophysics of the CAS, v.v.i., Czech Republic Institute of History of the ASCR, Czech Republic Institute of Information Theory and Automation AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management, India Institute of Inorganic chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Institute of International Relations, Czech Republic Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry CAS, Czech Republic Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Latvia Institute of Mathematics AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Microbiology AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Philosophy AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Photonics and Electronics of the AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Physics AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Physics of Materials of the AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Physiology AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Plasma Physics AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Public Administration, Ireland Institute of Rheumatology Institute of Rock Structure and Mechanics of The Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Institute of Rural Development Planning (IRDP), Tanzania Institute of Rural Management Anand, India Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA) Institute of Scientific Instruments of the ASCR, Czech Republic Institute of Slavonic Studies of the CAS, Czech Republic Institute of Sociology AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Solar Physics (KIS), Germany Institute of State and Law of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Czech Republic Institute of Technology, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka Institute of the Lithuanian Language Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics AS CR, Czech Republic Institute of Vertebrate Biology AS CR, Czech Republic Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, Spain Instituto Catalan de Nanociencia y Nanotecnologia, Spain Instituto Cordillera - cordillera, Ecuador Instituto da Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Portugal Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales - iaen, Ecuador Instituto de Avaliação Educativa, Portugal Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores, Investigação e Desenvolvimento, Portugal Instituto de Investigacion y Tecnologia Agroalimentarias, Spain Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Portugal Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain Instituto Geofísico de la Escuela Politécnica Nacional - igepn, Ecuador Instituto Hidrográfico, Portugal Instituto IMDEA Materiales, Spain Instituto IMDEA Software, Spain Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Tecnologia Agraria y Alimentaria, Spain Instituto Nacional de Tecnica Aeroespacial, Spain Instituto Nacional de Tecnologías Educativas y de Formación del Profesorado, Spain Instituto Oceanográfico y Antártico de la Armada - inocar, Ecuador Instituto Particular Abdón Calderón - ipac, Ecuador Instituto Politecnico de Portalegre, Portugal Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Portugal Instituto Politécnico da Lusofonia, Portugal Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Portugal Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco, Portugal Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal Instituto Politécnico de Tomar, Portugal Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Portugal Instituto Português do Desporto e da Juventude, Portugal Instituto Superior Tecnológico Luis Rogelio González - insteclrg, Ecuador Instituto Superior Tecnológico Vida Nueva - istvidanueva, Ecuador Instituto Superior Tecnólogico Honorable Consejo Provincial de Pichincha - tecnologicopichincha, Ecuador Instituto Tecnologico Bolivariano - itb, Ecuador Instituto Tecnologico de Aragon, Spain Instituto Tecnologico Superior Universitario España - iste, Ecuador Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León, Spain Instituto Tecnológico Superior Compu Sur - itecsur, Ecuador Instituto Tecnológico Superior José Chiriboga Grijalva - tecnologicoitca, Ecuador Instituto Tecnológico Superior Rumiñahui - ister, Ecuador Instituto Universitário Militar, Portugal Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Economicas, Spain Instituut voor Landbouw-, Visserij- en Voedingsonderzoek, Belgium Instituut voor Tropische Geneeskunde Identity Provider, Belgium INT - Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia, Brazil Integraal Kankercentrum Nederland Inter University Centre for Teacher Education, BHU, India Inter University Computation Center(IUCCng), Israel Inter-University Accelerator Centre, India Intercollege, Cyprus Interdisciplinary Transformation University (IT:U), Austria International Business College, Denmark International Business School, Hungary International Film Studies Písek, Czech Republic International Hellenic University, Greece International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Austria International Institute of Information Technology Bangalore, India International Islamic University Chittagong, Bangladesh International Maritime College Oman (IMCO) International Psychoanalytic University Berlin (IPU), Germany International Telematic University UNINETTUNO International University of Business Agriculture and Technology (IUBAT) International University of Health and Welfare International University of La Rioja, Spain International University of Languages and Media, Italy International University of Valencia, Spain Internet2 INUC - Institut national universitaire Jean-François Champollion, France Ionian University, Greece Iowa State University IPA - Instituto Agronomico de Pernambuco, Brazil IPB Halle, Germany IPC - College of Health Technology, Portugal IPC - Escola Superior Agraria de Coimbra, Portugal IPC - Escola Superior de Educação de Coimbra, Portugal IPC - Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão de Oliveira do Hospital, Portugal IPC - Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração de Coimbra, Portugal IPC - Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Coimbra, Portugal IPC - Serviços da Presidência, Portugal IPE - Instituto de Pesquisas Eldorado, Brazil IPiaget IPK Gatersleben, Germany IPMA, Portugal IPSA, Institute of Polytechnic Science and Aeronautics, France IPT - Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnologicas do Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil IPV - Serviços da Presidência, Portugal IRAM - Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique, Spain IRCCS 'S. de Bellis' - Castellana Grotte (BARI), Italy IRCCS Associazione Oasi Maria SS. Onlus, Italy IRCCS Auxologico - Milano, Italy IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Italy IRCCS Burlo Garofolo - Trieste, Italy IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, Italy IRCCS Centro Cardiologico Monzino - Milano, Italy IRCCS Centro Neurolesi 'Bonino Pulejo' - Messina, Italy IRCCS CRO di Aviano, Italy IRCCS CROB - Rionero in Vulture (PZ), Italy IRCCS Eugenio Medea, Italy IRCCS FBF - Brescia, Italy IRCCS Fondazione Don Carlo Gnocchi Onlus, Italy IRCCS Fondazione G.B. Bietti, Italy IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Italy IRCCS ICS Maugeri - Pavia, Italy IRCCS IEO - Milano, Italy IRCCS IFO - Rome, Italy IRCCS INMI Spallanzani - Roma, Italy IRCCS INRCA - Ancona, Italy IRCCS IOV Istituto Oncologico Veneto, Italy IRCCS IRST Dino Amadori - Meldola, Italy IRCCS ISMETT - Palermo, Italy IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche - Bologna, Italy IRCCS Istituto di Candiolo, Italy IRCCS Istituto Giannina Gaslini - Genova, Italy IRCCS Istituto Tumori 'Giovanni Paolo II' - Bari, Italy IRCCS MultiMedica - Milano, Italy IRCCS Neuromed Pozzilli (IS), Italy IRCCS OMP Ca' Granda - Milano, Italy IRCCS OPBG - ROMA, Italy IRCCS Pascale - Napoli, Italy IRCCS Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute - Bologna, Italy IRCCS San Camillo - Venice, Italy IRCCS San Martino University Hospital, Italy IRCCS San Matteo - Pavia, Italy IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana - Rome, Italy IRCCS Santa Lucia - Roma, Italy IRCCS SDN - Napoli, Italy IRD - French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development, France IRD - Instituto de Radioprotecao e Dosimetria, Brazil Irish Centre for High-End Computing - Staff MFA, Ireland ISAE, France ISARA, France ISCTE - Instituto Universitario de Lisboa, Portugal ISD - Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa Alberto Santos Dumont, Brazil ISEC Lisboa, Portugal Iselinge University of Applied Sciences Ishaka Adventist School, Uganda Iskenderun Technical University, Turkey ISM International School of Management, Germany ISM University of Management and Economics, Lithuania ISPA - Instituto Universitário de Ciências Psicológicas, Portugal Isparta University Of Applied Sciences, Turkey ISPRA Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Italy ISS - National Health Institute, Italy Istanbul Arel University, Turkey Istanbul Aydin University, Turkey Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey Istanbul Galata University, Turkey Istanbul Gedik University, Turkey Istanbul Gelisim University, Turkey Istanbul Health and Technology University, Turkey Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey Istanbul Okan University, Turkey Istanbul Rumeli University, Turkey Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, Turkey Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Istanbul Ticaret University, Turkey Istanbul Topkapi University, Turkey Istanbul University Cerrahpasa, Turkey Istanbul University, Turkey ISTAT - Italian National Institute of Statistics, Italy Istinye University, Turkey Istituto Marangoni S.r.l Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Italy Istituto Superiore di Studi Musicali Franco Vittadini, Italy Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise "G. Caporale", Italy IT Department of the Ministry of Higher Education and Science, Denmark IT University of Copenhagen, Denmark ITA - Instituto Tecnologico de Aeronautica, Brazil Italian Space Agency, Italy Itchen College, United Kingdom ITEP - Instituto de Tecnologia de Pernambuco, Brazil Ithaca College ITV - Instituto Tecnologico Vale IUCAA, India IUSS - University School for Advanced Studies Pavia, Italy Iwate University, Japan Izmir Democracy University, Turkey Izmir Institute of High Technology, Turkey Izmir Katip Celebi University yetkim.ikc.edu.tr, Turkey Izmir University of Economics, Turkey IZS del Mezzogiorno, Italy IZS della Sardegna, Italy IZS Delle Venezie - Legnaro, Italy IZS Sicilia, Italy IZUM, Slovenia İstanbul Kültür University, Turkey İzmir Bakırçay University, Turkey J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the CAS, v.v.i, Czech Republic J. Paul Getty Trust J. Selye University, Slovakia Jabatan Pendidikan Politeknik dan Kolej Komuniti, Malaysia Jade Hochschule, Germany Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland Jahangirnagar University James Cook University, Australia James Madison University Jamia Hamdard University Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, Poland Jan Drda´s Library, Czech Republic Jan Evangelista Purkyne University in Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic Jan Kochanowski University of Kielce, Poland Janacek Academy of Music and Performing Arts, Czech Republic Jananayak chandrashekhar University, India Jansons Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Japan Coast Guard Academy Japan Women's University Japanese Red Cross College of Nursing Jashore University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, India Jaypee University of Information Technology (JUIT), India Jazan University, Saudi Arabia Jewish Theological Seminary – University of Jewish Studies, Hungary Jianghan University, China Jiangnan University, China Jiangsu Normal University, China Jiangsu Second Normal University, China Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, China Jiangsu University of Technology, China Jiangsu University, China JiangXi Academy of Sciences, China Jiangxi Agricultural University, China Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, China Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, China Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, China Jiaxing University, China Jihlava Town Library, Czech Republic JiLIn Agricultural University, China Jilin International Studies University, China Jilin University, China Jimei University, China Jinan University, China Jinggangshan University, China Jining Medical University, China Jining University, China Jinja College School, Uganda Jinja Secondary School, Uganda Jinling Institute of Technology, China Jisc, United Kingdom Jisc: Digital Resources (Mimas IdP), United Kingdom Jiří Mahen Library in Brno, Czech Republic JK Lakshmipat University, India Johannelunds teologiska högskola, Sweden Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Germany Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin John Ruskin College, United Kingdom Johns Hopkins Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute, Spain Joseph Chamberlain Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Joseph Haydn Private University, Austria Jouf University, Saudi Arabia Jožef Stefan Institute, Slovenia JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, India JUCC Institution Justice Institute of British Columbia, Canada Justis Publishing Limited Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany Jyväskylä University of Applied Sciences, Finland Ján Albrecht Music and Art Academy Banská Štiavnica Jönköping University, Sweden K3 Bohumin - LIBRARY, Czech Republic Kabaale Sanje SSS, Uganda Kabale Secondary School, Uganda Kabale University, Uganda KABEZI SECONDARY SCHOOL, Uganda Kabulubulu Secondary School, Uganda Kadir Has University, Turkey Kafkas University, Turkey Kaggulwe Secondary School, Uganda KAGRA, Japan Kagunga Seed SS, Uganda Kagwara Seed Secondary School, Uganda Kahramanmaras Istiklal University, Turkey Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Turkey Kairuki University (KU), Tanzania Kajaani University of Applied Sciences, Finland Kakatiya University, India Kako Secondary School, Uganda Kalaidos University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland Kalasalingam Academy of Research and Education, India Kalinga University Raipur, India Kambuga Secondary School, Uganda Kameruka Seed SS, Uganda Kamuli Girls Secondary School, Uganda Kamuzu University of Health Sciences - KUHES, Malawi Kanagawa University, Japan Kanazawa University, Japan Kangwon National University, Republic of Korea KANNUR UNIVERSITY, India Kanoni Secondary School, Uganda Kansanga Seed Secondary School, Uganda Kansas State University Kapeeka Secondary School, Uganda Kapeke Seed SS, Uganda Karabuk University, Turkey Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Turkey Karel Dvoracek Library, Czech Republic Karelia University of Applied Sciences, Finland Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Austria Karlshochschule International University, Germany Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Karlstad University, Sweden Karolinska Institutet, Sweden KARUNGU SEED SS, Uganda Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences (Deemed University) Kasana Vocational School, Uganda Kasawo Secondary School, Uganda Kasenyi ss, Uganda Kasese Secondary School, Uganda Kashi University, China Kastamonu University, Turkey Katholische Stiftungshochschule München., Germany Katolické gymnázium Třebíč, Czech Republic Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania Kauno kolegija Higher Education Institution, Lithuania Kavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra University, India Kazimierz Pułaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom, Poland Kazimierz Wielki University, Poland Kazo Primary school, Uganda KBFI, Estonia KCE's M. J. College, Jalgaon, India Kean University Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences Kedge Business School Keele University, United Kingdom Keio University, Japan Kempten University of Applied Sciences, Germany Kendal College, United Kingdom KENET Staff Identity Provider, Kenya Kennesaw State University Kensington and Chelsea College, United Kingdom Kent State University Kenya Education Network Kenya Education Network (KENET) Kenyatta University Kenyon College Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, Ukraine KHM-Museumsverband, Austria Khongnangthaba University Khulna University (KU), Bangladesh Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Bangladesh Kiboga parents secondary school, Uganda Kibuli SS, Uganda Kidderminster College, United Kingdom Kidoko Secondary School, Uganda Kiel Institute for the world economy, Germany Kiel University of Applied Sciences, Germany Kielce University of Technology, Poland KIF-IDP, Kyrgyzstan Kigezi High School, Uganda Kiira college Butiki, Uganda Kiira Motors Corporation, Uganda Kikomeko Secondary School, Uganda Kilis 7 Aralik University, Turkey Kindai University, Japan King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Saudi Arabia King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz University Hospital, Saudi Arabia King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Saudi Arabia King Edward VI College, Stourbridge, United Kingdom King Edward VI College, United Kingdom King Fahad Medical City, Saudi Arabia King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Saudi Arabia King Saud University, Saudi Arabia King Solomon's College, Uganda King's College Budo, Uganda King's College London, United Kingdom Kingston Maurward College, United Kingdom Kingston University London, United Kingdom Kinyogoga Seed SS, Uganda Kirikkale University, Turkey Kirklareli University, Turkey Kirklees College, United Kingdom Kirsehir Ahi Evran University, Turkey Kisaana Secondary School, Uganda Kishinchand Chellaram Law College, India Kisowera Secondary School, Uganda Kisubi Schools, Uganda Kitabi Seminary School, Uganda Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan Kitante Hill School, Uganda Kitebi Secondary School, Uganda KIYANGA VOCATIONAL SECONDARY SCHOOL, Uganda Kiyuni ss, Uganda Kiyuya Seed Secondary School, Uganda Kiziba High School, Uganda Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences, Lithuania Klaipeda University, Lithuania Knihovna Bedřicha Beneše Buchlovana Uherské Hradiště, Czech Republic KNMI, Netherlands Knowsley College, United Kingdom Kobe City University of Foreign Studies, Japan Kobe Pharmaceutical University, Japan Kobwin Seed Secondary School, Uganda Koc University, Turkey Kocaeli University, Turkey Kochi University of Technology, Japan Kochi University, Japan Kodolányi János University, Hungary Koforidua Technical University, Ghana Kojja Secondary School, Uganda Kolej Komuniti Ampang, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Arau, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bagan Datuk, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bagan Serai, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Baling, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bandar Baharu, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bandar Darul Aman, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bandar Penawar, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bandar Tenggara, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Batu Gajah, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Batu Pahat, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bayan Baru, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Beaufort, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bentong, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bera, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Besut, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Betong, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bukit Beruang, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Bukit Mertajam, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Chenderoh, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Gerik, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Hulu Langat, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Hulu Selangor, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Jasin, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Jelebu, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Jeli, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Jempol, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Jerai, Malaysia Kolej Komuniti Jerantut, Malaysia Kolej 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Jindal Global University, India Oak Ridge Leadership Computing Facility (OLCF), USA Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA Oakland University Oaklands College, United Kingdom Oberlin College and Conservatory Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Japan Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, European Union Observatoire de Paris, France Observatorio de Yebes, Spain OCAD University, Canada Occidental College Ocean University of China Ochanomizu University, Japan OCOCIA GIRLS SECONDARY SCHOOL, Uganda Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, Germany Office for National Statistics, United Kingdom Office For Students, United Kingdom Ogor Seed SS, Uganda Ohio State University Ohio Supercomputer Center (OSC) Ohio Supercomputer Center (OSC) Test Ohio Technology Consortium (OH-TECH) Ohio University Ohlone Community College District Okanagan College, Canada Okayama University of Science, Japan Okayama University, Japan Okinawa International University, Japan Okinawa University, Japan Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education/OneNet Oklahoma State University Main Campus Okta, Inc Old Dominion University oldENSICAEN, France Oldham College, United Kingdom Oldham Sixth Form College, United Kingdom Olds College, Canada Ollscoil na Gaillimhe - University of Galway, Ireland Oman Research and Education Network (Shibboleth) Oman Tourism College OmniPasskey ON - Observatorio Nacional, Brazil Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey Oniris – VetAgroBio Nantes - ECOLE NATIONALE, France ONOS, INFLIBNET Centre, India Open Juridische hogeschool, SchakelZone OJH, Netherlands Open Universiteit, Netherlands Openbare Bibliotheek Amsterdam (OBA) Opole University, Poland ORCiD Ordu University, Turkey Oregon Health & Science University Oregon Institute of Technology Oregon State University Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Czech Republic Orsi Academy, Belgium Osaka Dental University, Japan Osaka University of Economics, Japan Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Turkey OST - Ostschweizer Fachhochschule, Switzerland Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Amberg-Weiden, Germany Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Regensburg, Germany Ostfalia, Germany Otis College QuickLaunch Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Germany Otuboi Comprehensive SS, Uganda Otuke Secondary School, Uganda Oulu University of Applied Sciences, Finland Our Lady of Africa Schools -Mukono, Uganda Our Lady of Good Counsel Senior Secondary School, Uganda Overt Software Solutions Ltd Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania Owens Community College Oxford Brookes University, United Kingdom Ozyegin University, Turkey PA State System of Higher Education Paavai Engineering College, India Pace University Pacific Lutheran University Pacific University Paderborn University, Germany Palacky University Olomouc, Czech Republic Palisa Secondary School, Uganda Palmer's College, United Kingdom Palucca University of Dance Dresden, European Union Pamukkale University, Turkey Pan-European University Panipat Institute of Engineering and Technology, India Panjab University, India Panteion University of social and political sciences, Greece PAQTCPB - Fundacao Parque Tecnologico da Paraiba, Brazil Paracelsus Medical University, Austria Paramedical Institute, Uganda Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne University, France Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Austria Paris-Saclay University, France Pauls Stradins Medical College of the University of Latvia Pavol Jozef Safarik University in Košice, Slovakia PayPal Pazhou Lab, China PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency PCT-GUAMA - Fundacao Parque de Ciencia e Tecnologia Guama, Brazil Pearson College London Peking University, China Pembrokeshire College, United Kingdom Penn State Pennsylvania College of Technology Pentecostal Theological College, Hungary Perdana University, Malaysia Periyar Maniammai Institute of Science and Technology PERN IdP Pakistan PES University Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre Peter Symonds College, United Kingdom Petroc, United Kingdom Petroleum Gas University of Ploiesti, Romania PH Freiburg (i. 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Welingkar Institute of Management Development and Research Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia Princess Máxima Center Princeton University Princeton University Alumni Private University of Education, Diocese of Linz, Austria Pro-M Zrt - Pro-m.hu (Hungarian NREN - ProM), Hungary PROD - IDP in the Cloud Project (GARR), Italy Prof. Rajendra Singh(Rajju Bhaiya) University, Prayagraj, India Professional College of Arts and Tourism, Japan Professional University of Information and Management for Innovation Professor Jaya Shankar Telangana State Agricultural University, India Protestant Theological University PSG College Of Technology, India PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research (PSG iTech), India PSI - Paul Scherrer Institut, Switzerland PSL - Research University, European Union PSNC - Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center, Poland Public University of Navarra (via SIR2 Federation), Spain PUC MINAS - pontificia Universidade Catolica de Minas Gerais, Brazil PUC-RIO - Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil PUCCAMPINAS - Pontificia Universidade Catolica de Campinas, Brazil PUCGOIAS - Pontificia Universidade Catolica de Goias, Brazil PUCPR - Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Parana, Brazil PUCRS - Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil PUCSP - Pontificia Universidade Catolica de Sao Paulo, Brazil PULSALYS - SATT Lyon Saint-Etienne - v4, France PUMC ID, China Purdue University Main Campus PURPAN's Engineering School Pusan National University, Republic of Korea PuTian University, China Pädagogische Hochschule Heidelberg (PHH), Germany Pädagogische Hochschule Schaffhausen, Switzerland Qassim University, Saudi Arabia Qiannan Normal University for Nationalities, China Qilu Institute of Technology, China QILU UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, China QIMR Berghofer, Australia Qingdao Agricultural University, China QingDao BinHai University, China Qingdao Huanghai University, China Qingdao University of Science & Technology, China Qingdao University of Technology, China Qingdao University, China Qinghai Institute of Technology, China Qinghai Minzu University, China Qinghai Normal University, China Qiqihar Medical University, China Qiqihar University, China Queen Mary University of London, United Kingdom Queen Mary's College, Basingstoke, United Kingdom Queen's University Belfast, United Kingdom Queen's University, Canada Queensland University of Technology, Australia Queer library, Czech Republic Qufu Normal University, China Quinnipiac University Quzhou College, China Radboud University Radboudumc Radford University RAE - Real Academia Española, Spain Rajarambapu Institute of Technology, Rajaramnagar Rajarata University of Sri Lanka Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development, India Rajiv Gandhi University, India Rakai Health Sciences Program Rakovski National Defence College, Bulgaria Ramapo College of New Jersey RAMCO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, India RapidIdentity Ratan Tata Maharashtra State Skills University (RTMSSU), India Ravensbourne, United Kingdom RCUB, Serbia Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada en San Fernando, Spain REANNZ, New Zealand Reaseheath College, United Kingdom Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey Rectorat de la Martinique, France Rectorat de Strasbourg, France Rectorate of the Academy of Martinique, France RED NACIONAL ACADEMICA DE TECNOLOGIA AVANZADA RENATA, Colombia Redbridge College, United Kingdom RedCLARA - IdP RedCLARA Proxy IdP RedIRIS - Spanish Research and Academic Network, Spain Reed College Regent's University London, United Kingdom Region Zealand, Denmark Regional Centre for Biotechnology, India Regional Library Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic Regional Library Karviná, Czech Republic Regional Library Vysočina, Czech Republic Regional Library Zlín, Czech Republic Regional Research Library in Liberec, Czech Republic Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture, Uganda Reigate College, United Kingdom Reitaku University, Japan REIWA HEALTH SCIENCES University, Japan RENMIN UNIVERSITY OF CHINA, China Rennes School of Business Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Research and Education Agency, Uganda Research and Education Network for Uganda Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungary Research Institute for farm animal biology (FBN), Germany Research Institute for Soil and Water Conservation, Czech Republic Research Library in Olomouc, Czech Republic Research Organization of Information and Systems, Database Center for Life Science Research4Life RESTENA Staff, Luxembourg RESTENA Users, Luxembourg Reutlingen University / Hochschule Reutlingen, Germany Reykjavík University, Iceland Rezekne Academy of Technologies, Latvia Rheinische Hochschule Köln gGmbH, Germany Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences, Germany Rho Federal Systems Division, Inc. 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Republic Polytechnic, Singapore RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Germany Rubona SS, Uganda Rugando College, Uganda Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany Runshaw College, United Kingdom Rush University Medical Center Ruskin College, United Kingdom Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Ruyonza School, Uganda RWEIKINIRO SECONDARY SCHOOL, Uganda Rwemikoma Secondary School, Uganda Rwoho SS, Uganda RWTH Aachen University, Germany Rzeszow University of Technology, Poland Réseau Canopé, France Saarland University, Germany Sabanci University Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka Sacred Heart University SSO Saga University, Japan Saham Vocational College, Oman Saint Francis Xavier Catholic Sixth Form College, London, United Kingdom Saint Gonzaga Secondary school Kagoma, Uganda Saint Mary's University, Canada Saitama University, Japan Sakarya University Of Applied Sciences, Turkey Sakarya University, Turkey Salalah Vocational College, Oman Salesianos Casa Inspectorial Quito - salesianos, Ecuador Salesianos Cayambe - 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Pisa, Italy Santa Clara University Santosh Deemed to be University-Ghaziabad, India Sanyo-Onoda City University, Japan Sapientia College of Theology of Religious Orders, Hungary Sapienza University of Rome, Italy Sapporo City University Sapporo Gakuin University, Japan Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, India Sarh, Oman Satakunta University of Applied Sciences, Finland SAU Identity Service Saudi Electronic University, Saudi Arabia Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Saudi Arabia Saudi Press Agency, Saudi Arabia Savonia University of Applied Sciences, Finland Saxion University of Applied Sciences SBC - Sociedade Brasileira de Computacao, Brazil Scalda SCAYLE: Supercomputación Castilla y León, Spain Scholarin ID, China School center Novo mesto, Slovenia School of Hygiene, Mbale, Uganda School of Pedagogical and Technological Education, Greece School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, India School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada, India Schools of Province de Hainaut (eduHainaut), Belgium Science and Technology Facilities Council, United Kingdom Science and Technology Policy Institute, Republic of Korea Sciences Po Bordeaux, France Sciences Po Grenoble, France Sciences Po Lille, European Union Sciences Po Lyon, France Sciences Po Paris, France Sciences Po Rennes, France Scion Scripps College Scripps Research Scuola Normale Superiore, Italy Scuola Superiore Meridionale, Italy Secretaria Geral da Educação e Ciência, Portugal SECTI-BA - Secretaria de Ciencia, Tecnologia e Inovacao do Estado da Bahia, Brazil Seeb Vocational College, Oman Seeta College, Uganda Seeta High, Uganda Seeta Hill College Mukono (SEHICO), Uganda Seijo University, Japan Seinan Gakuin University, Japan Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences, Finland Selby College, United Kingdom Selcuk University, Turkey Selkirk College, Canada Semmelweis University Central Authentication, Hungary Seoul National University, Republic of Korea SESAPI - Secretaria de Estado da Saude do Piaui, Brazil Seseme Girls SS, Uganda SFUVET - Swiss Federal University for Vocational Education and Training, Switzerland SGAF Virtual Home, Singapore SGB - Servico Geologico do Brasil, Brazil SGH Warsaw School of Economics, Poland Shaanxi Normal University, China Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, China Shaanxi University of Science and Technology, China Shaanxi University of Technology, China Shandong Agricultural University, China Shandong First Medical University, China Shandong Management University, China Shandong Normal University, China Shandong Second Medical University, China Shandong Sport University, China Shandong Technology and Business University, China Shandong University of Aeronautics, China Shandong University of Finance and Economics, China Shandong University of Science and Technology, China Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Shandong University, China Shangdong Women's University, China Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, China Shanghai Business School, China shanghai dianji university, China Shanghai Institute of Technology, China Shanghai International Studies University, China Shanghai Jian Qiao University, China Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China Shanghai Lixin University Of Accounting And Finance, China Shanghai Maritime University, China Shanghai Normal University, China Shanghai Ocean University, China Shanghai Polytechnic University, China Shanghai University of Engineering Science, China Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, China Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, China Shanghai University of Political Science and Law, China Shanghai University of Sport, China Shanghai University, China ShanghaiInnovation Institute, China ShanghaiTech University, China Shantou University, China Shanxi Agricultural University, China Shanxi Institute Of Technology, China Shanxi Medical University, China Shanxi Normal University, China Shanxi University of Finance and Economics, China Shanxi University, China Shaoxing University, China Sharda University, India Shenyang Aerospace University, China Shenyang Agricultural University, China Shenyang Institute of Technology, China Shenyang Ligong University, China Shenyang Normal University, China Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, China Shenyang University Of Chemical Technology, China Shenyang University of Technology, China Shenyang University, China Shenzhen MSU-BIT University, China Shenzhen Technology University, China Shenzhen University of Advanced Technology, China Shenzhen University, China Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh Sheridan College, Canada Sherwood Psychotherapy Training Institute (SPTI) Shibaura Institute of Technology, Japan Shiga University of Medical Science, Japan Shiga University, Japan Shihezi University, China Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, China Shikoku University Shinas Vocational College, Oman Shipley College (Shibboleth), United Kingdom Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Shiv Nadar University, India Shivaji University, India Shom, France Shrewsbury Colleges Group, United Kingdom Sias University, China Siauliai State College, Lithuania Sichuan Agricultural University, China Sichuan Conservatory Of Music, China Sichuan International Studies University, China Sichuan Normal University, China Sichuan University of Media and Communications, China Sichuan University of Science&Engineering, China Sichuan University, China Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities, Poland SIFULAN Virtual Home, Malaysia SIGMA CLERMONT, France Sigmund Freud Private University, Austria Sikkim University, India Silesian University in Opava, Czech Republic Silesian University of Technology, Poland Simmons University Simon Fraser University, Canada SIMS ID (Staging), United Kingdom Sinop University, Turkey SintLucas, Netherlands Sirnak University, Turkey SISSA, Italy SIT - Singapore Institute Of Technology Sitting Bull College Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Turkey Sivas University Of Science And Technology, Turkey Sixth Form College, Solihull, United Kingdom SKEMA Business School Skidmore College Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania SLM - Sao Leopoldo Mandic, Brazil Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information, Slovakia Slovak Medical University in Bratislava, Slovakia Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovakia Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia Slowheat SLSP - Swiss Library Service Platform Staff, Switzerland SLUB Dresden, Germany SMHI, Sweden Smith College Smithsonian Institution SMS - Secretaria Municipal da Saude - SP, Brazil SMU - Singapore Management University SNFCC SNSF - Swiss National Science Foundation, Switzerland SOAS, University of London, United Kingdom SOBERANA - Faculdade de Saude de Petrolina, Brazil Social Sciences University of Ankara, Turkey Society for Danish Language and Literature, Denmark Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski", Bulgaria Sohar University (shibboleth), Oman Sol Plaatje University, South Africa Solihull College & University Centre, United Kingdom SOMA College Somali Research and Education Network, Somalia Somerset College, United Kingdom SOMT University (Stichting Opleidingen Musculoskeletale Therapie) Sonoma State University Soochow University, China Sophia University, Japan Sophiahemmet University, Sweden Sorbonne University, France Soroti University, Uganda South African Medical Research Council South African Radio Astronomy Observatory South African Theological Seminary South and City College Birmingham and Bournville College, United Kingdom South China Agricultural University South China Normal University South China University of Technology South Dakota State University-New South Devon College, United Kingdom South East European University, Macedonia South East Technological University (@setu.ie logins), Ireland South East Technological University (@wit.ie logins), Ireland South Eastern Regional College, United Kingdom South Eastern University of Sri Lanka South Essex College of Further and Higher Education, United Kingdom South Gloucestershire and Stroud College, United Kingdom South Hampshire College Group, United Kingdom South Lanarkshire College, United Kingdom South Leicestershire College (Shibboleth), United Kingdom South Staffordshire College, United Kingdom South Thames Colleges Group, United Kingdom South West College, United Kingdom South Westphalia University of Applied Sciences, Germany South-Central University for Nationalities, China South-Eastern Finland University of Applied Sciences South-West Unversity "Neofit Rilski", Bulgaria Southampton City College (South Hampshire College Group), United Kingdom Southampton Solent University, United Kingdom Southeast University, China Southern Illinois University Southern Medical University, China Southern Methodist University Southern Regional College, United Kingdom Southern University of Science and Technology, China Southport Education Group, United Kingdom Southwest Forestry University, China Southwest Jiaotong University, China Southwest Minzu University, China Southwest Petroleum University, China Southwest University Of Political Science And Law, China Southwest University of Science and Technology, China Southwest University, China Southwestern University Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, China SP - Singapore Polytechnic Space Telescope Science Institute Spanish Center for Pulsed Lasers, Spain Sparsholt College, United Kingdom Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging (KNAW), Netherlands Springfield College Springing Stars Nursery and Junior School, Uganda Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, India Sreenarayanaguru Open University, India SRH Fernhochschule - The Distance Learning University, Germany Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth, India Sri Eshwar College of Engineering, India Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, India Sri Lanka Technological Campus Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam, India Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, India Sri Ranganathar Institute of Engineering and Technology (SRIET), India Sri Sairam Engineering College [SEC], India Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, Anantapur., India Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, India SRI VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY, India SRM University AP Amravati, India SRON Space Research Organisation Netherlands SRUC, United Kingdom Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia SSABAP RM - Soprintendenza Speciale Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma, Italy St Brendan's Sixth Form College, United Kingdom St Charles Catholic Sixth Form College, United Kingdom St Charles Lwanga Secondary School, Bukerere, Uganda St David's Catholic College, United Kingdom St Denis Kijaguzo Secondary School, Uganda St Dominics Sixth Form College, United Kingdom St Helens College, United Kingdom St Henrys College Kitovu, Uganda St John Institute For Health, Malawi St John's Comprehensive secondary school, Uganda St Joseph Engineering College, Mangalore, India St Joseph Girls' School Nsambya, Uganda St Joseph's University, Bengaluru, India St Leo College, Uganda St Mackay memorial college Nateete, Uganda St Mark Nursing School Ibanda, Uganda St Mark Secondary school Naminya, Uganda St Mark's SS Kammengo, Uganda St Mary's Blackburn College, United Kingdom St Mary's College Lacor, Uganda St Mary's University Twickenham, United Kingdom St Marys SS Nkozi, Uganda St Paul Kazindiro, Uganda St Peter and Paul Seminary, Uganda St Phillips Nawaikoke College, Uganda St Vincent College: Computing Services, United Kingdom St. Anthony SS Kyazanga, Uganda St. Catherine University Single Sign-On St. Denis Secondary School Ggaba, Uganda St. Francis Xavier University, Canada St. Ignatius University (IGUKA), Uganda St. Joseph's College Layibi, Uganda St. Joseph's College Ombaci, Uganda St. Joseph's Secondary School Naggalama, Uganda St. Kaggwa High School Bushenyi, Uganda St. Kizito Kalooli Mulajje Secondary School, Uganda St. Lawrence College of Applied Arts and Technology, Canada St. Lawrence University (SLAU), Uganda St. Luke's International University, Japan St. Mary's Rushoroza Secondary School, Uganda St. Mary’s University, Canada St. Mathias Kalemba Secondary School, Uganda St. Matia mulumba ss Mirembe Maria, Uganda St. Micheal High School - 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Plot summary 2 Publication Toggle Publication subsection 2.1 Issues 2.1 Issues 3 Reception 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Batman: The Imposter Русский Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Batman: The Imposter Cover of Batman: The Imposter #1 (October 2021), art by Andrea Sorrentino . Publication information Publisher DC Comics Schedule Monthly Format Limited series Genre Neo-noir Superhero Publication date October – December 2021 No. of issues 3 Main character(s) Batman Leslie Thompkins Blair Wong Creative team Written by Mattson Tomlin Artist Andrea Sorrentino Letterer Andrea Sorrentino Colorist Jordie Bellaire Collected editions Hardcover .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} ISBN 978-1779514325 Batman: The Imposter is an American comic book published by the publishing company DC Comics under its Black Label imprint. The three-issue limited series , written by Mattson Tomlin and illustrated and lettered by Andrea Sorrentino , began publication on October 12 and concluded on December 14, 2021. The limited series was released to critical acclaim, with critics praising the mature story, action, and Sorrentino's art. The standalone story takes place in the early years of Batman , in which an imposter dressed as Batman murders Gotham criminals while Bruce Wayne tackles the duality of his crime-fighting lifestyle. Plot summary Leslie Thompkins awakens to find Batman bleeding on the floor, and uncovers his mask, realizing that Bruce Wayne is Batman. She decides to not call the cops on Batman and nurses him back to health. When Bruce wakes up, Leslie forces him to recount on how he had to stop three armed robbers in a shop, but was heavily injured. Bruce explains he became Batman to control his rage in order to make Gotham City a better place. Leslie tells Bruce that he can leave her place, but on the condition that every morning at dawn Bruce must meet up with Leslie to talk about his methods. Meanwhile, a man named Mr. Wesker is not happy about Batman being in Gotham City and wants Detective Blair Wong to arrest him. Detective Wong learns that someone dressed as Batman has been killing innocent people and Gotham City Police Department decides to arrest the Batman killer. Bruce Wayne meets up with Leslie Thompkins and tells her that he isn't the killer, and confronted The Loman Family and Penguin about it, but they also denied hiring someone to be the killer. Bruce Wayne and Detective Wong deduce that the imposter is targeting criminals in the upper class and may have a personal vendetta against the victims. Detective Wong meets up with Bruce Wayne to talk about the Batman. [ 1 ] Detective Wong asks Bruce Wayne if he's selling motorcycles to Batman, but Bruce successfully convinces Detective Wong to leave. As Leslie waits for Batman, she recalls Bruce Wayne being in fights at a young age, and Alfred Pennyworth quitting his job due to Bruce's behavior after Bruce is sent to military school in Russia and disappeared. Batman arrives and tells Leslie he was late because he went to Mr. Wesker's company to get technology to find the imposter. Batman gets in a fight with a couple of guards and escapes after successfully managing to hack Wesker's network and meeting Arnold Wesker who wants Batman to kill his father. Bruce recounts what happened with Detective Wong to Leslie Thompkins, and realizes that the Batman imposter is targeting criminals. Bruce also realizes that Detective Wong can help him catch the imposter because she has a similar backstory to him, which he can take advantage of. The next day, Bruce and Detective Wong bond and have sex. Bruce dresses up as Batman, and realizes that the majority of the victims were sentenced by the same judge name Alex McCard. Batman confronts Alex McCard, but Alex tells Batman that the victims were free after Batman and Jim Gordon exposed that three criminal families had 5 judges on their payroll, and the imposter is killing the victims to clean up Batman and Gordon's mistake. Detective Wong asks Mr. Wesker to let her access the surveillance network while Batman tries to find Otis Flannegan, an accomplice of the Batman killer. Batman attacks Detective Wong, Otis and her partner Hatcher and abducts Otis to a secret location and asks Hatcher who the imposter is, but Otis says he doesn't know. Detective Wong and Hatcher gather more guns to take down Batman. [ 2 ] Otis Flannegan commits suicide in the police department, but not before revealing the Batman imposter had a hideout in the sewers. Batman confronts the imposter but the Gotham Police arrive and start shooting at Batman. Batman is wounded heavily and caught by Detective Wong. Batman reveals his identity to convince Detective Wong he isn't the killer, and she lets him go. Bruce Wayne meets up with Leslie Thompkins to tell her he won't be attending her therapy sessions. Leslie tries convincing Bruce that Batman isn't the solution to the crime problem, Bruce Wayne could donate to charity to make Gotham City a better place but Bruce ignores her. Bruce Wayne realizes the imposter is using guns from Lawrence Loman who wants to be the Kingpin of Gotham City. Batman meets up with Detective Wong to ask her for help and asks her to meet alone. They meet up, but Wong is shot by the Batman Imposter. As Batman fights the imposter, the Imposter reveals himself to be Wong's partner Hatcher who tells Batman the reason why he's killing the criminals is because of Batman and Gordon's mistake. Batman and Wong manage to defeat the imposter, and allows himself to be arrested by Wong. Batman asks Wong if she arrests him, would Gotham City be safe, and Wong decides to let him escape. Batman meets up with Arnold Wesker, but instead of turning Arnold in Batman leads him to Leslie Thompkins and visits his parents grave before vowing to help Gotham City as Bruce Wayne. [ 3 ] Publication Batman: The Imposter was written by Mattson Tomlin and illustrated and lettered by Andrea Sorrentino , with colors by Jordie Bellaire . [ 4 ] Tomlin used some of the ideas he developed for the DC Studios film The Batman (2022) to create this limited series . [ 5 ] The series was officially announced by DC Comics as a title under the DC Black Label , an imprint designed to allow comic book writers to submit their own unique interpretations of traditional DC Universe (DCU) characters for a more mature audience . [ 6 ] The three issues of Batman: The Imposter were released by DC Comics at monthly intervals, with the first being published on October 12, 2021, and the last on December 14. [ 7 ] Batman: The Imposter was also published simultaneously in the following territories: Argentina , Brazil , Czech Republic , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , Mexico , Poland , Russia , South Korea , Spain and Turkey . [ 8 ] The three issues were collected into a hardcover edition of the series, which was published on February 22, 2022. [ 9 ] Issues Issue Publication date #1 October 12, 2021 #2 November 9, 2021 #3 December 14, 2021 Reception Reviewing Batman: The Imposter , Dustin Holland of Comic Book Resources described the life-like version of Batman featured in the series as "a refreshingly vulnerable vision of the Dark Knight". Holland also commented on how the brutal fight sequences increase the "human quality" of the comic book. At the end of his analysis, Holland wrote: " Batman: The Imposter kicks off the series with a bang and promises more thought-provoking, beautifully drawn excitement is to come". [ 10 ] Chris Arrant of GamesRadar+ compared Batman: The Imposter to Batman: Year One , Gotham Central and Batman: Earth One , due to the realistic tone the series addresses, which is similar to the other three comics. [ 11 ] According to Comicscored.com, the series received generally favorable ratings, with a Comicscore Index of 73 based on 30 ratings from critics. [ 12 ] According to Comic Books Roundup, the series received an average score of 8.3 out of 10 based on 27 reviews. [ 13 ] See also Gideon Falls - another comic book series co-created and illustrated by Sorrentino References ^ Rudolph, Casper (2021-10-13). "Batman: The Imposter #1 review" . Batman News . Retrieved 2022-11-22 . ^ Bryan, Carl (2021-11-25). "Review: Batman: The Imposter #2" . Dark Knight News . Retrieved 2022-11-24 . ^ Bryan, Carl (2021-12-15). "Review: Batman: The Imposter #3" . DC Comics News . Retrieved 2022-11-24 . ^ DC Publicity (July 16, 2021). "DC CONNECT #15 - SEE WHAT'S COMING IN OCTOBER!" . DC Comics.com . DC Comics . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ Couch, Aaron (2022-02-22). " 'Batman: The Imposter' Writer Mattson Tomlin Hasn't Let The Dark Knight Go" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 2022-11-22 . ^ Rolph, Ben (July 14, 2021). "Batman: The Imposter Will Feature DC's Grittiest Dark Knight Yet" . Screen Rant . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ Meenan, Devin (January 18, 2022). "Every New Batman Comic Released In 2021" . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ DC Publicity (July 14, 2021). "Batman: The Imposter - A Gritty, Noir Version of Gotham City Greets the Dark Knight!" . DC Comics.com . DC Comics . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ Drum, Nicole (December 13, 2021). "Batman: The Imposter #3 Preview Teases "No Going Back" for Bruce Wayne (Exclusive)" . ComicBook.com . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ Holland, Dustin (October 18, 2021). "DC's Batman: The Imposter #1 Comic Review" . Comic Book Resources . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ Arrant, Chris (October 8, 2021). "Dr. Leslie Thompkins has words with Bruce in Batman: The Imposter #1 preview" . GamesRadar+ . Retrieved February 17, 2022 . ^ "Batman: The Imposter (2021)" . Comicscored.com . Retrieved April 21, 2022 . ^ "Batman: The Imposter Reviews" . ComicBookRoundup.com . Retrieved 2022-11-22 . External links Official website at DC Comics.com .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! 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Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Marriage 3 Duke of Cumberland Toggle Duke of Cumberland subsection 3.1 Consort of the Queen 3.1 Consort of the Queen 4 Illness and death 5 Legacy Toggle Legacy subsection 5.1 Personal traits and portrayal 5.1 Personal traits and portrayal 6 Titles, styles, honours and arms Toggle Titles, styles, honours and arms subsection 6.1 Titles 6.2 Honours 6.3 Arms 6.1 Titles 6.2 Honours 6.3 Arms 7 Issue 8 Ancestry 9 Notes 10 Sources 11 References 12 External links Prince George of Denmark العربية Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Prince George Duke of Cumberland Portrait c. 1705 Consort of the British monarch Tenure 8 March 1702 – 28 October 1708 Born ( 1653-04-02 ) 2 April 1653 [ a ] Copenhagen Castle , Copenhagen, Denmark Died 28 October 1708 (1708-10-28) (aged 55) Kensington Palace , London, England Burial 13 November 1708 Westminster Abbey Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Anne, Queen of Great Britain ( m. .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help} 1683 ) Issue more... Prince William, Duke of Gloucester House Oldenburg Father Frederick III of Denmark Mother Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg Religion Lutheran Signature Danish Royalty House of Oldenburg Main Line Frederick III Children Christian V Anna Sophie, Electress of Saxony Frederica Amalia, Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp Wilhelmine Ernestine, Electress Palatine Prince Frederick Prince George, Duke of Cumberland Ulrika Eleonora, Queen of Sweden Princess Dorothea Grandchildren Prince William, Duke of Gloucester .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Prince George of Denmark and Norway, Duke of Cumberland ( Danish : Jørgen ; 2 April 1653 – 28 October 1708), was the husband of Anne, Queen of Great Britain . He was the consort of the British monarch from Anne's accession on 8 March 1702 until his death in 1708. The marriage of George and Anne was arranged in the early 1680s with a view to developing an Anglo-Danish alliance to contain Dutch maritime power. As a result, George was disliked by his Dutch brother-in-law, William III, Prince of Orange , who was married to Anne's elder sister, Mary . Anne and Mary's father, the British ruler James II and VII , was deposed in the Glorious Revolution in 1688, and William and Mary succeeded him as joint monarchs with Anne as heir presumptive . The new monarchs granted George the title of Duke of Cumberland . William excluded George from active military service, and neither George nor Anne wielded any great influence until after the deaths of Mary and then William, at which point Anne became queen. During his wife's reign, George occasionally used his influence in support of his wife, even when privately disagreeing with her views. He had an easy-going manner and little interest in politics; his appointment as Lord High Admiral of England in 1702 was largely honorary. Anne's seventeen pregnancies by George resulted in twelve miscarriages or stillbirths, four infant deaths, and a chronically ill son, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester , who died at the age of eleven. Despite the deaths of their children, George and Anne's marriage was a strong one. George died aged 55 from a recurring and chronic lung disease, much to the devastation of his wife, and he was buried in Westminster Abbey . Early life George was born on 2 April 1653 at Copenhagen Castle , the younger son of Frederick III , King of Denmark and of Norway , and Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg . His mother was the sister of Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg , later Elector of Hanover . From 1661, his governor was Otto Grote , later Hanoverian minister to Denmark. Grote was "more courtier and statesman than educator" and when he left for the Hanoverian court in 1665, he was replaced by the more effective Christen Lodberg . [ 2 ] George received military training, and undertook a Grand Tour of Europe, spending eight months in 1668–1669 in France and mid-1669 in England. [ 3 ] His father died in 1670, while George was in Italy, and George's elder brother, Christian V , inherited the Danish throne . George returned home through Germany. [ 2 ] He travelled through Germany again in 1672–1673, to visit two of his sisters, Anna Sophia and Wilhelmine Ernestine , who were married to the electoral princes of Saxony and the Palatinate . [ 2 ] In 1674, George was a candidate for the Polish elective throne , for which he was backed by King Louis XIV of France . [ 4 ] George's staunch Lutheranism was a barrier to election in Roman Catholic Poland, [ 5 ] and John Sobieski was chosen instead. [ 6 ] In 1677, George served with distinction with his elder brother Christian in the Scanian War against Sweden. [ 3 ] As a Protestant , George was considered a suitable partner for the niece of King Charles II of England , Lady Anne . They were distantly related (second cousins once removed; they were both descended from King Frederick II of Denmark ), and had never met. George was hosted by Charles II in London in 1669, but Anne was in France at the time. [ 7 ] Both Denmark and Britain were Protestant, and Louis XIV was keen on an Anglo-Danish alliance to contain the power of the Dutch Republic . Anne's uncle Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester , and the English Secretary of State for the Northern Department , Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland , negotiated a marriage treaty with the Danes in secret, to prevent the plans leaking to the Dutch. [ 8 ] Anne's father, James, Duke of York , welcomed the marriage because it diminished the influence of his other son-in-law, William III of Orange , who was naturally unhappy with the match. [ 9 ] Marriage George and Anne were married on 28 July 1683 in the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace , London, by Henry Compton , the Bishop of London . The guests included King Charles II, Queen Catherine , and the Duke and Duchess of York . [ 10 ] Anne was voted a parliamentary allowance of £20,000 a year, while George received £10,000 a year from his Danish estates, [ 11 ] although payments from Denmark were often late or incomplete. [ 12 ] King Charles gave them a set of buildings in the Palace of Whitehall known as the Cockpit (near the site of what is now Downing Street in Westminster ) as their London residence. [ 13 ] George was not ambitious, and hoped to live a quiet life of domesticity with his wife. He wrote to a friend: We talk here of going to tea, of going to Winchester, and everything else except sitting still all summer, which was the height of my ambition. God send me a quiet life somewhere, for I shall not be long able to bear this perpetual motion. [ 14 ] We talk here of going to tea, of going to Winchester, and everything else except sitting still all summer, which was the height of my ambition. God send me a quiet life somewhere, for I shall not be long able to bear this perpetual motion. [ 14 ] Within months of the marriage, Anne was pregnant but the baby, a girl, was stillborn in May. Anne recovered at the spa town of Tunbridge Wells , [ 15 ] and over the next two years, she gave birth to two daughters in quick succession, Mary and Anne Sophia. [ 16 ] In early 1687, within a matter of days, George and his two young daughters caught smallpox , and Anne suffered another miscarriage. George recovered, but both his daughters died. Lady Rachel Russell wrote that George and Anne had "taken [the deaths] very heavily. The first relief of that sorrow proceeded from the threatening of a greater, the Prince being so ill of a fever. I never heard any relation more moving than that of seeing them together. Sometimes they wept, sometimes they mourned in words; then sat silent, hand in hand; he sick in bed, and she the carefullest nurse to him that can be imagined." [ 17 ] He returned to Denmark for a two-month visit in mid-1687, while Anne remained in England. [ 18 ] Later that year, after his return, Anne gave birth to another dead child, this time a son. [ 19 ] In February 1685, King Charles II died without legitimate issue, and George's father-in-law, the Roman Catholic Duke of York, became king as James II in England and Ireland and James VII in Scotland. George was appointed to the Privy Council and invited to attend Cabinet meetings, although he had no power to alter or affect decisions. [ 20 ] William of Orange refused to attend James's coronation largely because George would take precedence over him. Although they were both sons-in-law of King James, George was also the son and brother of a king and so outranked William, who was an elected stadtholder of a republic. [ 20 ] Anne's older sister Mary had moved to the Netherlands after her marriage to William of Orange. Protestant opposition to James was therefore increasingly focused around Anne and George instead of Mary, who was heir presumptive . [ 21 ] The social and political grouping centred on George and Anne was known as the "Cockpit Circle" after their London residence. [ 3 ] On 5 November 1688, William invaded England in an action, known as the " Glorious Revolution ", which ultimately deposed King James. George was forewarned by the Danish envoy in London, Frederick Gersdorff, that William was assembling an invasion fleet. [ 22 ] George informed Gersdorff that James's army was disaffected, and as a result he would refuse any command under James, but only serve as an uncommissioned volunteer. Gersdorff's alternative plan to evacuate George and Anne to Denmark was rejected by George. [ 23 ] George accompanied the King's troops to Salisbury in mid-November, but other nobles and their soldiers soon deserted James for William. At each defection, George apparently exclaimed, "Est-il possible?" (Is it possible?). [ 6 ] He abandoned James on 24 November, and sided with William. [ 24 ] "So 'Est-il possible' is gone too", James supposedly remarked. [ 6 ] In his memoirs, James dismissed George's defection as trivial, saying the loss of one good trooper was of more consequence, [ 25 ] but Gersdorff claimed the defection greatly perturbed the King. [ 26 ] The defection of George and other nobles was instrumental in whittling away the King's support. In December, James fled to France, and early the following year William and Mary were declared joint monarchs, with Anne as heir presumptive. Duke of Cumberland Prince George of Denmark (Exhibition of Bill) Act 1688 Act of Parliament Parliament of England Long title An Act for exhibiting a Bill in this present Parliament, for naturalizing the most Noble Prince George of Denmarke. Citation 1 Will. & Mar. c. 2 Pr. Territorial extent England and Wales Dates Royal assent 3 April 1689 Commencement 13 February 1689 [ b ] Other legislation Relates to Prince George of Denmark (Naturalization and Precedence) Act 1688 Status: Current legislation Prince George of Denmark (Naturalization and Precedence) Act 1688 Act of Parliament Parliament of England Long title An Act for the Naturalization of the most Noble Prince George of Denmark, and settling his Precedence. Citation 1 Will. & Mar. c. 3 Pr. Territorial extent England and Wales Dates Royal assent 9 April 1689 Commencement 13 February 1689 [ b ] Other legislation Relates to Prince George of Denmark (Exhibition of Bill) Act 1688 Status: Current legislation In early April 1689, William assented to a bill naturalizing George as an English subject, the .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Prince George of Denmark (Naturalization and Precedence) Act 1688 ( 1 Will. & Mar. c. 3 ) [ 27 ] and George was created Duke of Cumberland , Earl of Kendal and Baron of Okingham (Wokingham) by the new monarchs. [ 1 ] [ 28 ] He took his seat in the House of Lords on 20 April 1689, being introduced by the Dukes of Somerset and Ormonde . [ 29 ] The mistrust between George and William was set aside during the revolution of 1688–89 but dogged relations during the latter's reign. George held mortgages on Femern , Tremsbüttel and Steinhorst, Schleswig-Holstein , which he surrendered to the Duke of Holstein as part of the peace of Altona of 1689 negotiated by William between Denmark and Sweden. William agreed to pay George interest and the capital in compensation, but George remained unpaid. [ 30 ] During the military campaign against James's supporters in Ireland , George accompanied the Williamite troops at his own expense, but was excluded from command, and was even refused permission to travel in his brother-in-law's coach. [ 31 ] Snubbed from the army by William, George sought to join the navy, without rank, but was again thwarted by his brother-in-law. [ 32 ] When William's Dutch guards failed to salute George, Anne assumed they were acting under orders. [ 33 ] George and Anne retired from court. [ 34 ] Some degree of reconciliation was achieved following Queen Mary's sudden and unexpected death from smallpox in 1694, which made Anne heiress apparent . [ 35 ] In November 1699, William finally recommended that Parliament pay the mortgage debt to George and, in early 1700, the debt was honoured. [ 36 ] By 1700, Anne had been pregnant at least seventeen times; twelve times, she miscarried or gave birth to stillborn children, and two of their five children born alive died within a day. [ 37 ] The only one of the couple's children to survive infancy— Prince William, Duke of Gloucester —died in July 1700 at the age of 11. With Gloucester's death, Anne was the only person in the line of succession to the throne, as established by the "Glorious Revolution". To extend the line and secure the Protestant succession, Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which designated William and Anne's nearest Protestant cousins, the House of Hanover , as the next in line after Anne. [ 38 ] Consort of the Queen George did not play a senior role in government until his wife Anne succeeded as queen on William's death in 1702. George was the chief mourner at William's funeral. [ 39 ] Anne appointed him generalissimo of all English military forces on 17 April, and Lord High Admiral , the official but nominal head of the Royal Navy , on 20 May. [ 40 ] Actual power at the Admiralty was held by George Churchill , whose elder brother was John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough , a great friend of Anne's and the captain-general of English land forces. [ 41 ] Prince George had known the Churchills for years: another brother Charles Churchill , had been one of his gentlemen of the bedchamber in Denmark, and Marlborough had accompanied George on his journey from Denmark to England for his marriage to Anne in 1683. [ 42 ] George's secretary in the 1680s was Colonel Edward Griffith, brother-in-law of the Duchess of Marlborough , who was Anne's close confidante and friend. [ 3 ] George followed William III as Captain-General of the Honourable Artillery Company , [ 43 ] and was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . [ 44 ] Anne failed, however, in her attempts to persuade the States General of the Netherlands to elect her husband captain-general of all Dutch forces, to maintain the unified command of the Maritime Powers that William had held. [ 45 ] Anne obtained a parliamentary allowance of £100,000 a year for George in the event of her death. The bill sped through the House of Commons easily but it was only narrowly passed by the House of Lords . Marlborough supported the bill, but one of the lords against was Marlborough's son-in-law, Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland . [ 46 ] Marlborough dissuaded her from asking Parliament to make "her dearly loved husband King Consort". [ 47 ] Generally, during her reign, Anne and George spent the winter at Kensington and St James's Palaces , and the summer at Windsor Castle or Hampton Court Palace , where the air was fresher. George had recurrent asthma , and the cleaner air in the country was better for his breathing. They visited the spa town of Bath, Somerset , in mid-1702, on the advice of George's doctors, [ 48 ] and again in mid-1703. [ 49 ] They occasionally visited Newmarket, Suffolk , to view the horse racing . On one visit, Anne bought George a horse, Leeds, for the vast sum of a thousand guineas . [ 50 ] At the end of 1702, the Occasional Conformity Bill was introduced to Parliament. The bill aimed to disqualify Protestant Dissenters from public office by closing a loophole in the Test Acts , legislation that restricted public office to Anglican conformists . The existing law permitted nonconformists to take office if they took Anglican communion once a year. Anne was in favour of the measure, and forced George to vote for the bill in the House of Lords, even though, being a practising Lutheran , he was an occasional conformist himself. [ 51 ] As he cast his vote, he reportedly told an opponent of the bill, "My heart is vid you" [ sic ]. [ 52 ] The bill did not gather sufficient parliamentary support and was eventually dropped. [ 51 ] The following year, the bill was revived, but Anne withheld support, fearing its reintroduction was a deliberate pretence to cause a quarrel between the two main political groups: the Tories (who supported the bill) and the Whigs (who opposed it). Once again it failed. [ 53 ] George never became a member of the Church of England , which was headed by his wife throughout her reign. He remained Lutheran even after her accession, and had his own personal chapel. [ 5 ] In the first years of Anne's reign, the Whigs gained more power and influence at the expense of the Tories. In his capacity as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, George held influence in parliamentary boroughs on the south coast of England, which he used to support Whig candidates in the general election of 1705 . [ 6 ] In that year's election for Speaker of the House of Commons , George and Anne supported a Whig candidate, John Smith . George instructed his secretary, George Clarke , who was a Member of Parliament , to vote for Smith, but Clarke refused, instead supporting the Tory candidate William Bromley . Clarke was sacked, and Smith was elected. [ 54 ] Illness and death In March and April 1706, George was seriously ill. There was blood in his sputum , but he seemed to recover, [ 55 ] although he was too ill to attend a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral in June for a British victory in the Battle of Ramillies . [ 56 ] He missed another thanksgiving service in May 1707, to celebrate the union of England and Scotland , as he was recuperating at Hampton Court. [ 57 ] The Scilly naval disaster of 1707 , in which a fleet commanded by Sir Cloudesley Shovell foundered, highlighted mismanagement at the Admiralty , for which George was nominally responsible. Pressure grew to replace Admiral Churchill with someone more dynamic. [ 58 ] By October 1708, five powerful politicians, known as the Whig Junto —Lords Somers , Halifax , Orford , Wharton and Sunderland —were clamouring for the removal of both Prince George and Churchill. Marlborough wrote to his brother telling him to resign, [ 59 ] but Churchill refused, protected by Prince George. [ 60 ] Amid the political pressure, George was on his deathbed, suffering from severe asthma and dropsy . [ 61 ] He died at 1:30 pm on 28 October 1708 at Kensington Palace , aged 55. [ 62 ] The Queen was devastated. [ 63 ] James Brydges wrote to General Cadogan , His death has flung the Queen into an unspeakable grief. She never left him till he was dead, but continued kissing him the very moment his breath went out of his body, and 'twas with a great deal of difficulty my Lady Marlborough prevailed upon her to leave him. [ 64 ] His death has flung the Queen into an unspeakable grief. She never left him till he was dead, but continued kissing him the very moment his breath went out of his body, and 'twas with a great deal of difficulty my Lady Marlborough prevailed upon her to leave him. [ 64 ] Anne wrote to her nephew, Frederick IV of Denmark , "the loss of such a husband, who loved me so dearly and so devotedly, is too crushing for me to be able to bear it as I ought." [ 65 ] Anne was desperate to stay at Kensington with the body of her husband, but under pressure from the Duchess of Marlborough, she reluctantly left Kensington for St James's Palace. [ 66 ] Anne resented the Duchess's intrusive actions, which included removing a portrait of George from the Queen's bedchamber and then refusing to return it, in the belief that it was natural "to avoid seeing of papers or anything that belonged to one that one loved when they were just dead". [ 67 ] Anne and the Duchess had been very close, but their friendship had become strained over political differences. The immediate aftermath of George's death damaged their relationship further. [ 68 ] He was buried privately at midnight on 13 November in Westminster Abbey. [ 69 ] Legacy Anne refused initially to appoint a new Lord High Admiral, and insisted on carrying out the duties of the office herself, without appointing a member of the government to take George's place. She burst into tears on the first occasion she was brought papers to sign in George's stead. [ 70 ] Undeterred, the Junto demanded the appointment of Lord Orford, a member of the Junto and one of Prince George's leading critics, as First Lord of the Admiralty . Admiral Churchill retired, and Anne appointed the moderate Tory Lord Pembroke to lead the Admiralty, instead of a Whig. The Junto Whigs Somers and Wharton, however, were appointed to the Cabinet in Pembroke's vacated posts of Lord President of the Council and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . The Whigs were still dissatisfied, and continued to pressure Pembroke and the Queen. Pembroke resigned after less than a year in office. Another month of arguments followed before the Queen finally consented to put Orford in control of the Admiralty as First Lord in November 1709. [ 71 ] Personal traits and portrayal Charles II , Anne's uncle, famously said of Prince George, "I have tried him drunk, and I have tried him sober and there is nothing in him". [ 72 ] He was quiet and self-effacing. John Macky thought him "of a familiar, easy disposition with a good sound understanding but modest in showing it ... very fat, loves news, his bottle & the Queen." [ 73 ] In making fun of George's asthma, Lord Mulgrave said the Prince was forced to breathe hard in case people mistook him for dead and buried him. [ 74 ] By the time of Queen Victoria , George had a reputation as a dullard, and was the target of disdain. Victoria hoped her own husband, Prince Albert , would never fill the "subordinate part played by the very stupid and insignificant husband of Queen Anne". [ 75 ] In the 1930s, Winston Churchill said he "mattered very little", except to Anne. [ 76 ] He had little impact on the running of the navy, but he was interested enough in navigation and welfare at sea to sponsor the publication of John Flamsteed 's Observations in 1704. [ 6 ] He was not one of the most colourful political characters of his day—he was content to spend his time building model ships [ 77 ] —but he was a loyal and supportive husband to Queen Anne. Their marriage was a devoted, loving and faithful one, though beset by personal tragedy. [ 78 ] The previous husband of a British queen regnant , William of Orange, had become king, refusing to take a subordinate rank to Mary. William and Mary had exemplified the traditional gender roles of seventeenth-century Europe: Mary was the dutiful wife and William held the power. George and Anne, however, reversed the roles: George was the dutiful husband and it was Anne who exercised the royal prerogatives. William had assumed incorrectly that George would use his marriage to Anne as a means of building a separate power base in Britain, but George never challenged his wife's authority and never strove to accrue influence. Anne occasionally used the image of wifely virtue to escape unpalatable situations by claiming, as a woman, she knew "nothing except what the prince tells me", but it was an artifice. [ 79 ] Husbands had a legal right to their wife's property, and it was argued that it was unnatural and against the church's teachings for a man to be subject to his wife. [ 80 ] George made no such claim or demand; he was content to remain a prince and duke. "I am her Majesty's subject", he said, "I shall do naught but what she commands me." [ 81 ] In the words of historian Anne Somerset , "the fact that Prince George was widely regarded as a nonentity helped reconcile people to his anomalous status, and so, almost by accident, George achieved a major advance for feminism." [ 82 ] Winston Churchill wrote that he was a fine-looking man, tall, blond, and good-natured ... He was neither clever nor learned—a simple, normal man without envy or ambition, and disposed by remarkable appetite and thirst for all the pleasures of the table. Charles's well-known verdict ... does not do justice to the homely virtues and unfailing good-humour of his staid and trustworthy character. [ 83 ] was a fine-looking man, tall, blond, and good-natured ... He was neither clever nor learned—a simple, normal man without envy or ambition, and disposed by remarkable appetite and thirst for all the pleasures of the table. Charles's well-known verdict ... does not do justice to the homely virtues and unfailing good-humour of his staid and trustworthy character. [ 83 ] The Prince of Denmark's March by Jeremiah Clarke was written in his honour, [ 84 ] and Prince George's County, Maryland , was named after him in 1696. [ 85 ] Portraits by Sir Godfrey Kneller are at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich , Drumlanrig Castle in Dumfriesshire , and (in a double portrait with George Clarke ) All Souls College, Oxford . Portraits in Denmark include one by Willem Wissing in the Reedtz-Thott collection and one by Karel van Mander in the national collection at Frederiksborg Palace . [ 6 ] Prince George was a character in the 2015 play Queen Anne by Helen Edmundson . [ 86 ] Despite being alive and married to Queen Anne for the majority of the timeframe depicted in 2018 period comedy film The Favourite , he was not depicted at all. [ 87 ] Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles 2 April 1653 – 10 April 1689: His Royal Highness Prince George of Denmark and Norway 10 April 1689 – 28 October 1708: His Royal Highness Prince George of Denmark and Norway, Duke of Cumberland [ 28 ] Honours R af E : Knight of the Elephant , from birth [ 88 ] KG : Knight of the Garter , 1 January 1684 [ 89 ] 1689–1708: Colonel-in-Chief of the 3rd (Prince George of Denmark's) Regiment of Foot [ 90 ] 1702–1708: Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports [ 91 ] Arms The royal coat of arms of Denmark-Norway with a label of three points Argent , each with three Ermine points . The whole surmounted by a crown of a prince of Denmark and Norway. His crest was "out of a coronet Or , a demi-lion rampant guardant Azure , crowned of the first". [ 92 ] Coat of arms of Prince George, Duke of Cumberland, Knight of the Garter Issue Birth Death Notes 1 Stillborn daughter 12 May 1684 [ 93 ] 2 Mary 2 June 1685 8 February 1687 [ 94 ] died in early childhood 3 Anne Sophia 12 May 1686 2 February 1687 [ 95 ] died in early childhood 4 Miscarriage 21 January 1687 [ 96 ] 5 Stillborn son 22 October 1687 [ 97 ] 6 Miscarriage 16 April 1688 [ 98 ] 7 William, Duke of Gloucester 24 July 1689 30 July 1700 [ 99 ] 8 Mary 14 October 1690 [ 100 ] died at birth 9 George 17 April 1692 [ 101 ] died at birth 10 Stillborn daughter 23 March 1693 [ 102 ] 11 Stillborn child 21 January 1694 [ c ] 12 Miscarried daughter [ 106 ] 17 [ 107 ] or 18 [ 108 ] February 1696 13 Miscarriage 20 September 1696 [ d ] 14 Miscarriage 25 March 1697 [ 112 ] 15 Miscarriage early December 1697 [ 113 ] [ e ] 16 Stillborn son 15 September 1698 [ 116 ] 17 Stillborn son 24 January 1700 [ 117 ] Ancestry Ancestors of Prince George of Denmark [ 118 ] 8. Frederick II of Denmark 4. Christian IV of Denmark 9. Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow 2. Frederick III of Denmark 10. Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg 5. Anne Catherine of Brandenburg 11. Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin 1. Prince George of Denmark 12. William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg 6. George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg 13. Dorothea of Denmark 3. Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg 14. Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt 7. Anne Eleonore of Hesse-Darmstadt 15. Magdalene of Brandenburg 8. Frederick II of Denmark 4. Christian IV of Denmark 9. Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow 2. Frederick III of Denmark 10. Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg 5. Anne Catherine of Brandenburg 11. Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin 1. Prince George of Denmark 12. William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg 6. George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg 13. Dorothea of Denmark 3. Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg 14. Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt 7. Anne Eleonore of Hesse-Darmstadt 15. Magdalene of Brandenburg Notes ^ The date is occasionally given as 29 February, 21 April, or 11 November 1653, but 2 April is the date on his coffin plate. [ 1 ] ^ a b Start of session. ^ Contemporary chronicler Narcissus Luttrell did not specify a gender, saying only that Anne "miscarried of a dead child". [ 103 ] Modern historians Edward Gregg and Alison Weir do not agree on whether it was a son [ 104 ] or possibly a daughter. [ 105 ] ^ Luttrell said Anne "miscarried of a son". [ 109 ] Dr Nathaniel Johnson told Theophilus Hastings, 7th Earl of Huntingdon , in a letter dated 24 October 1696, "Her Royal Highness miscarried of two children, the one of seven months' growth, the other of two or three months, as her physicians and midwife judged: one was born the day after the other." [ 110 ] If so, the smaller foetus was probably a blighted twin. [ 111 ] ^ According to L'Hermitage, the Dutch resident in London, Anne miscarried twins who were "too early to determine their sex". [ 114 ] Other sources say the pregnancy ended in a stillborn son, [ 105 ] or "two male children, at least as far as could be recognised". [ 115 ] Sources ^ a b Weir, p. 267. ^ a b c Laursen, L. (1895) " Jørgen (Georg), 1653–1708, Prins ". In: Bricka, Carl Frederik (ed.) Dansk biografisk Lexikon . Copenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandels. Vol. IX, pp. 14–18 (in Danish) ^ a b c d Gregg, p. 35. ^ Wójcik, p. 215. ^ a b Beatty, p. 103. ^ a b c d e f .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Speck, W. A. (2004). "George, prince of Denmark and duke of Cumberland (1653–1708)" . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/ref:odnb/10543 . (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.) . ^ Somerset, p. 40. ^ Gregg, p. 32. ^ Gregg, p. 33. ^ Green, p. 34; Gregg, p. 34. ^ Churchill, vol. I, p. 169. ^ Gregg, p. 39. ^ Curtis, p. 42; Green, p. 34; Gregg, p. 35. ^ Curtis, p. 43; Green, p. 35. ^ Gregg, p. 36. ^ Green, p. 38; Weir, p. 268. ^ Green, p. 39; Gregg, p. 47. ^ Green, p. 41. ^ Green, p. 41; Weir, p. 268. ^ a b Gregg, p. 37. ^ Gregg, pp. 48–49. ^ Gregg, p. 60. ^ Gregg, p. 61. ^ Gregg, pp. 63–64. ^ Churchill, vol. II, p. 533; Curtis, p. 61; Green, p. 47; Gregg, p. 64. ^ Gregg, p. 64. ^ Gregg, p. 72. ^ a b "No. 2443" . The London Gazette . 11 April 1689. p. 2. ^ "House of Lords Journal Volume 14: 20 April 1689" . Journal of the House of Lords: volume 14: 1685–1691 . Institute of Historical Research. 1767–1830 . Retrieved 25 July 2014 . ^ Gregg, p. 77. ^ Curtis, pp. 75–76; Gregg, pp. 79–80. ^ Churchill, vol. I, p. 342; Gregg, p. 80. ^ Green, p. 72. ^ Green, p. 58; Gregg, pp. 88–97. ^ Gregg, p. 102. ^ Gregg, pp. 118–120. ^ Green, p. 335; Weir, pp. 268–269. ^ Curtis, pp. 86–87; Gregg, pp. 121–123. ^ Green, p. 94. ^ Gregg, p. 160; Somerset, pp. 183–184. ^ Green, p. 98; Gregg, p. 160. ^ Gregg, p. 34. ^ "Captain-Generals" . Honourable Artillery Company . Archived from the original on 5 March 2009 . Retrieved 14 March 2013 . ^ Fisher, p. 354. ^ Gregg, pp. 160–161. ^ Churchill, vol. II, pp. 620–621; Green, pp. 107–108; Gregg, pp. 166–167; Somerset, p. 251. ^ Churchill, vol. II, p. 504. ^ Green, p. 102; Gregg, p. 161. ^ Green, p. 118. ^ Curtis, pp. 139–140; Somerset, p. 236. ^ a b Curtis, p. 107; Green, pp. 108–109; Gregg, pp. 162–163. ^ Curtis, p. 107; Churchill, vol. II, p. 627; Somerset, p. 248. ^ Churchill, vol. II, pp. 702–704; Curtis, p. 116; Green, p. 122; Gregg, p. 177. ^ Green, p. 145. ^ Green, p. 150. ^ Green, p. 151. ^ Green, p. 163. ^ Green, pp. 175–176. ^ Green, p. 198; Somerset, p. 366. ^ Gregg, p. 267; Somerset, p. 366. ^ Gregg, p. 279. ^ Green, p. 198; Weir, pp. 267–268. ^ Curtis, pp. 165–168; Green, p. 198; Gregg, p. 280; Somerset, pp. 370, 372. ^ Gregg, p. 280. ^ Green, p. 198; Somerset, p. 372. ^ Green, p. 199; Gregg, pp. 281–282. ^ Green, p. 202. ^ Gregg, p. 283. ^ Green, p. 203. ^ Gregg, p. 283; Somerset, pp. 372–373. ^ Gregg, p. 284. ^ Curtis, p. 41; Gregg, p. 35. ^ Green, p. 176. ^ Curtis, p. 41; Green, p. 73. ^ Gibbs and Doubleday, p. 572. ^ Churchill, vol. II, pp. 504–505. ^ Curtis, p. 41; Green, pp. 116, 202. ^ Curtis, pp. 41–42; Green, pp. 34–35; Gregg, pp. 32–35. ^ Beem, Charles (December 2004). " 'I am Her Majesty's subject': Prince George of Denmark and the transformation of the English male consort". Canadian Journal of History . 34 (3): 457– 487. doi : 10.3138/cjh.39.3.457 . ^ Somerset, pp. 181–182. ^ Somerset, p. 181. ^ Somerset, p. 182. ^ Churchill, vol. I, pp. 168–169. ^ "Prins Jørgens March" . Det Kongelige Bibliotek (in Danish). Archived from the original on 8 January 2014 . Retrieved 5 October 2011 . ^ "About Prince George's County" . Prince George's County government . Archived from the original on 5 March 2013 . Retrieved 13 March 2013 . ^ "Queen Anne | Royal Shakespeare Company" . www.rsc.org.uk . Retrieved 28 April 2022 . ; "Queen Anne, Theatre Royal Haymarket review - slow, long and dull" . The Arts Desk . Retrieved 28 April 2022 . ^ "The True Story Behind The Favourite" . Time . Retrieved 28 April 2022 . ^ Matikkala, p. 239. ^ "No. 1891" . The London Gazette . 31 December 1683. p. 2. ^ "Connection with The Princess of Wales Royal Regiment" . The Danish Royal House . 22 April 2023 . Retrieved 30 June 2023 . ^ "List of Lord Wardens" . The Confederation of Cinque Ports . Retrieved 31 March 2024 . ^ Pinches and Pinches, p. 288. ^ Fisher, p. 355; Green, p. 335; Gregg, p. 36; Weir, p. 268. ^ Fisher, p. 355; Green, p. 335; Gregg, pp. 46–47; Weir, p. 268. ^ Fisher, p. 355; Gregg, pp. 46–47; Weir, p. 268. ^ Calendar of State Papers Domestic Series: James II (1964). London: HMSO, vol. II, p. 347; Gregg, p. 46; Weir, p. 268. ^ Gregg, p. 52; Weir, p. 268. ^ Green, p. 335; Gregg, p. 55; Weir, p. 268. ^ Fisher, p. 355; Green, pp. 54, 335; Gregg, pp. 72, 120; Weir, p. 268. ^ Green, p. 335; Gregg, p. 80; Weir, p. 268. ^ Fisher, p. 355; Green, pp. 62, 335; Gregg, p. 90; Weir, p. 268. ^ Gregg, p. 99; Luttrell, vol. III, p. 62: Weir, p. 268. ^ Luttrell, vol. III, p. 258. ^ Gregg, p. 100. ^ a b Weir, p. 269. ^ Luttrell, vol. IV, p. 20. ^ Gregg, p. 107. ^ Green, p. 335. ^ Luttrell, vol. IV, p. 114; Gregg, p. 108. ^ Bickley, Francis (ed.) (1930). Historical Manuscripts Commission: The Hastings Manuscripts . London: HMSO, vol. II, p. 286. ^ Emson, H. E. (23 May 1992). "For The Want Of An Heir: The Obstetrical History Of Queen Anne" , British Medical Journal , vol. 304, no. 6838, pp. 1365–1366 (subscription required) ^ Green, p. 335; Gregg, p. 108. ^ Green, p. 335; Luttrell, vol. IV, p. 316. ^ Gregg, p. 116. ^ Somerset, p. 156. ^ Green, p. 335; Luttrell, vol. IV, p. 428; Weir, p. 269. ^ Gregg, p. 120; Luttrell, vol. IV, p. 607. ^ Paget, pp. 110–112. References Beatty, Michael A. (2003). The English Royal Family of America, from Jamestown to the American Revolution . Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1558-4 . Churchill, Winston S. (1947) [1933–34]. Marlborough: His Life and Times . London: George G. Harrop & Co. Curtis, Gila; introduced by Antonia Fraser (1972). The Life and Times of Queen Anne . London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-99571-5 . Fisher, George (1832). A Genealogical Companion and Key to the History of England . Part III. Book I. London: Simpkin & Marshall. Gibbs, Vicary ; Doubleday, H. A. (1913). Complete Peerage . Volume III. London: St Catherine's Press. Green, David (1970). Queen Anne . London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-211693-6 . Gregg, Edward (2001). Queen Anne . New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09024-2 . Luttrell, Narcissus (1857). A Brief Historical Relation of State Affairs from September 1678 to April 1714. Oxford: University Press. Matikkala, Antti (2008). The Orders of Knighthood and the Formation of the British Honours System 1660–1760 . Rochester, New York: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-423-6 . Paget, Gerald (1977). The Lineage & Ancestry of HRH Prince Charles, Prince of Wales . London & Edinburgh: Charles Skilton. OCLC 632784640 . Pinches, John Harvey ; Pinches, Rosemary (1974). The Royal Heraldry of England . Heraldry Today. Slough, Buckinghamshire: Hollen Street Press. ISBN 0-900455-25-X . Somerset, Anne (2012). Queen Anne: The Politics of Passion . London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-720376-5 . Weir, Alison (1995). Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy, Revised Edition . London: Random House. ISBN 0-7126-7448-9 . Wójcik, Zbigniew (1983). Jan Sobieski, 1629–1696 . Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. ISBN 83-06-00888-X . (in Polish) External links Portraits of Prince George of Denmark, Duke of Cumberland at the National Portrait Gallery, London Prince George of Denmark House of Oldenburg Born: 2 April 1653 Died: 28 October 1708 British royalty Vacant Title last held by Mary of Modena as queen consort Consort of the British monarch 1702–1708 Vacant Title next held by Caroline of Ansbach as queen consort Honorary titles Preceded by The Earl of Pembroke Lord High Admiral 1702–1708 Succeeded by The Queen Preceded by The Earl of Romney Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports 1702–1708 Succeeded by The Duke of Dorset v t e Anne, Queen of Great Britain v t e Queen of England , Scotland , and Ireland (1702–1707), Queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1707–1714) Family James II (father) Anne Hyde (mother) Prince George of Denmark (husband) Prince William, Duke of Gloucester (son) Mary II (sister) William III (brother-in-law) James Francis Edward Stuart (half-brother) Louisa Maria Stuart (half-sister) Mary of Modena (stepmother) Sophia, Electress of Hanover (cousin) James II (father) Anne Hyde (mother) Prince George of Denmark (husband) Prince William, Duke of Gloucester (son) Mary II (sister) William III (brother-in-law) James Francis Edward Stuart (half-brother) Louisa Maria Stuart (half-sister) Mary of Modena (stepmother) Sophia, Electress of Hanover (cousin) Reign Privy Counsellors Architecture Revival Furniture Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough Abigail Masham, Baroness Masham Godolphin–Marlborough ministry Harley ministry Events Great storm of 1703 War of the Spanish Succession Peace of Utrecht Privy Counsellors Architecture Revival Revival Furniture Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough Abigail Masham, Baroness Masham Godolphin–Marlborough ministry Harley ministry Events Great storm of 1703 War of the Spanish Succession Peace of Utrecht Great storm of 1703 War of the Spanish Succession Peace of Utrecht Parliaments 1st 2nd Notable legislation Acts of Union 1707 Repeal of Certain Scotch Acts 1707 Statute of Anne Scottish Militia Bill 1st 2nd Notable legislation Acts of Union 1707 Repeal of Certain Scotch Acts 1707 Statute of Anne Scottish Militia Bill Acts of Union 1707 Repeal of Certain Scotch Acts 1707 Statute of Anne Scottish Militia Bill Cultural depictions Films A Glass of Water (1923 film) The Man Who Laughs (1928 film) A Glass of Water (1960 film) A Glass of Water (1979 film) The Favourite Television The Three Musketeers (1954 TV series) The Three Musketeers (1966 TV series) The First Churchills Young Blades Renegade Nell Novels The House of Arden The Man Who Laughs St. James's (novel) Plays Queen Anne (play) The Glass of Water Viceroy Sarah Films A Glass of Water (1923 film) The Man Who Laughs (1928 film) A Glass of Water (1960 film) A Glass of Water (1979 film) The Favourite A Glass of Water (1923 film) The Man Who Laughs (1928 film) A Glass of Water (1960 film) A Glass of Water (1979 film) The Favourite Television The Three Musketeers (1954 TV series) 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British royal consorts v t e Royal consorts in England until 1603 Royal consorts in Scotland until 1603 Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury Æthelflæd of Damerham Ælfgifu Ælfthryth Ælfgifu of York Sigrid the Haughty / Świętosława Ealdgyth Emma of Normandy Edith of Wessex Edith of Mercia Matilda of Flanders Matilda of Scotland Adeliza of Louvain Matilda of Boulogne Geoffrey Plantagenet Eleanor of Aquitaine Margaret of France Berengaria of Navarre Isabella of Angoulême Blanche of Castile Eleanor of Provence Eleanor of Castile Margaret of France Isabella of France Philippa of Hainault Anne of Bohemia Isabella of Valois Joan of Navarre Catherine of Valois Margaret of Anjou Elizabeth Woodville Anne Neville Elizabeth of York Catherine of Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr Guildford Dudley Gruoch Ingibiorg Finnsdottir Margaret of Wessex Ethelreda of Northumbria Sybilla of Normandy Maud of Northumbria Ermengarde de Beaumont Joan of England Marie de Coucy Margaret of England Yolande de Dreux Elizabeth de Burgh Joan of the Tower Margaret Drummond Euphemia de Ross Anabella Drummond Joan Beaufort Mary of Guelders Margaret of Denmark Margaret Tudor Madeleine of Valois Mary of Guise Francis II of France Henry Stuart James Hepburn Anne of Denmark Royal consorts in England until 1603 Royal consorts in Scotland until 1603 Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury Æthelflæd of Damerham Ælfgifu Ælfthryth Ælfgifu of York Sigrid the Haughty / Świętosława Ealdgyth Emma of Normandy Edith of Wessex Edith of Mercia Matilda of Flanders Matilda of Scotland Adeliza of Louvain Matilda of Boulogne Geoffrey Plantagenet Eleanor of Aquitaine Margaret of France Berengaria of Navarre Isabella of Angoulême Blanche of Castile Eleanor of Provence Eleanor of Castile Margaret of France Isabella of France Philippa of Hainault Anne of Bohemia Isabella of Valois Joan of Navarre Catherine of Valois Margaret of Anjou Elizabeth Woodville Anne Neville Elizabeth of York Catherine of Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr Guildford Dudley Gruoch Ingibiorg Finnsdottir Margaret of Wessex Ethelreda of Northumbria Sybilla of Normandy Maud of Northumbria Ermengarde de Beaumont Joan of England Marie de Coucy Margaret of England Yolande de Dreux Elizabeth de Burgh Joan of the Tower Margaret Drummond Euphemia de Ross Anabella Drummond Joan Beaufort Mary of Guelders Margaret of Denmark Margaret Tudor Madeleine of Valois Mary of Guise Francis II of France Henry Stuart James Hepburn Anne of Denmark Royal consorts in England until 1603 Royal consorts in Scotland until 1603 Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury Æthelflæd of Damerham Ælfgifu Ælfthryth Ælfgifu of York Sigrid the Haughty / Świętosława Ealdgyth Emma of Normandy Edith of Wessex Edith of Mercia Matilda of Flanders Matilda of Scotland Adeliza of Louvain Matilda of Boulogne Geoffrey Plantagenet Eleanor of Aquitaine Margaret of France Berengaria of Navarre Isabella of Angoulême Blanche of Castile Eleanor of Provence Eleanor of Castile Margaret of France Isabella of France Philippa of Hainault Anne of Bohemia Isabella of Valois Joan of Navarre Catherine of Valois Margaret of Anjou Elizabeth Woodville Anne Neville Elizabeth of York Catherine of Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr Guildford Dudley Ælfgifu of Shaftesbury Æthelflæd of Damerham Ælfgifu Ælfthryth Ælfgifu of York Sigrid the Haughty / Świętosława Ealdgyth Emma of Normandy Edith of Wessex Edith of Mercia Matilda of Flanders Matilda of Scotland Adeliza of Louvain Matilda of Boulogne Geoffrey Plantagenet Eleanor of Aquitaine Margaret of France Berengaria of Navarre Isabella of Angoulême Blanche of Castile Eleanor of Provence Eleanor of Castile Margaret of France Isabella of France Philippa of Hainault Anne of Bohemia Isabella of Valois Joan of Navarre Catherine of Valois Margaret of Anjou Elizabeth Woodville Anne Neville Elizabeth of York Catherine of Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr Guildford Dudley Gruoch Ingibiorg Finnsdottir Margaret of Wessex Ethelreda of Northumbria Sybilla of Normandy Maud of Northumbria Ermengarde de Beaumont Joan of England Marie de Coucy Margaret of England Yolande de Dreux Elizabeth de Burgh Joan of the Tower Margaret Drummond Euphemia de Ross Anabella Drummond Joan Beaufort Mary of Guelders Margaret of Denmark Margaret Tudor Madeleine of Valois Mary of Guise Francis II of France Henry Stuart James Hepburn Anne of Denmark Gruoch Ingibiorg Finnsdottir Margaret of Wessex Ethelreda of Northumbria Sybilla of Normandy Maud of Northumbria Ermengarde de Beaumont Joan of England Marie de Coucy Margaret of England Yolande de Dreux Elizabeth de Burgh Joan of the Tower Margaret Drummond Euphemia de Ross Anabella Drummond Joan Beaufort Mary of Guelders Margaret of Denmark Margaret Tudor Madeleine of Valois Mary of Guise Francis II of France Henry Stuart James Hepburn Anne of Denmark Royal consorts in England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 Anne of Denmark Henrietta Maria of France Catherine of Braganza Mary of Modena George of Denmark and Norway Royal consorts in England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 Royal consorts in England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 Anne of Denmark Henrietta Maria of France Catherine of Braganza Mary of Modena George of Denmark and Norway Anne of Denmark Henrietta Maria of France Catherine of Braganza Mary of Modena George of Denmark and Norway British royal consorts after the Acts of Union 1707 George of Denmark and Norway Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Alexandra of Denmark Mary of Teck Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Philip of Greece and Denmark Camilla Shand British royal consorts after the Acts of Union 1707 British royal consorts after the Acts of Union 1707 George of Denmark and Norway Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Alexandra of Denmark Mary of Teck Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Philip of Greece and Denmark Camilla Shand George of Denmark and Norway Caroline of Brandenburg-Ansbach Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Alexandra of Denmark Mary of Teck Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Philip of Greece and Denmark Camilla Shand Spouses of debatable or disputed rulers are in italics v t e Dukes of Cumberland v t e Prince Rupert of the Rhine (1644–1682) George of Denmark (1683–1708) Prince William (1726–1765) Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn (1766–1790) Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale (1799–1919) Prince Rupert of the Rhine (1644–1682) George of Denmark (1683–1708) Prince William (1726–1765) Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn (1766–1790) Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale (1799–1919) v t e Danish princes v t e The generations are numbered from the implementation of hereditary monarchy by Frederick III in 1660. 1st generation King Christian V 1 Prince George, Duke of Cumberland 1 King Christian V 1 Prince George, Duke of Cumberland 1 2nd generation King Frederick IV 1 Prince Christian 1 Prince Charles 1 Prince William 1 Prince William, Duke of Gloucester 1 King Frederick IV 1 Prince Christian 1 Prince Charles 1 Prince William 1 Prince William, Duke of Gloucester 1 3rd generation King Christian VI 1 King Christian VI 1 4th generation King Frederick V 1 King Frederick V 1 5th generation King Christian VII 1 Hereditary Prince Frederick 1 King Christian VII 1 Hereditary Prince Frederick 1 6th generation King Frederick VI 1 King Christian VIII 1 Hereditary Prince Ferdinand 1 King Frederick VI 1 King Christian VIII 1 Hereditary Prince Ferdinand 1 7th generation King Frederick VII 1 King Christian IX 5 King Frederick VII 1 King Christian IX 5 8th generation King Frederick VIII 5 King George I of Greece 5 Prince Valdemar 3 King Frederick VIII 5 King George I of Greece 5 Prince Valdemar 3 9th generation King Christian X King Haakon VII of Norway Prince Harald 3 Prince Gustav 3 King Constantine I of Greece 2 Prince George 2 Prince Nicholas 2 Prince Andrew 2 Prince Christopher 2 Prince Aage Prince Axel 3 Prince Erik 3 Prince Viggo 3 King Christian X King Haakon VII of Norway Prince Harald 3 Prince Gustav 3 King Constantine I of Greece 2 Prince George 2 Prince Nicholas 2 Prince Andrew 2 Prince Christopher 2 Prince Aage Prince Axel 3 Prince Erik 3 Prince Viggo 3 10th generation King Frederik IX 3 Hereditary Prince Knud 3 King Olav V of Norway 1 Prince Gorm 3 Prince Oluf 3 King George II of Greece 2 King Alexander I of Greece 2 King Paul I of Greece 2 Prince Peter 2 Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh 2 4 Prince Michael 2 Prince Georg 3 Prince Flemming 3 King Frederik IX 3 Hereditary Prince Knud 3 King Olav V of Norway 1 Prince Gorm 3 Prince Oluf 3 King George II of Greece 2 King Alexander I of Greece 2 King Paul I of Greece 2 Prince Peter 2 Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh 2 4 Prince Michael 2 Prince Georg 3 Prince Flemming 3 11th generation Prince Henrik 5 Prince Ingolf 3 Prince Christian 3 King Constantine II of Greece 2 Prince Henrik 5 Prince Ingolf 3 Prince Christian 3 King Constantine II of Greece 2 12th generation King Frederik X Prince Joachim Crown Prince Pavlos of Greece 2 Prince Nikolaos 2 Prince Philippos 2 King Frederik X Prince Joachim Crown Prince Pavlos of Greece 2 Prince Nikolaos 2 Prince Philippos 2 13th generation Crown Prince Christian of Denmark Prince Vincent Prince Nikolai Prince Felix Prince Henrik Prince Constantine-Alexios 2 Prince Achileas-Andreas 2 Prince Odysseas-Kimon 2 Prince Aristidis-Stavros 2 Crown Prince Christian of Denmark Prince Vincent Prince Nikolai Prince Felix Prince Henrik Prince Constantine-Alexios 2 Prince Achileas-Andreas 2 Prince Odysseas-Kimon 2 Prince Aristidis-Stavros 2 1 Also prince of Norway 2 Also prince of Greece 3 Also prince of Iceland 4 Also prince of the United Kingdom 5 Not Danish prince by birth, but created prince of Denmark Princes that lost their title are shown in italics Biography Denmark England Scotland Royalty Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 2 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Netherlands Norway Poland Vatican United States France BnF data Netherlands Norway Poland Vatican People Deutsche Biographie DDB Deutsche Biographie DDB Other Open Library RISM Yale LUX Open Library RISM Yale LUX Prince George of Denmark 1653 births 1708 deaths British royal consorts Burials at Westminster Abbey Candidates for the Polish elective throne Princes from Denmark–Norway Danish expatriate royalty Dukes of Cumberland Earls of Kendal Peers of England created by William III House of Oldenburg in Denmark Irish royal consorts Knights of the Garter Lord high admirals of England Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports Members of the Privy Council of England 18th-century English royal consorts Deaths from asthma Deaths from edema Sons of kings Children of Frederick III of Denmark Anne, Queen of Great Britain Articles with Danish-language sources (da) Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB CS1 Danish-language sources (da) Pages containing links to subscription-only content Featured articles Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from April 2025 Articles containing Danish-language text Articles containing French-language text Articles with Polish-language sources (pl) Commons category link from Wikidata This page was last edited on 14 January 2026, at 09:33 (UTC) . 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עמוד ראשי ברוכים הבאים שינויים אחרונים ערכים מומלצים פורטלים ערך אקראי שער הקהילה עזרה ייעוץ מזנון כיכר העיר חדשות לוח מודעות יצירת קשר ספר אורחים תרומה לוויקיפדיה יצירת חשבון כניסה לחשבון תרומה לוויקיפדיה יצירת חשבון כניסה לחשבון פורטל : ערכים מומלצים English Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Basa Ugi Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Nordfriisk Frysk 贛語 Galego گیلکی गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois Jawa ქართული Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар 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קישור קבוע מידע על הדף דפים מיוחדים קבלת כתובת מקוצרת הורדת קוד QR יצירת ספר הורדה כ־PDF גרסה להדפסה מטא־ויקי ויקימינים ויקינתונים ויקיחדשות ויקימסע פריט ויקינתונים ערכים מומלצים ערכים מומלצים הם הערכים הטובים והאיכותיים ביותר שיש לוויקיפדיה להציע. מושם בהם דגש הן על התוכן והן על הצד האסתטי, והם מציגים את הנושאים הנידונים בהם בצורה ברורה, מדויקת ועדכנית. הם עוברים בדרך כלל מספר סבבים של עריכה מבנית, עריכה לשונית והגהה בידי כותבים רבים. בכך הם מסייעים להביא אותם לרמה הגבוהה ביותר. דגשים נוספים בערכים מומלצים הם קישוריות רבה לערכים אחרים, אורך מתאים לנושא, כתיבה מעניינת, נקודת מבט נייטרלית ויציבות. משמעותה של יציבות היא שהושגה הסכמה בין הכותבים בוויקיפדיה לגבי תכולת הערך ולגבי עיצובו. בכתיבת ערך מומלץ משתמש הכותב במגוון מקורות ומשווה ביניהם, ובסופו הוא מוסיף הפניות לקריאה נוספת עבור קוראים המעוניינים להרחיב את ידיעותיהם בנקודות ספציפיות הקשורות לנושא. כדי שערך כלשהו יתווסף לרשימת הערכים המומלצים עליו להתאים ל קריטריונים לקביעת ערך מומלץ ולעבור תהליך בחירה: מועמדוּת למומלץ – הערך המועמד מוצג ברשימת המתנה למועמדים להמלצה במשך כשבוע שבמהלכו ניתן לשפר את הערך ולהעיר עליו הערות בדף השיחה. כדי להציע ערך חדש להמלצה, הוסיפו אותו לרשימה בדף המועמדות. במקרה שאתם מציגים ערכים שכתבתם, עליכם לציין את חלקכם בכתיבתם. הצבעה – לאחר כשבוע לפחות עובר הערך לדף ההוספה שבו נערכות הצבעות לקביעת ההמלצה. כרגע ישנם 737 ערכים מומלצים מתוך 388,726 ערכים בוויקיפדיה העברית כולה: אחד מכל 527 ערכים (0.19%) הוא ערך מומלץ. רשימה שמית · רשימה לפי חודש ערכים מומלצים הם הערכים הטובים והאיכותיים ביותר שיש לוויקיפדיה להציע. מושם בהם דגש הן על התוכן והן על הצד האסתטי, והם מציגים את הנושאים הנידונים בהם בצורה ברורה, מדויקת ועדכנית. הם עוברים בדרך כלל מספר סבבים של עריכה מבנית, עריכה לשונית והגהה בידי כותבים רבים. בכך הם מסייעים להביא אותם לרמה הגבוהה ביותר. דגשים נוספים בערכים מומלצים הם קישוריות רבה לערכים אחרים, אורך מתאים לנושא, כתיבה מעניינת, נקודת מבט נייטרלית ויציבות. משמעותה של יציבות היא שהושגה הסכמה בין הכותבים בוויקיפדיה לגבי תכולת הערך ולגבי עיצובו. בכתיבת ערך מומלץ משתמש הכותב במגוון מקורות ומשווה ביניהם, ובסופו הוא מוסיף הפניות לקריאה נוספת עבור קוראים המעוניינים להרחיב את ידיעותיהם בנקודות ספציפיות הקשורות לנושא. כדי שערך כלשהו יתווסף לרשימת הערכים המומלצים עליו להתאים ל קריטריונים לקביעת ערך מומלץ ולעבור תהליך בחירה: מועמדוּת למומלץ – הערך המועמד מוצג ברשימת המתנה למועמדים להמלצה במשך כשבוע שבמהלכו ניתן לשפר את הערך ולהעיר עליו הערות בדף השיחה. כדי להציע ערך חדש להמלצה, הוסיפו אותו לרשימה בדף המועמדות. במקרה שאתם מציגים ערכים שכתבתם, עליכם לציין את חלקכם בכתיבתם. הצבעה – לאחר כשבוע לפחות עובר הערך לדף ההוספה שבו נערכות הצבעות לקביעת ההמלצה. כרגע ישנם 737 ערכים מומלצים מתוך 388,726 ערכים בוויקיפדיה העברית כולה: אחד מכל 527 ערכים (0.19%) הוא ערך מומלץ. רשימה שמית · רשימה לפי חודש ערכים מומלצים נבחרים ערכים מומלצים נבחרים תיאור התמונה קבוצת המזרח הרחוק הייתה חלק מ משלחת אוסטרלאסיה לאנטארקטיקה , שפעלה בשנים 1911–1914. מטרת הקבוצה, שכללה את מפקד המשלחת דאגלס מוסון ועמו אדוארד ניניס ו זאוויר מרץ , הייתה לחקור את האזור הרחק מזרחה מבסיסם העיקרי ב ארץ אדלי , בכוונה להרחיק עד 800 ק"מ לעבר אדמת ויקטוריה . הקבוצה השתמשה בכלבי מזחלת כדי לזרז את התקדמותם על פני הקרח. הקבוצה יצאה לדרכה בנובמבר 1912. בחלקו הראשון של המסע התקדמו חברי הקבוצה היטב וחצו שני קרחוני ענק בנתיבם לכיוון דרום-מזרח. ב-14 בדצמבר 1912, כשהקבוצה הייתה רחוקה כ-500 ק"מ מן המקלט הבטוח של הבסיס העיקרי ב כף דניסון , אירעה תאונה, כשניניס והמזחלת שלצדה רץ הבקיעו את כיסוי השלג של בתרון עמוק ואבדו בתוכו. מאחר שהצידה שלהם פחתה עכשיו במידה מסוכנת, פנו מוסון ומרץ מערבה, כדי לחזור על עקבותיהם, ובהדרגה השתמשו בכלבי המזחלת הנותרים להשלמת מנות המזון הזעומות שנותרו להם. תוך כדי חציית הקרחון הראשון בדרכם חזרה חלה מרץ ונפטר כעבור שבוע. במשך קרוב לחודש משך מוסון את מזחלתו על פני אנטארקטיקה והצליח לחצות את הקרחון השני. מוסון הגיע אל המקלט היחסי של "מערת אלאדין" – מצבור מזון במרחק 8.8 ק"מ מן הבסיס העיקרי – ב-1 בפברואר 1913, ושם נלכד למשך שבוע כשסופת שלגים עזה השתוללה בחוץ. כתוצאה מכך החמיץ את האונייה חזרה ל אוסטרליה ; "אורורה" הפליגה ב-8 בפברואר, שעות ספורות לפני שהגיע לכף דניסון, אחרי שהמתינה שם יותר משלושה שבועות. האונייה הוזעקה ברדיו, אך תנאי מזג אוויר מנעו את שובה לבסיס, ומוסון נשאר לחרוף עם הקבוצה המחליפה בכף דניסון עד ש"אורורה" חזרה לשם בדצמבר 1913. לערך המלא – מומלצים נוספים קבוצת המזרח הרחוק הייתה חלק מ משלחת אוסטרלאסיה לאנטארקטיקה , שפעלה בשנים 1911–1914. מטרת הקבוצה, שכללה את מפקד המשלחת דאגלס מוסון ועמו אדוארד ניניס ו זאוויר מרץ , הייתה לחקור את האזור הרחק מזרחה מבסיסם העיקרי ב ארץ אדלי , בכוונה להרחיק עד 800 ק"מ לעבר אדמת ויקטוריה . הקבוצה השתמשה בכלבי מזחלת כדי לזרז את התקדמותם על פני הקרח. הקבוצה יצאה לדרכה בנובמבר 1912. בחלקו הראשון של המסע התקדמו חברי הקבוצה היטב וחצו שני קרחוני ענק בנתיבם לכיוון דרום-מזרח. ב-14 בדצמבר 1912, כשהקבוצה הייתה רחוקה כ-500 ק"מ מן המקלט הבטוח של הבסיס העיקרי ב כף דניסון , אירעה תאונה, כשניניס והמזחלת שלצדה רץ הבקיעו את כיסוי השלג של בתרון עמוק ואבדו בתוכו. מאחר שהצידה שלהם פחתה עכשיו במידה מסוכנת, פנו מוסון ומרץ מערבה, כדי לחזור על עקבותיהם, ובהדרגה השתמשו בכלבי המזחלת הנותרים להשלמת מנות המזון הזעומות שנותרו להם. תוך כדי חציית הקרחון הראשון בדרכם חזרה חלה מרץ ונפטר כעבור שבוע. במשך קרוב לחודש משך מוסון את מזחלתו על פני אנטארקטיקה והצליח לחצות את הקרחון השני. מוסון הגיע אל המקלט היחסי של "מערת אלאדין" – מצבור מזון במרחק 8.8 ק"מ מן הבסיס העיקרי – ב-1 בפברואר 1913, ושם נלכד למשך שבוע כשסופת שלגים עזה השתוללה בחוץ. כתוצאה מכך החמיץ את האונייה חזרה ל אוסטרליה ; "אורורה" הפליגה ב-8 בפברואר, שעות ספורות לפני שהגיע לכף דניסון, אחרי שהמתינה שם יותר משלושה שבועות. האונייה הוזעקה ברדיו, אך תנאי מזג אוויר מנעו את שובה לבסיס, ומוסון נשאר לחרוף עם הקבוצה המחליפה בכף דניסון עד ש"אורורה" חזרה לשם בדצמבר 1913. מבט על חלק מפארק המיניאטורות - מיני ישראל, המהווה דוגמה ליצירת סימולאקרה המחקה את המקור סימולאקרה הוא מושג מתחום הפילוסופיה, הנגזר מהמילה ה לטינית simulacrum שפירושה "דיוקן", "דמות" וגם "מחזה תעתועים" ו"העמדת פנים". מושג זה מהווה חלק מהותי בשיח ה פוסטמודרני ומשמש כאמצעי ביטוי ביקורתי לתיאור ה מציאות , ככזו שהופר היחס בינה לבין ייצוגיה. אחת הדוגמאות הבולטות לכך, היא ריבוי דגמי ערים ומבנים המוצגים לקהל באתרים שונים ברחבי העולם. אלה נוצרו, לפי ה פילוסוף ה צרפתי ז'אן בודריאר , כתולדה מצורך בלתי נשלט לייצר חיקויים שישמשו כתענוגות להמונים. כבר ב עת העתיקה הייתה התייחסות למציאות כלסימולאקרה. על פי תורת האידאות של אפלטון , האידאות כוללות בתוכן את המהות, ואילו העצמים עצמם נחותים בשל היותם העתק של האידאות, ולפיכך, האמת הפנימית שלהם פחותה. המושג תועד לראשונה ב שפה האנגלית בסוף המאה ה-16 , ותכליתו, בראשית דרכו, הייתה לתאר ייצוגים אמנותיים , כגון פסלים ו ציורים , באופן נאמן למציאות. בסוף המאה ה-19 , קיבל המושג משמעות נוספת המצביעה על נחיתות: חיקוי הלוקה בחסרון איכויותיו של המקור. ה פילוסוף פרדריק ג'יימסון הצביע על הפוטוריאליזם כדוגמה לסימולאקרה אמנותית, המחקה צילום , שהוא כבר כשלעצמו חיקוי של המציאות. בודריאר הרחיב את המושג סימולאקרה. הוא חילק אותו לארבע דרגות והתייחס באמצעותן ל תרבות הצריכה ה אמריקאית , המושתתת לטענתו, על צריכת דימויים חסרי מקור. על אף שבודריאר הנחיל את המושג בהקשר חברתי, נעשה בו שימוש נרחב בפרשנות האמנות ה פוסטמודרנית . לערך המלא – מומלצים נוספים סימולאקרה הוא מושג מתחום הפילוסופיה, הנגזר מהמילה ה לטינית simulacrum שפירושה "דיוקן", "דמות" וגם "מחזה תעתועים" ו"העמדת פנים". מושג זה מהווה חלק מהותי בשיח ה פוסטמודרני ומשמש כאמצעי ביטוי ביקורתי לתיאור ה מציאות , ככזו שהופר היחס בינה לבין ייצוגיה. אחת הדוגמאות הבולטות לכך, היא ריבוי דגמי ערים ומבנים המוצגים לקהל באתרים שונים ברחבי העולם. אלה נוצרו, לפי ה פילוסוף ה צרפתי ז'אן בודריאר , כתולדה מצורך בלתי נשלט לייצר חיקויים שישמשו כתענוגות להמונים. כבר ב עת העתיקה הייתה התייחסות למציאות כלסימולאקרה. על פי תורת האידאות של אפלטון , האידאות כוללות בתוכן את המהות, ואילו העצמים עצמם נחותים בשל היותם העתק של האידאות, ולפיכך, האמת הפנימית שלהם פחותה. המושג תועד לראשונה ב שפה האנגלית בסוף המאה ה-16 , ותכליתו, בראשית דרכו, הייתה לתאר ייצוגים אמנותיים , כגון פסלים ו ציורים , באופן נאמן למציאות. בסוף המאה ה-19 , קיבל המושג משמעות נוספת המצביעה על נחיתות: חיקוי הלוקה בחסרון איכויותיו של המקור. ה פילוסוף פרדריק ג'יימסון הצביע על הפוטוריאליזם כדוגמה לסימולאקרה אמנותית, המחקה צילום , שהוא כבר כשלעצמו חיקוי של המציאות. בודריאר הרחיב את המושג סימולאקרה. הוא חילק אותו לארבע דרגות והתייחס באמצעותן ל תרבות הצריכה ה אמריקאית , המושתתת לטענתו, על צריכת דימויים חסרי מקור. על אף שבודריאר הנחיל את המושג בהקשר חברתי, נעשה בו שימוש נרחב בפרשנות האמנות ה פוסטמודרנית . בחרו נושא ועיינו בערכים בתחתית הדף: בחרו נושא ועיינו בערכים בתחתית הדף: היסטוריה : אישים · השואה · יוון העתיקה · רומא העתיקה · מלחמת העולם הראשונה · מלחמת העולם השנייה · ארכאולוגיה של המזרח הקרוב מדעי החברה : מדע המדינה · חוק ומשפט · כלכלה · פסיכולוגיה · סוציולוגיה · להט"ב דת ו פילוסופיה : יהדות · נצרות · אסלאם · תנ"ך · הלכה ספרות , לשון ושפות : בלשנות · השפה העברית אמנות ותרבות : אמנות ישראלית · אדריכלות · טלוויזיה · קולנוע · צילום · הומור מוזיקה : ג'אז · מוזיקה קלאסית · רוק היסטוריה : אישים · השואה · יוון העתיקה · רומא העתיקה · מלחמת העולם הראשונה · מלחמת העולם השנייה · ארכאולוגיה של המזרח הקרוב מדעי החברה : מדע המדינה · חוק ומשפט · כלכלה · פסיכולוגיה · סוציולוגיה · להט"ב דת ו פילוסופיה : יהדות · נצרות · אסלאם · תנ"ך · הלכה ספרות , לשון ושפות : בלשנות · השפה העברית אמנות ותרבות : אמנות ישראלית · אדריכלות · טלוויזיה · קולנוע · צילום · הומור מוזיקה : ג'אז · מוזיקה קלאסית · רוק מדע וטבע : מתמטיקה · מדעי המחשב · כימיה · פיזיקה · גאולוגיה · מדעי החלל · ביולוגיה · גוף האדם · רפואה · בוטניקה · בעלי חיים · אורניתולוגיה · זוחלים ודו-חיים . יונקים . יונקים מימיים טכנולוגיה ו מחשבים : אינטרנט · תקשורת גאוגרפיה : מדינות העולם · המזרח התיכון · אמריקה הלטינית · המורשת העולמית מדינות : ארצות הברית · הממלכה המאוחדת · ישראל · ברזיל · סין · אוסטריה · גאורגיה · אירלנד · גרמניה . צרפת · רוסיה . אוסטרליה · ישראל : ירושלים · היישוב · צה"ל · הממשל בישראל · תל אביב-יפו · חיפה · החי והצומח בארץ ישראל ספורט ו משחקים : כדורגל · כדורסל · משחקי וידאו ומחשב · שחמט שונות : דגלים וסמלים · מזון · צבא · תחבורה מדע וטבע : מתמטיקה · מדעי המחשב · כימיה · פיזיקה · גאולוגיה · מדעי החלל · ביולוגיה · גוף האדם · רפואה · בוטניקה · בעלי חיים · אורניתולוגיה · זוחלים ודו-חיים . יונקים . יונקים מימיים טכנולוגיה ו מחשבים : אינטרנט · תקשורת גאוגרפיה : מדינות העולם · המזרח התיכון · אמריקה הלטינית · המורשת העולמית מדינות : ארצות הברית · הממלכה המאוחדת · ישראל · ברזיל · סין · אוסטריה · גאורגיה · אירלנד · גרמניה . צרפת · רוסיה . אוסטרליה · ישראל : ירושלים · היישוב · צה"ל · הממשל בישראל · תל אביב-יפו · חיפה · החי והצומח בארץ ישראל ספורט ו משחקים : כדורגל · כדורסל · משחקי וידאו ומחשב · שחמט שונות : דגלים וסמלים · מזון · צבא · תחבורה נושאים כלל-עולמיים : יוון הקלאסית - משלחת הקוטב הדרומי - מבצר צלבני אסיה : החומה הגדולה של סין - המחלוקת על הטקסים הסיניים - שושלת מינג אמריקה : אינקה - פרשת ווטרגייט - תקרית רוזוול - היסטוריה של בוליביה המזרח התיכון : גלות בבל - אדד - אל הסער האנטולי - העדות הפלוויאנית מלחמות וקרבות : הטלת פצצות האטום על הירושימה ועל נגסאקי - הכיבוש הערבי של ארץ ישראל - המלחמה העות'מאנית-רוסית (1877–1878) - המערכה באוקיינוס האטלנטי (1939–1945) - המערכה על צרפת ועל ארצות השפלה - כיבוש האימפריה הפרסית על ידי אלכסנדר הגדול - כיבושי אלכסנדר הגדול באסיה התיכונה - מלחמת האזרחים בספרד - מערכת הצוללות במלחמת העולם הראשונה - קרב הייסטינגס - קרב הירמוך - קרב חרן - קרב יוטלנד - קרב מידוויי - קרב מפרץ הלגולנד - קרב סטלינגרד - קרב קאנאי - קרב קדש - קרב קורסון-צ'רקאסי - קרב קרני חיטין - קרב שילה טרור ופשע : גברילו פרינציפ - די. בי. קופר - פרשת תמאם שוד אירופה : המהפכה הצרפתית - החוק להגנת האומה - צרפת החופשית - חומת ברלין - מפעלי עמק דרוונט - פרשת דרייפוס אפריקה : הטרק הגדול - הכרזת העצמאות של רודזיה - מושבת הכף ההולנדית ביוגרפיה : אלכסנדר הגדול - פרידריך השני, קיסר האימפריה הרומית הקדושה - יון אנטונסקו - לאונרדו דה וינצ'י - וילהלם השני, קיסר גרמניה - מטאו ריצ'י - סמנתה סמית' - ג'ורג' קנאן - קרול הראשון, מלך רומניה - אלקיביאדס מטבע ממרד בר-כוכבא תולדות עם ישראל : העלייה מרומניה - יהדות בוקרשט - יהדות פלובדיב - ישיבת טלז - מרד החשמונאים - מערכות המסתור של בר כוכבא - גלות בבל השואה : אושוויץ - מאוטהאוזן - מרד הלגיונרים ופרעות בוקרשט - פרעות יאשי תולדות היישוב : ארגון צבאי לאומי - גדר הצפון - ההגנה - ההעפלה - היישוב הישן - העלייה לביריה - הרכבת המנדטורית - חי"ש - פרשת הסרג'נטים - פרשת הרצח בחולות תל נוף מדינת ישראל : גבולות מדינת ישראל - דגל ישראל - ההסתדרות הכללית של העובדים בארץ ישראל - חוק הרשויות המקומיות (הסמכה מיוחדת) - ישראל במלחמת יום הכיפורים - מדיניות לשונית בישראל - שדרות רוטשילד - תל אביב במלחמת העצמאות ארץ ישראל : ג'וב יוסף - התקופה הממלוכית בארץ ישראל - חמת גדר - כפר סבא - מצדה - מרכז הכרמל הכרזת העצמאות צבא הגנה לישראל : חיל ההנדסה הקרבית - יהל"ם - מבצע ערצב 19 - מצעד צה"ל - נגמ"שים כבדים בצה"ל - נסיגת צה"ל מסיני ומעזה (1956–1957) - ספינות שרבורג - שייטת ספינות הטילים ירושלים : איליה קפיטולינה - אספקת המים לירושלים - הגן הארכאולוגי ירושלים - ירושלים בתקופה הצלבנית - קריית עיריית ירושלים - תלפיות ביוגרפיה : לוי אשכול - שמחה בלאס - מנחם בגין - יוסף בכור שור - ישראל בר - יוסף בכור שור - משה דיין - נפתלי הרץ וייזל - זאב ז'בוטינסקי - אבא חושי - הורקנוס לבית טוביה - יצחק בר לווינזון - שמואל דוד לוצאטו - אליעזר ליבנה - מהר"ל מפראג - טובה סנהדראי - שלמה פיינגולד - שמעון פרס - אברהם יצחק הכהן קוק - ישראל קסטנר - אברהם ישעיהו קרליץ - הרמן שטרוק - יצחק שמיר - ארתור שפנייר נושאים כלל-עולמיים : יוון הקלאסית - משלחת הקוטב הדרומי - מבצר צלבני אסיה : החומה הגדולה של סין - המחלוקת על הטקסים הסיניים - שושלת מינג אמריקה : אינקה - פרשת ווטרגייט - תקרית רוזוול - היסטוריה של בוליביה המזרח התיכון : גלות בבל - אדד - אל הסער האנטולי - העדות הפלוויאנית מלחמות וקרבות : הטלת פצצות האטום על הירושימה ועל נגסאקי - הכיבוש הערבי של ארץ ישראל - המלחמה העות'מאנית-רוסית (1877–1878) - המערכה באוקיינוס האטלנטי (1939–1945) - המערכה על צרפת ועל ארצות השפלה - כיבוש האימפריה הפרסית על ידי אלכסנדר הגדול - כיבושי אלכסנדר הגדול באסיה התיכונה - מלחמת האזרחים בספרד - מערכת הצוללות במלחמת העולם הראשונה - קרב הייסטינגס - קרב הירמוך - קרב חרן - קרב יוטלנד - קרב מידוויי - קרב מפרץ הלגולנד - קרב סטלינגרד - קרב קאנאי - קרב קדש - קרב קורסון-צ'רקאסי - קרב קרני חיטין - קרב שילה נושאים כלל-עולמיים : יוון הקלאסית - משלחת הקוטב הדרומי - מבצר צלבני אסיה : החומה הגדולה של סין - המחלוקת על הטקסים הסיניים - שושלת מינג אמריקה : אינקה - פרשת ווטרגייט - תקרית רוזוול - היסטוריה של בוליביה המזרח התיכון : גלות בבל - אדד - אל הסער האנטולי - העדות הפלוויאנית מלחמות וקרבות : הטלת פצצות האטום על הירושימה ועל נגסאקי - הכיבוש הערבי של ארץ ישראל - המלחמה העות'מאנית-רוסית (1877–1878) - המערכה באוקיינוס האטלנטי (1939–1945) - המערכה על צרפת ועל ארצות השפלה - כיבוש האימפריה הפרסית על ידי אלכסנדר הגדול - כיבושי אלכסנדר הגדול באסיה התיכונה - מלחמת האזרחים בספרד - מערכת הצוללות במלחמת העולם הראשונה - קרב הייסטינגס - קרב הירמוך - קרב חרן - קרב יוטלנד - קרב מידוויי - קרב מפרץ הלגולנד - קרב סטלינגרד - קרב קאנאי - קרב קדש - קרב קורסון-צ'רקאסי - קרב קרני חיטין - קרב שילה טרור ופשע : גברילו פרינציפ - די. בי. קופר - פרשת תמאם שוד אירופה : המהפכה הצרפתית - החוק להגנת האומה - צרפת החופשית - חומת ברלין - מפעלי עמק דרוונט - פרשת דרייפוס אפריקה : הטרק הגדול - הכרזת העצמאות של רודזיה - מושבת הכף ההולנדית ביוגרפיה : אלכסנדר הגדול - פרידריך השני, קיסר האימפריה הרומית הקדושה - יון אנטונסקו - לאונרדו דה וינצ'י - וילהלם השני, קיסר גרמניה - מטאו ריצ'י - סמנתה סמית' - ג'ורג' קנאן - קרול הראשון, מלך רומניה - אלקיביאדס טרור ופשע : גברילו פרינציפ - די. בי. קופר - פרשת תמאם שוד אירופה : המהפכה הצרפתית - החוק להגנת האומה - צרפת החופשית - חומת ברלין - מפעלי עמק דרוונט - פרשת דרייפוס אפריקה : הטרק הגדול - הכרזת העצמאות של רודזיה - מושבת הכף ההולנדית ביוגרפיה : אלכסנדר הגדול - פרידריך השני, קיסר האימפריה הרומית הקדושה - יון אנטונסקו - לאונרדו דה וינצ'י - וילהלם השני, קיסר גרמניה - מטאו ריצ'י - סמנתה סמית' - ג'ורג' קנאן - קרול הראשון, מלך רומניה - אלקיביאדס מטבע ממרד בר-כוכבא תולדות עם ישראל : העלייה מרומניה - יהדות בוקרשט - יהדות פלובדיב - ישיבת טלז - מרד החשמונאים - מערכות המסתור של בר כוכבא - גלות בבל השואה : אושוויץ - מאוטהאוזן - מרד הלגיונרים ופרעות בוקרשט - פרעות יאשי תולדות היישוב : ארגון צבאי לאומי - גדר הצפון - ההגנה - ההעפלה - היישוב הישן - העלייה לביריה - הרכבת המנדטורית - חי"ש - פרשת הסרג'נטים - פרשת הרצח בחולות תל נוף מדינת ישראל : גבולות מדינת ישראל - דגל ישראל - ההסתדרות הכללית של העובדים בארץ ישראל - חוק הרשויות המקומיות (הסמכה מיוחדת) - ישראל במלחמת יום הכיפורים - מדיניות לשונית בישראל - שדרות רוטשילד - תל אביב במלחמת העצמאות ארץ ישראל : ג'וב יוסף - התקופה הממלוכית בארץ ישראל - חמת גדר - כפר סבא - מצדה - מרכז הכרמל תולדות עם ישראל : העלייה מרומניה - יהדות בוקרשט - יהדות פלובדיב - ישיבת טלז - מרד החשמונאים - מערכות המסתור של בר כוכבא - גלות בבל השואה : אושוויץ - מאוטהאוזן - מרד הלגיונרים ופרעות בוקרשט - פרעות יאשי תולדות היישוב : ארגון צבאי לאומי - גדר הצפון - ההגנה - ההעפלה - היישוב הישן - העלייה לביריה - הרכבת המנדטורית - חי"ש - פרשת הסרג'נטים - פרשת הרצח בחולות תל נוף מדינת ישראל : גבולות מדינת ישראל - דגל ישראל - ההסתדרות הכללית של העובדים בארץ ישראל - חוק הרשויות המקומיות (הסמכה מיוחדת) - ישראל במלחמת יום הכיפורים - מדיניות לשונית בישראל - שדרות רוטשילד - תל אביב במלחמת העצמאות ארץ ישראל : ג'וב יוסף - התקופה הממלוכית בארץ ישראל - חמת גדר - כפר סבא - מצדה - מרכז הכרמל הכרזת העצמאות צבא הגנה לישראל : חיל ההנדסה הקרבית - יהל"ם - מבצע ערצב 19 - מצעד צה"ל - נגמ"שים כבדים בצה"ל - נסיגת צה"ל מסיני ומעזה (1956–1957) - ספינות שרבורג - שייטת ספינות הטילים ירושלים : איליה קפיטולינה - אספקת המים לירושלים - הגן הארכאולוגי ירושלים - ירושלים בתקופה הצלבנית - קריית עיריית ירושלים - תלפיות ביוגרפיה : לוי אשכול - שמחה בלאס - מנחם בגין - יוסף בכור שור - ישראל בר - יוסף בכור שור - משה דיין - נפתלי הרץ וייזל - זאב ז'בוטינסקי - אבא חושי - הורקנוס לבית טוביה - יצחק בר לווינזון - שמואל דוד לוצאטו - אליעזר ליבנה - מהר"ל מפראג - טובה סנהדראי - שלמה פיינגולד - שמעון פרס - אברהם יצחק הכהן קוק - ישראל קסטנר - אברהם ישעיהו קרליץ - הרמן שטרוק - יצחק שמיר - ארתור שפנייר צבא הגנה לישראל : חיל ההנדסה הקרבית - יהל"ם - מבצע ערצב 19 - מצעד צה"ל - נגמ"שים כבדים בצה"ל - נסיגת צה"ל מסיני ומעזה (1956–1957) - ספינות שרבורג - שייטת ספינות הטילים ירושלים : איליה קפיטולינה - אספקת המים לירושלים - הגן הארכאולוגי ירושלים - ירושלים בתקופה הצלבנית - קריית עיריית ירושלים - תלפיות ביוגרפיה : לוי אשכול - שמחה בלאס - מנחם בגין - יוסף בכור שור - ישראל בר - יוסף בכור שור - משה דיין - נפתלי הרץ וייזל - זאב ז'בוטינסקי - אבא חושי - הורקנוס לבית טוביה - יצחק בר לווינזון - שמואל דוד לוצאטו - אליעזר ליבנה - מהר"ל מפראג - טובה סנהדראי - שלמה פיינגולד - שמעון פרס - אברהם יצחק הכהן קוק - ישראל קסטנר - אברהם ישעיהו קרליץ - הרמן שטרוק - יצחק שמיר - ארתור שפנייר פורטלים ויקיפדיה - ערכים מומלצים דף זה נערך לאחרונה ב־1 בדצמבר 2025, בשעה 13:32. הטקסט מוגש בכפוף לרישיון Creative Commons ייחוס-שיתוף זהה 4.0 ; ייתכן שישנם תנאים נוספים. ר׳ את תנאי השימוש לפרטים. מדיניות פרטיות אודות ויקיפדיה הבהרות משפטיות קוד התנהגות מפתחים סטטיסטיקות הצהרה על עוגיות תצוגת מכשירים ניידים
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Features Toggle Features subsection 2.1 Google Knowledge Panel 2.1 Google Knowledge Panel 3 Criticism Toggle Criticism subsection 3.1 Lack of source attribution 3.2 Declining Wikipedia article readership 3.3 Bias 3.1 Lack of source attribution 3.2 Declining Wikipedia article readership 3.3 Bias 4 See also 5 References Knowledge Graph (Google) العربية বাংলা Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Dansk Español فارسی Français 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית 日本語 Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Zazaki 中文 ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The Knowledge Graph is a knowledge base from which Google serves relevant information in an infobox beside its search results . This allows the user to see the answer in a glance, as an instant answer . The data is generated automatically from a variety of sources, covering places, people, businesses, and more. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The information covered by Google's Knowledge Graph grew quickly after launch, tripling its data size within seven months (covering 570 million entities and 18 billion facts [ 3 ] ). By mid-2016, Google reported that it held 70 billion facts [ 4 ] and answered "roughly one-third" of the 100 billion monthly searches they handled. By May 2020, this had grown to 500 billion facts on 5 billion entities. [ 5 ] There is no official documentation of how the Google Knowledge Graph is implemented. [ 6 ] According to Google, its information is retrieved from many sources, including the CIA World Factbook and Wikipedia . [ 7 ] It is used to answer direct spoken questions in Google Assistant [ 8 ] [ 9 ] and Google Home voice queries. [ 10 ] It has been criticized for providing answers with neither source attribution nor citations . [ 11 ] History Google announced its Knowledge Graph on May 16, 2012, as a way to significantly enhance the value of information returned by Google searches. [ 7 ] Initially available only in English, it was expanded in December 2012 to Spanish , French , German , Portuguese , Japanese , Russian and Italian . [ 12 ] Bengali support was added in March 2017. [ 13 ] The Knowledge Graph was powered in part by Freebase . [ 7 ] In August 2014, New Scientist reported that Google had launched a Knowledge Vault project. [ 14 ] After publication, Google reached out to Search Engine Land to explain that Knowledge Vault was a research report, not an active Google service. Search Engine Land expressed indications that Google was experimenting with "numerous models" for gathering meaning from text. [ 15 ] Google's Knowledge Vault was meant to deal with facts, automatically gathering and merging information from across the Internet into a knowledge base capable of answering direct questions, such as "Where was Madonna born?" In a 2014 report, the Vault was reported to have collected over 1.6 billion facts, 271 million of which were considered "confident facts" deemed to be more than 90% true. It was reported to be different from the Knowledge Graph in that it gathered information automatically instead of relying on crowd-sourced facts compiled by humans. [ 15 ] Features Google Knowledge Panel A Google Knowledge Panel [ 16 ] which is part of Google search engine result pages, presents an overview of entities such as individuals, organizations, locations, or objects directly within the search interface. This feature uses data from Google Knowledge Graph, [ 17 ] an extensive database that organizes and interconnects information about entities, enhancing the retrieval and presentation of relevant content to users. Criticism Lack of source attribution By May 2016, knowledge boxes were appearing for "roughly one-third" of the 100 billion monthly searches the company processed. [ 11 ] Dario Taraborelli, head of research at the Wikimedia Foundation , told The Washington Post that Google's omission of sources in its knowledge boxes "undermines people’s ability to verify information and, ultimately, to develop well-informed opinions". The publication also reported that the boxes are "frequently unattributed", such as a knowledge box on the age of actress Betty White , which is "as unsourced and absolute as if handed down by God". [ 11 ] Declining Wikipedia article readership According to The Register in 2014, the display of direct answers in knowledge panels alongside Google search results caused significant readership declines for Wikipedia , from which the panels obtained some of their information. [ 18 ] Also in 2014, The Daily Dot noted that "Wikipedia still has no real competitor as far as actual content is concerned. All that's up for grabs are traffic stats. And as a nonprofit, traffic numbers don't equate into revenue in the same way they do for a commercial media site". After the article's publication, a spokesperson for the Wikimedia Foundation , which operates Wikipedia, stated that it "welcomes" the knowledge panel functionality, that it was "looking into" the traffic drops, and that "We've also not noticed a significant drop in search engine referrals. We also have a continuing dialog with staff from Google working on the Knowledge Panel". [ 19 ] In his 2020 book, Dariusz Jemielniak noted that as most Google users do not realize that many answers to their questions that appear in the Knowledge Graph come from Wikipedia, this reduces Wikipedia's popularity, and in turn limited the site's ability to raise new funds and attract new volunteers. [ 20 ] Bias The algorithm has been criticized for presenting biased or inaccurate information, usually because of sourcing information from websites with high search engine optimization . It had been noted in 2014 that while there was a Knowledge Graph for most major historical or pseudo-historical religious figures such as Moses , Muhammad and Gautama Buddha , there was none for Jesus , the central figure of Christianity . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] On June 3, 2021, a knowledge box identified Kannada as the ugliest language in India, prompting outrage from the Kannada-language community; the state of Karnataka , where most Kannada speakers live, also threatened to sue Google for damaging the public image of the language. Google promptly changed the featured snippet for the search query and issued a formal apology. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] See also Internet portal DBpedia Google Assistant Linked data Knowledge graph Semantic integration Semantic network Wikidata AI Overviews References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "About knowledge panels - Knowledge Panel Help" . Google Support . Retrieved March 15, 2021 . ^ "Your business information in the Knowledge Panel" . Google My Business Help . Google Inc . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Newton, Casey (December 4, 2012). "Google's Knowledge Graph tripled in size in seven months" . CNET . CBS Interactive . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Vincent, James (October 4, 2016). "Apple boasts about sales; Google boasts about how good its AI is" . The Verge . Vox Media . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ "A reintroduction to our Knowledge Graph and knowledge panels" . Google blog . May 20, 2020 . Retrieved May 26, 2020 . It's a system that understands facts and information about entities from materials shared across the web, as well as from open source and licensed databases. It has amassed over 500 billion facts about five billion entities. ^ Ehrlinger, Lisa; Wöß, Wolfram (2016). "Towards a Definition of Knowledge Graphs" (PDF) . ^ a b c Singhal, Amit (May 16, 2012). "Introducing the Knowledge Graph: Things, Not Strings" . Google Official Blog . Retrieved September 6, 2014 . ^ Lynley, Matthew (May 18, 2016). "Google unveils Google Assistant, a virtual assistant that's a big upgrade to Google Now" . TechCrunch . Oath Inc. Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Kovach, Steve (October 4, 2016). "Google is going to win the next major battle in computing" . Business Insider . Axel Springer SE . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Bohn, Dieter (May 18, 2016). "Google Home: a speaker to finally take on the Amazon Echo" . The Verge . Vox Media . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ a b c Dewey, Caitlin (May 11, 2016). "You Probably Haven't Even Noticed Google's Sketchy Quest to Control the World's Knowledge" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on June 3, 2016 . Retrieved May 25, 2022 . ^ Newton, Casey (December 14, 2012). "How Google is taking the Knowledge Graph global" . CNET . CBS Interactive . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ "Making it easier to Search in Bengali" . Official Google India Blog . Retrieved January 26, 2018 . ^ Hodson, Hal (August 20, 2014). "Google's fact-checking bots build vast knowledge bank" . New Scientist . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ a b Sterling, Greg (August 25, 2014). "Google "Knowledge Vault" To Power Future Of Search" . Search Engine Land . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Browne, Ryan (December 10, 2020). "Google launches knowledge panels in search results to tackle misinformation about Covid vaccines" . CNBC . Retrieved August 28, 2024 . ^ Lardinois, Frederic (May 16, 2012). "Google Just Got A Whole Lot Smarter, Launches Its Knowledge Graph" . TechCrunch . Retrieved August 28, 2024 . ^ Orlowski, Andrew (January 13, 2014). "Google stabs Wikipedia in the front" . The Register . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Kloc, Joe (January 8, 2014). "Is Google accidentally killing Wikipedia?" . The Daily Dot . Retrieved December 10, 2017 . ^ Jemielniak, Dariusz; Przegalinska, Aleksandra (February 18, 2020). Collaborative Society . MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-35645-9 . ^ Schwartz, Barry (July 8, 2014). "Why Does Google Exclude Jesus Christ From The Knowledge Graph" . Search Engine Roundtable . Retrieved May 29, 2016 . ^ Wolford, Josh (July 8, 2014). "Google Has a Jesus-Shaped Hole in Its Graph" . WebProNews . Retrieved May 29, 2016 . ^ "Why Google showed Kannada as 'ugliest language of India': Explained" . Hindustan Times . June 4, 2021. ^ Ives, Mike; Mozur, Paul (June 4, 2021). "India's 'Ugliest' Language? Google Had an Answer (and Drew a Backlash)" . The New York Times . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Google Search v t e Timeline of Google Search Features AI Overviews AI Mode Knowledge Graph SafeSearch SearchWiki Voice Search Google Personalized Search AI Overviews AI Mode Knowledge Graph SafeSearch SearchWiki Voice Search Google Personalized Search Component algorithms and updates Googlebot Hummingbird Mobilegeddon PageRank Matrix Panda Penguin Pigeon RankBrain Googlebot Hummingbird Mobilegeddon PageRank Matrix Matrix Panda Penguin Pigeon RankBrain Special purpose search engines Google Dataset Search Google Books Google Images Google Finance Google News Google News Archive Google Scholar Google Shopping Dragonfly Google Blog Search Google Code Search Google Dataset Search Google Books Google Images Google Finance Google News Google News Archive Google News Archive Google Scholar Google Shopping Dragonfly Google Blog Search Google Code Search Data insights Google Books Ngram Viewer Google Trends Google Insights for Search Year in Search Google Books Ngram Viewer Google Trends Google Insights for Search Google Insights for Search Year in Search Developer and business tools Google Programmable Search Engine Google Search Console Get Your Business Online Google Programmable Search Engine Google Search Console Get Your Business Online Related " Reunion " Google Search Appliance FairSearch " Reunion " Google Search Appliance FairSearch Google Search Internet search engines Knowledge bases Internet properties established in 2012 Knowledge graphs Information Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use mdy dates from May 2012 This page was last edited on 8 December 2025, at 03:06 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 18th century 1.2 19th century 1.2.1 Systems of inorganic earth history 1.2.2 Lyell 1.2.2.1 Methodological assumptions 1.2.2.2 Substantive hypotheses 1.3 20th century 1.1 18th century 1.2 19th century 1.2.1 Systems of inorganic earth history 1.2.2 Lyell 1.2.2.1 Methodological assumptions 1.2.2.2 Substantive hypotheses 1.2.1 Systems of inorganic earth history 1.2.2 Lyell 1.2.2.1 Methodological assumptions 1.2.2.2 Substantive hypotheses 1.2.2.1 Methodological assumptions 1.2.2.2 Substantive hypotheses 1.3 20th century 2 Social sciences 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links Uniformitarianism Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پښتو Polski Português Русский Scots Simple English Slovenčina Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Uniformitarianism , also known as the Doctrine of Uniformity or the Uniformitarian Principle , [ 1 ] is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in our present-day scientific observations have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] It refers to invariance in the metaphysical principles underpinning science, such as the constancy of cause and effect throughout space-time, [ 4 ] but has also been used to describe spatiotemporal invariance of physical laws . [ 5 ] Though an unprovable postulate that cannot be verified using the scientific method, [ 6 ] some consider that uniformitarianism should be a required first principle in scientific research. [ 7 ] In geology , uniformitarianism has included the gradualistic concept that "the present is the key to the past" and that geological events occur at the same rate now as they have always done, though many modern geologists no longer hold to a strict gradualism. [ 8 ] Coined by William Whewell , uniformitarianism was originally proposed in contrast to catastrophism [ 9 ] by British naturalists in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the geologist James Hutton in his many books including Theory of the Earth . [ 10 ] Hutton's work was later refined by scientist John Playfair and popularised by geologist Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology in 1830. [ 11 ] Today, Earth's history is considered to have been a slow, gradual process, punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events. History 18th century Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749–1817) proposed Neptunism , where strata represented deposits from shrinking seas precipitated onto primordial rocks such as granite . In 1785 James Hutton proposed an opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the Biblical account. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find a reason to conclude: 1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes. 2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And, Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at present. Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been required; 1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials; 2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean. [ 14 ] The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find a reason to conclude: Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been required; Hutton then sought evidence to support his idea that there must have been repeated cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed , uplift with tilting and erosion , and then moving undersea again for further layers to be deposited. At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains he found granite penetrating metamorphic schists , in a way which indicated to him that the presumed primordial rock had been molten after the strata had formed. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] He had read about angular unconformities as interpreted by Neptunists, and found an unconformity at Jedburgh where layers of greywacke in the lower layers of the cliff face have been tilted almost vertically before being eroded to form a level plane, under horizontal layers of Old Red Sandstone . [ 17 ] In the spring of 1788 he took a boat trip along the Berwickshire coast with John Playfair and the geologist Sir James Hall , and found a dramatic unconformity showing the same sequence at Siccar Point . [ 18 ] Playfair later recalled that "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time", [ 19 ] and Hutton concluded a 1788 paper he presented at the Royal Society of Edinburgh , later rewritten as a book, with the phrase "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end". [ 20 ] Both Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, and for decades robust debate continued between Hutton's supporters and the Neptunists. Georges Cuvier 's paleontological work in the 1790s, which established the reality of extinction , explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed species repopulated the affected areas. In Britain, geologists adapted this idea into " diluvial theory " which proposed repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood . [ 21 ] 19th century From 1830 to 1833 Charles Lyell 's multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation". He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text, [ 22 ] and developed Hutton's idea that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The terms uniformitarianism for this idea, and catastrophism for the opposing viewpoint, was coined by William Whewell in a review of Lyell's book. Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century. Systems of inorganic earth history Geoscientists support diverse systems of Earth history, the nature of which rests on a certain mixture of views about the process, control, rate, and state which are preferred. Because geologists and geomorphologists tend to adopt opposite views over process, rate, and state in the inorganic world, there are eight different systems of beliefs in the development of the terrestrial sphere. [ 23 ] All geoscientists stand by the principle of uniformity of law. Most, but not all, are directed by the principle of simplicity. All make definite assertions about the quality of rate and state in the inorganic realm. [ 24 ] Methodological assumption concerning kind of process Substantive claim concerning state Substantive claim Concerning rate System of Inorganic Earth history Promoters [ 25 ] Same Kind of processes that exist today Actualism Steady State Non-directionalism Constant Rate Gradualism Actualistic Non-directional Gradualism Most of Hutton, Playfair, Lyell Changing Rate Catastrophism Actualistic Non-directional Catastrophism Hall Changing State Directionalism Constant Rate Gradualism Actualistic Directional Gradualism Small part of Hutton, Cotta, Darwin Changing Rate Catastrophism Actualistic Directional Catastrophism Hooke, Steno, Lehmann, Pallas, de Saussure, Werner, and geognosists, Elis de Beaumont and followers Different Kind of processes than exist today Non-Actualism Steady State Non-directionalism Constant Rate Gradualism Non-Actualistic Non-directional Gradualism Carpenter Changing Rate Catastrophism Non-Actualistic Non-directional Catastrophism Bonnet, Cuvier Changing State Directionalism Constant Rate Gradualism Non-Actualistic directional Gradualism De Mallet, Buffon Changing Rate Catastrophism Non-Actualistic Directional Catastrophism Restoration cosmogonists, English diluvialists, Scriptural geologists Lyell Lyell's uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions, not a single idea: [ 26 ] Uniformity of law – the laws of nature are constant across time and space. Uniformity of methodology – the appropriate hypotheses for explaining the geological past are those with analogy today. Uniformity of kind – past and present causes are all of the same kind, have the same energy, and produce the same effects. Uniformity of degree – geological circumstances have remained the same over time. None of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians. [ 27 ] Gould explained Lyell's propositions in Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle (1987), stating that Lyell conflated two different types of propositions: a pair of methodological assumptions with a pair of substantive hypotheses . The four together make up Lyell's uniformitarianism. [ 28 ] Methodological assumptions The two methodological assumptions below are accepted to be true by the majority of scientists and geologists. Gould claims that these philosophical propositions must be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws or the working of unknown processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop." [ 29 ] Uniformity of law across time and space : Natural laws are constant across space and time. [ 30 ] Uniformity of process across time and space : Natural processes are constant across time and space. Substantive hypotheses The substantive hypotheses were controversial and, in some cases, accepted by few. [ 28 ] These hypotheses are judged true or false on empirical grounds through scientific observation and repeated experimental data. This is in contrast with the previous two philosophical assumptions [ 29 ] that come before one can do science and so cannot be tested or falsified by science. Uniformity of rate across time and space : Change is typically slow, steady, and gradual. [ 29 ] Uniformity of state across time and space : Change is evenly distributed throughout space and time. [ 37 ] 20th century Stephen Jay Gould 's first scientific paper, "Is uniformitarianism necessary?" (1965), reduced these four assumptions to two. [ 38 ] He dismissed the first principle, which asserted spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws, as no longer an issue of debate. He rejected the third (uniformity of rate) as an unjustified limitation on scientific inquiry, as it constrains past geologic rates and conditions to those of the present. So, Lyell's uniformitarianism was deemed unnecessary. Uniformitarianism was proposed in contrast to catastrophism , which states that the distant past "consisted of epochs of paroxysmal and catastrophic action interposed between periods of comparative tranquility" [ 39 ] Especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most geologists took this interpretation to mean that catastrophic events are not important in geologic time; one example of this is the debate of the formation of the Channeled Scablands due to the catastrophic Missoula glacial outburst floods. An important result of this debate and others was the re-clarification that, while the same principles operate in geologic time, catastrophic events that are infrequent on human time-scales can have important consequences in geologic history. [ 40 ] Derek Ager has noted that "geologists do not deny uniformitarianism in its true sense, that is to say, of interpreting the past by means of the processes that are seen going on at the present day, so long as we remember that the periodic catastrophe is one of those processes. Those periodic catastrophes make more showing in the stratigraphical record than we have hitherto assumed." [ 41 ] Modern geologists do not apply uniformitarianism in the same way as Lyell. They question if rates of processes were uniform through time and only those values measured during the history of geology are to be accepted. [ 42 ] The present may not be a long enough key to penetrating the deep lock of the past. [ 43 ] Geologic processes may have been active at different rates in the past that humans have not observed. "By force of popularity, uniformity of rate has persisted to our present day. For more than a century, Lyell's rhetoric conflating axiom with hypotheses has descended in unmodified form. Many geologists have been stifled by the belief that proper methodology includes an a priori commitment to gradual change, and by a preference for explaining large-scale phenomena as the concatenation of innumerable tiny changes." [ 44 ] The current consensus is that Earth's history is a slow, gradual process punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants. [ 45 ] In practice it is reduced from Lyell's conflation, or blending, to simply the two philosophical assumptions. This is also known as the principle of geological actualism, which states that all past geological action was like all present geological action. The principle of actualism is the cornerstone of paleoecology . [ 46 ] Social sciences Uniformitarianism has also been applied in historical linguistics , where it is considered a foundational principle of the field. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] Linguist Donald Ringe gives the following definition: [ 47 ] If language was normally acquired in the past in the same way as it is today – usually by native acquisition in early childhood – and if it was used in the same ways – to transmit information, to express solidarity with family, friends, and neighbors, to mark one's social position, etc. – then it must have had the same general structure and organization in the past as it does today, and it must have changed in the same ways as it does today. If language was normally acquired in the past in the same way as it is today – usually by native acquisition in early childhood – and if it was used in the same ways – to transmit information, to express solidarity with family, friends, and neighbors, to mark one's social position, etc. – then it must have had the same general structure and organization in the past as it does today, and it must have changed in the same ways as it does today. The principle is known in linguistics, after William Labov and associates, as the Uniformitarian Principle or Unifomitarian Hypothesis. [ 49 ] See also Conservation law Noether's theorem Law of universal gravitation Astronomical spectroscopy Cosmological principle History of paleontology Paradigm shift Physical constant Physical cosmology Scientific consensus Time-variation of fundamental constants Notes ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Scott, G. H. (1963). "Uniformitarianism, the uniformity of nature, and paleoecology" . New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics . 6 (4): 510– 527. Bibcode : 1963NZJGG...6..510S . doi : 10.1080/00288306.1963.10420063 . ISSN 0028-8306 . ^ Gordon 2013 , p. 79 ^ a b c d Gould 1965 , pp. 223–228, " The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations." ^ Gordon 2013 , p. 82; "The uniformitarian principle assumes that the behavior of nature is regular and indicative of an objective causal structure in which presently operative causes may be projected into the past to explain the historical development of the physical world and projected into the future for the purposes of prediction and control. In short, it involves the process of inferring past causes from presently observable effects under the assumption that the fundamental causal regularities of the world have not changed over time ." ^ Strahler, A.N. 1987. Science and Earth History- The Evolution/Creation Controversy, Prometheus Books, Amherst, New York, USA. p. 194: “Under the updated statement of a useful principle of uniformitarianism it boils down essentially to affirmation of the validity of universal scientific laws through time and space , coupled with a rejection of supernatural causes.” p. 62: “In cosmology, the study of the structure and evolution of the universe, it is assumed that the laws of physics are similar throughout the entire universe .” ^ Rosenberg, Alex. Philosophy of science: A contemporary introduction, 4th ed. Routledge, 2019, 173 ^ a b c Simpson 1963 , pp. 24–48, " Uniformity is an unprovable postulate justified, or indeed required, on two grounds. First, nothing in our incomplete but extensive knowledge of history disagrees with it. Second, only with this postulate is a rational interpretation of history possible , and we are justified in seeking—as scientists we must seek—such a rational interpretation." ^ FARIA, Felipe. Actualismo, Catastrofismo y Uniformitarismo. In: Pérez, María Luisa Bacarlett & Caponi, Gustavo. Pensar la vida: Filosofía, naturaleza y evolución . Toluca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, p. 55–80, 2015. [1] ^ Pidwirny & Jones 1999 , "the idea that Earth was shaped by a series of sudden, short-lived, violent events." ^ James, Hutton (1785). Theory of the Earth . CreateSpace Independent Publishing. ^ "Uniformitarianism: World of Earth Science" . Archived from the original on 2011-10-25 . Retrieved 2008-11-11 . ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 57–62 ^ Hutton, J. (1785). "Abstract, The System of the Earth, Its Duration and Stability" . Archived from the original on 2008-09-07. As it is not in human record, but in natural history , that we are to look for the means of ascertaining what has already been, it is here proposed to examine the appearances of the earth, in order to be informed of operations which have been transacted in time past. It is thus that, from principles of natural philosophy, we may arrive at some knowledge of order and system in the economy of this globe, and may form a rational opinion with regard to the course of nature, or to events which are in time to happen. ^ Concerning the System of the Earth Archived 2008-09-07 at the Wayback Machine abstract, as read by James Hutton at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 4 July 1785, printed and circulated privately. ^ Robert Macfarlane (13 September 2003). "Glimpses into the abyss of time" . The Spectator . Archived from the original on 1 November 2007. Hutton possessed an instinctive ability to reverse physical processes – to read landscapes backwards, as it were. Fingering the white quartz which seamed the grey granite boulders in a Scottish glen, for instance, he understood the confrontation that had once occurred between the two types of rock, and he perceived how, under fantastic pressure, the molten quartz had forced its way into the weaknesses in the mother granite. Review of Repcheck's The Man Who Found Time ^ "Scottish Geology – Glen Tilt" . Archived from the original on 2006-06-16. ^ "Jedburgh: Hutton's Unconformity" . Jedburgh online . Archived from the original on 2009-07-29. Whilst visiting Allar's Mill on the Jed Water, Hutton was delighted to see horizontal bands of red sandstone lying 'unconformably' on top of near vertical and folded bands of rock. ^ "Hutton's Unconformity" . Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. ^ John Playfair (1999). "Hutton's Unconformity" . Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , vol. V, pt. III, 1805, quoted in Natural History , June 1999 . Archived from the original on 2005-01-07. ^ Keith Stewart Thomson (May–June 2001). "Vestiges of James Hutton" . American Scientist . 89 (3): 212. doi : 10.1511/2001.3.212 . Archived from the original on 2011-06-11. It is ironic that Hutton, the man whose prose style is usually dismissed as unreadable, should have coined one of the most memorable, and indeed lyrical, sentences in all science: "(in geology) we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of an end". In those simple words, Hutton framed a concept that no one had previously contemplated, that the rocks making up the earth today have not, after all, been here since Creation. ^ Bowler 2003 , pp. 111–117 ^ Wilson, Leonard G. "Charles Lyell" Dictionary of Scientific Biography . Ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie. Vol. VIII. Pennsylvania, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973 ^ Huggett 1990 , p. 34. ^ Huggett 1990 , p. 33. ^ Huggett 1990 , p. 35. ^ Hooykaas 1963 . ^ David Cahan, 2003, From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences , p 95 ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7 . ^ a b Gould 1987 , p. 118 ^ a b c Gould 1987 , p. 120 . "You first assume." ^ a b c d Gould 1987 , p. 119, " Making inferences about the past is wrapped up in the difference between studying the observable and the unobservable. In the observable, erroneous beliefs can be proven wrong and be inductively corrected by other observations. This is Popper's principle of falsifiability . However, past processes are not observable by their very nature. Therefore, ' the invariance of nature's laws must be assumed to come to conclusions about the past. " ^ Hutton, J. (1795). Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations . p. 297. If the stone, for example, which fell today, were to rise again tomorrow, there would be an end of natural philosophy [i.e., science], our principles would fail, and we would no longer investigate the rules of nature from our observations . ^ Gould 1984 , p. 11, "As such, it is another a priori methodological assumption shared by most scientists and not a statement about the empirical world." ^ Gould 1987 , p. 120, "We should try to explain the past by causes now in operation without inventing extra, fancy, or unknown causes, however plausible in logic, if available processes suffice." ^ Hooykaas 1963 , p. 38, "Strict uniformitarianism may often be a guarantee against pseudo-scientific phantasies and loose conjectures, but it makes one easily forget that the principle of uniformity is not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a methodological principle, preceding the observation of facts ... It is the logical principle of parsimony of causes and of the economy of scientific notions. By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there is an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different." ^ Lemon, R. R. 1990. Principles of stratigraphy . Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. p. 30 ^ Gould 1987 , pp. 120–121 ^ a b Gould 1987 , p. 123 ^ Gould 1965 ^ William J. Whewell, Principles of Geology , Charles Leyell, vol. II, London, 1832: Quart. Rev., v. 47, p. 103-123. ^ Allen, E. A., et al., 1986, Cataclysms on the Columbia, Timber Press, Portland, OR. ISBN 978-0-88192-067-3 "Bretz knew that the very idea of catastrophic flooding would threaten and anger the geological community . And here's why: among geologists in the 1920s, catastrophic explanations for geological events (other than volcanos or earthquakes) were considered wrong-minded to the point of heresy." p. 42. "Consider, then, what Bretz was up against. The very word 'Catastrophism' was heinous in the ears of geologists. ... It was a step backward, a betrayal of all that geological science had fought to gain . It was a heresy of the worst order." p. 44 "It was inevitable that sooner or later the geological community would rise up and attempt to defeat Bretz's 'outrageous hypothesis.'" p 49 "Nearly 50 years had passed since Bretz first proposed the idea of catastrophic flooding, and now in 1971 his arguments had become a standard of geological thinking ." p. 71 "Bretz knew that the very idea of catastrophic flooding would threaten and anger the geological community . And here's why: among geologists in the 1920s, catastrophic explanations for geological events (other than volcanos or earthquakes) were considered wrong-minded to the point of heresy." p. 42. "Consider, then, what Bretz was up against. The very word 'Catastrophism' was heinous in the ears of geologists. ... It was a step backward, a betrayal of all that geological science had fought to gain . It was a heresy of the worst order." p. 44 "It was inevitable that sooner or later the geological community would rise up and attempt to defeat Bretz's 'outrageous hypothesis.'" p 49 "Nearly 50 years had passed since Bretz first proposed the idea of catastrophic flooding, and now in 1971 his arguments had become a standard of geological thinking ." p. 71 ^ Ager, Derek V. (1993). The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record (3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 83– 84. ISBN 0-471-93808-4 . ^ Smith, Gary A; Aurora Pun (2006). How Does Earth Work: Physical Geology and the Process of Science (textbook) . New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. p. 12. ISBN 0-13-034129-0 . ^ Ager, Derek V. (1993). The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record (3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. p. 81. ISBN 0-471-93808-4 . ^ Gould 1987 , p. 174 ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition, uniformitarianism Archived 2006-06-24 at the Wayback Machine © 2007 Columbia University Press. ^ Forster, Geoffrey P. (2010). Half Life: Extending the Effective Lifespan of the Corporation . APAC Press. p. 62. ^ a b Ringe, Donald (2012). "The Uniformitarian Principle in linguistics" . University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences . Archived from the original on 2019-09-04 . Retrieved 2020-03-22 . ^ Walkden, George (2019). "The many faces of uniformitarianism in linguistics" . Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics . 4 (1): 52. doi : 10.5334/gjgl.888 . ISSN 2397-1835 . ^ Romaine, Suzanne (1988). "Historical Sociolinguistics: Problems and Methodology". In Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus (eds.). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society [ Soziolinguistik: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft ]. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 1452– 1468. ISBN 9783110116458 . OCLC 751072376 . References Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23693-9 . Gordon, B. L. (2013). "In Defense of Uniformitarianism". Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith . 65 : 79– 86. Gould, S. J. (1965). "Is uniformitarianism necessary?" . American Journal of Science . 263 (3): 223– 228. Bibcode : 1965AmJS..263..223G . doi : 10.2475/ajs.263.3.223 . Gould, S. J. (1984). "Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history" . In Berggren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.). In Catastrophes and Earth History . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 11 . Gould, Stephen J. (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hooykaas, Reijer (1963). The Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology . Natural Law and Divine Miracle. London: E.J. Brill . p. 38. Huggett, Richard (1990). Catastophism: Systems of Earth History . London: Edward Arnold. Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton, C. C. Jr. (ed.). Fabric of geology . Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company. pp. 24– 48. Pidwirny, Michael; Jones, Scott (1999). "Fundamentals of Physical Geography, (2 Edition). Chapter 10: Introduction to the Lithosphere, Section C: Concept of Uniformitarianism" . University of British Columbia, Okanagan. Thomson, William (1866). "The "Doctrine of Uniformity" in Geology Briefly Refuted" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh . pp. 512– 13. External links Uniformitarianism at Physical Geography "Uniformitarianism" . Physical Geography . About. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05 . Retrieved 2006-10-08 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Less than one second 2 More than one second 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Orders of magnitude (time) العربية Català Deutsch Français 한국어 Italiano Bahasa Melayu 日本語 Português Simple English ไทย Українська اردو 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Orders of magnitude" time – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( January 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) An order of magnitude of time is usually a decimal prefix or decimal order-of-magnitude quantity together with a base unit of time , like a microsecond or a million years . In some cases, the order of magnitude may be implied (usually 1), like a "second" or "year." In other cases, the quantity name implies the base unit , like "century." In most cases, the base unit is seconds or years. Prefixes are not usually used with a base unit of years. Therefore, it is said "a million years" instead of "a megayear." Clock time and calendar time have duodecimal or sexagesimal orders of magnitude rather than decimal, e.g., a year is 12 months, and a minute is 60 seconds. The smallest meaningful increment of time is Planck time –the time light takes to traverse the Planck distance , many decimal orders of magnitude smaller than a second. [ 1 ] The largest realized amount of time, based on known scientific data, is the age of the universe , about 13.8 billion years — the time since the Big Bang as measured in the cosmic microwave background rest frame . [ 2 ] Those amounts of time together span 60 decimal orders of magnitude. Metric prefixes are defined spanning 10 −30 to 10 30 , 60 decimal orders of magnitude which may be used in conjunction with the metric base unit of second. Metric units of time larger than the second are most commonly seen only in a few scientific contexts such as observational astronomy and materials science, although this depends on the author. For everyday use and most other scientific contexts, the common units of minutes, hours (3 600 s or 3.6 ks), days (86 400 s), weeks, months, and years (of which there are a number of variations) are commonly used. Weeks, months, and years are significantly variable units whose lengths depend on the choice of calendar and are often not regular even with a calendar, e.g., leap years versus regular years in the Gregorian calendar . This makes them problematic for use against a linear and regular time scale such as that defined by the SI , since it is not clear which version is being used. Because of this, the table below does not include weeks, months, and years. Instead, the table uses the annum or astronomical Julian year (365.25 days of 86 400 seconds), denoted with the symbol a. Its definition is based on the average length of a year according to the Julian calendar , which has one leap year every four years. According to the geological science convention, this is used to form larger units of time by the application of SI prefixes to it; at least up to giga-annum or Ga, equal to 1 000 000 000 a ( short scale : one billion years, long scale : one milliard years). Less than one second Multiple of a second Unit Symbol Definition Comparative examples & common units 10 −44 Planck time t P Presumed to be the shortest theoretically measurable time interval (but not necessarily the shortest increment of time—see quantum gravity ) 10 −14 qs : The length of one Planck time ( t P = ℏ G / c 5 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\hbar G/c^{5}}}} ≈ 5.39 × 10 −44 s ) [ 3 ] is the briefest physically meaningful span of time. It is the unit of time in the natural units system known as Planck units . 10 −30 quectosecond qs Quectosecond , ( quecto- + second ), is one nonillionth of a second 10 −27 rontosecond rs Rontosecond , ( ronto- + second ), is one octillionth of a second 300 rs : The mean lifetime of W and Z bosons 10 −24 yoctosecond ys [ 4 ] Yoctosecond , ( yocto- + second ), is one septillionth of a second 86 ys : The estimated value on the half-life of isotope 5 of hydrogen (hydrogen-5) 143 ys : The half-life of the nitrogen-10 isotope of nitrogen 156 ys : The mean lifetime of a Higgs boson 10 −21 zeptosecond zs Zeptosecond , ( zepto- + second ), is one sextillionth of one second 1.3 zs : Smallest experimentally controlled time delay in a photon field. [ 5 ] 2 zs : The representative cycle time of gamma ray radiation released in the decay of a radioactive atomic nucleus (here as 2 MeV per emitted photon ) 4 zs : The cycle time of the zitterbewegung of an electron ( ω = 2 m e c 2 / ℏ {\displaystyle \omega =2m_{e}c^{2}/\hbar } ) 18zs : The half-life of Neutronium-4 247 zs : The experimentally measured travel time of a photon across a hydrogen molecule, "for the average bond length of molecular hydrogen" [ 6 ] 18zs : The half-life of Neutronium-4 247 zs : The experimentally measured travel time of a photon across a hydrogen molecule, "for the average bond length of molecular hydrogen" [ 6 ] 10 −18 attosecond as One quintillionth of one second 12 as : The best timing control of laser pulses. [ 7 ] 43 as : The shortest X-ray laser pulse [ 8 ] 53 as : The shortest electron laser pulse [ 9 ] [ 10 ] 10 −15 femtosecond fs One quadrillionth of one second 1 fs : The cycle time for ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 300 nanometres ; the time it takes light to travel a distance of 0.3 micrometres (μm). 7.58 fs : The period of vibration of a hydrogen molecule. 140 fs : The time needed for electrons to have localized onto individual bromine atoms 6 Ångstrom apart after laser dissociation of Br 2 . [ 11 ] 290 fs : The lifetime of a tauon 10 −12 picosecond ps One trillionth of one second 1 ps : The mean lifetime of a bottom quark ; the time needed for light to travel 0.3 millimetres (mm) 1 ps : The typical lifetime of a transition state one machine cycle by an IBM silicon-germanium transistor 109 ps : The period of the photon corresponding to the hyperfine transition of the ground state of caesium-133 , and one 9,192,631,770th of one second by definition 114.6 ps : The time for the fastest overclocked processor as of 2014 [update] to execute one machine cycle. [ 12 ] 696 ps : How much more a second lasts far away from Earth's gravity due to the effects of general relativity 10 −9 nanosecond ns One billionth of one second 1 ns : The time needed to execute one machine cycle by a 1 GHz microprocessor 1 ns : The time light takes to travel 30 cm (11.811 in) 10 −6 microsecond μs One millionth of one second 1 μs : The time needed to execute one machine cycle by an Intel 80186 microprocessor 2.2 μs : The lifetime of a muon 4–16 μs : The time needed to execute one machine cycle by a 1960s minicomputer 10 −3 millisecond ms One thousandth of one second 1 ms : The time for a neuron in the human brain to fire one impulse and return to rest [ 13 ] 4–8 ms : The typical seek time for a computer hard disk 10 −2 centisecond cs One hundredth of one second 1.6667 cs : The period of a frame at a frame rate of 60 Hz. 2 cs : The cycle time for European 50 Hz AC electricity 10–20 cs (=0.1–0.2 s): The human reflex response to visual stimuli 10–20 cs (=0.1–0.2 s): The human reflex response to visual stimuli 10 −1 decisecond ds One tenth of a second 1–4 ds (=0.1–0.4 s): The length of a single blink of an eye [ 14 ] More than one second In this table, large intervals of time surpassing one second are catalogued in order of the SI multiples of the second as well as their equivalent in common time units of minutes, hours, days, and Julian years. Multiple of a second Unit Symbol Common units Comparative examples and common units 10 1 decasecond das single seconds ( 1 das = 10 s) ( 1 das = 10 s) 6 das : One minute (min), the time it takes a second hand to cycle around a clock face 10 2 hectosecond hs minutes ( 1 hs = 1 min 40 s = 100 s) 2 hs (3 min 20 s): The average length of the most popular YouTube videos as of January 2017 [ 15 ] 5.55 hs (9 min 12 s): The longest videos in the above study 7.1 hs (11 m 50 s): The time for a human walking at average speed of 1.4 m/s to walk 1 kilometre 9 hs (14 m): The time for Neutronium-1 to decay 7.1 hs (11 m 50 s): The time for a human walking at average speed of 1.4 m/s to walk 1 kilometre 9 hs (14 m): The time for Neutronium-1 to decay 10 3 kilosecond ks minutes, hours, days ( 1 ks = 16 min 40 s = 1,000 s) ( 1 ks = 16 min 40 s = 1,000 s) 1 ks : The record confinement time for antimatter , specifically antihydrogen , in electrically neutral state as of 2011; [ 16 ] 1.477 ks : The longest period in which a person has not taken a breath. 1.8 ks : The time slot for the typical situation comedy on television with advertisements included 2.28 ks : The duration of the Anglo-Zanzibar War , the shortest war in recorded history. 3.6 ks : The length of one hour (h), the time for the minute hand of a clock to cycle once around the face, approximately 1/24 of one mean solar day 7.2 ks (2 h): The typical length of feature films 35.73 ks : the rotational period of planet Jupiter, fastest planet to rotate 38.0196 ks : rotational period of Saturn, second shortest rotational period 57.996 ks : one day on planet Neptune. 62.064 ks : one day on Uranus. 86.399 ks (23 h 59 min 59 s): The length of one day with a removed leap second on UTC time scale. Such has not yet occurred. 86.4 ks (24 h): The length of one day of Earth by standard. More exactly, the mean solar day is 86.400 002 ks due to tidal braking , and increasing at the rate of approximately 2 ms/century; to correct for this time standards like UTC use leap seconds with the interval described as "a day" on them being most often 86.4 ks exactly by definition but occasionally one second more or less so that every day contains a whole number of seconds while preserving alignment with astronomical time. The hour hand of an analogue clock will typically cycle twice around the dial in this period as most analogue clocks are 12-hour , less common are analogue 24-hour clocks in which it cycles around once. 86.401 ks (24 h 0 min 1 s): One day with an added leap second on UTC time scale. While this is strictly 24 hours and 1 second in conventional units, a digital clock of suitable capability level will most often display the leap second as 23:59:60 and not 24:00:00 before rolling over to 00:00:00 the next day, as though the last "minute" of the day was crammed with 61 seconds and not 60, and similarly the last "hour" was crammed with 3,601 seconds instead of 3,600. 88.775 ks (24 h 39 min 35 s): One sol of Mars 604.8 ks (7 d): One week of the Gregorian calendar 1.477 ks : The longest period in which a person has not taken a breath. 1.8 ks : The time slot for the typical situation comedy on television with advertisements included 2.28 ks : The duration of the Anglo-Zanzibar War , the shortest war in recorded history. 3.6 ks : The length of one hour (h), the time for the minute hand of a clock to cycle once around the face, approximately 1/24 of one mean solar day 7.2 ks (2 h): The typical length of feature films 35.73 ks : the rotational period of planet Jupiter, fastest planet to rotate 38.0196 ks : rotational period of Saturn, second shortest rotational period 57.996 ks : one day on planet Neptune. 62.064 ks : one day on Uranus. 86.399 ks (23 h 59 min 59 s): The length of one day with a removed leap second on UTC time scale. Such has not yet occurred. 86.4 ks (24 h): The length of one day of Earth by standard. More exactly, the mean solar day is 86.400 002 ks due to tidal braking , and increasing at the rate of approximately 2 ms/century; to correct for this time standards like UTC use leap seconds with the interval described as "a day" on them being most often 86.4 ks exactly by definition but occasionally one second more or less so that every day contains a whole number of seconds while preserving alignment with astronomical time. The hour hand of an analogue clock will typically cycle twice around the dial in this period as most analogue clocks are 12-hour , less common are analogue 24-hour clocks in which it cycles around once. 86.401 ks (24 h 0 min 1 s): One day with an added leap second on UTC time scale. While this is strictly 24 hours and 1 second in conventional units, a digital clock of suitable capability level will most often display the leap second as 23:59:60 and not 24:00:00 before rolling over to 00:00:00 the next day, as though the last "minute" of the day was crammed with 61 seconds and not 60, and similarly the last "hour" was crammed with 3,601 seconds instead of 3,600. 88.775 ks (24 h 39 min 35 s): One sol of Mars 604.8 ks (7 d): One week of the Gregorian calendar 10 6 megasecond Ms weeks to years ( 1 Ms = 11 d 13 h 46 min 40 s = 1,000,000 s) ( 1 Ms = 11 d 13 h 46 min 40 s = 1,000,000 s) 1.6416 Ms (19 d): The length of a month of the Baháʼí calendar 2.36 Ms (27.32 d): The length of the true month, the orbital period of the Moon 2.4192 Ms (28 d): The length of February, the shortest month of the Gregorian calendar , in common years 2.5056 Ms (29 d): The length of February in leap years 2.592 Ms (30 d): The length of April, June, September, and November in the Gregorian calendar ; common interval used in legal agreements and contracts as a proxy for a month 2.6784 Ms (31 d): The length of the longest months of the Gregorian calendar 23 Ms (270 d): The approximate length of typical human gestational period 31.5576 Ms (365.25 d): The length of the Julian year , also called the annum , symbol a . 5.06703168 Ms : The rotational period of Mercury. 7.600544064 Ms : One year on Mercury. 19.41414912 Ms : One year on Venus. 20.9967552 Ms : The rotational period of Venus. 31.55815 Ms (365 d 6 h 9 min 10 s): The length of the true year, the orbital period of the Earth 126.2326 Ms (1461 d 0 h 34 min 40 s): The elected term of the President of the United States or one Olympiad 2.36 Ms (27.32 d): The length of the true month, the orbital period of the Moon 2.4192 Ms (28 d): The length of February, the shortest month of the Gregorian calendar , in common years 2.5056 Ms (29 d): The length of February in leap years 2.592 Ms (30 d): The length of April, June, September, and November in the Gregorian calendar ; common interval used in legal agreements and contracts as a proxy for a month 2.6784 Ms (31 d): The length of the longest months of the Gregorian calendar 23 Ms (270 d): The approximate length of typical human gestational period 31.5576 Ms (365.25 d): The length of the Julian year , also called the annum , symbol a . 5.06703168 Ms : The rotational period of Mercury. 7.600544064 Ms : One year on Mercury. 19.41414912 Ms : One year on Venus. 20.9967552 Ms : The rotational period of Venus. 31.55815 Ms (365 d 6 h 9 min 10 s): The length of the true year, the orbital period of the Earth 126.2326 Ms (1461 d 0 h 34 min 40 s): The elected term of the President of the United States or one Olympiad 10 9 gigasecond Gs decades, centuries, millennia ( 1 Gs = over 31 years and 287 days = 1,000,000,000 s) ( 1 Gs = over 31 years and 287 days = 1,000,000,000 s) 2.5 Gs : (79 a): The typical human life expectancy in the developed world 3.16 Gs : (100 a): One century 31.6 Gs : (1,000 a, 1 ka): One millennium , also called a kilo-annum (ka) 194.67 Gs (6.173 ka): The approximate lifespan of time capsule Crypt of Civilization , 28 May 1940 – 28 May 8113 363 Gs : (11.5 ka): The time since the beginning of the Holocene epoch 814 Gs : (25.8 ka): The approximate time for the cycle of precession of the Earth's axis 2.5 Gs : (79 a): The typical human life expectancy in the developed world 3.16 Gs : (100 a): One century 31.6 Gs : (1,000 a, 1 ka): One millennium , also called a kilo-annum (ka) 194.67 Gs (6.173 ka): The approximate lifespan of time capsule Crypt of Civilization , 28 May 1940 – 28 May 8113 363 Gs : (11.5 ka): The time since the beginning of the Holocene epoch 814 Gs : (25.8 ka): The approximate time for the cycle of precession of the Earth's axis 10 12 terasecond Ts millennia to geological epochs ( 1 Ts = over 31,600 years = 1,000,000,000,000 s) ( 1 Ts = over 31,600 years = 1,000,000,000,000 s) 3.1 Ts (100 ka): approximate length of a glacial period of the current Quaternary glaciation epoch 31.6 Ts (1000 ka, 1 Ma): One mega-annum (Ma), or one million years 79 Ts (2.5 Ma): The approximate time since earliest hominids of genus Australopithecus 130 Ts (4 Ma): The typical lifetime of a biological species on Earth 137 Ts (4.32 Ma): The length of the mythic unit of mahayuga , the Great Age, in Hindu mythology . 31.6 Ts (1000 ka, 1 Ma): One mega-annum (Ma), or one million years 79 Ts (2.5 Ma): The approximate time since earliest hominids of genus Australopithecus 130 Ts (4 Ma): The typical lifetime of a biological species on Earth 137 Ts (4.32 Ma): The length of the mythic unit of mahayuga , the Great Age, in Hindu mythology . 10 15 petasecond Ps geological eras , history of Earth and the Universe 2 Ps : The approximate time since the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event , believed to be caused by the impact of a large asteroid into Chicxulub in modern-day Mexico. This extinction was one of the largest in Earth's history and marked the demise of most dinosaurs, with the only known exception being the ancestors of today's birds. 7.9 Ps (250 Ma): The approximate time since the Permian-Triassic extinction event , the actually largest known mass extinction in Earth history which wiped out 95% of all extant species and believed to have been caused by the consequences of massive long-term volcanic eruptions in the area of the Siberian Traps . Also, the approximate time to the supercontinent of Pangaea . Also, the length of one galactic year or cosmic year , the time required for the Sun to complete one orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy . 16 Ps (510 Ma): The approximate time since the Cambrian explosion , a massive evolutionary diversification of life which led to the appearance of most existing multicellular organisms and the replacement of the previous Ediacaran biota . 22 Ps (704 Ma): The approximate half-life of the uranium isotope 235 U. 31.6 Ps (1000 Ma, 1 Ga): One giga-annum (Ga), one billion years, the largest fixed time unit used in the standard geological time scale , approximately the order of magnitude of an eon , the largest division of geological time. +1 Ga : The estimated remaining habitable lifetime of Earth, according to some models. At this point in time the stellar evolution of the Sun will have increased its luminosity to the point that enough energy will be reaching the Earth to cause the evaporation of the oceans and their loss into space (due to the UV flux from the Sun at the top of the atmosphere dissociating the molecules), making it impossible for any life to continue. 136 Ps (4.32 Ga): The length of the legendary unit Kalpa in Hindu mythology , or one day (but not including the following night) of the life of Brahma . 143 Ps (4.5 Ga): The age of the Earth by our best estimates. Also the approximate half-life of the uranium isotope 238 U. 315 Ps (10 Ga): The approximate lifetime of a main-sequence star similar to the Sun . 434.8 Ps (13.787 Ga): The approximate age of the Universe 7.9 Ps (250 Ma): The approximate time since the Permian-Triassic extinction event , the actually largest known mass extinction in Earth history which wiped out 95% of all extant species and believed to have been caused by the consequences of massive long-term volcanic eruptions in the area of the Siberian Traps . Also, the approximate time to the supercontinent of Pangaea . Also, the length of one galactic year or cosmic year , the time required for the Sun to complete one orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy . 16 Ps (510 Ma): The approximate time since the Cambrian explosion , a massive evolutionary diversification of life which led to the appearance of most existing multicellular organisms and the replacement of the previous Ediacaran biota . 22 Ps (704 Ma): The approximate half-life of the uranium isotope 235 U. 31.6 Ps (1000 Ma, 1 Ga): One giga-annum (Ga), one billion years, the largest fixed time unit used in the standard geological time scale , approximately the order of magnitude of an eon , the largest division of geological time. +1 Ga : The estimated remaining habitable lifetime of Earth, according to some models. At this point in time the stellar evolution of the Sun will have increased its luminosity to the point that enough energy will be reaching the Earth to cause the evaporation of the oceans and their loss into space (due to the UV flux from the Sun at the top of the atmosphere dissociating the molecules), making it impossible for any life to continue. 136 Ps (4.32 Ga): The length of the legendary unit Kalpa in Hindu mythology , or one day (but not including the following night) of the life of Brahma . 143 Ps (4.5 Ga): The age of the Earth by our best estimates. Also the approximate half-life of the uranium isotope 238 U. 315 Ps (10 Ga): The approximate lifetime of a main-sequence star similar to the Sun . 434.8 Ps (13.787 Ga): The approximate age of the Universe 10 18 exasecond Es future cosmological time All times of this length and beyond are currently theoretical as they surpass the elapsed lifetime of the known universe . 1.08 Es (+34 Ga): Time to the Big Rip according to some models, but this is not favored by existing data. This is one possible scenario for the ultimate fate of the Universe . Under this scenario, dark energy increases in strength and power in a feedback loop that eventually results in the tearing apart of all matter down to subatomic scale due to the rapidly increasing negative pressure thereupon 30 Es (1000 Ga, 1 Ta): One tera-annum (Ta), one trillion years 300 – 600 Es (10 – 20 Ta): The estimated lifetime of low-mass stars ( red dwarfs ) 1.08 Es (+34 Ga): Time to the Big Rip according to some models, but this is not favored by existing data. This is one possible scenario for the ultimate fate of the Universe . Under this scenario, dark energy increases in strength and power in a feedback loop that eventually results in the tearing apart of all matter down to subatomic scale due to the rapidly increasing negative pressure thereupon 30 Es (1000 Ga, 1 Ta): One tera-annum (Ta), one trillion years 300 – 600 Es (10 – 20 Ta): The estimated lifetime of low-mass stars ( red dwarfs ) 10 21 zettasecond Zs 3 Zs (+100 Ta): The remaining time until the end of Stelliferous Era of the universe, under the heat death scenario for the ultimate fate of the Universe , which is the most commonly accepted model in the current scientific community. This is marked by the cooling-off of the last low-mass dwarf star to a black dwarf . After this time has elapsed, the Degenerate Era begins. 9.85 Zs (311 Ta): The entire lifetime of Brahma in Hindu mythology . 9.85 Zs (311 Ta): The entire lifetime of Brahma in Hindu mythology . 10 24 yottasecond Ys 600 Ys ( 2 × 10 19 a ): The radioactive half-life of bismuth-209 by alpha decay , one of the slowest-observed radioactive decay processes. 10 27 ronnasecond Rs 3.16 Rs ( 1 × 10 20 a ): The estimated time until all stars are ejected from their galaxies or consumed by black holes. 32 Rs ( 1 × 10 21 a ): Highest estimate of the time until all stars are ejected from galaxies or consumed by black holes. 32 Rs ( 1 × 10 21 a ): Highest estimate of the time until all stars are ejected from galaxies or consumed by black holes. 10 30 and onward quettasecond and beyond Qs and on 69 Qs ( 2.2 × 10 24 a ): The radioactive half-life of tellurium-128 , the longest known half-life of any elemental isotope . 1,340,009 Qs ( 4.134 105 × 10 28 years ): The time period equivalent to the value of 13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.0.0.0.0 in the Mesoamerican Long Count , a date discovered on a stele at the Coba Maya site, believed by archaeologist Linda Schele to be the absolute value for the length of one cycle of the universe [ 17 ] [ 18 ] 2.6 × 10 11 Qs ( 8.2 × 10 33 years ): The smallest possible value for proton half-life consistent with experiment [ 19 ] 10 23 Qs ( 3.2 × 10 45 years ): The largest possible value for the proton half-life , assuming that the Big Bang was inflationary and that the same process that made baryons predominate over antibaryons in the early Universe also makes protons decay [ 20 ] 6 × 10 43 Qs ( 2 × 10 66 years ): The approximate lifespan of a black hole with the mass of the Sun [ 21 ] 4 × 10 63 Qs ( 1.3 × 10 86 years ): The approximate lifespan of Sagittarius A* , if uncharged and non-rotating [ 21 ] 5.4 × 10 83 Qs ( 1.7 × 10 106 years ): The approximate lifespan of a supermassive black hole with a mass of 20 trillion solar masses [ 21 ] 10 1500 {\displaystyle 10^{1500}} Qs: Estimated time for iron star formation if protons do not decay. [ 22 ] 10 10 10 76.66 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{76.66}}}} Qs: The scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing an isolated black hole of stellar mass [ 23 ] This time assumes a statistical model subject to Poincaré recurrence. A much simplified way of thinking about this time is that in a model in which history repeats itself arbitrarily many times due to properties of statistical mechanics , this is the time scale when it will first be somewhat similar (for a reasonable choice of "similar") to its current state again. 10 10 10 123 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{123}}}} Qs: The scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing a black hole with the mass of the observable Universe. [ 23 ] 10 10 10 10 10 1.1 {\displaystyle {10}^{{10}^{{10}^{{10}^{{10}^{1.1}}}}}} Qs ( 10 10 10 3 , 883 , 775 , 501 , 690 {\displaystyle {10}^{{10}^{{10}^{3,883,775,501,690}}}} years): The scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing a black hole with the estimated mass of the entire Universe, observable or not, assuming Linde's Chaotic Inflationary model with an inflaton whose mass is 10 −6 Planck masses . [ 23 ] 1,340,009 Qs ( 4.134 105 × 10 28 years ): The time period equivalent to the value of 13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.13.0.0.0.0 in the Mesoamerican Long Count , a date discovered on a stele at the Coba Maya site, believed by archaeologist Linda Schele to be the absolute value for the length of one cycle of the universe [ 17 ] [ 18 ] 2.6 × 10 11 Qs ( 8.2 × 10 33 years ): The smallest possible value for proton half-life consistent with experiment [ 19 ] 10 23 Qs ( 3.2 × 10 45 years ): The largest possible value for the proton half-life , assuming that the Big Bang was inflationary and that the same process that made baryons predominate over antibaryons in the early Universe also makes protons decay [ 20 ] 6 × 10 43 Qs ( 2 × 10 66 years ): The approximate lifespan of a black hole with the mass of the Sun [ 21 ] 4 × 10 63 Qs ( 1.3 × 10 86 years ): The approximate lifespan of Sagittarius A* , if uncharged and non-rotating [ 21 ] 5.4 × 10 83 Qs ( 1.7 × 10 106 years ): The approximate lifespan of a supermassive black hole with a mass of 20 trillion solar masses [ 21 ] 10 1500 {\displaystyle 10^{1500}} Qs: Estimated time for iron star formation if protons do not decay. [ 22 ] 10 10 10 76.66 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{76.66}}}} Qs: The scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing an isolated black hole of stellar mass [ 23 ] This time assumes a statistical model subject to Poincaré recurrence. A much simplified way of thinking about this time is that in a model in which history repeats itself arbitrarily many times due to properties of statistical mechanics , this is the time scale when it will first be somewhat similar (for a reasonable choice of "similar") to its current state again. 10 10 10 123 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{123}}}} Qs: The scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing a black hole with the mass of the observable Universe. [ 23 ] 10 10 10 10 10 1.1 {\displaystyle {10}^{{10}^{{10}^{{10}^{{10}^{1.1}}}}}} Qs ( 10 10 10 3 , 883 , 775 , 501 , 690 {\displaystyle {10}^{{10}^{{10}^{3,883,775,501,690}}}} years): The scale of an estimated Poincaré recurrence time for the quantum state of a hypothetical box containing a black hole with the estimated mass of the entire Universe, observable or not, assuming Linde's Chaotic Inflationary model with an inflaton whose mass is 10 −6 Planck masses . [ 23 ] Multiples Unit Symbol 6×10 1 seconds 1 minute min 6×10 1 minutes 1 hour h (hr) 2.4×10 1 hours 1 day d See also Geologic time scale International System of Units Orders of magnitude (frequency) Planck units Scale (analytical tool) Temporal resolution Timeline of the far future Year References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Planck Time | COSMOS" . astronomy.swin.edu.au . 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External links Exploring Time from Planck time to the lifespan of the universe .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Orders of magnitude v t e Quantity Acceleration Angular momentum Area Bit rate Charge Computing Current Data Density Energy / Energy density Entropy Force Frequency Illuminance Length Luminance Magnetic moment Magnetic field Mass Molarity Numbers Power Pressure Probability Radiation Sound pressure Specific heat capacity Speed Temperature Torque Time Voltage Volume Acceleration Angular momentum Area Bit rate Charge Computing Current Data Density Energy / Energy density Entropy Force Frequency Illuminance Length Luminance Magnetic moment Magnetic field Mass Molarity Numbers Power Pressure Probability Radiation Sound pressure Specific heat capacity Speed Temperature Torque Time Voltage Volume See also Back-of-the-envelope calculation Fermi problem Powers of 10 and decades 10th 100th 1000000th Metric (SI) prefix Macroscopic scale Microscopic scale Back-of-the-envelope calculation Fermi problem Powers of 10 and decades 10th 100th 1000000th 10th 100th 1000000th Metric (SI) prefix Macroscopic scale Microscopic scale Related Astronomical system of units Earth's location in the Universe Cosmic View (1957 book) To the Moon and Beyond (1964 film) Cosmic Zoom (1968 film) Powers of Ten (1968 and 1977 films) Cosmic Voyage (1996 documentary) The Scale of the Universe (2010) Cosmic Eye (2012) Astronomical system of units Earth's location in the Universe Cosmic View (1957 book) To the Moon and Beyond (1964 film) Cosmic Zoom (1968 film) Powers of Ten (1968 and 1977 films) Cosmic Voyage (1996 documentary) The Scale of the Universe (2010) Cosmic Eye (2012) Category Category v t e Time measurement and standards v t e Chronometry Orders of magnitude Metrology Chronometry Orders of magnitude Metrology International standards Coordinated Universal Time offset UT ΔT DUT1 International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ISO 31-1 ISO 8601 International Atomic Time 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Barycentric Coordinate Time Barycentric Dynamical Time Civil time Daylight saving time Geocentric Coordinate Time International Date Line IERS Reference Meridian Leap second Solar time Terrestrial Time Time zone 180th meridian Coordinated Universal Time offset offset UT ΔT DUT1 International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ISO 31-1 ISO 8601 International Atomic Time 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Barycentric Coordinate Time Barycentric Dynamical Time Civil time Daylight saving time Geocentric Coordinate Time International Date Line IERS Reference Meridian Leap second Solar time Terrestrial Time Time zone 180th meridian Obsolete standards Ephemeris time Greenwich Mean Time Prime meridian Ephemeris time Greenwich Mean Time Prime meridian Time in physics Absolute space and time Spacetime Chronon Continuous signal Coordinate time Cosmological decade Discrete time and continuous time Proper time Theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Time domain Time-translation symmetry T-symmetry Absolute space and time Spacetime Chronon Continuous signal Coordinate time Cosmological decade Discrete time and continuous time Proper time Theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation Time domain Time-translation symmetry T-symmetry Horology Clock Astrarium Atomic clock Complication History of timekeeping devices Hourglass Marine chronometer Marine sandglass Radio clock Watch stopwatch Water clock Sundial Dialing scales Equation of time History of sundials Sundial markup schema Clock Astrarium Atomic clock Complication History of timekeeping devices Hourglass Marine chronometer Marine sandglass Radio clock Watch stopwatch stopwatch Water clock Sundial Dialing scales Equation of time History of sundials Sundial markup schema Calendar Gregorian Hebrew Hindu Holocene Islamic (lunar Hijri) Julian Solar Hijri Astronomical Dominical letter Epact Equinox Intercalation Julian day Leap year Lunar Lunisolar Solar Solstice Tropical year Weekday determination Weekday names Gregorian Hebrew Hindu Holocene Islamic (lunar Hijri) Julian Solar Hijri Astronomical Dominical letter Epact Equinox Intercalation Julian day Leap year Lunar Lunisolar Solar Solstice Tropical year Weekday determination Weekday names Archaeology and geology Chronological dating Geologic time scale International Commission on Stratigraphy Chronological dating Geologic time scale International Commission on Stratigraphy Astronomical chronology Galactic year Nuclear timescale Precession Sidereal time Galactic year Nuclear timescale Precession Sidereal time Other units of time Instant Flick Shake Jiffy Second Minute Moment Hour Day Week Fortnight Month Year Olympiad Lustrum Decade Century Saeculum Millennium Instant Flick Shake Jiffy Second Minute Moment Hour Day Week Fortnight Month Year Olympiad Lustrum Decade Century Saeculum Millennium Related topics Chronology Duration music Mental chronometry Decimal time Metric time System time Time metrology Time value of money Timekeeper Chronology Duration music music Mental chronometry Decimal time Metric time System time Time metrology Time value of money Timekeeper v t e Orders of magnitude of time v t e by powers of ten Negative powers <1 attosecond attosecond femtosecond picosecond nanosecond microsecond millisecond <1 attosecond attosecond femtosecond picosecond nanosecond microsecond millisecond Positive powers second kilosecond megasecond gigasecond terasecond and longer second kilosecond megasecond gigasecond terasecond and longer Geology Mathematics Astronomy Stars Outer space Science Orders of magnitude (time) Chronology Orders of magnitude Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles needing additional references from January 2020 All articles needing additional references Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2014 All articles containing potentially dated statements This page was last edited on 30 December 2025, at 12:56 (UTC) . 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Pagrindinis puslapis Bendruomenės puslapis Forumas Naujausi keitimai Atsitiktinis straipsnis Specialieji puslapiai Pagalba Parama Sukurti paskyrą Prisijungti Parama Sukurti paskyrą Prisijungti Vikipedija : Trumpinys Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية অসমীয়া Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български भोजपुरी বাংলা Català کوردی Čeština Dansk Deutsch Dolnoserbski Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Gaeilge 贛語 Bahasa Hulontalo ગુજરાતી עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Íslenska Italiano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Қазақша 한국어 کٲشُر Кыргызча Latina മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés مازِرونی नेपाली Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål ଓଡ଼ିଆ Polski پښتو Português Română Русский Scots سنڌي Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Svenska Ślůnski தமிழ் ತುಳು తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย Türkmençe Türkçe Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt მარგალური 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Projektas Aptarimas Skaityti Keisti vikitekstą Istorija Skaityti Keisti vikitekstą Istorija Susiję straipsniai Susiję keitimai Nuolatinė nuoroda Puslapio informacija Gauti sutrumpintą URL nuorodą Atsisiųsti QR kodą Kurti knygą Parsisiųsti kaip PDF Versija spausdinimui Vikiteka Metaviki Multilingual Wikisource Vikiduomenys Vikiduomenys įrašas Čia pateiktas informacinis Vikipedijos puslapis. Jis nėra laikomas taisykle, bet aprašo kai kuriuos Vikipedijos tvarkos aspektus. Trumpinys : VP:TP Trumpinys yra specializuotas nukreipiamasis puslapis, vedantis į dažniausiai Vikipedijos administravimui skirtą ar kaip nors ją aprašantį straipsnį: VP:FO – forumas, VP:NP – neutralaus požiūrio principai ir panašiai. Šias nuorodas tinka naudoti Vikipedijos vardų erdvėje bei aptarimų puslapiuose. Straipsniuose jos nededamos. Trumpiniai kuriami naudotojų patogumui. Pats trumpinio egzistavimas nerodo, jog su juo susietas puslapis aprašo taisyklę ar daugumos pripažįstamą požiūrį. Trumpinys kuriamas kaip ir bet kuris kitas nukreipiamasis puslapis. Puslapyje, į kurį jis nukreipiamas, įrašomas šablonas {{shortcut|VP:XXX}}, kur XXX yra pasirinkta keleto raidžių santrumpa. Abi dalys visada rašomos didžiosiomis raidėmis. Šis šablonas prideda antraštei trumpinio paminėjimą. Renkantis santrumpą, svarbu pagalvoti, ar ji kartais labai akivaizdžiai nereiškia ko nors kito (pavyzdžiui, VP:TSKP nėra vykusi santrumpa puslapiui „ T rumpinio s avokos k ertiniai p rincipai“, jei toks būtų). Trumpinius patogu suvesti į Vikipedijos paieškos laukelį, kur jie veikia ir suvesti mažosiomis raidėmis. Trumpiniai taip pat aiškiai pamini puslapį į kurį veda: jei skaitytojui tas puslapis jau žinomas, nuoroda sekti nebūtina. Diskusijose tuo reikia naudotis protingai, nes pernelyg daug trumpinių paverčia sakinį žargonu, kuris trumpinių neprisimenančiam gali būti visiškai nesuprantamas ir net juos žinančiam sunkiai paskaitomas. Vikipedijos sąvokos Tarnybiniai Vikipedijos puslapiai Šis puslapis paskutinį kartą keistas 7 balandžio 2024 11:13. Tekstas pateikiamas pagal Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike Licenciją ; gali būti taikomos papildomos sąlygos. Detaliau – Terms of Use . Privatumo politika Apie Vikipediją Jokių garantijų Elgesio kodeksas Kūrėjai Statistika Slapukų politika Mobili peržiūra
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Titles 2 Michigan Senate 3 Michigan House of Representatives 4 Term limits 5 Legislative session 6 Powers and process Toggle Powers and process subsection 6.1 Leadership 6.1 Leadership 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Michigan Legislature العربية 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français 한국어 Italiano עברית 日本語 Русский Simple English Svenska Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Michigan Legislature Type Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives Term limits 12 years combined History Founded January 26, 1837 Preceded by Michigan Territorial Council Leadership President of the Senate (Lt. Governor) Garlin Gilchrist ( D ) since January 1, 2019 President pro tempore of the Senate Jeremy Moss ( D ) since January 11, 2023 Speaker of the House Matt Hall ( R ) since January 8, 2025 Structure Seats 148 38 Senators 110 Representatives Senate political groups .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Democratic (19) Republican (18) .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Democratic (19) Republican (18) House political groups Republican (58) Democratic (52) Republican (58) Democratic (52) Length of term Senate : 4 years House : 2 years Authority Article IV, Michigan Constitution Salary $71,685 salary/year [ 1 ] + $10,800 per diem/year Elections Last Senate election November 8, 2022 Last House election November 5, 2024 Next Senate election November 3, 2026 Next House election November 3, 2026 Redistricting Independent redistricting commission (as of December 14, 2018) [ 2 ] Meeting place Michigan State Capitol Lansing Website legislature .mi .gov Constitution Constitution of Michigan The Michigan Legislature is the legislature of the U.S. state of Michigan . It is organized as a bicameral body composed of the Senate (the upper chamber ) and the House of Representatives (the lower chamber ). Article IV of the Michigan Constitution , adopted in 1963, defines the role of the Legislature and how it is to be constituted. [ 3 ] The chief purposes of the Legislature are to enact new laws and amend or repeal existing laws. The Legislature meets in the Capitol building in Lansing . The 103rd Michigan Legislature was sworn in on January 11, 2025. Titles Members of the Senate are referred to as Senators and members of the House of Representatives are referred to as Representatives. [ 4 ] Michigan Senate The Senate is the upper house of the Legislature. Its members are elected on a partisan basis for four-year terms, concurrent with the election of the Governor of Michigan . [ 4 ] The Senate consists of 38 members elected from single-member election districts [ 4 ] ranging from 212,400 to 263,500 residents according to the most recent creation of districts (2002). Legislative districts are drawn on the basis of population figures through the federal decennial census. Senators' terms begin at noon on January 1 following their election. The Senate Chamber is located in the south wing of the State Capitol building. As of 2025, Democrats hold the majority in the Senate with 19 seats; Republicans hold the minority with 18 seats and 1 seat is vacant. [ 5 ] Under the Michigan Constitution , the Lieutenant Governor of Michigan serves as President of the Senate, but may only cast a vote in the instance of a tie. [ 4 ] The Senate selects its other officers and adopts its own rules of procedure at the start of a new Legislative Session. Michigan House of Representatives The House of Representatives is the lower house of the Legislature. Its members are elected on a partisan basis for two-year terms, at the same time at which Representatives in U.S. Congress are chosen. The House of Representatives consists of 110 members who are elected from single-member election districts [ 4 ] ranging from 77,000 to 91,000 according to the most recent creation of districts (2012). Legislative districts are drawn on the basis of population figures through the federal decennial census. Representatives' terms begin at noon on January 1 following their election. The House of Representatives Chamber in the State Capitol is located in the north wing of the State Capitol building. as of January 2025, the Republican Party have a 58-52 vote power majority within the Michigan House of Representatives . [ 6 ] The House of Representatives selects its own Speaker of the House and other officers and adopts its rules of procedure at the start of a new legislative session. [ 7 ] Term limits In 1992, the Michigan public voted to enact term limits for the Michigan legislature. [ 8 ] In 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states could not enact congressional term limits, but ruled that the state-level term limits remain. [ citation needed ] On November 8, 2022, voters approved Proposal 1, limiting state representatives and senators to 12 years combined in either chamber of the legislature, but senators re-elected in 2022 would remain eligible for their new terms even if it pushed them over the 12-year limit. [ 9 ] Legislative session For reckoning periods of time during which the Legislature operates, each two-year period coinciding with the election of new members of the House of Representatives is numbered consecutively as a legislature, dating to the first legislature following adoption of Michigan's first constitution. The current two-year term of the legislature (January 11, 2023 – January 8, 2025) is the 102nd Legislature. Each year during which the Legislature meets constitutes a new legislative session. According to Article IV Section 13 of the Michigan Constitution, a new session of the Legislature begins when the members of each house convene, on the second Wednesday of January every year at noon. A regular session of the Legislature typically lasts throughout the entire year with several periods of recess and adjourns sine die in late December. The Michigan Legislature is one of ten full-time state legislative bodies in the United States. [ 10 ] Members receive a base salary of $71,685 per year, which makes them the fourth-highest paid legislators in the country, after California, Pennsylvania and New York. While legislators in many states receive per diems that make up for lower salaries, Michigan legislators receive $10,800 per year for session and interim expenses. [ 11 ] Salaries and expense allowances are determined by the State Officers Compensation Commission. [ 4 ] Any legislation pending in either chamber at the end of a session that is not the end of a legislative term of office continues and carries over to the next Legislative Session. Powers and process All bills published by the Michigan Legislature must have been distributed to the chambers at least five days before voting and must be subject to three readings. [ 12 ] Leadership The House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker , while the Senate is headed by the Lieutenant Governor of Michigan , who serves as President of the Senate but may only cast a vote in the instance of a tie. [ 13 ] President of the Michigan Senate (Lieutenant Governor): Garlin Gilchrist ( D ) [ 14 ] President Pro Tempore of the Michigan Senate: Jeremy Moss ( D ) Majority Leader of the Michigan Senate: Winnie Brinks ( D ) Minority Leader of the Michigan Senate: Aric Nesbitt ( R ) Speaker of the House : Matt Hall ( R ) [ 15 ] Speaker Pro Tempore of the Michigan House: Rachelle Smit ( R ) Majority Leader of the Michigan House: Bryan Posthumus ( R ) Minority Leader of the Michigan House: Ranjeev Puri ( D ) See also Michigan portal Government of Michigan List of Michigan state legislatures References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "House of Representatives Member and Employee Salaries as of May 1, 2025" (PDF) . Michigan House of Representatives. ^ Gibbons, Lauren (November 7, 2018). "What the passage of Proposal 2 means for Michigan" . MLive.com . Retrieved April 30, 2019 . ^ "State Constitution of Michigan Article IV Section I" . Michigan Legislature. ^ a b c d e f "Chapter 2: About State Government" (PDF) . Michigan in Brief: 1998–99 . Public Sector Consultants. 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 26, 2007. ^ "Michigan State Legislature" . Ballotpedia. ^ [1] ^ "Citizen's Guide" . Michigan House of Representatives. ^ "Constitutional Amendments" (PDF) . Michigan Legislature. ^ DesOrmeau, Taylor (November 9, 2022). "Proposal 1: Voters pass plan to shorten term limits, require politicians to disclose finances" . MLive . Retrieved November 22, 2022 . ^ "Full- and Part-Time Legislatures" . ^ National Conference of State Legislatures ^ "Citizens Guide" . Michigan House of Representatives. ^ "Michigan State Constitution - Article V, Section 25" . Michigan Legislature. ^ "Senate Leadership" . Michigan Senate. ^ "House Leadership" . Michigan House of Representatives. External links Michigan Legislature .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a 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, S ) North Carolina ( H , S ) North Dakota ( H , S ) Ohio ( H , S ) Oklahoma ( H , S ) Oregon ( H , S ) Pennsylvania ( H , S ) Rhode Island ( H , S ) South Carolina ( H , S ) South Dakota ( H , S ) Tennessee ( H , S ) Texas ( H , S ) Utah ( H , S ) Vermont ( H , S ) Virginia ( H , S ) Washington ( H , S ) West Virginia ( H , S ) Wisconsin ( A , S ) Wyoming ( H , S ) Other legislatures District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands District of Columbia American Samoa ( H , S ) Guam Northern Mariana Islands ( H , S ) Puerto Rico ( H , S ) U.S. Virgin Islands Legislative elections 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures List of U.S. state legislators Lists of past U.S. state legislatures v t e Michigan Legislatures v t e Michigan Territorial Council 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th "Rump Council" (1836) 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th "Rump Council" (1836) Michigan State Legislature 1st 2nd ... 100th 101st 102nd 103rd 1st 2nd ... 100th 101st 102nd 103rd List of Michigan state legislatures v t e Seats in the Michigan Legislature v t e Senate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 House of Representatives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF ISNI VIAF National United States Israel United States Israel Other SNAC Yale LUX SNAC Yale LUX .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 42°44′01″N 84°33′20″W / 42.733601°N 84.555470°W / 42.733601; -84.555470 Michigan Legislature Bicameral legislatures Government of Michigan Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from December 2017 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from December 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2024 Coordinates not on Wikidata This page was last edited on 9 January 2026, at 06:15 (UTC) . 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Ana səhifə Kənd meydanı İcma portalı Son dəyişikliklər Təsadüfi məqalə Xüsusi səhifələr Seçilmiş məqalələr Seçilmiş siyahılar Yaxşı məqalələr Məqalə namizədləri Mövzulu ay Bizimlə əlaqə Kömək İanə et Hesab yarat Daxil ol İanə et Hesab yarat Daxil ol Mündəricat Giriş 1 Nəşr tarixi Nəşr tarixi alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 1.1 Yaradılması 1.1.1 Müəllif hüquqları məsələsi 1.2 Birinci nəşrlər 1.3 1950-1960-cı illərin başlanğıcı 1.4 Personajın yenidən mənalandırılması 1.5 Frenk Millerin seriyası və sonrakı dövr 1.6 2000-ci il və müasir dövr 1.1 Yaradılması 1.1.1 Müəllif hüquqları məsələsi 1.1.1 Müəllif hüquqları məsələsi 1.2 Birinci nəşrlər 1.3 1950-1960-cı illərin başlanğıcı 1.4 Personajın yenidən mənalandırılması 1.5 Frenk Millerin seriyası və sonrakı dövr 1.6 2000-ci il və müasir dövr 2 Uydurma personaj bioqrafiyası Uydurma personaj bioqrafiyası alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 2.1 Qızıl dövr 2.2 Gümüş dövrü 2.3 Müasir dövr 2.4 The New 52 2.5 Brüs Ueyn 2.6 Dik Qreyson 2.1 Qızıl dövr 2.2 Gümüş dövrü 2.3 Müasir dövr 2.4 The New 52 2.5 Brüs Ueyn 2.6 Dik Qreyson 3 Alternativ versiyaları 4 İkinci plan personajları İkinci plan personajları alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 4.1 Düşmənləri 4.1 Düşmənləri 5 Şəxsiyyəti Şəxsiyyəti alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 5.1 Güc və bacarıqları 5.2 Kostyum və təchizatı 5.1 Güc və bacarıqları 5.2 Kostyum və təchizatı 6 Mədəni aspekt Mədəni aspekt alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 6.1 Populyarlığı 6.2 Cinsi oriyentasiyası məsələsi 6.1 Populyarlığı 6.2 Cinsi oriyentasiyası məsələsi 7 Digər mediada Digər mediada alt bölməsini göstər/gizlə 7.1 Teleseriallarda 7.2 Filmlərdə 7.3 Animasiyada 7.4 Videooyunlarda 7.1 Teleseriallarda 7.2 Filmlərdə 7.3 Animasiyada 7.4 Videooyunlarda 8 Biblioqrafiya 9 Mükafatlar 10 İstinadlar 11 Ədəbiyyat 12 Xarici keçidlər Betmen Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية مصرى Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Betawi Български বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Català Нохчийн کوردی Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Võro Français Arpetan Gaeilge Galego Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն İnterlingua Bahasa Indonesia Ido Íslenska İtaliano 日本語 Jawa ქართული Қазақша ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Kurdî Kʋsaal Kernowek Latina Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Latviešu Malagasy Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ नेपाली Nederlands Norsk bokmål Chi-Chewa Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Shqip Српски / srpski Svenska தமிழ் Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Toki pona Türkçe Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 Məqalə Müzakirə Oxu Redaktə Vikimətni redaktə et Tarixçəyə bax Oxu Redaktə Vikimətni redaktə et Tarixçəyə bax Səhifəyə keçidlər Əlaqəli redaktələr Fayl yüklə Daimi keçid Səhifə məlumatları Bu səhifəyə istinad et Qısaldılmış URL əldə et QR-kodu endir Kitab yarat PDF kimi yüklə Çap versiyası Vikianbar Vikidata elementi Betmen ing. Batman "Batman №608" buraxılışının üz qabığından olan təsvir. Rəssam: Cim Li, konturçu: Skott Vilyams. Nəşriyyat DC Comics Yayım tarixi "Detektiv komiksləri" #27 (may, 1939) Yaradıcı(lar) Bill Finger Bob Keyn Xüsusiyyətlər Əsl adı Brüs Ueyn Doğum yeri Qotem-Siti [d] Qotem-Siti [d] Cinsiyyəti kişi Boyu 188 sm [ 1 ] Çəkisi 95 kq [ 1 ] Göz rəngi mavi Saç rəngi qara Növü insan Vətəndaşlıq ABŞ ABŞ Təhsili Kembric Universiteti , Sorbonne Paris Universiteti Kembric Universiteti , Sorbonne Paris Universiteti Komiks bioqrafiyası Kainat yaxşı Üzvlükləri Betmen ailəsi Ədalət Liqası Yadlar Birləşdirilmiş Betmen Bütün Millətlərin Betmenləri Partnyorları Alfred Penniuort Robin Betgörl Ceyms Qordon Pişik-qadın Supermen Düşmənləri Cinayətkarlar, hakimiyyətin satqın nümayəndələri. Supercanilər: Coker , İki simalı , Pinqvin , Zəhərli Sarmaşıq , Cənab Friz , Uyuq , Gilüzlü və digərləri Ləqəbləri Qara cəngavər Qotem mühafizəçisi Detektiv Houk Tomas Kviqli Frenk Dikson Gücləri Dahilik səviyyəsində olan intellekt, elmin bir çox sahələrində geniş biliklər Dünyanın ən yaxşı xəfiyyəsi İnsanın fiziki inkişafının pik səviyyəsi Dünyanın bir çox döyüş sənətinin ustası Maskalanmanın və gizliliyin ustası İradənin böyük gücü Böyük maliyyə imkanları Yüksəktexnoloji qurğulara giriş Zirəklik və diribaşlıq Təzyiq və qorxutma ustası Bacarıqlı qılıncoynadan Sərrast atıcı Qaçış bacarığı Dahilik səviyyəsində olan intellekt, elmin bir çox sahələrində geniş biliklər Dünyanın ən yaxşı xəfiyyəsi İnsanın fiziki inkişafının pik səviyyəsi Dünyanın bir çox döyüş sənətinin ustası Maskalanmanın və gizliliyin ustası İradənin böyük gücü Böyük maliyyə imkanları Yüksəktexnoloji qurğulara giriş Zirəklik və diribaşlıq Təzyiq və qorxutma ustası Bacarıqlı qılıncoynadan Sərrast atıcı Qaçış bacarığı Dahilik səviyyəsində olan intellekt, elmin bir çox sahələrində geniş biliklər Dünyanın ən yaxşı xəfiyyəsi İnsanın fiziki inkişafının pik səviyyəsi Dünyanın bir çox döyüş sənətinin ustası Maskalanmanın və gizliliyin ustası İradənin böyük gücü Böyük maliyyə imkanları Yüksəktexnoloji qurğulara giriş Zirəklik və diribaşlıq Təzyiq və qorxutma ustası Bacarıqlı qılıncoynadan Sərrast atıcı Qaçış bacarığı Silahları Yarasa bumeranqlar Betmen ( ing. Batman ), başlanğıcda Bet-men ( ing. Bat-man " Yarasa - adam ") — DC Comics nəşriyyat evində buraxılmış ən məşhur komiks personajlarından biri. Bu superqəhrəman personaj rəssam Bob Keyn və yazıçı Bill Fingerin birgə müəllifliyi ilə yaradılmışdır. [ 2 ] İlk dəfə 1939-cu ilin may ayında "Detektiv komiksləri" ( ing. Detective Comics ) buraxılışının 27 nömrəli sayında dərc edilmişdir. Yaxın vaxtlara qədər Bob Keyn personajın əsas yaradıcısı hesab edilirdi, lakin aparılmış bir çox tədqiqatlardan sonra, 2015-ci ildə müəlliflik hüququ Bill Fingerə təqdim edilmişdir, çünki qəhrəmanın yaradılmasında Keynin töhfəsi olduqca əhəmiyyətsiz idi. Betmenin orijinal tərcümeyi-hal versiyasında — baş qəhrəman, müvəffəqiyyətli sənaye sahibi, filantrop və qadınların sevimlisi olmuş milyarder Bryus Ueynın gizli alter-eqosudur. Uşaqlıqda, öz valideynlərinin qətlinin şahidi olmuş, Bryus öz həyatını ədalət uğrunda cinayətin aradan qaldırılmasına və mübarizəyə həsr etməyə and içir. Özünü fiziki və mənəvi şəkildə hazırlayaraq, o, yarasanın stilizə edilmiş kostyumunu geyinərək və cinayətkarlarla qarşı durma üçün şəhərin küçələrinə çıxır [ 3 ] . Betmen haqqında bəhs edən başlıca hadisələr, özündə Nyu-York və Çikaqo şəhərlərinin elementlərini birləşdirmiş uydurma Qotem şəhərində cərəyan edir [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] . Bir neçə ikincidərəcəli personajların, həmçinin partnyoru olmuş Robinin, eşikağası Alfredin , polis komissarı Ceyms Qordonun və bəzən də superqəhrəman qadın Betgörlün birgə səyləri sayəsində, Betmen Qotem-Siti şəhər hakimiyyətinin satqın nümayəndələrinə, əxlaqsız cinayətkar cəmiyyətə, həmçinin Cokerin, İki Simalının, Zəhərli Sarmaşıq və Pinqvin adlı mənfi personajların üzv olduqları cani qruplara qarşı durur [ 8 ] . Superqəhrəmanların əksəriyyətindən fərqli olaraq, Betmen fövqəltəbii qüvvəyə malik deyil, lakin öz intellekti, peşəkar döyüş sənəti bacarığı, elmdə və texnikada olan bilikləri, həmçinin dayanıqlı iradəsi ilə düşmənləri qorxutmağı və geri çəkilmələrinə müvəffəq olur. Daim qarşı durduğu cinayətkarlardan fərqli olaraq, Betmen heç vaxt heç kəsi öldürmür və qisasçılıqla məşğul olmur. Yarandığı dövrdən etibarən, Betmen çox qısa bir zamanda geniş populyarlıq qazandı və eyniadlı şəxsi komiks silsiləsini nəşr etmək hüququnu əldə etmiş oldu. Vaxt ötdükcə baş qəhrəmanın müxtəlif izahlı versiyaları yaradılmağa başlandı. 1966 -cı ildə "Betmen" teleserialının efirdə çıxışından sonra aktyor Adam Uest tərəfindən təcəssüm edilmiş Betmen obrazı çox illər boyunca komikslərdə istifadə olunurdu. 1980 -ci illərdə Qara cəngavərə daha qorxunc zahiri görünüşün geri qaytarılması qərara alınmışdır və həmin yeni obraz, Frenk Millerin müəllif olduğu, 1986 -cı ildə işıq üzü görmüş Batman - The Dark Knight Returns ( azərb . Betmen: Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı ) adlı mini komiks serialında öz əksini tapmışdır. Miller tərəfindən təkrarən yazılmış yeni obraz, daha sonralar rejissor Tim Börton tərəfindən 1989 -cu ildə ekranlaşdırılmış " Betmen " və rejissor Kristofer Nolan tərəfindən 2005-ci ildə təkrarən çəkilmiş " Betmen: Başlanğıc " filmlərinin yaradılması üçün əsas olmuş və personajın məşhurluğunu dirçəltməyə imkan yaratmışdır [ 9 ] . Mədəni ikona qismində, Betmen obrazı kino, televiziya və kitablar üçün adaptasiya edilmiş, həmçinin videooyunlar, oyuncaqlar və geyimlər kimi bütün dünyada satılan malların müxtəlif növlərində meydana çıxırdı. Hal-hazırda Betmen IGN -in "Bütün zamanların 100 ən yaxşı komiks qəhrəmanı" siyahısında ikinci yeri tutaraq, Supermen və Hörümçək-adam ilə birlikdə ən tanınmış superqəhrəmanların üçlüyünə daxil olur [ 10 ] . Nəşr tarixi Yaradılması 1939-cu ilin əvvəlində "Action Comics" seriyalarındakı "Supermen" personajının müvəffəqiyyətindən sonra "National Publications" (sonralar DC Comics adlandırılacaq) kompaniyasının redaktorlarından olan Vin Sallivan ( ing. Vin Sullivan ) Bob Keynə "Supermen" personajının uğurunu təkrarlayan yeni personajların hazırlamasını təklif edir. Nəşriyyatın sorğusuna cavab olaraq, Bob Keyn "Bet-Men" (sonralar "Batman") adlı personajı yaratmaq qərarına gəlir. Keyn ilə birlikdə yeni qəhrəman üzərində çalışan Bill Finger aldığı təəssüratlar və işin gedişatı barəsində daha sonralar bunları söyləmişdi: Keyn "Betmen" təxəllüslü personajın yaradılması ideyası var idi, və o istəyirdi ki, mən onun eskiz şəkillərinə baxım. Mən Keynə yaxınlaşdım, və o, arzuladığı və zahirən Supermenə olduqca bənzəyən personajı çəkdi; personajın üzərində, fikrimcə qırmızımtıl triko, çəkmələr və ip üzərində yırğalanan kiçik maska təsvir olunmuşdur. Personajın kostyumunu dik şəkildə yerləşdirilmiş iki böyük sərt yarasa qanadları bəzəyirdi. Kostyumun mərkəzində "Yarasa" şəkli olan böyük bir emblem vardır, eskizin aşağısında isə, böyük hərflər ilə "BETMEN" sözü yazılmışdır [ 11 ] . Bill Finqer Finger, Keynin başlanğıcda planlaşdırdığı qəhrəman obrazını korrektə etməyi qərara alır və personajın gerçək şəxsiyyətinin gizlədilməsi üçün simasındakı maskanın bütöv olmasını, həmçinin yarasa qanadlarının olduqca bayağı göründüyünü hesab edərək, onun klassik qara plaş ilə əvəz olunmasını təklif edir [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] . Finger personaja "Brüs Ueyn" ( ing. Bruce Wayne ) adını verir; o, şotland rahibi, kral və xanımların sevimlisi olmuş Robert Brüsdən ilhamlanaraq qəhrəmana zadəgan keyfiyyətlərini vermişdir. Finger, daha sonralar "Brüs Ueyn" adının 1936-cı ildə yazıçı Li Falk məşhur olmuş "Fantom" ( ing. The Phantom ) komiks qəhrəmanının əsasında yaratdığını söyləmişdir [ 16 ] . Betmen tərcümeyi-halının müxtəlif detalları, həmçinin süjetin özü və vizual dizayn 1930-cu illərin kütləvi mədəniyyəti - o dövrün filmləri, jurnalları, qəzetləri, komiksləri, həmçinin Keynin şəxsi tərcümeyi-halı əsasında yaradılmışdır. Keyn məhz 1920-ci ildə ekranlaşdırılmış Zorro nişanı və 1930-cu illərin məşhur Yarasa pıçıltısı adlı filmlərin təsiri altında Betmenə yeni bədii tərtibat əlavə etmişdir. Həmin dövrün ədəbiyyat qəhrəmanları, misal üçün 30-cu illərin pulp-jurnallarının ayrılmaz siması olmuş Dok Sevic və yaxud cinayətlə və haqsızlıqla mübarizə aparmış Kölgə adlı sirli superqəhrəman, Betmen obrazının xarakterikləşdirilməsi üçün istifadə edilmişdirlər; Finger, Betmenin peşəkar xəfiyyəlik bacarıqlarını Şerlok Holmsdan ilhamlanaraq yaratmışdır [ 17 ] . Keyn avtobioqrafiyasında personajın yaradılmasının təfərrüatları ilə bölüşmüşdür: Bir dəfə mən Bilə [Fingerə] zəng vurdum və dedim ki, məndə Bet-Men adlı yeni personaj var, lakin sadə eskizlər üzərində təsvir olunan personaj, hələ tam başa çatdırılmayıb. Mən, Bilin bu eskizlər ilə yaxından tanış olmasını istəyirdim. O gəldi və mən ona şəkilləri göstərdim. O zamanlar, personajın simasında kiçik maska var idi və həmin maska daha sonralar Robin adlı digər personajda tətbiq edilmişdir. Şəkillər ilə tanış olan Bil belə bir təklif irəli sürdü: "Məxfilik təəssüratının yaradılması üçün personajın yarasaya daha çox bənzəməsi və bunun üçün də göz ətrafları istisna olmaqla bütün üz nahiyəsinin örtülməsi məqsədəuyğun olardı. Həmin etapda, Bet-men qırmızı rəngli kostyum daşıyırdı, qanadları və maskası isə qara rəngdə idi. Mən düşünürdüm ki, qara ilə qırmızı rənglərin birgə kombinasiyası daha uyğundur. Bil, həmin kostyumun həddindən artıq parlaq olduğunu qeyd edərək, boz və qara rənglərin istifadəsinin personaja qorxunc görünüş bəxş edəcəyini söylədi. Əllərə bərkidilmiş sərt qanadlar, kostyumun ən maraqlı detalı idi. Lakin qanadların böyük ölçüləri baş qəhrəmana maneəçilik törədə bilərdi və buna görə biz Bil ilə qərara gəldik ki, kostyumu yarasa qanadlarına bənzəyən plaş ilə əvəz etməliyik. Bundan başqa, barmaq izlərinin əşyalar üzərində qalmaması üçün personajın əlində əlcəklərin olması başlıca şərt idi və biz eskizə müvafiq əlavəni etmək qərarına gəldik [ 16 ] . Müəllif hüquqları məsələsi Keyn Betmen haqqında olan bütün komikslərin üzlərində onun müəllifliyini məcburi şəkildə göstərilməsi şərti ilə birlikdə personajın müəllif hüquqlarını imzaladı. Lakin naməlum səbəblərdən, müqavilə şərtlərinin riayəti 1960-cı illərin ortalarında dayandırılmışdır — belə ki, satışa buraxılan komikslərin üzəridə qeyd edilən Keynin adı ssenaristlərin və rəssamların standart imzaları ilə əvəz edilmişdir. 1970-ci illərin sonlarında Cerri Siql və Co Şuster Supermen , Uilyam Miltonun isə Ecazkar qadın komikslərində müəllif kimi qeyd edilməyə başlanmalarından sonra Bob Keyn də bu və ya digər Betmen komikslərinin buraxılışlarında ənənəvi müəllif imzaları ilə birlikdə personajın müəllifi qismində qeyd edilməyə başlamışdır. Keyndən fərqli olaraq, Bil Finger analoji tanınma və məşhurluq əldə etmədi. O, 1960-cı illərə qədər personajın müəllifi kimi xatırlanırdı, sonrakı illərdə isə, onun Betmenin yaradılmasında olan rolu tədricən azaldılmağa başladılmışdır. 1965-ci ilin fevral ayında işıq üzü görmüş Batman № 169 buraxılışında, redaktor Culius Şvarts Fingeri komikslərdə sabit şəkildə supercanilik edən Ridler personajının yaradıcısı adlandırmışdır. Tezliklə Fingerlə imzalanan müqavilə yalnız onun iştirakı ilə satışa buraxılmış komikslərin miqdarını tənzimləyirdi, onun müəlliflik hüququnu təsdiqləyən adı isə üz qabıqlarından çıxardılmışdır. Keyn bu haqda daha sonralar bunları söyləmişdir: "Bil öz karyerasında böyük nailiyyətlərin olmadığına görə məyusluq hissi yaşayırdı. O özünün yaradıcılıq potensialının tam şəkildə istifadə edilmədiyini və bununla əlaqədar olaraq da müvəffəqiyyətin ondan yan keçdiyini hesab edirdi" [ 18 ] . Finger 1978-ci ildə vəfat edir, lakin DC Comics nəşriyyat evi onu Betmen obrazının yaradıcılarından birisi kimi qəbul etməkdən imtina edir. Buna baxmayaraq, Finger indiyə kimi Yaşıl Fənər adlı başqa bir personajın müəllifi olaraq tanınır. Finger və Keyn ilə müxtəlif layihələr üzərində çalışmış Cerri Robinson, Keyn tərəfindən betmen personajının müəlliflik hüququna bilavsitə sahib olmaq qərarını ciddi tənqid atəşinə məruz qoyur. 2005-ci ildə məşhur The Comics Journal dərgisinə etdiyi intervyuda o, eskiz kağız üzərində yaradılmış personajdan fərqli olaraq, Keynin nə əldə etdiyi şöhrətlə, nə də aldığı pullar ilə bölüşmək fikrində olmadığını qeyd etmişdir. Cerri Robinson: Müəlliflərin siyahısına Bili daxil etmək lazımdır, çünki mən bilirəm ki, o orada aktiv şəkildə iştirak edirdi. Bu, mənim Boba bağışlamayacağım tək şeydir. <… > Hüquqi anlamda hər şey Siql və Şuster tandemində olduğu kimi tənzimlənməli və çap edilən komikslərdə bir yazıçının və bir rəssamın müəllifliyi göstərilməli idi [ 19 ] . Başlanğıcda Keyn, öz keçmiş iş yoldaşı olmuş Fingerin personaja dair sürdüyü müəlliflik iddialarını təkzib edirdi və hətta 1965-ci ildə pərəstişkarların ünvanına açıq məktub göndərərək, Fingerin nəinki Betmenə qarşı, həmçinin Robin və digər aparıcı superqəhrəmanlara və supercanilərin müəllifliyini süni yollarla mənimsəməyə çalışdığını yazmışdır. Keynin sözlərinə görə, Fingerin bütün bəyanatları dələduzluqdur və qətiyyən həqiqətlərə uyğun deyil. Keyn həmçinin Fingeri "kabus-yazıçılardan" birisi olduğunu bildirərək, komikslərin üzlərində onun adının yoxluğunu, onun novatorluq keyfiyyətlərinə malik olmadığını və məhz bu səbəbdən də kabus kimi digər müəlliflərin kölgəsində qaldığını bildirmişdir [ 20 ] . 1989-cu ildə Keyn etdiyi müsahibələrin birisində, Bil Fingerlə daha öncə yaşadığı hadisələri yenidən yada salaraq, bunları söyləmişdir: O zamanlar DC siyasəti, daha çox rəssamlara yönəldilmişdir, yazıçılar isə ikincidərəcəli şəxslər olaraq qəbul edilirdilər. Əgər sən yaza bilmirsənsə — digər yazıçıları həmin layihəyə cəlb edirlər, amma onların adı heç vaxt komiksin hazır variantında göstərilmirdi. Bil məni heç zaman müəlliflik hüququ məsələsində rəsmi müraciət etmədiyi üçün mən könüllü şəkildə bu danışıqlıqları başlamırdım. Düşünürəm ki, bütüm problem mənim eqoizmimdə idi. Mən onun [Fingerin] ölümü xəbərini eşitdiyim zaman çox məyus oldum [ 21 ] . Birinci nəşrlər The Case of the Chemical Syndicate ( azərb . Kimya sindikatı haqqında iş ) adlandırılan və Betmen haqqında bəhs edən birinci komiks süjeti, 1939-cu ilin mayında Detective Comics № 27 buraxılışında dərc edilmişdir. Betmenin də birgə iştirak etdiyi hadisələr, başlanğıcda pulp-jurnalları üslubunda yazılırdı (o dövrün pulp-jurnallarında sensasiyalı, qalmaqallı və həssas materiallar və hekayələr dərc edilirdi). Bu özünü təkcə rəssamların tərtibat fəaliyyətində deyil, həm də personajın özünün cinayətkarlara qarşı etdiyi hərəkətlərdən dolayı peşmanlığında büruzə verirdi. Betmen tezliklə oxucular arasında məşhurluq əldə etdi və 1940-cı ildə şəxsi komiks seriyalarını nəşr etmək hüququnu qazandı və paralel şəkildə də Detective Comics peyda olmaqda davam edirdi. O zaman National Publications şirkəti komikslərin ən böyük naşiri hesab edilirdi və Supermen və Ecazkar qadın ilə birlikdə, Betmen personajı nəşriyyatın müvəffəqiyyətinin təməl daşı olmuşdur [ 22 ] . Başlanğıcda World’s Best Comics ( rus. Dünyanın ən yaxşı komiksləri ) adı ilə tanınan və 1940-cı ilin payızında debüt edən World’s Finest Comics ( azərb . Dünyanın ən gözəl komiksləri ) adlı komiks seriyalında Betmen və Supermen yan yana meydana çıxmağa başladılar. Seriyalın yaradıcılarının arasında Cerri Robinson və Dik Sprenqin adlarını qeyd etmək olar. İlk buraxılış ərzində personaja zahiri görünüşün və xarakterin detallarını özündə ehtiva edən bir neçə element əlavə edilmişdir. Keynin sözlərinə görə, o, birinci altı buraxılış ərzində Betmenin çənəsini daha ifadəli etmiş, həmçinin kostyumun tərkib hissəsi olan üz maskasındakı qulaqları uzatmışdı; Betmenin sabitləşmiş obrazını isə, o, təxminən bir il sonra əldə etmişdir [ 23 ] . Sonrakı dövrlərdə Betmenin ayrılmaz atributuna çevrilmiş kəmər elementi ilk dəfə 1939-cu ilin iyul ayında, Detective Comics № 29 buraxılışında nümayiş edilmişdir, üzərində yarasa loqosu olan bumeranqlar, həmçinin Betaplan adlandırılan və uçuş aparatının analoqu olan baş qəhrəmanın ilk nəqliyyat vasitəsi №31-li buraxılışda təqdim olunmuşdur. Mənşə tarixi və personajın uşaqlığı 1939-cu ilin noyabrında buraxılmış № 33 komiksində göstərilmişdir. Finger həmçinin Ueynin valideynlərinin qətli haqqında bəhs edən süjetin müəllifi hesab edilir. Komiksin baş səhifəsində gənc Brüs Ueyin öz valideynlərinin qəbiri qarşısında ayaq üstə duraraq, onların ölümünün qisasını almağa və bundan sonra öz həyatını cinayətlə mübarizəyə həsr etməyə and içməsi səhnəsi təsvir edilmişdir [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] . Zamanla Betmen personajı standart pulp-versiyalardan uzaqlaşaraq daha unikal görkəmə və xarakterə sahib olmuş oldu. 1940-cı ilin aprel ayında nəşr eidlmiş Detective Comics № 38 buraxılışında ilk dəfə Betmenin gənc şəriki, Robin adlı personaj oxuculara təqdim olunmuşdur [ 27 ] . Robin adlı personaj Fingerin təklifi üzrə daxil edilmişdir, bu addım baş qəhrəmanın " Doktor Uotsona bənzər" bir şəxslə dostluq etmək ehtiyacı ilə qəbul edilmişdir [ 28 ] . Keynin Betmeni solo qəhrəmanı olaraq görməyə üstünlük verməsinə baxmayaraq, məhz Robinin tətbiqi komiks satışlarını demək olar ki, iki dəfə artırdı və sonrakı dövrlərdə böyük superqəhrəman və gənc partnyorların meydana çıxmasının tendensiyasının başlanğıcını verdi [ 29 ] . 1942-ci ilə kimi Betmen haqqında bəhs edən süjetlərdə praktiki olaraq bütün kanonik detallar artıq daxil edilmişdir [ 30 ] . DC Comics nəşriyyat evi İkinci dünya müharibəsindən sonrakı ilk illərdə, çoxsaylı insanların həyatlarını aparmış o dövrün ağır durumundan maksimal uzaqlaşdırılmış süjetlərin yaradılmasına yönəlməyə başladı. Nəşriyyat evi tərəfindən 1940-cı ilə qədər dərc edilən buraxılışlarından tutqun və depressiv süjetlər götürülmüşdür. Oxuculara pozitiv abu-havanın bəxş edilməsi məqsədilə, Betmenin cinayətin və hər hansı başqa neqativ hadisələrdən azad edilmiş şəhərdə mötəbər və tərbiyəli vətəndaş kimi təqdim edilmişdir [ 31 ] . 1950-1960-cı illərin başlanğıcı 1950-ci illərdə komikslərin məşhurluğunun qəflətən azalmasından sonra, Betmen bəzi personajlardan fərqli olaraq, özünün pərəstiş kütləsini itirmədi və nəşrlərdə görünməkdə davam edirdi [ 32 ] . 1952-ci ilin iyununda nəşr edilmiş Superman № 76 buraxılışının The Mightiest Team in the World ( azərb . Dünyada ən qüdrətli komanda ) adlı süjet xəttində Betmen ilk dəfə əsas seriya çərçivəsində Supermenlə birləşir, və onların hər ikisi şəxsiyyətləri barəsində ətraflı məlumat əldə edirlər. Süjet xəttinin müvəffəqiyyətinin ardınca, hər iki qəhrəmanın yenidən birləşdiyi World's Finest Comics seriyası hekayə strukturunu qismən dəyişdirdi və hər iki personajı birgə komanda şəklində təqdim etdi. Seriya ticari müvəffəqiyyəti əldə etmiş oldu və cari tendensiya 1986-cı ildə baş vermiş genişmiqyaslı reorqanizasiya işlərinə kimi mövcud oldu. Betmen haqqında bəhs edən komikslər psixoloq Frederik Vertam tərəfindən 1954-cü ildə satışa çıxarılmış "Günahsızların yoldan çıxardılması" ( ing. Seduction of the Innocent ) kitabında tənqid obyektinə çevrilmişdir. O belə bir fikir söylədi ki, uşaqlar adətən komikslərdə gördükləri hərəkətləri, o cümlədən cinayətkarlığı yamsılamağa meyllidirlər və bu səbəbdən də Betmen haqqında olan komiksləri yeniyetmələrə neqativ təsir göstərən başlıca amil kimi xarakterizə etmək olar. Xəfiyyəlik, triller və qorxu janrlarının populyarlıq sıçrayışından sonra komikslər yeniyetmələrin arasında cinayətlərin artırılmasının başlıca faktoru olaraq qiymətləndirilmişdir. Həbs olunmuş bəzi gənc cinayətkarlar sorğu-sual prosesi zamanı, bu tipli komiksləri daim oxuduqlarını və məhz bu səbəbdən də müvafiq cinayəti törətdiklərini etiraf etmişdilər. Vertam günahı gənc cinayətkarların və onların məsuliyyətsiz valideylərin üzərindən götürərək, bu insanların daim oxuduqları komikslərə yönəltməyi təklif etdi [ 33 ] . Komiks buraxılışlardan birisində Betmen və Robinin arasında açıq-aşkar göstərilən homoseksual münasibətlər, Vertamın diqqət yönəltdiyi daha bir məqam oldu [ 34 ] . Bu cür ehtikarlıqlar nəticəsində, komikslərin məşhurluq səviyyəsi aşağı düşdü, nəşriyyatlar isə, komikslərdə zorakılığın səviyyəsini izləməyə icazə verən Comics Code Authority adlanan senzura sistemini daxil etmək məcburiyyətində oldu [ 35 ] [ 36 ] . Doğma şəhərlərində əmin-amanlığı asanlıqla dəstəkləyən superqəhrəmanlar haqqında süjetlər yenidən məşhurluq əldə etməyə başladılar. DC iki yeni personaj-qadını daxil etmək qərarına gəlirlər (1956-cı ildə Betvumeni, 1961-ci ildə isə Betgörlu) [ 37 ] . 1950-ci illərin sonlarında Betmen haqqında komikslərdə süjetlər elmi-fantastik xarakter daşımağa başladı, DC şirkəti daha çox ikincidərəcəli personajlara istiqamətlənərək, yeni süjetlərdə elm sahəsində fantastik fərziyyələri müvəffəqiyyətlə meydana çıxırdı [ 38 ] . Şirkət alman çoban iti (Bet-it) və familyar ruh olan Bet-gənə kimi yeni personajları yaratmaq qərarına gəlir, süjet xəttində isə getdikcə daha çox yadplanetli varlıqlar peyda olmağa başlayır. 1960-cı ilin fevralında, The Brave and the Bold № 2 buraxılışında, Betmen Amerikanın Ədaləti Liqasının tərkibində debüt etdi, bir il sonra isə, əsas personajlardan biri kimi eyni adlı komiks seriyasında çıxış etməyə başladı. Personajın yenidən mənalandırılması 1964-cü ildə Betmen haqqında komikslərin məşhurluğu kəskin düşdü. Bob Keyn fərz etdi ki, bunun nəticəsində DC şirkəti Betmeni "öldürməyə" qərar qəbul edə bilər [ 39 ] , ancaq bunun əvəzinə əsas seriyanın ssenaristi postu Culius Şvartsa həvalə olundu. O, 1964-cü ilin mayında Detective Comics № 327 buraxılışı ilə başlanmış radikal dəyişikliklərin təşəbbüskarı oldu. Şvarts Betmen haqqında olan süjetlərə detektiv janrını qaytarmağa qərar verdi və personajın obrazının dəyişikliyi məqsədilə rəssam Karmayn İnfantinonu dəvət etdi. Betmenin kostyumu və onun istifadə etdiyi betmobil ciddi modifikasiya olunmuşdur, onların hər ikisinin üzərinə stilizasiya edilmiş qara yarasa və onu haşiyələndirən sarı ellips əlavə edilmişdir. Kosmik varlıqlar, 1960-cı illərdə yaradılmış yeni personajlar, həmçinin Betvumen və bəzi başqa qəhrəmanlar süjetdən uzaqlaşdırılmış, Ueynin eşikağası Alfred isə, süjet xəttinə uyğun olaraq öldürülmüşdür, ancaq oxucuların mənfi reaksiyasın görə nəşriyyat, onu tezliklə geri qaytarmağı qərara almışdır. Pelisayds malikanəsinə tezliklə Ueynin yaxın qohumu - Harriet xala köçür və o, Brüs və Dik Qreyson ilə birgə yaşamağa başlayır [ 40 ] . "Betmen" teleserialının 1966-cı ildə geniş ekranlara buraxılışı, komiks-personaja əhəmiyyətli təsir göstərdi. Seriyanın məşhurluğu artmağa başladı, və buraxılışların satışları 900 000 surətə yaxınlaşdı [ 41 ] . Teleserialınardına komiks serialarında Betgörl və Alfred kimi keçmiş personajların yenidən qayıdışı baş vermişdir. Komikslərin pərəstişkarlar arasında olan müvəffəqiyyətə baxmayaraq serial 1968-ci ildə ləğv edilmişdir və Betmen haqqında komikslərin satışları da növbəti dəfə enməyə başlamışdır. 1969-cu ildə yazıçı Dennis O'Nil və rəssam Nil Adams Betmen obrazını maksimal dərəcədə Adam Uestin adətən seriallarda təqdim etdiyi obrazdan uzaqlaşdırmaq istiqamətində, personajın öz köklərinə qaytarılması, onun çəkildiyi süjetlərin daha tutqun olması və Betmeni - "Qara cəngavərə" çevirmək üçün bir sıra cəhdlər göstərdilər [ 42 ] . O'Nilin sözlərinə görə, layihənin başlanğıcında, o, DC nəşriyyatının kitabxanasına tez-tez baş çəkirdi və burada Keyn və Fingerin işləri ilə tanış olmaq üçün Betmen haqqında komikslərin erkən buraxılışlarını oxuyurdu [ 43 ] . 1970-ci ilin yanvar ayında Detective Comics № 395 buraxılışında təqdim olunan The Secret of the Waiting Graves ( azərb . Gözləyən qəbirlərin sirri ), O'Nil və Adamsın ilk birgə süjet layihəsi oldu. O dövrün bir neçə süjeti Culius Şvartsın iştirakı ilə O'Nil və Adams, həmçinin kontur ustası Dik Cordano tərəfindən yazılmışdır. Betmen seriyaları üzərində müxtəlif yazıçılardan və rəssamlardan ibarət böyük iş qrupu çalışırdı [ 44 ] . Cordanonun sözlərinə görə, onlar tutqun və tünd Betmenə geri qayıtmaq qərarına gəldilər, və məhz bu qərarın nəticəsində, komikslər oxuyucular arasında çox yaxşı qəbul edilmişdir. Bu gün bizim hamımızın istifadə etdiyiminz iti yarasa qulaqları və qara plaşı olan ənənəvi Betmen obrazı da Adamsın obraz variantlarından birisi hesab edilir. Adams və O'Nil birgə işləri sayəsində, komikslərin pərəstişkarlarının arasında geniş tanınmaya nail oldular, lakin bu məşhurluq satışların səviyyəsini artırmağa cuzi səviyyədə kömək etdi.Analoji vəziyyət növbəti seriya müəllifləri arasında da baş verdi - yazıçı Stiv Enqlhart və rəssam Marşall Rocers tandemi tərəfindən 1977-ci ilin avqust ayından başlayaraq, 1978-ci ilin aprel ayına kimi davam etmiş № 471-476 buraxılışları daha sonralar rejissor Tim Börton tərəfindən 1989-cu ildə Betmen filminin, 1992-ci ildə isə eyniadlı cizgi filminin ekranlaşdırılmasına ciddi təsir göstərmişdir. 1980-ci illərdə Betmen haqqında olan komikslərin satışlarının sayı durmadan azalırdı və 1985-ci ildə rekord aşağı səviyyəyə çatdı [ 45 ] . Frenk Millerin seriyası və sonrakı dövr 1986-cı ilin fevral-iyun aylarında müəllif Frenk Miller tərəfindən yaradılmış "Batman: The Dark Knight Returns" ( azərb . Betmen: Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı ) adlı mini-seriyanın təqdimatı keçirildi. Əlliyaşlı Brüs Ueynin həyat tarixçəsinə toxunan mini-seriya personajın məşhurluğunun böyük sıçrayışına səbəb oldu, nəşriyyat evinin keçmiş maliyyə müvəffəqiyyətini geri qaytardı, həmçinin nəşriyyatın ən gözə çarpan seriyalarından birisinə çevrildi [ 46 ] . Həmin il Dennis O'Nil Betmen haqqında bəhs edən seriyaların redaktoru postuna yenidən təyin olundu və "Sonsuz Yer kürələrində böhran" adlanan irihəcmli krossover keçidinin təşəbbüskarlarından birisi oldu ( krossover - bir neçə müstəqil uydurulmuş kainatın qəhrəmanlarının birləşdiyi bədii əsərə verilən addır). Krossover nəşriyyatın superqəhrəmanlarının şəxsiyyətlərinin status-kvosunu birdəfəlik dəyişdirməyə müvəffəq oldu. Sonsuz paralel dünya çoxluğunu özündə ehtiva edən multikainatın ləğvi vasitəsi ilə, krossover 50 illik hekayə konsepsiyalarına dəyişiklik gətirərək, DC Comics şirkətinin bütün seriyalarını sıfırlaşdırılmış və "yenidən işə salınmışdır". O'Nilin sözlərinə görə, o, Betmen personajlarının tamamilə yeniləməsi üçün xüsusi olaraq işə götürülmüşdür. Nəticələrdən biri Batman: Year One ( azərb . Betmen: Birinci il ) süjet tağı olmuş, 1987-ci ilin fevral-may aylarında çıxarılmış Batman № 404-407 buraxılışlarında Frenk Miller və rəssam Devid Mazuçelli Betmenin mənşəyini yenidən yazmışlar. Sonradan seriyanın oturuşmuş qaranlıq stilini yazıçı Alan Mur və rəssam Brayan Bolland davam etdirərək, Batman: The Killing Joke ( azərb . Betmen: Öldürücü zarafat ) tək buraxılışını təqdim etmişlər. Bu buraxılışda komissar Qordonu dəli etmək istəyən Coker onun qızı Barbaranın ayağını yaralayır, daha sonra isə Qordonu qaçıraraq ona fiziki və psixoloji işgəncə verir [ 47 ] . Betmenə olan geniş auditoriya diqqəti, 1988-ci ildə oxucular tərəfindən açıq səsvermənin həyata keçirilməsi üçün başlıca səbəb oldu (səsvermədə ikinci Robinin, Ceyson Toddun öldürüləcəyi və ya sağ qalacağı üzrə sorğu aparılırdı). 28 səs fərqi ilə, oxucular Toddun ölümünə dair lehinə səs verdilər və komiks qəhrəmanı Batman: A Death in the Family ( azərb . Betmen: Ailədə ölüm ) buraxılışında qətlə yetirilir. Həmin hadisədən bir il sonra isə, Tim Börton tərəfindən Betmen obrazının ictimaiyyətin diqqətini yenidən geri qaytarmağa müvəffəq olmuş, yaradıcı qrupa isə milyonlarla dollarlar yayım və marketinq gəliri gətirmiş yeni tammetrajlı film ekranlaşdırılırmışdır. Bununla belə, sonrakı dövrlərdə efirdə yayımlanmış üç film — rejissor Tim Börtonun "Betmen qayıdır" və rejissor Coel Şumaxerin "Betmen həmişəlik" və "Betmen və Robin" filmləri o qədər müvəffəqiyyətli olmurlar. Betmen barəsində franşizanın uğurlu yenidən buraxılışı rejissor Kristofer Nolanın 2005-ci ildə "Betmen: Başlanğıc", "Qara cəngavər" (2008) və "Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi" (2012) filmlərinin ekranlaşdırmasından sonra baş verdi. 1989-cu ildə surətləri yarım milyon həcmində satılmış və Betmenin birinci solo ifası olmuş "Legends of the Dark Knight" ( azərb . Qara cəngavərin əfsanələri ) seriyasının buraxılışına start verilmişdir [ 48 ] . 1993-cü ildə Batman: Knightfall ( azərb . Betmen: Cəngavərin məğlubiyyəti ) adlı süjet tağında " Beyn " adlı yeni cani peyda olur - o, seriyaların birində Brüs Ueynin onurğasını sındırır. Betmen, onurğasından müalicə aldığı zaman, onun qara plaşını Azrail ləqəbi ilə tanınan və Qotem şəhərinin potensial qatili və linç edəni olan Jan-Pol Velli oğurlayır və öz üzərində daşımağa başlayır. Bu və onun ardınca Betmen haqqında bəhs edən digər krossoverlər üzərində yazıçılar Daq Monk, Çak Dikson və Alan Qrant çalışmışdılar. 1998-ci ildə Batman: Cataclysm ( azərb . Betmen: Kataklizm ) adlı yeni krossover işıq üzü görür. Krossover özündə 1986-cı ildə baş vermiş kapital modifikasiya anından etibarən, Qotem şəhərinin dağılmasınadək Betmen və onun ətrafında fiqurasiya etmiş digər personajlar ilə baş vermiş bütün hadisələri birləşdirmişdir. Seriyanın bitməsindən sonra O'Nil tutduğu vəzifədən azad edilmiş və Bob Şrek adlı digər redaktor ilə əvəz edilmişdir. 2000-ci il və müasir dövr 1990-cı illərin sonlarında daha əvvəl televiziyada ssenari müəllifi kimi çalışmış Cef Loeb seriya üzərində işə başlayır. O, Tim Seyllə birlikdə “The Long Halloween” ( azərb . Uzun Hellouin ) və “Dark Victory” ( azərb . Qara qələbə ) adlı iki mini seriya yazmış və bu seriyalarda hadisələr Betmenin fəaliyyətinin ilk dövrlərində baş vermiş, həmin dövrlərdə qəhrəmanın qarşılaşdığı supercanilərin (ilk növbədə Harvi Dentin ) hekayəsi də yenidən yazılmış, Bayram kimi bəzi canilər isə tamamilə ixtisar edilmişdir ki, bu da fanatların etirazına səbəb olmuşdur. 2003-cü ildə Loev və Cim Li əsas Betmen seriyasına daxil olan “Batman: Hush” ( azərb . Betmen: Sakitlik ) adlı süjet üzərində işləməyə başlayır. On iki buraxılışdan ibarət hekayədə Betmen və Pişik-qadın Qotem cinayətkarlarına qarşı mübarizə aparmış, həmçinin “dirildilmiş” Ceyson Todd Xaş adlı gizli caniyə qarşı mübarizə aparmışdır. Bütün öldürülmüş personajların gec-tez qaytarılmasına baxmayaraq, Ceyson Todd qayıdacağına ən az ümid olan personajlar arasında ilk yerdə idi. Komiks oxuyucuları arasında “Baki vəziyyəti” ( Marvel Comics personajı olan Kapitan Amerikanın köməkçisi Baki Barnsın adı ilə) adlı aforizm vardı: “Baki, Ceyson Todd və Ben dayıdan başqa heç kim ölü qalmır.” [ 49 ] Toddun qaytarılması oxucular tərəfindən müsbət qarşılanmış, hekayə isə Cim Linin daimi komiks seriyası çərçivəsində ilk işi olmuşdur. Süjet maddi baxımdan da uğurlu olaraq “Diamond Comic Distributors” siyahısında birinci yeri tutmuşdur; həmin siyahıda Betmen hekayələri 1993-cü ildə “Batman № 500” nəşrindən sonra yer almamışdır. Toddun qayıdışı yazıçı Cadd Vinnikin “Under the Hood” ( azərb . Papaq altında ) adlı süjet xətti üçün əsas yaratmışdır. Həmin hekayədə Todd, Qırmızı başlıq adlı supercaniyə çevrilir. 2005-ci ildə DC -nin əsas kanonuna daxil olmayan “All-Star Batman and Robin” adlı seriyaya başlanılmış, həmin seriyada hadisələr multikainata daxil olan aləmlərdən birində baş vermişdir. Frenk Miller və Sten Li tərəfindən yazılmış seriya həm oxucular, həm də tənqidçilər tərəfindən müsbət qarşılanmış [ 50 ] [ 51 ] , həm də maddi baxımdan uğurlu olmuşdur. [ 52 ] [ 53 ] 2006-cı ildən etibarən Betmenin davam edən iki əsas hekayəsinin – “Batman” və “Detective Comics” - ssenari müəllifləri müvafiq olaraq Qrant Morrison və Pol Dini seçilmişlər. Dini və Morrison birlikdə 1950-ci illərin elmi-fantastika ənənələrini geri qaytararaq keçmiş hekayələrə yeni baxış təqdim etmiş, onların bəziləri isə Betmenin narkotik hallüsinasiyaları kimi verilmişdir. Morrisonun yaradıcılığının kulminasiyası “ Batman R.I.P ” süjet xətti olmuşdur; burada əvvəl məlum olmayan “Qara əlcək” adlı gizli təşkilat Betmeni dəli etməyə çalışır. Süjet xətti geniş Morrisonun genişmiqyaslı “ Final Crisis ” adlı krossoverinə keçid olmuş və burada Betmenin Darksaydın əli ilə öldürülməsi göstərilmişdir. 2009-cu ildə çıxarılmış “Batman: Battle for the Cowl” ( azərb . Betmen: Kapüşon uğrunda döyüş , “Kapüşon” – Betmenin maskasına işarədir) adlı seriyada Betmenin öldüyünə inanan qəhrəmanlar, kimin onun yerini tutacağına qərar verməyə çalışırlar. Ueynin protejesi Dik Qreyson yeni Betmen, oğlu Demien isə yeni Robin olur. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] 2009-cu ilin iyununda Vinnik yenidən Betmen seriyası üzərində işə başlayır, Qrant Morrison isə “Batman and Robin” adlı ayrıca seriya üzərində çalışmağa başlayır. [ 56 ] 2011-ci ildən etibarən Betmen bir neçə davamlı seriya (əsas kanon və alternativ kainatlara aid) komikslərində görünür: müvafiq olaraq 1939 və 1940-cı illərdə başlamış “Detective Comics” və “Batman” seriyaları; 2010-cu ildə “Qaranlıq gecə” dən sonra başlamış və üçüncü cilddə yenidən yazılmış “Catwoman” ; 2011-ci ilin iyulundan çıxarılan və Betmenin Autsayderlərlə birlikdə çalışmasından bəhs edən “Batman and the Outsiders” ( azərb . Betmen və Autsayderlər ); 2009-cu ilin avqustundan davam edən “Batman and Robin” ( azərb . Betmen və Robin ), “Gotham City Sirens” ( azərb . Qotem sirenləri ), “Red Robin” ( azərb . Qırmızı Robin ) [ 57 ] ; 2010-cu ildən başlamış və Betmenin eyniadlı dəstə ilə çalışdığı “Birds of Prey” ( azərb . Ovçu quşlar ) [ 58 ] ; 2011-ci ildən başlamış və “ Betmen: Mərd və cəsur ” cizgi serialı əsasında yaradılmış “Batman: The Dark Knight ” ( azərb . Betmen: Qara cəngavər ) [ 59 ] , “Batman Incorporated” ( azərb . Betmen birləşməsi ) [ 60 ] , “Batwoman” ( azərb . Betvumen ) [ 61 ] , “The All New Batman: The Brave and the Bold” ( azərb . Tamamilə yeni Betmen: Mərd və cəsur ) [ 62 ] , həmçinin “Batman Beyond” ( azərb . Gələcəyin Betmeni ) [ 63 ] seriyasının dördüncü cildi. “ Flashpoint ” ( azərb . Fleşpoint ) adlı krossoverdən sonra DC Comics nəşrlərinin “ The New 52 ” yenidən buraxılması zamanı 52 seriya sıfırlanaraq yeni müəlliflərlə yenidən çıxarılmağa başlanmış, qalan seriyaların çıxarılması dayandırılmışdır. Müəlliflər Betmen hekayələrinin nəql üslubunda ciddi dəyişikliklər edilməyəcəyini və orijinala yaxınlığın saxlanacağını bildirmişdilər. [ 64 ] 2012-ci ildə “Leviathan” ( azərb . Leviafan ) seriyasının tamamlanmasından sonra başladılan “Batman Incorporated” seriyasının ikinci cildinin müəllifi Qrant Morrison olmuşdur. [ 65 ] 2012-2013-cü illərdə nəşr edilmiş "Death of the Family" ( azərb . Ailədə ölüm ) seriyasında Betmenin tərəfdaşları və düşmənlərinin daxil olduğu geniş ailə daxilində qarışıq münasibətlər təqdim edilmişdir. Sonrakı dövrdə "DC Rebirth" və "Infinite Frontier" seriyaları çərçivəsində Betmen dünyasının inkişafı davam etdirilmiş, Qotem və Qotem-görl kimi yeni personajlar təqdim edilmiş, Qotem-sitinin daim dəyişən cinayətkarlıq və qəhrəmanlıq landşaftında müasir cəmiyyət problemlərinin həlli yolları araşdırılmışdır. [ 66 ] Uydurma personaj bioqrafiyası Nəşrinə başlanılmasından keçən 70 il ərzində DC -nin siyasəti ilə bağlı olaraq Betmenin bioqrafiyası çoxlu sayda əhəmiyyətli və kiçik dəyişikliklərə məruz qalmışdır. Zaman keçdikcə personajlar köhnəlirlər və bu kimi problemdən qaçmaq üçün nəşriyyatlar onların tarixçələrini “yenidən yazırlar” ki, 1986-cı ildə “ Sonsuz dünyalarda böhran ” korssoverindən sonra da bu baş verir. Tarixçi Robert Piroson 1990-cı illərin əvvəllərində qeyd edir ki, bir çox personajlardan fərqli olaraq Betmen konkret tarixi dövrlə bağlı başlanğıc hekayəsinə malik deyil; onun bioqrafiyasının xüsusiyyətləri beş on illikdən çox bir müddətdə dəfələrlə dəyişdirilərək yeni keyfiyyətlər almışdır. [ 67 ] Betmen bioqrafiyasının bütün variantlarında adətən onun həyatının dəyişmə nöqtəsi uşaq olarkən valideynlərinin qətlə yetirilməsi hadisəsi hesab edilir. Həkim olan atsı Tomas Ueyn və anası Marta Ueynin cinayətkar Co Çillin silahdan açdığı atəş nəticəsində gözü qarşısında qətlə yetirilməsindən sonra azyaşlı Brüs Ueyn mənəvi olaraq zədələnir. Həyatının gənclik illərinə çatdıqdan sonra Brüs Qotemdə cinayətkarlığın kökünü kəsməyə qərar verir və daha sonra Betmen adını götürərək maskalı qisasçıya çevrilir. Komiks tarixçiləri həm də Robinin Betmen filmlərində peyda olmasını əhəmiyyətli hesab edirlər. Lakin, Dennis O’Nilin əvvəl ssenari müəllifi, daha sonra isə Betmen seriyasının redaktoru olması ilə seriyalar arasında ardıcıllığı saxlamaq ümidi ilə Robin arxa plana keçirilmişdir. [ 68 ] Qızıl dövr 1939-cu ildə Detective Comics № 27-də ilk dəfə peyda olduğu gündən Betmen cinayətkarlığa qarşı döyüşən qəhrəman kimi təqdim edilmişdir. [ 69 ] Brüs Ueynin uşaqlığı ilə bağlı hadisələ №33-də təqdim edilmiş, daha sonra № 46-da dəqiqləşdirilmişdir. Həmin nəşrlərə görə, Brüs 19 fevralda [ 70 ] zəngin sənayeçilər, şəhərdə xeyriyyəçiliklə məşğul olan Tomas və Marta Ueynlərin ailəsində doğulmuşdur. Onun atası şirkətlə məşğul olmaq əvəzinə hospitalda çalışmaqla insanlara kömək edirdi. Brüs, Ueynlərin Qotemin şəhər kənarında yerləşən ailə malikanəsi olan Pelisaydsda böyümüş, səkkiz yaşında olarkən onun gözləri qarşısında kinoteatrdan çıxan valideynləri kiçik cinayətkar Co Çilla tərəfindən qətlə yetirilmişdir. Valideynlərinin dəfni zamanı Brüs onların qisasını almağa və Qotemdə cinayətkarlığın kökünü kəsməyə and içir. O, intensiv fiziki məşq edərək döyüş sənətini və detektiv bacarıqlarını öyrənir, lakin yaxşı fiziki hazırlığın kifayət etmədiyini başa düşür. Ueyn hesab edir ki, “cinayətkarlar kifayət qədər batil və qorxadırlar” və buna görə də düşür ki, xarici görünüşü onlarda qorxu yaratmalıdır. Bunun üçün uyğun obraz axtardığı müddətdə pəncərəyə yarasa gəlir və Brüs onun obrazını əsas alaraq Betmen adı götürməyə qərar verir. [ 71 ] Fəaliyyətinin ilk dövrlərində polis “maskalı qisasçı” adlandırdığı Bermeni ruhi xəstə hesab etmiş və mənfi yanaşmışdır. Həmin dövrdə Brüs Culi Medison adlı qızla görüşür, bir müddət sonra isə Dik Qreyson adlı sirk akrobatını himayəsinə götürür. Betmenin köməkçisinə çevrilən Dik maska taxaraq [[Robin (personaj)|Robin]] adıyla ona kömək etməyə başlayır. Betmen Supermenlə birlikdə [ 72 ] Amerikanın Ədalət Cəmiyyətinin [ 73 ] əsasını qoyan qəhrəmanlardan biri olur. Polis ona qarşı müsbət yanaşmağa başlayır, bir müddət sonra Betmenə Qotem polisinin hörmətli detektivi adı verilir. [ 74 ] Bir müddət sonra Ueynlərin eşikağası olan Alfred Penniuort şəhərə qayıdır, Betmenin sirrini öyrəndikdən sonra isə, ona kömək etməyə başlayır. Gümüş dövrü DC-də Gümüş dövrünün başlanğıcı yeni Fleş Barri Allenin təqdim edildiyi 1956-cı il hesab edilir. Qızıl dövrdən Gümüş dövrə keçid mərhələsində Betmen hekayələrinin stili dəyişərək daha ciddiləşir, 1960-cı ilin əvvəllərindən isə elmi-fantastika elementləri – yad planetlilər, elmi təcrübələr - əlavə edilir. Lakin, 1964-cü ilin mayında çıxarılmış Detective Comics № 327 nəşri ilə Betmen yenidən köklərinə - detektiv hekayələrə qaytarılır. 1960-cı illərdə multikainatın yaradılmasından sonra məlum olur ki, Qızıl dövrün Betmeni Dünya-2-də, Gümüş dövrün Betmeni isə Dünya-1-də yaşayırdı, buna görə də, əvvəl yazılmış mənşə hekayəsi alternativ hesab edilməyə başladı. Personaj özü Dünya-2dən olan Betmen adlandırılmağa başladı, bir müddət sonra Superman Family № 211-də göstərilir ki, Brüs Dünya-2-də Pişik qadın olan Seline Kaylla evlənir, onların sonradan Ovçu olan qızı Helena Ueyn doğulur. Sonradan Ovçu Dünya-2-nin Robini olan Dik Qreysonla birlikdə Qotemi qorumağa başlayır. Betmenin bu hekayələri əsas kanona daxil olmayan alternativ variant hesab edilsə də, DC-nin anoloji personajları olan Yaşıl fənər Alan Skott və Hel Cordan və Fleş Cey Qarrik və Barri Allendən fərqli olaraq fasiləsiz nəşr edilmişdir. Sonrakı onillik ərzində Dünya-1 Betmeninin mənşə hekayəsi dəyişdirilmiş və inkişaf etdirilmişdir; 1969-cu ildə çıxarılmış Batman № 208 nəşrində uşaq ikən gələcəyin Supermeni ilə tanış olması və əmisi Filipp Ueyn tərəfindən tərbiyələndirilməsi əlavə edilmişdir. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] 1980-ci ildə o zaman seriyanın redaktoru olan Pol Levitz “Untold Legend of the Batman” ( azərb . Betmenin danışılmamış hekayəsi ) seriyasının müəllifi olur və orada Brüs Ueynin bioqrafiyasını xronoloji ardıcıllıqla təsvir edir. Bu müddət ərzində Betmen həmişə digər qəhrəmanlarla, xüsusilə 1954-cü ildə World’s Finest Comics seriyası zamanı tanış olduqları və 1986-cı ilə kimi birlikdə çalışdıqları Supermenlə əlbir olmuşdur. Betmen və Supermen bir-birinin əsl kimliklərindən xəbərdar olan yaxın dostlardılar. Brave and the Bold № 28 nəşrində onlar birlikdə Amerikanın Ədalər Liqasının əsasını qoyurlar. 1970-ci illərdə Brave and the Bold seriyasının adı Batman olaraq dəyişdirilir, personaj özü isə hər ay bir neçə personajla birlikdə komandada peyda olur. 1969-cu ildən etibarən Dik Qreyson kollecə getməyə başlayır ki, bu da Betmenin tarixçəsinin bəzi məqamlarını yenidən nəzərdən keçirməyə imkan verir. Cinayətkarlara və cinayətlərin baş verdiyi yerlərə daha yaxın olmaq üçün, Ueynlərin malikanəsindən köçərək, Qotemin mərkəzidə yerləşən Wayne Enterprises binasındakı penthausda məskunlaşır. 1970-ci illərin ortalarından 1980-ci illərin əvvəllərinə kimi Betmen demək olar ki, həmişə tək fəaliyyət göstərir, yalnız nadir hallarda onun köməyinə Robin və Betgörl gəlir. Hekayələr yenidən ənənəvi qaranlıq təsvir və nəql üslubuna qayıdır, cinayətlərin təsviri isə daha da ağırlaşdırılır. Qatil-psixopat Coker və bir neçə yüz il yaşlı, Brüs və Betmenin eyni adam olmasını bilən terrorist Ras al-Qul kimi köhnə personajlar Betmen hekayələrinə qaytarılır, həmçinin bir neçə yeni personaj da peyda olur. 1980-ci illərdə Dik Qreyson Robin adından və Betmenlər birlikdə çalışmaqdan imtina edərək, Naytvinq adını götürür və müstəqil fəaliyyət göstərməyə başlayır. [ 3 ] Brave and the Bold seriyasının final buraxılışı olan 1983-cü ildə çıxarılmış № 200 nəşrində Betmen Ədalət Liqasını tərk edərək Autsayderlər adlı şəxsi komandasını yaradır. 1986-cı ildə çıxarılmış Batman and the Outsiders № 32 nömrəsindən sonra seriya ləğv edilənə kimi Betmen komandanın rəhbəri olur. Müasir dövr “Crisis on Infinite Earths” ( azərb . Sonsuz dünyalarda böhran ) adlı məhdud komiks seriyasından sonra nəşriyyat personajların müasir dövr və yeni oxucular üçün uyğunlaşdırılması məqsədi ilə onları yenidən nəşr etməyə başlayır. 1986-cı ildə çıxarılmış Batman № 404—407 nəşrlərində Betmenin mənşə hekayəsi Frenk Miller tərəfindən yenidən yazılmış, onun möhkəm və səbrsiz xarakterinə xüsusi vurğu edilmişdir. [ 77 ] Dünya-2 Betmeni süjetdən tamamilə çıxarılmış, o cümlədən Böhrandan sonrakı adlandırılan Gümüş dövr/Dünya-1 Betmeninin bioqrafiyasına aid bəzi məqamlar ixtisara salınmışdır. Multidünyanın təxirə salınmasından sonra isə Dünya-1 tamamilə ləğv edilmişdir. Edilmiş dəyişikliklər nəticəsində əvvəl dürüst və effektiv fəaliyyət göstərən Qotem polisi korrupsiyalaşdırılmış və cinayətkar qrupların təsiri altına düşmüşdür. Betmeni oyundan kənarlaşdırmağa çalışan həmin cinayətkar dəstələrin fəaliyyəti nəticəsində Betmen polis tərəfindən qanundan kənar elan edilmişdir. Dik Qreysonun keçmişi dəyidirilməsə də, cinayətkarın yetim oğlu olan yeni Robin – Ceyson Todd peyda olmuşdur. [ 78 ] Gənc Brüs Ueynin opekunu olmuş Filipp Ueynlə bağlı tarixçə ləğv edilmiş, Brüsün Alfred Penniuort tərəfindən böyüdülməsi göstərilmişdir. Betmen artıq Amerikanın Ədalət Liqasının banisi olmasa da, 1987-ci ildə komandanın yenidən formalaşdırılması zamanı bir müddət onun lideri olmuşdur. Betmenin böhrandan sonrakı bioqrafiyasında yaranmış boşluqları aradan qaldırmaq üçün, DC 1989-cu ildə Legends of the Dark Knight ( azərb . Qara cəngavərin əfsanələri ) seriyasını buraxmağa başlamış, həmçinin, Millerin 1986-cı ildə çıxarılmış seriyasının süjeti ilə əlaqəli mini-seriyalar və əlavə buraxılışlar yayımlanmışdır. 1988-ci ildə çıxarılmış Batman № 426—429 buraxılışlarında ikinci Robin Ceyson Toddun Coker tərəfindən öldürülməsindən sonra Betmen cinayətkarlara qarşı daha qəddar, lakin, eyni zamanda daha az ehtiyatlı olmuşdur. Toddun ölümündən sonra Betmen bir müddət tək çalışsa da, 1990-cı illərin əvvəllərində özünə yeni tərəfdaş – Tim Dreyki tapır və o, yeni Robin olur. [ 79 ] 2005-ci ildə Ceyson Todd “dirildilir” və keçmiş tərəfdaşı ilə barrikadanın fərqli tərəflərində çalışmağa başlamışdır. Betmenin əsas seriyasının 1990-cı illərdə çıxarılmış bir çox nüsxələri krossover-seriyasının tərkibinə daxil edilmişdir. 1993-cü ildə DC “ Death of Superman ” ( azərb . Supermenin ölümü ) və “Knightfall” ( azərb . Cəngavərin enişi ) süjet xəttlərini nəşr edir. “Knightfall” süjetində cinayətkar Beyn Brüs Ueynin onurğasını zədələyir, buna görə də o, bir müddət Betmen kostyumunu Azrailə verməyə məcbur olur. “Knightfall” seriyasının tamamlanmasından sonra süjet iki hissəyə bölünür: bir tərəfdən yeni Betmen olan Azrailin macəralarından bəhs edilir, digər tərəfdən Brüs Ueynin başına gələnlər, yenidən Qara cəngavər roluna qayıtmaq üçün yollar axtarması göstərilir. Hər iki süjet xətti “Knight’s End” ( azərb . Cəngavərin sonu ) hekayəsində birləşdirilir. Burada Brüs Ueyn qəddar Azrailə qalib gələrək Betmen konstyumunu geri qaytarır. Lakin, sağlamlığı fəaliyyət göstərməsinə mane olduğuna görə, bir müddət Betmen kostyumunu daşıması üçün o zaman artıq Naytvinq kimi tanınan Dik Qreysona verir. [ 80 ] 1994-cü ildə çıxarılmış “Zero Hour: Crisis in Time” ( azərb . Sıfır saatı: Böhran zamanı ) DC, uydurma kainatın məkan-zaman davamlığını yenidən dəyişdi və bu da həmin kainatda olan persinajların taleyinə, o cümlədən Betmenin bioqrafiyasına təsir etmişdir. Yeni davamlılıqda Betmen yalnız Qotem sakinləri arasında yayıılmış şəhər əfsanəsi kimi qəbul edilir. Betmenin valideynlərinin qatili Co Çillə görüşməsi onun bioqrafiyasından ixtisar edilmiş, “Year Two” ( azərb . İkinci il ) adlı süjet xətti isə kanondan kənar elan edilmişdir. Qrant Morrisonun JLA seriyasının müəllifi təyin edilməsindən sonra Betmen yenidən Ədalət Liqasına qaytarılmışdır. Betmenin komandanın işində əhəmiyyətli iştirak etməsinə baxmayaraq, Betmen seriyasından olan komikslərdə Ədalət Liqası ikinci plana keçirilir. 1998-ci ildə baş vermiş zəlzələ nəticəsində Qotem şəhəri dağılmış və ölkənin digər əraziləri ilə əlaqəsini itirmişdir. 1999-cu ildə çıxarılmış “Batman: No Man’s Land” ( azərb . Betmen: Heç kimin ərazisi ) adlı süjet xəttində qəhrəman cinayətkarlığa qarşı yüksək texnologiyanın köməyi olmadan mübarizə aparmağa çalışır. 1990-cı illərin sonlarında çıxarılmış “Batman: Officer Down” ( azərb . Betmen: Zabitin enişi ) və “Batman: War Games/War Crimes” ( azərb . Betmen: Hərbi oyunlar/Hərbi cinayətlər ) süjet xəttlərində Betmen və Qotem Polis Departamentinin münasibətləri pisləşir. Betmenin tərəfdaşı olan polis komisarı Ceyms Qordon işdən çıxarılır, Betmenin planlarından biri nəticəsində şəhərdəki cinayətkar dəstələri arasında qarşıdurma yaranır, şəhər hakimiyyətini Qara maska ələ keçirir və Betmen axtarışa verilir. Həmin dövrdə Betmenin düşmənlərindən biri olan Leks Lütor ABŞ prezidenti seçilir və Wayne Enterprisesla olan bütün dövlət müqavilələrini ləğv edir. “Bruce Wayne: Murderer?” ( azərb . Brüs Ueyn: Qatil? ) və “Bruce Wayne: Fugitive” ( azərb . Brüs Ueyn: Qaçaq ) süjet xəttlərində Lütor Ueynin sevgilisi Vesperə qarşı sui-qəsd təşkil edir. Baxmayaraq ki, Betmen təmiz adını bərpa edə bilir,lakin, o növbəti tərəfdaşı olan Saşa Bordonu itirir, ”Şahmatlar” onu öz tərəfinə çəkirlər. Superman/Batman № 1—6 nəşrlərində Vesperin qətli arxasında Lüterin dayandığını isbat edə bilməyən Betmen Taliya al-Qulun imkanlarından istifadə etməyə qərar verir: Ueyn Lüterin bnkrot olaraq şirkətini itirməsinə nail olur. 2005-ci ildə çıxarılmış “Identity Crisis” ( azərb . Şəxsiyyət böhranı ) krossoverində Ədalət Liqasının üzvlərindən biri olan Zatanna , superqəhrəman Uzanan adamın həəyat yoldaşı Syu Dinbinin zorlanmasına görə Doktor Laytdan qisas alınmasının qarşısını almaq üçün Betmenin bəzi xatirələrini silir. Bu, Betmen və komandanın digər üzvləri arasında etibarsızlığın yaranmasının əsasını qoyur. Nəticədə, JLA seriyasına daxil olan Mark Ueydin yazdığı “Tower of Babel” ( azərb . Babil qülləsi ) süjet xəttində tamamilə ağlını itirən Betmen, digər qəhrəmanları izləmək və öldürmək üçün sputnik sistemi yaradır. Betmen, baş verənlərin arxasında kimin durması haqqında Ədalət Liqasını xəbərdar etməməsi üçün Mavi böcək adlı superqəhrəmanı öldürən Lord Maksvellə əlbir olur. Betmenin Mavi böcəyin ölümünə görə cavabdeh olması DC-nin “Infinite Crisis” ( azərb . Sonsuz böhran ) adlı sonrakı hadisələrinin əsas mövzusuna çevrilmiş, bundan sonra DC nəql üsulunu yenidən dəyişdirir. Infinite Crisis № 7 nəşrində Aleksandr Lütor-kiçik üç kainatın - birləşdirilməsinə səbəb olur, Yeni dünyanın tarixi yenidən yazılır. Marta və Tomas Ueynlərin qatili yenidən Co Çill göstərilir ki, bu da “Zero Hour: Crisis in Time” süjetindəki nəql strukturunu dəyişdirir. Lütorun Naytvinqi ağır yaralamasından qəzəblənən Betmen silah götürərək Lüteri öldürməyə qərar versə də, silah işləmir. Sonsuz böhrandan sonra bir il çalışmayan Betmen “Face to Face” ( azərb . Üzbəüz ) süjet xəttində Robin Tim Dreyk və yarası sağalmış Naytvinqlə birlikdə yenidən Qotem qayıdır. 52 süjet xəttində hisslərini idarə eləməyi öyrənir və bunun üçün Nandra Parbat şəhərində meditasiya ritualı keçir. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] Bu proses Betmenin yenidən formalaşdırılmasında mühüm rol oynayaraq onu daha diqqətli və hesablı edir, uzun müddət onu izləyən qorxu hissindən xilas olmağa kömək edir. 52 süjet xəttindən sonra Ueyn rəsmi olaraq Tim Dreyki övladlığa götürür. [ 83 ] Sonradan, “Batman & Son” ( azərb . Betmen və oğlu ) süjet xəttində Betmen və cani Taliya al-Qulun Demien Ueyn adlı doğma oğlu dünyaya gəlir. Betmen, Supermen və Ecazkar qadınla birlikdə Ədalət Liqasını yenidən yaradır və Autsayderləri yeni heyətdə bərpa edir. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] 2008-ci ildə çıxarılmış “Batman R.I.P.” ( azərb . Nur içində yat, Betmen ) xəttində Qrant Morrison Ueynin psixi problemləri olmasına açıq işarə edir. Əvvəl məlum olmayan “Qara əlcək” adlı təşkilat Betmenin zəifliyindən istifadə edərək onun ağlını itirməsinə və amneziya yaranmasına səbəb olur. Hadisələrin finalı Betmağara və Ueynlərin malikanəsinin partladılmasından sonra Ueynin yoxa çıxması olur. Hamı Betmenin vertolyot partlayışında həlak olduğunu düşünür. Sonra DC hadisələrin belə inkişafını kifayət qədər uğurlu hesab etmədiyinə görə, “Last Rites“ ( azərb . Sonuncu mərasim ) adlı seriyanı buraxır. Həmin seriyada sağ olması təsdiqlənən Betmen Ədalət Liqasının qərargahı olan Ədalət zalına gəlir və Orionun qətlini araşdırmağa kömək edir. Sonuncu böhran xəttinin sonunda Betmen Yeni tanrılardan biri olan Darksaydla üzbəüz gəlir. Darksayd zaman və məkan dəyişməyə imkan verən Sanksiya Omeqa gücündən istifadə edərək Betmeni Paleolit dövrünə göndərir, buna görə də Betmen həlak olmuş elan edilir. “Battle for the Cowl” ( azərb . Kapüşon uğrunda döyüş ) adlı mini-seriyada Brüsün dostları onlardan kimin onun yerini tutacağına qərar verməyə çalışır, nəticədə Dik Qreyson yeni Betmen olmağa razılaşır. [ 86 ] Tim Dreyk Qırmızı Robin ləqəbini götürərək Qreysonla birlikdə Betmenin sağ olmasına ümid edərək onun axtarışına gedirlər. “Blackest Night” ( azərb . Ən qaranlıq gecə ) krossoverinin başlanğıcında supercani və Qara Fənərlər Korpusunun liderlərindən biri olan Qara əl Brüs Ueynin qəbirini açaraq onun kəllə sümüyünü götürür. Kəlləni alət kimi istifadə edən Qara əl Qara üzük yaradaraq ölmüş qəhrəman və caniləri zombi kimi dirildir, həmçinin Korpusun gücünün təcəssümü, həm də Ölüm tanrısının analoqu olan Nekronu dirildir. Betmenin bədəni ailə üzvləri ilə birlikdə Qara Fənər kimi dirildir. Bir müddət sonra Brüsün bədəni saxta olduğuna görə, Nekronun planları uğursuzluğa düçar olur, kəllə isə məzara qaytarılır. [ 87 ] Sonradan bəlli olur ki, Betmenin cəsədi kimi qəbul edilən cəsəd Darksaydın uğursuz “Betmenlər” ordusu yaratmaq cəhdi zamanı yaradılmış klonlardan birinə məxsusdur. Dik Qreyson Ras al-Qulun əbədi həyat üçün istifadə etdiyi Lazar çökəkliyində Betmeni diriltməyə çalışsa da, sonradan bədənin klona aid olmasına görə bunun effekt vermədiyini başa düşür. [ 88 ] [ 89 ] “Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne” ( azərb . Betmen: Brüs Ueynin qayıdışı ) süjet xəttində dünya tarixinin müxtəlif mərhələlərinə səyahət edən və Darksaydın omeqa-enerji toplanması üsulu ilə onu güclü silaha çevirmək planı haqqında öyrənən Betmen müasir dövrə qayıdır. [ 90 ] [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ] Betmenin müasir dövrə qayıtmasında ona Ədalət Liqası üzvləri olan Buster Qold, Rip Hanter, Supermen və Hel Cordan Sonuncu böhrandan sonra Brüsün izinə düşərək onu axtarmağa çalışmışlar. Qayıtdıqdan sonra yenidən Qara cəngavər olan Brüs Qotemi Dik Qreyson və Demien Ueynin nəzarətində qoyaraq daha qlobal fəaliyyət göstərməyə çalışır. Hazırda davam edən “Batman, Incorporated” ( azərb . Betmen korporasiyası ) seriyasında Ueyn hər ölkədə özünün “Betmen”ini yaratmağa çalışır və bu işdə Wayne Enterprisesin ona kömək etdiyini açıq şəkildə bildirir. The New 52 2011-ci ilin sentyabrında DC kainatının 52-ci seriyadan sonra yenilənməsi ilə Brüs Ueyn köhnə alter-eqosu olan Betmen roluna və Ədalət Liqasına üzvlüyə qayıdır, əvvəlki hadisələrin bəzisi isə ixtisar edilərək əsas kanondan çıxarılır. Dik Qreyson yenidən Naytvinq ləqəbi götürərək Betmenlə birlikdə çalışmağa başlayır. Betmen obrazının fərqləndirici xüsusiyyətləri maddi zənginliyi, yaxşı fiziki formada olması, deduktiv düşüncəyə malik olması və qisasçı ideyalardan asılı olmasıdır. [ 93 ] Onun xarakterinin bəzi xüsusiyyətləri ssenari üzərində işləyən yazıçıdan asılı olaraq illər ərzində dəyişilmiş və inkişaf etdirilmişdir. Dennis O’Nil qeyd edir ki, erkən mərhələdə personajın xarakterinin yaradılması böyük problemlərlə üzləşmirdi: “Culius Şvartz Betmeni Detectivdə yaratdı, Mürrey Boltinoff Brave and the Boldda və kostyumdan başqa onlar çox az şey yaratdılar.” Culius və Mürrey öz işlərini koordinasiyasız həyata keçirirdilər, O’Nilin sözlərinə görə o zaman personajın xarakterinin daimi olması vacib deyildi. [ 94 ] Valideynlərinin öldürülməsi Brüs Ueynin həyatını dəyişir. Bob Keyn və Bill Finger personajın mənşəyini müzakirə edərkən bildirirlər ki, “valideynlərinin ölümünü gözləri ilə görməkdən pis heç nə yoxdur.” [ 95 ] Uşaq vaxtında psixi zərbə almasına baxmayaraq, Ueyn parlaq alim kimi böyüyür, bədənini yüksək fiziki hazırlıq formasına gətirir və Betmen kimi Qotemə qayıdır. Onun fikrincə, valideynlərinin ölümündə günahkar olan rüşvət çirkabına bulanmış sistem, hakimiyyətdə olan kriminal elementlər və onların tərəfdaşı olan kiçik cinayətkarlardan biridir. Cinayətkarlıqla mübarizədə Betmen öz prinsiplərinə istinad edir. [ 96 ] On illər ərzində personajın hekayəsi müxtəlif müəlliflər tərəfindən nəql edillsə də, onun xarakterinin əsas əsas xüsusiyyətləri əhəmiyyətli dərəcədə dəyişilməmişdir. Brüs Ueyn Adi həyatda Betmen Qotemin zəngin iş adamı Brüs Ueyndir. Brüs, məsuiyyətsiz, o qədər də ağıllı olmayan gənc adam, qadınların sevimlisi, ailəsinin Qotemin çiçəkləndiyi dövrdə yatırdığı investisiyanın gətirdiyi gəlirlə yaşayan şəxs obrazı yaratmışdır. Brüs, Wayne Enterprises şirkətinin sahibi və baş direktorudur; şirkət də ona ailəsindən miras qalmışdır. Buna baxmayaraq, Ueyn həm də cinayətkarlıqdan əziyyət çəkmiş şəxslərə yardım edən Wayne Foundationun rəhbəri, mesenat kimi də məşhurdur. Gizli alter eqosu ilə bağlı şübhələri özündən uzaqlaşdırmaq üçün Ueyn bilərəkdən tam əks obraz yaradır. Yaratdığı obrazın dəstəklənməsi üçün Brüs çoxlu içki içməsi təəssüratı yaratsa da, əslində sağlam həyat tərzi sürərək yaxşı bədən formasını dəstəkləyir. Yazıçılar tez-tez Betmen və Supermeni müqayisə edirlər, bütün nəşr tarixi boyunca onların bioqrafiyasında oxşar məqamlar diqqət çəkir. Hər iki qəhrəman əsl kimliyini gizlədərək tam əks obraz yaradır. Müasir komikslərdə Brüs Ueyn personajın əsl kimliyi olan Betmeni örtən “qabıq” hesab edilir ki, bu da böhrandan sonrakı dövrdə Klark Kentin maskası hesab edilən Supermen obrazının tam əksidir. Personajın psixologiyası haqqında olan “Batman Unmasked” (Betmen maskasını çıxarır) sənədli filmində Kaliforniya Universitetinin sosial psixologiya kafedrasının dosenti Kristofer Karni qeyd edir ki, Betmen şəxsiyyət kimi Brüs Ueynin humanizmi ilə hərəkət edir. Tədqiqatçı Uill Bruker Betmenə həsr etdiyi kitabında yazır ki, personaj ilk növbədə gənc auditoriya – uşaqlar və yeniyetmələr üçün nəzərdə tutulmuşdur, buna görə də, onun üçün Brüs Ueyn olmaq yox, kostyum, texnoloji qadjetlər dəsti, ən əsası isə əxlaq – insanlıq və oxucuya etibar aşılamaq , hərəkətlərində səhvə yol verməmək vacibdir. Ti Ceyms Masler “Unleashing the Superhero in Us All” ( azərb . Hər birimizdə superqəhrəmanın üzə çıxarılması ) adlı əsərində pulu Brüs Ueynin həyatının ən vacib detalı adlandırır. Dik Qreyson Brüs Ueynin həlak olduğu hesab edildiyi, əslində isə zaman və məkanda səyahətə çıxdığı müddətdə onun kostyumu əvvəllər Naytvinq adı ilə fəaliyyət göstərən Dik Qreysona keçir. Birinci dəfə, Brüs Ueynin onurğası zədələndiyi zaman Qreyson həvəssiz də olsa müvəqqəti Ueyni əvəz etməyə razılaşır. Lakin, Betmenin həlak olmasını öyrəndikdən sonra asanlıqla bu rolu öz öhdəsinə götürür. Buna baxmayaraq, Ueyn onun üçün qoyduğu məktubda başına bir iş gələcəyi halda Dikə Naytvinq olaraq qalmağı, Robini isə köməkçi olaraq götürməyi məsləhət görsə də, o, Qotemin yeni Qara cəngavərə ehtiyyacı olduğunu düşünür və Maytvinq kostyumunu kənara qoyaraq yeni Betmen olur. Hətta Brüs Ueynin qayıtmasından sonra da, Dik Qreyson Qotemin Betmeni və Ədalət Liqasının üzvü olaraq qalır. “IGN” -ə verdiyi müsahibədə Qrant Morrison yeni Betmen Dik Qreyson və yeni Robin, Brüsün oğlu Demien Ueynin əlaqələrindən bəhs edir. O, yeni Robini bu vaxta kimi maskanı daşımış bütün şəxslərin əksi, həmçinin “kobud” adlandırır, yeni Betmeni isə daha gözlənilməz və daha az tutuqun hesab edir. O, deyir: Dik Qreyson – öz növbəsində mükəmməl qəhrəmandır. O, uşaq ikən Betmenin köməkçisi olmuş, Gənc Titanlar dəstəsinə qoşulmuş və demək olar ki, DC kainatına daxil olan bütün qəhrəmanlarla məşq etmişdir. Buna görə də, o, tamamilə başqa Betmendir. O, xeyli sadə, xeyli zəif və xeyli sakitdir. [ 54 ] Alternativ versiyaları DC -nin əsas kainatında Betmen kostyumunu Brüs Ueyndən əlavə daha beş personaj geyinib. Supercani Hyu Strenc Betmenin kimliyini öyrəndikdən sonra bir müddət onun kostyumunu ələ keçirir. [ 97 ] Dik Qreyson isə iki dəfə Betmen adı ilə fəaliyyət göstərir: birinci dəfə 1990-cı illərdə Betmenin onurğası sındıqdan sonra müalicə alır [ 98 ] və kostyumunu geyinib fəaliyyət göstərə bilmir, bu zaman onu Dik Qreyson əvəz edir; ikinci dəfə 2008-ci ildə Brüsün saxta ölümündən sonra Dik Qreyson Betmen kimi Qotemdə fəaliyyətə başlayır [ 99 ] , Brüs isə Autsayderlərlə birlikdə daha genişmiqyaslı əməliyyatlarla məşğul olur. Qreysondan əvvəl kostyum həm də Azrail kimi tanınan Jan-Pol Velliyə həvalə edilir, lakin, onun kriminal meyilliyinin üzə çıxmasından sonra kostyum Qreysona verilir. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] “ Batman: Battle for the Cowl ” ( azərb . Betmen: Kapüşon uğrunda döyüş ) hekayə xəttində qısa müddət ərzində Betmen kostyumunu üç personaj geyinir: Tim Dreyk , Ceyson Todd və onları məğlub edən Dik Qreyson. DC multikainatında personajın əsas kanona daxil olmayan alternativ versiyaları da mövcuddur. 1986-cı ildə əsas kainatdan olan Dünya-1 Betmeni ilə anoloji xüsusiyyətlərə malik olan Komikslərin qızıl dövrünün Betmeni – Dünya-2 Betmeni rəsmən alternativ versiya elan edilmişdir. Multikainata daxil olan dünyaların hər birinin “özünün” Betmeni vardır. Dünya-10-da Lezervinq adlı nasist Betmen [ 102 ] , Dünya-12-də isə “ Gələcəyin Betmeni ” multiserialında göstərilmiş müasir Betmen yaşayır. [ 103 ] Antimaterial kainatda Tomas Ueyn Kiçik Betmeninin supercani versiyası olan Oulmen ( ing. Owlman , azərb . Bayquş adam ) yaşayır. “Elseworlds” ( azərb . Digər dünyalar ) çərçivəsində “Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty” ( azərb . Betmen: Qara cəngavərin sülaləsi ) seriyası təqdim edilmişdir. Burda Brüs Ueynin radikal dəyişdirilmiş bioqrafiyası təqdim edilir: valideynlərinin yanında böyüyən Brüs Betmen adını qəhrəmanlığı ilə ad çıxarmış sələfi Coşua Ueynrerraytın adından götürür, valideynlərinin Vandal Sevec tərəfindən hücuma məruz qalmasından sonra isə Brüs cinayətkarlıqla mübarizə aparmağa başlayır. Dünya-30-da ( Supermen: Qırmızı oğul ) Betmenkoff adlı, dissident valideynlərinin qətlinə görə qisas alan və Kommunist partiyasının hakimiyyətdən devrilməsi ideyası ilə yaşayan rus terrorist yaşayır. Ölümündən sonra, bir neçə Betmen onu əvəz edir. “ Flashpoint ” adlı krossover seriyasında Fleş Barri Allenin keçmişi dəyişdirməsindən sonra Co Çillin gülləsindən Brüs Ueyn vəfat edir, onun anası Marta havalanır və Cokerə çevrilir, atası Tomas isə Betmen olur və cinayətkarlıqla mübarizədə daha radikal yollardan istifadə edir. Tam olaraq Betmenin nə qədər alternativ versiyasının olduğu bilinmir; Qrant Morrison qeyd edir ki, bir çox kainatların varlığı haqqında komikslərdə ötəri məlumat verilir və nəzəri olaraq onların hər birinin özünün Betmeninin olması mümkündür. [ 104 ] İkinci plan personajları Supermen Betmen haqqında [ 105 ] , Superman/Batman №3, dekabr 2003 Təklikdə çalışmaq istəyinə baxmayaraq, Betmen mütəmmadi olaraq həm qəhrəmanlar, həm də canilərlə qarşılıqlı əlaqədə olur. Qotem polis departamentindən komissar Ceyms “Cimmi” Qordon Betmenin müttəfiqidir. O, Betmenlə eyni vaxtda 1939-cu ilin mayında “Detective Comics” № 27 nəşrində təqdim edilib və bu günə kimi Betmen komikslərində mühüm rol oynamağa davam edir. Bir qədər sonra Alfred Penniuort və Lüsius Foks personajları təqdim edilir. Onlardan birincisi Betmenin eşikağası və müttəfiqi olmaqla ona yaralarını sağaltmaqda kömək edir, bəzən isə Betkompüterə nəzarət edərək Betmenin müxtəlif buyuruqlarını yerinə yetirir. Alferd Betmenə atasını əvəz edir [ 106 ] , dəfələrlə onu xilas edir və Brüs Ueynin “maskalı qisasçı” olduğunu bilən azsaylı personajlardan biridir. Lüsius Foks isə Ueynin bizne-meneceridir, o, Betmenin əsl kimliyini bildikdən sonra onun üçün müxtəlif silahlar və qadcetlər hazırlamaqla məşğul olur. Betmen hekayələrində diqqətçəkən rollardan birini onun köməkçisi Robin oynayır. [ 107 ] Robin ləqəbini daşımış ilk qəhrəman Dik Qreysondur. Böyüdükdən sonra Betmendən bir qədər uzaqlaşan Qreyson Naytvinq adı ilə müstəqil fəaliyyət göstərməyə çalışır, lakin, əvvəlki kimi Betmenə də kömək etməyə davam edir; ikinci Robin – Ceyson Todd – Coker tərəfindən sərt şəkildə döyülür, daha sonra isə özü tərəfindən törədilmiş partlayışda həlak olur. Buna baxmayaraq, illər sonra Ceyson Todd Qırmızı kapüşon adlı anti-qəhrəman kimi yenidən qayıdır. 1989-cu ildə təqdim edilən üçüncü Robin – Tim Dreyk xüsusi komiks seriyasının əsas personajlarından biri olmuşdur. Vaxtaşırı Betmen müxtəlif qəhrəman komandaları ilə birlikdə fəaliyyət göstərir ki, buna nümunə olaraq da Ədalət Liqası və Autsayderləri göstərmək olar Həmçinin “World’s Finest Comics” və “Superman/Batman” seriyasında Betmen Liqada birlikdə çalışdığı Supermenlə birlikdə çalışır. Böhrandan əvvəlki kainatda Supermen və Betmen yaxın dostlar kimi təsvir olunurlar. Lakin, 1986-cı ilin böhranından sonra onların münasibəti qarşılıqlı hörmətə dayanan, bəzən isə fərqli baxışlardan qaynaqlanan problemli xarakter daşıyır. Faəliyyətinin bütün mərhələlərində Betmenin həyatında qadınlar mövcud olub: istər adi qadınlar – Viki Veyl, Culi Medison, Silver Klod – istər qadın-superqəhrəmanlar – Ecazkar qadın və Saşa Bordo, istərsə də Pişik-qadın , Zəhərli sarmaşıq və Taliya əl-Qul kimi qadın-supercanilər onun fəaliyyətində mühüm rol oynayır. Taliya Betmenin oğlu Demien Ueynin , Pişik-qadın isə qızı Komikslərin qızıl dövründə Dünya-2-də onun qızı Helenanın anası olmuşdur. Betmenin bütün romantik münasibətləri bir qayda olaraq qısa müddətlidir, Pişik-qadınla dostluq münasibətləri isə bütün seriyalarda bu və ya digər səviyyədə saxlanılmışdır. Brüs Ueyn kimi, Betmen “Qotemin ən arzulanan nişanlısı”dır və vaxtaşırı Betmen kimləsə görüşdüyü illüziyası yaradır və tezliklə ayrılır. Betmenin məşhur müttəfiqləri sırasına komissar Qordonun qızı, keçmiş Betgörl Barbara Qordon da daxildir. Güllə yarası aldıqdan sonra əlil arabası ilə hərəkət etməli olan Barbara Orakul adlı kompüter hakeri kimi fəaliyyət göstərir, Betgörl kostyumunu isə Kassandra Keyn geyinir. Spoyler ləqəbi ilə tanınan Stefani Braun da Ovçu qızla birlikdə fəaliyyət göstərir və Qotemdə Betmenı kömək edir. [ 108 ] Düşmənləri Onillərlə davam edən fəaliyyəti boyunca Betmen, adi cinayətkarlardan tutmuş qeyri-adi supercanilərə kimi çoxlu sayda müxtəlif düşmənlərlə qarşılaşmış, onun Coker kimi bəzi düşmənləri isə popular mədəniyyətin tanınan obrazlarına çevrilmişlər. Betmen hekayələrindəki mənfi qəhrəmanların bir çoxu, Ueyn kimi faciəvi hadisə yaşasalar da, cinayət yolunu seçənlərdir. [ 106 ] Betmenin əsas düşməni psixopat-qatil, kloun qrimi ilə gəzən, “irrasionallığın təcəssümü” və Betmenin qarşı mübarizə apardığı hər şeyi özündə ehtiva edən Cokerdir. [ 30 ] Betmenin tez-tez qarşılaşdığı digər düşmənlər arasında Qorxuluq , İkiüzlü , Ras əl-Qul , Zəhərli sarmaşıq , Mister Friz , Pinqvin , Tapmacaçı və başqalarını qeyd etmək olar. Şəxsiyyəti Güc və bacarıqları Betmen heç bir supergücə malik olmadan müstəsna olaraq zəkası və fiziki hazırlığını istifadə edən supərqəhrəmanlardan biridir. [ 27 ] Betmen dünyanın ən yaxşı xəfiyyəsidir ( ing. World’s Greatest Detective ). [ 109 ] Qrant Morrisonun ilk “JLA” hekayı xəttində Supermen Betmeni “çoxlu sayda supergüclərə malik yad planetliləri təklikdə məğlub etməyə qadir, dünyanın ən təhlükəli insanı” kimi təsvir edir. [ 110 ] O, yaxşı maskalanma ustadıdır, məlumat toplamaq üçün tez-tez qanqster Melounun adından istifadə edir. Həmçinin personaj tez-tez DC Kainatının ən böyük döyüş sənəti ustadlarından biri kimi təsvir edilir; əlbəyaxa döyüş zamanı Betmen, Ledi Şiva, Bürünc pələng və Riçard Drakon kimi ustad döyüşçüləri məğlub edə bilmişdir. Betmenin zəka gücü, onun ən qeyri-adi bacarıqlarındandır. Onun IQ-sü 192-yə çatır və buna müvafiq olaraq, digər zəka göstəriciləri də orta insanın göstəricilərindən daha yüksəkdir. Özünü təkmilləşdirmək üçün Betmen biologiya, riyaziyyat, fizika, mifologiya, coğrafiya, tarix, kriminalogiya, informatika kimi elmləri öyrənir, ideal fotoqrafik yaddaş və deduktiv fikirləşmə tərzinə malikdir. Kostyum və təchizatı Betmenin yarasa formalı kostyumu cinayətkarları qorumaq üçün alətdir. [ 111 ] Kostyumun xarici görünüşü dəfələrlə dəyişsə də, yarasa qulaqlarını xatırladan xırda qulaqlara malik maska, uçmağa və uçuş zamanı kimi qanad kimi açılmağa imkan verən konstruksiyaya malik plaş, sinəsində emblemin olması və müxtəlif texniki vasitələrlə təmin olunmuş kəmər kimi elementləri bütün versiyalarda saxlanılmışdır. Kostyumun ənənəvi rəngləri mavi-qara, boz və tünd göy [ 111 ] olsa da, son illərin süjetlərində zireh formalı qara kostyum təsvir edilir. Bob Keyn və Bill Fingerin variantında Betmen boz kostyum və qara plaşla təsvir olunsa da, həmin illərdə nəşriyyatların rəngləmə metodu qara rəngin istifadəsinə imkan vermirdi və buna görə də, plan tünd döy rəngdə təqdim edilirdi. Larri Ford töz kitabında tünd rənglərdən istifadə olunmasını, bu tonların “pis oğlan” [ 112 ] obrazı yaratmaq üçün daha uyğun olması ilə izah edir. Betmenin əllərində üzərinə üç uzun daraq formalı zireh bərkidilmiş əlcəklə təsvir edilir, ilk nəşrlərdə isə onun əlində qısa, adi əlcəkdən fərqlənməyən əlcək olurdu. Üzərində qara loqotip olan sarı ellips personajın sinəsinə 1964-cü ildə əlavə edilmiş və o vaxtdan etibarən, Supermenin sinəsindəki “S” hərfi kimi onun simvoluna çevrilmişdir. [ 113 ] Kostyumun ümumi görünüşü – plaşın ölçüsü, maska və qulaqlar – rəssamdan asılı olaraq dəyişmişdir. Dennis O’Nil qeyd edir: “İndi biz deyirik ki, Betmenin Betmağarasında iki yüz kostyum aslıb və onlar bir-birinə oxşamamalıdır. Hamı Betmeni təsvir etməyi sevir və hərə özündən bir şeylər əlavə edir.” [ 114 ] Betmen xüsusi qadcetlərdən ibarət geniş arsenalını istifadə etməyi sevir və bu qadcetlərdə də çox vaxt yarasa motivi təkrarlanır. Qardner Foks tərəfindən yaradılmış Betmen kəməri ilk dəfə 1939-cu ilin sentyabr/oktyabr nəşri olan Detective Comics № 29 -da təqdim edilmişdir. Yarasa formalı ilk tematik silah – betaranq isə ilk dəfə Detective Comics № 31 -da təqdim edilmişdir. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] Betmenin istifadə etdiyi əsas nəqliyyat vasitəsi – betmobil xarici görünüş baxımından qanad formalı spoylerlərə malik yüksək texnologiyalı avtomobilə oxşayır. [ 117 ] Bəzi nəşrlərdə personaj uçuş apparatı olan betaplandan, betqayıq və betsikldan istifadə edir. Personaj özü nadir hallardan “bet-” əlavəsindən istifadə edir, lakin betkompüter, betskanner, betradar və sair cihazları göstərmək üçün digər personajıar tez-tez həmin əlavəni istifadə edirlər. Betmenin qadcetlərindən bəhs edərkən, səhra əməliyyatları zamanı uçuş üçün istifadə edilən xüsusi kəməri də qeyd etmək lazımdır. Bu kəmər çətin məqamda həmişə Betmenin köməyinə çatır, lazımi cihazı tapmağa və ya təhlükədən uzaqlaşmağa kömək edir. Betmenin əksər qadcetləri yaz kəmər üzərindəki sərt gilzlərdə yerləşdirilir, ya da kəmərdən asılmış yumşaq ciblərə yığılır [ 118 ] . Betmen hekayələrinin ən vacib detallarından biri betsiqnal və betmağaradır. Qotem Polis Departamentinin damında yerləşdirilmiş betsiqnal yarasa formalı filtrə malikdir və yandırıldığı zaman səmada Betmen loqosu yaradır. Kainatlardan fərli olaraq betsiqnalın mənşə hekayəsi müxtəlif şəkildə təsvir edilmişdir. 1950-ci illərdə Komissar Qordonun Betmenlə əlaqə saxlamaq üçün istifadə etdiyi xüsusi telefon xətti – bet-telefon da mövcud olmuşdur. [ 119 ] Betmenin qərargahı, silah, kostyum və nəqliyyat vasitələrini saxladığı yer olan betmağara bəzi komikslərdə Ədalət Liqası kimi komandaların toplanma mərkəzi olmuşdur. Mağara Ueyn ailə iqamətgahının altında yerləşir; “Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne” ( azərb . Betmen: Brüs Ueyninin qayıdışı ) hekayə xəttində göstərilir ki, mağara XIX əsrin sonlarında Brüsün sələfləri tərəfindən inşa edilmişdir; “Batman: Shadow of the Bat” ( azərb . Betmen: Yarasanın kölgəsi ) hekayə xətti və 2005-ci ildə çıxarılmış “ Betmen: Başlanğıc ” filmində isə betmağaranın yeraltı dəmir yolunun bir hissəsi olduğu göstərilir. [ 120 ] [ 121 ] Nəzəriyyədə betmağaranın mövcudluğu haqqında onun bir çox tərəfdaşları və düşmənləri məlumatlı olsalar da, dəqiq yeri haqqında yalnız bir neçə personaj məlumatlıdır. Mədəni aspekt Populyarlığı Betmenin komiks səhifələrindən kənarda peyda olması ilk dəfə 1943-cü ildə, personajın məşhurluğunun artması fonunda bir neçə qəzetin onun haqqında hekayələr yayımlaması ilə baş vermişdir. KİV-in imkanlarını qiymətləndirən Bob Keyn şəxsən Betmen personajının inkişaf etdirilməsi ilə məşğul olmuş və 1943-1946-cı illərdə rəssamlar Don Kemeron və Elvin Şvartzla birlikdə çoxsaylı hekayə və süjet xətləri yaratmışdır. [ 122 ] [ 123 ] Betmen bütün dünyada pop-mədəniyyətin ən məşhur ikonalarından birinə çevrilmişdir. 1989-cu ildə Tim Börtonun “ Betmen ” filminin çıxarılması və çıxış münasibətilə təşkil edilmiş marketinq kompaniyası personajın məşhurluğunun daha da artmasına səbəb olmuşdur. “ The Guardian ” dan Devid Finkelşteyn personajın 60 illik yubileyi münasibətilə yazdığı məqalədə qeyd edir ki, Betmenin şəxsiyyəti sonsuz sayda yenidən mənalandırmalara məruz qalsa da, bütün bunlar personajın müasir kütləvi mədəniyyətdə möhkəm yer tutması, həmçinin eyni zamanda simvola və maliyyə baxımından faydalı məhsula çevrilməsinə maneə olmamışdır. [ 124 ] “ Forbes ” jurnalı 2002 [ 125 ] , 2005 [ 126 ] , 2007 [ 127 ] , 2008 [ 128 ] , 2010 [ 129 ] , 2011 [ 130 ] , 2012 [ 131 ] , 2013 [ 132 ] -cü illərdə nəşr edilmiş “ Ən zəngin uydurma personajların siyahısı ”na Betmeni də əlavə etmiş, “ BusinessWeek ” isə personajı ABŞ komikslərindəki ən ağıllı qəhrəmanlar siyahısına daxil etmişdir. [ 133 ] “ Entertainment Weekly ” tərəfindən təşkil edilmiş 20 ən yaxşı pop-mədəniyyət qəhrəmanları siyahısında Betmen də yer almışdır. [ 134 ] Maykl Kiton tərəfindən 1989-cu ildə çıxarılmış “Betmen” filmində canlandırılmış obraz Amerikan Film İnstitutunun “ 100 ən yaxşı qəhrəman və cani ” siyahısına daxil edilmişdir. [ 135 ] Betmenin debüt etdiyi “Detective Comics № 27” nəşri komiks tarixində ən bahalı komikslərdən biri hesab olunur. 2010-cu ildə həmin nəşrin keyfiyyəti xüsusi CGC kompaniyası tərəfindən 7/10 balla qiymətləndirilən nüsxəsi hərracda $1 075 000 qiymətinə satılmışdır. [ 136 ] Betmen bir neçə kitabın tədqiqat obyektinə çevrilmişdir. Doktor Uill Bruker tərəfindən yazılmış “Вatman Unmasked: Analyzing a Cultural Icon” ( ing. Betmen maskasını çıxarır: Mədəni ikonanın tədqiqi ) kitabında personajın bioqrafiyası diqqətlə araşdırılaraq onilliklərə bölünür, personajın dünyəvi məşhurluğunun səbəbləri haqqında nəticələr çıxarılır. Brukerin fikrincə ABŞ Prezidenti Lindon Conson tərəfindən təklif olunmuş “Böyük cəmiyyət” proqramı Betmen komikslərində tam həcmdə əks etdirilmişdir. Biznesmen və filantrop olan Brüs Ueyn xeyriyyə işləri üçün pul iyanə edir ki, bu da Consonun maliyyə resurslarının bölünməsi haqqında fikirlərinə uyğundur. [ 137 ] Cinsi oriyentasiyası məsələsi XX əsrin 50-ci illərində, Betmen komikslərinin əsasən uşaq auditoriyası üçün buraxıldığı dövrlərdə personajın mümkün homoseksual cinsi oriyentasiyası ilə bağlı spekulyasiyalar başlamışdır. Psixiatr Frederik Vertam “Günahsızların yoldan çıxarılması” ( ing. Seduction of the Innocent ) adlı əsərində bu məsələni müzakirə edərək, Betmen komikslərindəki mümkün işarələri təfsir edir. Psixoloqun sözlərinə görə, Betmen komiksləri uşaqların seksual fantaziyalarını, o cümlədən mümkün təxtəlşüur homoseksual meyllərini stimulyasiya edə bilər. Vertam hesab edir ki, buna səbəb hekayələrin məzmununda Betmen və onun köməkçisi Robin arasındakı mümkün intim münasibətə işarələrdir. [ 138 ] Endi Myörhest 1991-ci ildə yazdığı essedə qeyd edir ki, Betmen, ehtimal edilən qeyri-ənənəvi cinsi oriyentasiyasına görə hücumlara məruz qalan ilk uydurma personajlardan biri kimi homoseksual auditoriya üçün maraqlıdır, lakin, buna baxmayaraq o, kişilik nümunəsi olaraq da qalmaqdadır. [ 139 ] Müxtəlif illərdə personajın obrazının yaradılması üçün çalışmış müxtəlif yazıçılar bu məsələ ilə bağlı fərqli fikirlərə malikdirlər. Alan Qrant qeyd edir ki, on üç il Betmen hekayələrinin yazılması ilə məşğul olub və bu müddət ərzində Betmen gey olmayıb. Onun sözlərinə görə, Denni O’Nilin, Marv Volfmanın Betmenləri, həmçinin orijinal Betmen obrazı da homoseksuallıqla bağlı heç bir işarə vermir, bu cür təəssürat isə yalnız Coel Şumaxer tərəfindən çəkilmiş iki tammetrajlı filmdən qaynaqlana bilər. Yazıçı Devid Qreyson məsələni şərh edərkən deyir ki, cavab sualın kimə ünvanlanmasından asılıdır, lakin onun şəxsi fikrinə görə, Betmenin qeyri-ənənəvi oriyentasiyası ilə bağlı məlumatlar şaiyədir. [ 140 ] Öz növbəsubdə Frenk Miller Betmen və Coker arasındakı münasibətləri “ homofob qarabasma” adlandırır, Betmenin seksual tələbatının cinayətkarlıqla mübarizə üzərinə sublimasiyası haqqında suala isə o, “əgər gey olsaydı, o, daha sağlam olardı” [ 141 ] deyə cavab verir. 1966-cı ilin teleserialında Robinrolunu canlandırmış aktyor Bert Uord “Boy Wonder: My Life in Tights” ( azərb . Ecazkar oğlan: Mənim həyatım trikoda ) adlı avtobioqrafiyasında bu məsələdən bəhs edərək, bəzi şaiyələri ikili mənalandırma ilə izah edir. [ 142 ] İkili mənaya malik bu cür məqamların fərqli təfsiri hələ də diqqət çəkir. Bu cür parlaq məqamlardan biri 2000-ci ildə baş vermişdir; o zaman DC Comics Batman № 79, 92, 105 və 139 nəşrlərindən Kristofer Yorkun illüstrasiyaları ilə bəzədilmiş “All in the Family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s” dörd panelin nəşrinə icazə verməmişdir. [ 143 ] 2005-ci ildə rəssam Mark Çemberlen Betmen və Robinin cinsi münasibətlərini əks etdirən bir neçə rəsm çəkmişdir. [ 144 ] DC rəssamı məhkəməyə verməklə hədələmiş, rəsmlərin satışa çıxarıldığı Keytlin Kallen qalereyasını isə məhkəməyə verərək satışdan əldə edilmiş gəlirlərin DC-yə ödənməsini tələb etmişdir. [ 145 ] 2012-ci ildə “ Out ” jurnalı Betmen və Robini “Ən homoseksual komiks qəhrəmanları” siyahısına daxil etmişdir [ 146 ] . Həmin il Qrant Morrison “ Playboy ” jurnalına verdiyi müsahibədə Betmeni “çox, çox homoseksual” adlandırmış və qeyd etmişdir ki, bu ifadəni qətiyyən təhqir mənasında işlənmir: Məlum məsələdir ki, komiks qəhrəmanı kimi o, heteroseksual olmalıdır, lakin, əslində o tamamilə homoseksualdır. Məncə, elə buna görə o hamının xoşuna gəlir. Bütün bu qadınlar açıq-saçıq geyimlərdə damdan-dama atılaraq onun diqqərini cəlb etməyə çalışır. Lakin, bütün bunlar onun vecinə də deyil – ona qoca [Alfred] və cavan oğlanın [Robin] ətrafında olması daha maraqlıdır. [ 147 ] Digər mediada Komikslərdən başqa personaj qazet nəşrləri, teatr səhnələşdirmələri, animasiya və kinoya uyğunlaşdırılmışdır. Betmenin əsas komiks seriyasından kənarda ilk görünüşü 25 oktyabr 1943-cü ildə komiks üslublu qəzet hekayəsində baş tutmuşdur. [ 148 ] Betmen haqqında ayrıca radio tamaşaları olmasa da, personaj, 1945-ci ildən etibarən Supermen haqqında radio tamaşalarının daimi qonağı olmuşdur. [ 149 ] 1964-cü ildə yazıçı Donald Bartelemin “Come Back, Dr. Caligari” ( azərb . Qayıdın, doktor Kaliqari ) adlı qısa hekayələr toplusuna “The Joker’s Greatest Triumph” ( azərb . Cokerin ən böyük triumfu ) adlı hekayə də daxil olmuşdur. Bu hekayədə Betmen mənfi personaj, hiyləgər və varlı şəxs kimi təqdim olunmuşdur. [ 150 ] 1966-cı ildə Betmenin əsas rol aldığı teatr səhnələşdirməsi baş tutmuşdur. Tamaşanın əsas musiqisi “ The Kinks ” qrupu tərəfindən yazılmış, daha sonra mahnı qrupun studiya albomlarından birinə daxil edilmişdir. [ 151 ] [ 152 ] 2002-ci ildə Cim Şteynman, Devid Ayvz və Tim Börton Betmen haqqında myuzikl nəzəriyyəsi üzərində işləyirdilər və layihənin təxirə salınmasına [ 153 ] baxmayaraq, Şteynman myuzikl üçün yazılmış beş kompozisiyanı yayımlayır. Mahnılar ABŞ rok ifaçısı Mit Loufun «Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose» adlı albomuna daxil edilir. Həmçinin kompozisiyaları myuzikla həsr edilmiş xatirə saytında da dinləmək mümkündür. [ 154 ] 2011-ci ilin yayında Böyük Britaniyada «Batman Live World Tour» dünya turnesi layihəsinə start verilir. Layihəyə teatr tamaşaları, tryuklar, musiqi nömrələri daxildir. Tur Böyük Britaniya, Avropa və Şimali Amerikada aktiv olmuşdur. [ 155 ] DC Comics nəşrlərindən başqa, Betmen DC Kainatı ilə əlaqəsi olmayan bir sıra kitab və ədəbi nəşrlərin personajı olmuşdur. 2000-ci ildə Kia Asamiya tərəfindən yaradılmış “Batman: Child of Dreams” ( azərb . Betmen: Arzu uşağı ) manqası təqdim edilmiş, bir qədər sonra isə Natsume Yösinorinin “Batman: Dark Mask” ( azərb . Betmen: Qara maska ) və Dziro Kuvataninin “Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan” ( azərb . Bet-Manqa! Betmenin Yaponiyadakı gizli hekayəsi ) manqaları təqdim edilmişdir. [ 156 ] [ 157 ] Son illərdə bütün Betmen filmlərinin novelləşdirilmiş versiyaları, həmçinin, Skott Batti tərəfindən hazırlanmış “The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual” ( azərb . Betmen sorğu kitabı: Tam məlumat kitabı ) kitabı kimi ümumiləşdirici nəşrlər təqdim edilmişdir. Betmen simvolikasını uşaq kitablarında, rəngləmə jurnallarında, oyuncaq və geyimlərdə görmək mümkündür. [ 158 ] Betmen, kolleksiya fiqurları istehsal edilən ən məşhur personajlardan biridir. 1940-cı ildən bəri o, DC-nin Hasbro və Mattel kimi şirkətlərlə birlikdə istehsal etdiyi fiqurlar seriyasında daimi personajlardan biridir. Betmenin iştirak etdiyi oyuncaq kolleksiyalarının sayı otuzdan çoxdur. [ 159 ] [ 160 ] Bütün dünyada bir neçə əyləncə parkı Betmenin adını daşıyır. Onlardan beşi “ Six Flags ” şirkətinə məxsusdur: ABŞ və Meksikanın doqquz şəhərində “ Batman: The Ride ” , ABŞ-nin dörd şəhərində “The Dark Knight Coaster” , iki şəhərində “Batman and Robin: The Chiller” atraksionları yerləşir. Corciya ştatında yerləşən “Gotham City” və Kaliforniyadakı “ Batman: The Riddler’s Revenge ” atraksiyonu “Batman: The Ride” atraksionu ilə anoloji xüsusiyyətə malikdir. Warner Bros. Şirkətinin sahib olduğu üç atraksiyon Avstraliyanın Qold-Kost , İspaniyanın Madrid və Almaniyanın Botrop şəhərlərində yerləşir. [ 161 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] Teleseriallarda Betmenin ilk televiziya adaptasiyası 1943-cü ildə baş tutmuş, həmin il on beş seriyalıq “ Betmen ” teleserialında personajı canlandıran ilk aktyor Lyuis Uilson olmuşdur. 1949-cu ildə çıxarılmış “Betmen və Robin” teleserialında personajı Robert Louri canlandırmışdır. 194-cı illərin ilk ekranlaşdırmaları Betmenin komiks oxuyucusu olmayanlar arasında populyarlığının artmasına gətirib çıxarmış, Betmen adı “milyonlarla insan üçün ümumi ad”a çevrilmişdir. [ 149 ] 1966-cı ilin yanvarında ABC telekanalında baş rolunu Adam Uestin canlandırdığı “ Betmen ” teleserialının premyerasl olmuşdur. Serial nəinki pop mədəniyyətə ciddi təsir etmiş, həm də növbəti onilliklər ərzində Betmen komiks süjetləri üçün əsas rolunu oynamışdır. Adam Uest “Back to the Batcave” ( azərb . Betmağaraya qayıdış ) adlı memuarında serialın janrı məzmununu – yüngül komediya, pamflet və ya şarja oxşar - bəyənmədiyini deyir. 120 seriyası olan teleserial komiks fanatları arasında sevilsə də, telekanalın məzmun siyasətinin dəyişməsindən sonra 1968-ci ildə təxirə salınmışdır. 1999-cu ildə Betmenin gənclik illərindən bəhs edən “Brüs Ueyn” teleserialının təqdim edilməsi planlaşdırılırsa da, Warner Bros. studiyası franşizanın inkişafı ilə bağlı uzunmüddətli planlar qurmağa başlayır və hadisələrin “ Betmen: Başlanğıc ” filmi ilə kəsişməməsi üçün teleserial təxirə salınır. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] 2014-cü ildə yayımına başlanılmş “ Qotem ” teleserialında on üç yaşlı Brüs Ueyn rolunu aktyor David Mazuz canlandırmışdır. Serial əsasn gənc Cim Qordonun macəralarını işıqlandırsa da, Brüsə də xeyli diqqət ayrılır. Tədricən Brüs obrazı daha kanonik xarakter alır, valideynlərinin qətlə yetirilməsindən Qotemin cinayətkarlardan təmizlənməsi qərarına kimi Betmenin ilk illəri göstərilir. Betmen obrazında o, yalnız final seriyasında göstərilir və personajın kostyumu Kristian Beylin “Qara cəngavər trilogiyası” nda geyindiyi kostyuma oxşayır. Lakin, Brüsün cinayətkarlıqla mübarizəyə aparmağa başlaması üçüncü mövsümün sonlarından başlayir və finala kimi davam etdirilir. Filmlərdə 1989-cu ildə Tim Börtonun rejissorluğu ilə çəkilmiş və böyük büdcəli “ Betmen ” filmi təqdim edilir. [ 166 ] Filmdə Betmen rolunu Maykl Kiton canlandırır. Film böyük uğur qazanmış, 1989-cu ilin ən gəlirli filmi və bütün zamanların ən gəlirli beşinci filmi olmuşdur. Qazanılan uğurdan sonra filmin üç sikveli çəkilmişdir – 1992-ci ildə “ Betmen qayıdır ” , 1995-ci ildə “ Əbədi Betmen ” və 1997-ci ildə “ Betmen və Robin ” filmləri çıxarılır. Son iki filmdə rejissor kürsüsündə Tim Börtonu Coel Şumaxer əvəz edir, Maykl Kitonun yerinə Betmen obrazını isə Vel Kilmer və Corc Kluni əvəz etmişdir. Şumaxerin ikinci filmi uğurlu olmamış, Warner Bros. studiyası isə planlaşdırılan beşinci filmi təxirə salmış, beləliklə franşizada on illik bir fasilə yaranmışdır. Betmenin iştirakı ilə çəkilmiş bir neçə filmin DC kainatı ilə heç bir əlaqəsi yoxdur. 1964-cü ildə rəssam Endi Uorholun çəkdiyi “ Betmen Drakula ” filmi [ 167 ] , həmçinin sonrakı dövrlərdə fanatlar tərəfindən təqdim edilmiş onlarla CGI-cizgi filmləri və yarımprofessional filmlər, 2004-cü ildə treyleri çıxarılmış, lakin yayımlanmamış [ 168 ] Dik Qreyson filmi, həmçinin 2005-ci ildə çıxarılmış “Robin’s Big Date” filmi kimi parodiya filmləri buna nümunə ola bilər. [ 169 ] 2005-ci ildə Kristofer Nolanın rejissorluğu ilə çəkilmiş “ Betmen: Başlanğıc ” filmində personaj Kristian Beyl tərəfindən canlandırılmışdır. Daha sonra 2008-ci ildə filmin sikveli olan “ Qara cəngavər ” çıxarılmış və bu ekran əsəri bütün zamanların ən gəlirli filmlərindən biri olmuşdur. [ 170 ] 2011-ci ilə kimi “Qara cəngavər” filmi debüt bazar günündə ən böyük gəlir gətirmiş film kimi rekordsmen olmuşdur. [ 171 ] Nolanın ikinci və sonuncu sikveli olan “ Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi ” filmi 2012-ci ildə çıxarılmışdır. 2016 və 2017-ci illərdə çıxarılmış və DC Genişləndirilmiş Kainatına daxil olan “ Betmen Supermenə qarşı: Ədalətin şəfəqi ” və “ Ədalət Liqası ” filmlərində Brüs Ueyn obrazı aktyor Ben Afflek tərəfindən canlandırılmışdır. Həmçinin “ İntiharçılar dəstəsi ” filmində Betmen rolu kameo kimi yenidən Afflek tərəfindən canlandırılmışdır. 2021-ci ildə çıxarılması planlaşdırılan “ Betmen ” filmində personajın növbəti dəfə Ben Afflek tərəfindən canlandırılması planlaşdırılırdı. Lakin, 2019-cu ilin fevralında Afflek roldan imtina edir, onun ardınca isə bütün çəkiliş heyəti layihədən uzaqlaşır. Rejissor Mett Rivz yeni Betmenin Robert Pattinson tərəfindən canlandırılacağını elan edir. 2022-ci ildə Pattinsonun baş rolunu ifa etdiyi "Betmen" filmi təqdim edilir. 2023-cü ildə "DC Genişləndirilmiş Kainatı" çərçivəsində təqdim edilən və Endi Muskettinin rejissorluğu ilə çəkilmiş "Fleş" filmində Afflek "DC Genişləndirilmiş Kainatı" filmlər seriyasında canlandırdığı obraz, Maykl Kiton " Betmen " filmində canlandırdığı obraz, Corc Kluni isə " Betmen və Robin " filmində canlandırdığı obraza geri dönmüşdür. 2026-cı ildə Mett Rivzin rejissorluğu və Robert Pattinsonun iştirakı ilə çəkiləcək ikinci Betmen filminin təqdim edilməsi planlaşdırılır. [ 172 ] Animasiyada 1966-cı ilin “Betmen” serialının məşhurluğu personajın ilk animasiya uyğunlaşdırması olan “ Betmenin macəraları ” animasiya serialının istehsalına əsas vermişdir. [ 173 ] 1968 və 1977-ci illərdə müvafiq olaraq “ Betmen/Supermen saatı ” və “Betmen ecazkar oğlan Robinlə birlikdə” ( ing. Batman with Robin the Boy Wonder ) teleserialları təqdim edilmişdir. 1973-1986-cı illərdə təqdim edilmiş “ Super dostlar ” animasiya teleserialının əsas personajlarından biri Betmen olmuş və serialda personaj əsasən Olan Soul, bir neçə seriyada isə Adam Uest tərəfindən səsləndirilmişdir. 1992-ci ildə təqdim edilən “ Betmen ” animasiya teleserialı Warner Bros. Animation studiyası tərəfindən istehsal edilən DC Animasiya Kainatına daxil olan ilk teleserial olmuşdur. Serialın ardınca 1993-cü ildə onun spin-offu olan “ Betmen:Fantazm maskası ” animasiya filmi çıxarılmış, həmçinin bir-biri ilə süjet əlaqəsi olan “ Betmenin yeni macəraları ” , “ Gələcəyin Betmeni ” və “ Ədalət Liqası ” teleserialları təqdim edilmişdir. Bütün bu animasiya layihələrində Betmen Kevin Konroy tərəfindən səsləndirilmişdir. 2004-cü ildə debüt edən “ Betmen ” animasiya teleserialında personaj Rino Romano tərəfindən, 2008-ci ildən yayımlanan " Betmen: Mərd və Cəsur ” teleserialında isə Ditrix Bader tərəfindən səsləndirilmişdir. Animasiya serialları ilə yanaşı Betmen həm də on bir ədəd tam metrajlı filmdə peyda olmuşdur. Onlardan bəziləri animasiya seriallarına ( “ Betmen və Mister Friz ” , “Gələcəyin Betmeni: Cokerin qayıdışı” ), bəziləri komikslərə (" Supermen/Betmen: Cəmiyyətin düşmənləri ”, “ Betmen: Qırmızı kapüşon altında ” ) əsaslanmış, “ Betmen Drakulaya qarşı ” filmi kimilər krossover relizi olmuş, həmçinin “ Betmen: Dalan ” kimi qısametrajlı filmlər də çıxarılmışdır. Videooyunlarda Betmen haqqında ilk video yun 1986-cı ildə çıxarılmış və ZX Spectrum və Amstrad CPC platformalarına uyğunlaşdırılmışdır. [ 174 ] [ 175 ] O dövrdən bəri Betmen haqqında iyirmidən çox videooyun hazırlanmış, onlardan sonuncusu olan “Batman: The Telltale Series” 2016-cı ildə təqdim edilmişdir. Biblioqrafiya Təqdim edildiyi 1939-cu ildən bəri daimi seriyaları olan " Detective Comics " və "Batman" seriyaları ilə yanaşı, Betmen, həm solo, həm də digər personajlarla birlikdə onlarla seriyalarda çıxış etməkdədir. Onun iştirak etdiyi süjet xətlərinin ümumi sayı 60-dan [ 176 ] , nəşrlərin sayı isə 7000-dən çoxdur ki, bu da ümumilikdə Supermen nəşrlərinin sayına bərabərdir. [ 177 ] Mükafatlar IGN tərəfindən 2011-ci ildə hazırlanmış "Bütün zamanların ən yaxşı komiks qəhrəmanları" siyahısında yalnız Supermendən geri qalan Betmen, ikinci yeri tutmuşdur. [ 10 ] Bütün tarixi boyunca Betmen çoxlu sayda mükafatlara layiq görülmüşdür ki, onlardan bəziləri aşağıdakı cəfvəldə göstərilmişdir: Mükafat və nominasiyalar İl Mükafat Kateqoriya Nominant Nəticə 1987 Kirbi mükafatı [ 178 ] Ən yaxşı fərdi buraxılış Dark Knight № 1 Qazandı Ən yaxşı tamamlanmış seriya Dark Knight Qazandı Ən yaxşı qrafik albom Dark Knight Qazandı Ən yaxşı rəssamlar komandası Dark Knight , Frenk Miller , Klaus Censen və Linn Verli Qazandı 1989 Aysner mekafatı [ 179 ] Ən yaxşı qrafik albom Batman: The Killing Joke Qazandı Ən yaxşı yazıçı Batman: The Killing Joke , Alan Mur Qazandı 1992 Ən yaxşı rəssam Batman: Judgement on Gotham , Saymon Baysli Qazandı 1994 Ən yaxşı fərdi buraxılış Batman Adventures: Mad Love Qazandı 1995 Ən yaxşı fərdi buraxılış Batman Adventures Holiday Special Qazandı 1996 Gənc oxuyucular üçün ən yaxşı seriya Batman & Robin Adventures Qazandı Ən yaxşı rəssam Batman: Manbat Qazandı 1997 Ən yaxşı antologiya Batman: Black and White Qazandı Ən yaxşı qısa hekayə «Heroes», Batman: Black & White Qazandı 1998 Gənc auditoriya üçün ən yaxşı nəşr Batman & Robin Adventures Qazandı Ən yaxşı yeni qrafik albom Batman & Superman Adventures: World’s Finest Qazandı 1999 Ən yaxşı məhdud seriya Batman: The Long Halloween Qazandı Gənc auditoriya üçün ən yaxşı nəşr Batman: The Gotham Adventures Qazandı Ən yaxşı qrafik albom (təkrar nəşr) Batman: The Long Halloween Qazandı 2000 Ən yaxşı rəssam Batman: War on Crime , Aleks Ross Qazandı Ən yaxşı kitab üzü Batman: No Man’s Land , Batman: Harley Quinn , Batman: War on Crime , Aleks Ross Qazandı 2002 Ən yaxşı qrafika albom (təkrar nəşr) Batman: Dark Victory Qazandı 2003 Ən yaxşı qrafika albom (təkrar nəşr) Batman: Black and White Qazandı 2004 Ən yaxşı qrafika albom (təkrar nəşr) Batman Adventures: Dangerous Dames and Demons Qazandı 2007 Ən yaxşı məhdud seriya Batman: Year 100 Qazandı 1989 Harvi mükafatı Ən yaxşı rəssaç/qrafik/kolorist Brayan Bollard, Co Hiqqins, Batman: The Killing Joke [ 180 ] Qazandı Ən yaxşı süjet (tək buraxılış) Batman: The Killing Joke [ 180 ] Qazandı 1998 Ən yaxşı qrafik albom Batman Black & White [ 181 ] Qazandı İstinadlar ↑ 1 2 Prospero. "50 years of Batman on film: how has his physique changed?" (ingilis) . economist . 28 mart 2016. 24 aprel 2016 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 24 aprel 2016 . Ironically, data collected by Moviepilot suggest that since Batman first appeared in feature-length films 50 years ago, Mr West has been the closest in physique to the Gotham crusader as specified in the comic books: 6'2" (1.88m) tall, and weighing 210 pounds (95kg). .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em} ↑ Bill Finger (w), Bob Kane (p). 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Forbes . 13 aprel 2010. 14 noyabr 2017 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 23 sentyabr 2020 . ↑ "The Forbes Fictional 15 2011" (ingilis) . Forbes. 1 aprel 2011. 4 dekabr 2017 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 23 sentyabr 2020 . ↑ "The Forbes Fictional 15 2012" (ingilis) . Forbes. 2012-23-04. 2013-12-16 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 2020-09-23 . ↑ David M. Ewalt. "The 2013 Forbes Fictional 15" (ingilis) . Forbes. 31 iyul 2013. 14 noyabr 2017 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 23 sentyabr 2020 . ↑ Pisani, Joseph. "The Smartest Superheroes" (ingilis) . www.businessweek.com. 2006. 27 yanvar 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ " Entertainment Weekly's 20 All Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture" (ingilis) . Entertainment Weekly. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "AFI's 100 Years… 100 Heroes and Villains" (PDF) (ingilis) . afi.com. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib (PDF) . ↑ "Batman, Superman comic books set records for sale price" . The Washington Post (ingilis) . 27 fevral 2010. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Brooker, p. 120 ↑ Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent. — Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. — P. 189—190 ↑ Medhurst, Andy. «Batman, Deviance, and Camp.» The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. — Routledge: London, 1991. — P. 150. — ISBN 0-85170-276-7 . ↑ "Is Batman Gay?" (ingilis) . 28 dekabr 2005. 23 may 2011 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Sharrett, стр. 38 ↑ "Bruce Wayne: Bachelor" . Ninth Art: Andrew Wheeler Comment (ingilis) . 28 aprel 2005 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Beatty, Bart. Don't Ask, Don't Tell: How Do You Illustrate an Academic Essay about Batman and Homosexuality? // The Comics Journal : magazine. — Fantagraphics Books, 2000. — No. 228. — P. 17—18. ↑ "Mark Chamberlain (American, 1967)" (ingilis) . Artnet. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Gallery told to drop 'gay' Batman" . BBC News (ingilis) . BBC. 19 avqust 2005. 4 noyabr 2013 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 20 sentyabr 2020 . ↑ "Gayest Comic Book Heroes" . Out (ingilis) . 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Gavin Edwards. "The Super Psyche" . Playboy (ingilis) . 18 aprel 2012. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Daniels (1999), p. 50 ↑ 1 2 Daniels (1999), p. 64 ↑ Olsen, Lance Linguistic Pratfalls in Barthelme" Arxivləşdirilib 2015-11-06 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) South Atlantic Review 5.4 (1986), стр. 69-77. ↑ Neal Hefti. Batman Theme: From the Original TV Series (Beginning Band). — Alfred Pub Co, 1989. — səh. 130 ↑ "The Kinks Discography — Batman Theme" . Dave Emlen's Kinks Web Site. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Graeme McMillan. "Batman On Broadway: The Musical You'll Never See" . io9. 25 oktyabr 2008. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Batman, The Musical: Memorial Site" (ingilis) . 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "The Batman Live World Arena Tour is Coming" (ingilis) . SuperHeroHype. 7 noyabr 2010. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Bat-Manga!" (ingilis) . Pantheon Books. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Bat-Manga!" . The New Yorker (ingilis) . The New Yorker . 3 noyabr 2008. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Fansite For Batman Comics, Toys, Figures, News and more!" (ingilis) . Batman YTB. 23 iyun 2010. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Batman Action Figures & Collectibles" (ingilis) . Hot Toys and Action Figures. 12 iyul 2011 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Batman Action Figures & Dolls Database @ Batman: Yesterday, Today, & Beyond" (ingilis) . Batmanytb.com. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ " " Batman Adventure — The Ride 2 (Warner Bros. Movie World)" (ingilis) . Database Entry. Parkz: Theme Parks. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Marden, Duane. "Batman la Fuga (Parque Warner Madrid)" . Database Entry. Roller Coaster DataBase. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Our History: Batman Adventure — The Ride" ( #bad_url ) (ingilis) . Movieworld.com. 21 iyul 2008 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Bruce Wayne: The Series That Never Was" (ingilis) . Kryptonsite.com. 15 iyun 2005. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Collura, Scott. "Bruce Wayne: The Series — The Batman show that almost was…" (ingilis) . IGN. 10 iyul 2008. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Batman (1989)" (ingilis) . BoxOfficeMojo.com. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Batman Dracula — Internet Movie Database saytında ↑ «The Making of Grayson» Arxivləşdirilib 2010-12-26 at the Wayback Machine (ing.) Online Entertainment Magazine , 2005-05-24. ↑ "Robin's Big Date (Short 2005) - Release info - IMDb" – www.imdb.com vasitəsilə. ↑ "All Time Domestic Box Office Results" (ingilis) . BoxOfficeMojo.com. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Opening Weekends" (ingilis) . BoxOfficeMojo.com. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ Егоров, Алексей. "Сиквел «Бэтмена» с Робертом Паттинсоном сдвинули на 2 октября 2026 года" . « Kanobu » (rus) . 12 mart 2024. 13 mart 2024 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 13 mart 2024 . ↑ Boichel, pg. 14 ↑ "Batman" . Crash (ingilis) . Newsfield Publications Ltd. 1986-05. 2017-07-31 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . İstifadə tarixi: 2020-09-27 . ↑ Smith, Martin. "Batman" . MobyGames (ingilis) . MobyGames. 28 fevral 2008 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Batman story arcs" (ingilis) . Comicvine. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Batman comic books issues cover" (ingilis) . Comicvine. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "1987 Jack Kirby Awards" (ingilis) . Hahnlibrary.net. 20 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "Will Eisner Comic Industry Award: Summary of Winners" (ingilis) . Hahnlibrary.net. 21 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ 1 2 "1989 Harvey Award Nominees and Winners" (ingilis) . Hahnlibrary.net. 21 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . ↑ "1998 Harvey Award Nominees and Winners" (ingilis) . Hahnlibrary.net. 21 may 2012 tarixində arxivləşdirilib . Ədəbiyyat Beatty, Scott. The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual . Quirk Books. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 . Daniels, Les . Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books. 1999. ISBN 978-0-8118-2470-5 . Daniels, Les. DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Bulfinch. 1995. ISBN 978-0-8212-2076-4 . Jones, Gerard . Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book . Basic Books. 1995. ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8 . Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William (editors). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. London: Routledge. 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . The Johns Hopkins University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5 . Xarici keçidlər Vikianbarda Betmen ilə əlaqəli mediafayllar var. Rəsmi sayt Earth-1 Batman Index [ ölü keçid ] Earth-2 Batman Index Arxivləşdirilib 2012-12-09 at Archive.today Post-Crisis Batman Index [ ölü keçid ] Batman Bio at the Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe Arxivləşdirilib 2012-11-30 at the Wayback Machine Batman (1940 - present) Comics Inventory Arxivləşdirilib 2021-04-20 at the Wayback Machine Betmen Bob Keyn Bill Finqer Digər yazıçılar Bob Keyn Bill Finqer Digər yazıçılar Personajlar Köməkçi personajlar Düşmənləri Digər mediada Köməkçi personajlar Düşmənləri Digər mediada Digər mediada Qotem-sitidəki yerlər Arkem xəstəxanası Betmağara Qotem Şəhər Polis Departamenti S.T.A.R. Labs Wayne Enterprises Ueyn malikanəsi Arkem xəstəxanası Betmağara Qotem Şəhər Polis Departamenti S.T.A.R. Labs Wayne Enterprises Ueyn malikanəsi Texnologiya Təchizat Betaranq Betkompyuter Betkostyum Utilit kəməri Bet-siqnal Bet-fon Nəqliyyat Betqayıq Betkopter Betsikl Betmobayl Bet-təyyarə Təchizat Betaranq Betkompyuter Betkostyum Utilit kəməri Bet-siqnal Bet-fon Betaranq Betkompyuter Betkostyum Utilit kəməri Utilit kəməri Bet-siqnal Bet-fon Nəqliyyat Betqayıq Betkopter Betsikl Betmobayl Bet-təyyarə Betqayıq Betkopter Betsikl Betmobayl Bet-təyyarə Betmen digər mediada Kinematoqrafda Video oyunlarda Əyləncə parklarında Uşaq kitabları Kinematoqrafda Video oyunlarda Əyləncə parklarında Uşaq kitabları Davam edən nəşrlər Detective Comics Batman Batman Beyond Betgörl Betvumen Naytvinq Harli Kvinn Red Hood and the Outlaws DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Detective Comics Batman Batman Beyond Betgörl Betvumen Naytvinq Harli Kvinn Red Hood and the Outlaws DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Əlaqəli Detective Comics #27 Betmenin mənşəyi Betmen franşizasında homoseksuallıq The Bat Whispers Batkid Batkid Begins The Essential Batman Encyclopedia Detective Comics #27 Betmenin mənşəyi Betmen franşizasında homoseksuallıq The Bat Whispers Batkid Batkid Begins Batkid Begins The Essential Batman Encyclopedia Category Category Betmen personajları Betmen ailəsi Gizli şəxsiyyətləri ilə Betmen • Robin • Betgörl • Batvinq • Batvumen • Blubörd • Ketvumen • Fleymbörd • Ovçu • Naytvinq • Qırmızı qapaq • Qırmızı Robin • Spoyler İctimai şəxsiyyətləri ilə Brüs Ueyn • Dik Qreyson • Ceyson Todd • Tim Dreyk • Demian Ueyn • Barbara Qordon • Stefani Braun • Kassandre Keyn • Helena Bertinelli • Helena Ueyn • Keyt Keyn • Betti Keyn Gizli şəxsiyyətləri ilə Betmen • Robin • Betgörl • Batvinq • Batvumen • Blubörd • Ketvumen • Fleymbörd • Ovçu • Naytvinq • Qırmızı qapaq • Qırmızı Robin • Spoyler İctimai şəxsiyyətləri ilə Brüs Ueyn • Dik Qreyson • Ceyson Todd • Tim Dreyk • Demian Ueyn • Barbara Qordon • Stefani Braun • Kassandre Keyn • Helena Bertinelli • Helena Ueyn • Keyt Keyn • Betti Keyn İkinci dərəcəli personajlar Əsas Alfred Penniuort • Bet-Hound Eys • Batman Inc. ( Dark Reyncer • Naytranner • Cəngavər • Silahdaşıyan ) • Batmen of All Nations ( Dark Reyncer ) • Bet-inək • Yırtıcı quşlar • Silver Sent-Kloud • Lusius Foks • Culi Medison • Orfey • Autsayders • Supermen • Lesli Tompkins • Marta Ueyn • Tomas Ueyn • Viki Veyl Qotem Şəhər Polis Departamenti Krispus Allen • Harvi Ballok • Sara Essen • Ceyms "Cim" Qordon • Rene Montoya • Meggi Soyer Neytral personajlar Azrael • Bet-Mayt • Roland Daggett • Cillian B. Loeb • Qotem şəhər merləri ( Hemilton Hill ) • Professor Karter Nikols • The Sacred Order of Saint Dumas Əsas Alfred Penniuort • Bet-Hound Eys • Batman Inc. ( Dark Reyncer • Naytranner • Cəngavər • Silahdaşıyan ) • Batmen of All Nations ( Dark Reyncer ) • Bet-inək • Yırtıcı quşlar • Silver Sent-Kloud • Lusius Foks • Culi Medison • Orfey • Autsayders • Supermen • Lesli Tompkins • Marta Ueyn • Tomas Ueyn • Viki Veyl Qotem Şəhər Polis Departamenti Krispus Allen • Harvi Ballok • Sara Essen • Ceyms "Cim" Qordon • Rene Montoya • Meggi Soyer Neytral personajlar Azrael • Bet-Mayt • Roland Daggett • Cillian B. Loeb • Qotem şəhər merləri ( Hemilton Hill ) • Professor Karter Nikols • The Sacred Order of Saint Dumas Düşmənlər Əsas düşmənlər Beyn • Təqvim-adam • Pişik-qadın • Gilsifət • Dedşot • Detstrouk • Atəş böcəyi • Harli Kuinn • Hüqo Streync • Haş • Coker • Killer Krok • Qatil kəpənək • Dəlisov papaqçı • Yarasa-adam • Mister Friz • Pinqvin • Zəhərli sarmaşıq • Ras al-Qul • Ridler • Qorxuluq • Solomon Qrandi • İkiüzlü • Çapıqsifət Müvəqqəti antoqonistlər Pişik-adam • Saatlar kralı • Klumaster • Qonurbaş gürzə • Kraym Doktor • Dekon Blekfaye • Elektroşoker • Böyük ağ akula • Cokerin qızı • KGBist • Kit Men • Maksi Zevs • Rahib • Ovlmen • Professor Milo • Professor Piq • Prometey • Siçovul ovçusu • Tralyalya və Trulyalya • Viktor Zas Qaçaqlar və cinayətkarlar Qara maska • Co Çill • Karmayn Falkone • Sal Maroni • Lyu Mokson • Rupert Torni • Toni Zukko Rəqiblər Anarxiya • Ledi Şiva • Qırmızı qapaq • Talia al-Qul Düşmən təşkilatlar Bayquşlar məhkəməsi • Assassinlər Liqası • Qorxunc Trio Əsas düşmənlər Beyn • Təqvim-adam • Pişik-qadın • Gilsifət • Dedşot • Detstrouk • Atəş böcəyi • Harli Kuinn • Hüqo Streync • Haş • Coker • Killer Krok • Qatil kəpənək • Dəlisov papaqçı • Yarasa-adam • Mister Friz • Pinqvin • Zəhərli sarmaşıq • Ras al-Qul • Ridler • Qorxuluq • Solomon Qrandi • İkiüzlü • Çapıqsifət Müvəqqəti antoqonistlər Pişik-adam • Saatlar kralı • Klumaster • Qonurbaş gürzə • Kraym Doktor • Dekon Blekfaye • Elektroşoker • Böyük ağ akula • Cokerin qızı • KGBist • Kit Men • Maksi Zevs • Rahib • Ovlmen • Professor Milo • Professor Piq • Prometey • Siçovul ovçusu • Tralyalya və Trulyalya • Viktor Zas Qaçaqlar və cinayətkarlar Qara maska • Co Çill • Karmayn Falkone • Sal Maroni • Lyu Mokson • Rupert Torni • Toni Zukko Rəqiblər Anarxiya • Ledi Şiva • Qırmızı qapaq • Talia al-Qul Düşmən təşkilatlar Bayquşlar məhkəməsi • Assassinlər Liqası • Qorxunc Trio Alternativ versiyalar Betmen Betzarro • Earth-Two • Qara Cəngavər Kainatı • Zur-En-Arrh Betmeni • Terri MakCinnis • Ovlmen Robin Earth-Two • Kerri Kelli Barbara Qordonun alternativ versiyaları • Cokerin alternativ versiyaları Betmen Betzarro • Earth-Two • Qara Cəngavər Kainatı • Zur-En-Arrh Betmeni • Terri MakCinnis • Ovlmen Robin Earth-Two • Kerri Kelli Barbara Qordonun alternativ versiyaları • Cokerin alternativ versiyaları Digər media Qotem Brüs Ueyn • Ceyms Qordon • Fiş Muni • Osvald Kobblpot Digər mediada Betmen düşmənlərinin siyahısı Qotem Brüs Ueyn • Ceyms Qordon • Fiş Muni • Osvald Kobblpot Digər mediada Betmen düşmənlərinin siyahısı Betmen franşiz mediası Televiziya Betmen seriyalar Superqəhrəmanların əfsanələri OnStar reklamları Qurbanlıq quşlar Bet-mağaraya qayıdış: Adam və Bertin uğursuzluqları Qotem seriyalar Betmen seriyalar seriyalar Superqəhrəmanların əfsanələri OnStar reklamları Qurbanlıq quşlar Bet-mağaraya qayıdış: Adam və Bertin uğursuzluqları Qotem seriyalar seriyalar Filmlər Betmen (1943) Betmen və Robin Betmen (1966) Betmen (2022) 1989-cu ilin film seriyası Betmen (1989) Betmen qayıdır Betmen həmişə Betmen və Robin Qara cəngavər trilogiyası Betmen: Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi Genişləndirilmiş DC kainatı Betmen Supermenə qarşı: Ədalətin şəfəqi Betmen (1943) Betmen və Robin Betmen (1966) Betmen (2022) 1989-cu ilin film seriyası Betmen (1989) Betmen qayıdır Betmen həmişə Betmen və Robin Betmen (1989) Betmen qayıdır Betmen həmişə Betmen və Robin Qara cəngavər trilogiyası Betmen: Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi Betmen: Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi Genişləndirilmiş DC kainatı Betmen Supermenə qarşı: Ədalətin şəfəqi Betmen Supermenə qarşı: Ədalətin şəfəqi Animasiya serialları Betmen Betmenin macəraları Betmen/Supermen saatı Betmen/Tarzan macəra saatı Betmenin yeni macəraları Betmen (1992) seriyalar Yeni Betmen macəraları seriyalar Gələcəyin Betmeni seriyalar Betmen seriyalar Cəsarətli və qorxmaz seriyalar Ehtiyatlı Betmen seriyalar Digər qəhrəmanlarla Super dostlar seriyalar Ədalət liqası seriyalar Ədalət liqası hüdudsuz seriyalar Gənc Ədalət liqası seriyalar Betmen Betmenin macəraları Betmen/Supermen saatı Betmen/Tarzan macəra saatı Betmenin yeni macəraları Betmen (1992) seriyalar Yeni Betmen macəraları seriyalar Gələcəyin Betmeni seriyalar Betmen seriyalar Cəsarətli və qorxmaz seriyalar Ehtiyatlı Betmen seriyalar Betmenin macəraları Betmen/Supermen saatı Betmen/Tarzan macəra saatı Betmenin yeni macəraları Betmen (1992) seriyalar seriyalar Yeni Betmen macəraları seriyalar seriyalar Gələcəyin Betmeni seriyalar seriyalar Betmen seriyalar seriyalar Cəsarətli və qorxmaz seriyalar seriyalar Ehtiyatlı Betmen seriyalar seriyalar Digər qəhrəmanlarla Super dostlar seriyalar Ədalət liqası seriyalar Ədalət liqası hüdudsuz seriyalar Gənc Ədalət liqası seriyalar Super dostlar seriyalar seriyalar Ədalət liqası seriyalar seriyalar Ədalət liqası hüdudsuz seriyalar seriyalar Gənc Ədalət liqası seriyalar seriyalar Animasiya filmləri Betmen Fantazm maskası Mister Friz Cokerin qayıdışı Betvumenin sirri Betmen Drakulaya qarşı Qırmızı başlıq altında Birinci il Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı — I hissə Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı — II hissə DC superqəhrəmanları birliyi Betmenin oğlu Betmen: Arkhemə hücum Betmen Robinə qarşı Pis qan Digər qəhrəmanlarla Ədalət liqası: Yeni hüdud Supermen/Betmen: İctimai düşmənlər Ədalət liqası: İki Yerdə krizis Supermen/Betmen: Apokalipsis Ədalət liqası: Tale Ədalət liqası: Münaqişə mənbəyi paradoksu AƏL macəraları: Zamanda tələyə düşmüş Ədalət liqası: Müharibə Lego Ədalət liqası: Atlantis tacı Hüdudsuz Betmen: Heyvan instinktləri Ədalət liqası: Tanrılar və bədheybətlər Hüdudsuz Betmen: Meyhem bədheybəti Betmen Fantazm maskası Mister Friz Cokerin qayıdışı Betvumenin sirri Betmen Drakulaya qarşı Qırmızı başlıq altında Birinci il Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı — I hissə Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı — II hissə DC superqəhrəmanları birliyi Betmenin oğlu Betmen: Arkhemə hücum Betmen Robinə qarşı Pis qan Fantazm maskası Mister Friz Cokerin qayıdışı Betvumenin sirri Betmen Drakulaya qarşı Qırmızı başlıq altında Birinci il Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı — I hissə Qara cəngavərin qayıdışı — II hissə DC superqəhrəmanları birliyi Betmenin oğlu Betmen: Arkhemə hücum Betmen Robinə qarşı Pis qan Digər qəhrəmanlarla Ədalət liqası: Yeni hüdud Supermen/Betmen: İctimai düşmənlər Ədalət liqası: İki Yerdə krizis Supermen/Betmen: Apokalipsis Ədalət liqası: Tale Ədalət liqası: Münaqişə mənbəyi paradoksu AƏL macəraları: Zamanda tələyə düşmüş Ədalət liqası: Müharibə Lego Ədalət liqası: Atlantis tacı Hüdudsuz Betmen: Heyvan instinktləri Ədalət liqası: Tanrılar və bədheybətlər Hüdudsuz Betmen: Meyhem bədheybəti Ədalət liqası: Yeni hüdud Supermen/Betmen: İctimai düşmənlər Ədalət liqası: İki Yerdə krizis Supermen/Betmen: Apokalipsis Ədalət liqası: Tale Ədalət liqası: Münaqişə mənbəyi paradoksu AƏL macəraları: Zamanda tələyə düşmüş Ədalət liqası: Müharibə Lego Ədalət liqası: Atlantis tacı Hüdudsuz Betmen: Heyvan instinktləri Ədalət liqası: Tanrılar və bədheybətlər Hüdudsuz Betmen: Meyhem bədheybəti Qısa animasiyalar İzlə məni Qotem cəngavəri İzlə məni Qotem cəngavəri Romanlar Solğun ağ Qorxunun özü Cəhənnəm Əsas bəla Düşmənlər və müttəfiqlər Qotemin Ueyni Solğun ağ Qorxunun özü Cəhənnəm Əsas bəla Düşmənlər və müttəfiqlər Qotemin Ueyni Digər mediada düşmənlər Digər mediada Pişik-qadın Digər mediada Coker Digər mediada Beyn Digər mediada Pişik-qadın Digər mediada Coker Digər mediada Beyn Digər personajlar Digər mediada Robin Digər mediada Barbara Qordon Digər mediada Robin Digər mediada Barbara Qordon Əlaqəli mövzular Brüs Ueyn (yayımlanmayıb) Batkid: Başlanğıc Betmen ekşen fiqurları Lego Betmen Batfon Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Betmen in Japan Betmen filmlərində iştirak etmiş şəxslərin siyahısı Betmen video oyunlarının siyahısı Betmen uşaq kitablarının siyahısı Brüs Ueyn (yayımlanmayıb) Batkid: Başlanğıc Betmen ekşen fiqurları Lego Betmen Lego Betmen Batfon Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Betmen in Japan Betmen filmlərində iştirak etmiş şəxslərin siyahısı Betmen video oyunlarının siyahısı Betmen uşaq kitablarının siyahısı Betmen musiqisi Soundtracks Filmlər Betmen (film musiqisi) Betmen (albom) Betmen:Qayıdış Betmen:Əbədi (film musiqisi) Betmen:Əbədi (albom) Betmen və Robin Betmen:Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər:Dirçəliş Video oyunlar Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Filmlər Betmen (film musiqisi) Betmen (albom) Betmen:Qayıdış Betmen:Əbədi (film musiqisi) Betmen:Əbədi (albom) Betmen və Robin Betmen:Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər:Dirçəliş Betmen (film musiqisi) Betmen (albom) Betmen:Qayıdış Betmen:Əbədi (film musiqisi) Betmen:Əbədi (albom) Betmen və Robin Betmen:Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər:Dirçəliş Video oyunlar Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Mahnılar Teleseriallar " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Betmen " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Betmen:Qayıdış "Face to Face" Batman:Əbədi " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " "Where Are You Now?" " Smash It Up " Betmen və Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " "Lazy Eye" Teleseriallar " Batman Theme " " Batusi " " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Betmen " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Betmen:Qayıdış "Face to Face" "Face to Face" Batman:Əbədi " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " "Where Are You Now?" " Smash It Up " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " "Where Are You Now?" " Smash It Up " Betmen və Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " "Lazy Eye" " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " "Lazy Eye" Qara Cəngavər trilogiyası Betmen: Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi Film musiqisi Video oyun Film musiqisi Dayandırılmış video oyun Film musiqisi Betmen: Başlanğıc Qara cəngavər Qara cəngavər: Əfsanənin dirçəlişi Film musiqisi Video oyun Film musiqisi Video oyun Film musiqisi Video oyun Film musiqisi Dayandırılmış video oyun Film musiqisi Dayandırılmış video oyun Film musiqisi Dayandırılmış video oyun Film musiqisi Film musiqisi Film musiqisi Uyğunlaşdırılmış personajlar Beyn Co Çill Conatan Kreyn/Qorxuluq Con Daggett Harvi Dent/İkiüz Karmayn Falkone Arnold Flass Lusius Foks Ra's al Qul / Henri Dukard Taliya al Qul/Miranda Teyt Ceyms Qordon Coker Selina Kayli/Pişik-qadın Gillian B. Loeb Sal Maroni Alfred Pennivort Brüs Ueyn/Betmen Marta Veyn Tomas Veyn Viktor Zsasz Beyn Co Çill Conatan Kreyn/Qorxuluq Con Daggett Harvi Dent/İkiüz Karmayn Falkone Arnold Flass Lusius Foks Ra's al Qul / Henri Dukard Taliya al Qul/Miranda Teyt Ceyms Qordon Coker Selina Kayli/Pişik-qadın Gillian B. Loeb Sal Maroni Alfred Pennivort Brüs Ueyn/Betmen Marta Veyn Tomas Veyn Viktor Zsasz Orijinal personajlar Con Bleyk Raşel Deyvs Con Bleyk Raşel Deyvs Əlaqəli Batman: Gotham Knight Betmen filmlərdə Betmen franşiz mediası Batman: Gotham Knight Betmen filmlərdə Betmen franşiz mediası Kateqoriya • VikiAnbar Supermen Cerri Siql • Co Şuster • Digər yazıçı və rəssamlar Supermen ailəsi Supermen • Klark Kent • Superboy • Kal-El • Kon-El • Conatan Samuel Kent • Kripto • Supergörl • Kara Zor-El • Matriks • Linda Denvers • Pauergöl • Supervumen • Mon-El • Naytvinq • Kris Kent/Lor-Zod • Fyembörd • Tara Ak-Var • Eradikator • Stil (Con Henri Ayrons) • Nataşa Ayrons Köməkçi personajlar Bibbo Bibbowski • Ket Qrant • Devid Korporon • Emil Hemilton • İnspektor Henderson • Cimmi Olsen • Jor-El • Conatan və Marta Kent • Luis Leyn • Lüsi Leyn • Sem Leyn • Lana Lenq • Lara • Lori Lemaris • Stiv Lombard • Lena Lütor • Maksima • Çif Parker • Professor Potter • Pit Ross • Maggi Soyer • Corc Taylor • Ron Trup • Dun Tyurpin • Perri Uayt • Zor-El • Cimmi Olsen • Jor-El • Conatan və Marta Kent • Luis Leyn • Lüsi Leyn • Sem Leyn • Lana Lenq • Lara • Lori Lemaris • Stiv Lombard • Lena Lütor • Maksima Düşmənləri Atomik Skull • Bizarro • Breyniak • Kodneym: Assassin • Conduit • Kiborq Supermen ( Henk Henşou ) • Darksayd • Dumsdey • Faora • General Zod • Mersi Qreyvs • Hektor Hammond • Imperiex • İnterqenq ( Morqan Edc • Bruno Mannheym ) • Jax-Ur • Kriptonit-men • Leks Lütor • Layvvayr • Metallo • Mister Mxyzptlk • Monqul • Neytron • Non • Parazit • Prankster • Silver Banşi • Titano • Toymen • Ultra-Humanit • Ursa Yerlər Metropol Ace o' Clubs • Daily Planet • Daily Star • Galaxy Communications • LexCorp • Project Cadmus • Suicide Slum • Ərazilər, görməli yerlər, institutlar Kripton Arqo-Siti • Kandor • Kriptonopolis • Vathlo adası Apokolips • Bizarro World • Colu • Daxam • Tənhalıq qəsri • Phantom Zone • S.T.A.R. Labs • Smollvill • Stryker's Island • Warworld Metropol Ace o' Clubs • Daily Planet • Daily Star • Galaxy Communications • LexCorp • Project Cadmus • Suicide Slum • Ərazilər, görməli yerlər, institutlar Kripton Arqo-Siti • Kandor • Kriptonopolis • Vathlo adası Apokolips • Bizarro World • Colu • Daxam • Tənhalıq qəsri • Phantom Zone • S.T.A.R. Labs • Smollvill • Stryker's Island • Warworld Əşya və material Kriptonit • Supermen robotları • Supermobayl Tarix və mövzular Personajlar və aktyor heyəti • Sülalə • Kriptonlular • Mənşə • Güc və bacarıqları • Nəşr tarixi ( Action Comics #1 ) • Supermen və Luis Leyn • Simvol Davamlı nəşrlər Action Comics • Batman/Superman • Superboy • Supergirl • Superman • Superman/Wonder Woman Alternativ versiyaları Supermen Earth-One versiyası • Earth-Two versiyası • Earth-Three versiyası (Ultramen) • Earth Prime versiyası (Superboy-Prime) • Kingdom Come versiyası • Superman Red/Superman Blue • Klark Kent ( Smollvill ) Leks Lütorun alternativ versiyaları • Supergörlün alternativ versiyaları Supermen Earth-One versiyası • Earth-Two versiyası • Earth-Three versiyası (Ultramen) • Earth Prime versiyası (Superboy-Prime) • Kingdom Come versiyası • Superman Red/Superman Blue • Klark Kent ( Smollvill ) Leks Lütorun alternativ versiyaları • Supergörlün alternativ versiyaları Digər mediada Filmlərdə Digər Supervumen • Beppo • Striki • Komet • Supermen (gen) • Coan Siql Kateqoriya Vikipediya:Əlifba sırasına görə seçilmiş məqalələr Kembric Universitetinin məzunları Paris Universitetinin məzunları DC Comics personajları Betmen 1939-cu ilin komiks debütləri ABŞ mədəniyyəti Amerikan superqəhrəmanlar Bill Finqer tərəfindən yaradılmış personajlar Bob Keyn tərəfindən yaradılmış personajlar Animasiya serialına uyğunlaşdırılmış komikslər Pyesə uyğunlaşdırılmış komikslər Teleseriala uyğunlaşdırılmış komikslər DC Comics əlbəyaxa döyüşçüləri DC Comics televiziya personajları Uydurma mühəndislər Uydurma ixtiraçılar Uydurma cüdoçular Uydurma karateçilər Uydurma yetimlər Uydurma xeyriyyəçilər Uydurma viqilantlar Film serialı personajları Kişi komiks personajları Superqəhrəman filmi personajları EasyTimeline uzantısından istifadə edən səhifələr ISBN sehrli keçidlərinin istifadə olunduğu səhifələr Çağırılan şablonun təkrar arqumentlərindən istifadə edən səhifələr Vikipediya:Şəkil kartoçkasında viki-işarə olan məqalələr Avtomatik ölçülü çoxsaylı şəkil istifadə edən səhifələr Articles with hatnote templates targeting a nonexistent page Bu səhifə sonuncu dəfə 13:09, 26 fevral 2025 tarixində redaktə edilib. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 1,184 results for author: Lu, Z Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10398 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI LatentRefusal: Latent-Signal Refusal for Unanswerable Text-to-SQL Queries Authors: Xuancheng Ren , Shijing Hu , Zhihui Lu , Jiangqi Huang , Qiang Duan Abstract : In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estima… ▽ More In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estimate output uncertainty, which adds complexity and overhead. To address this challenge, we formalize safe refusal in text-to-SQL systems as an answerability-gating problem and propose LatentRefusal, a latent-signal refusal mechanism that predicts query answerability from intermediate hidden activations of a large language model. We introduce the Tri-Residual Gated Encoder, a lightweight probing architecture, to suppress schema noise and amplify sparse, localized cues of question-schema mismatch that indicate unanswerability. Extensive empirical evaluations across diverse ambiguous and unanswerable settings, together with ablation studies and interpretability analyses, demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach and show that LatentRefusal provides an attachable and efficient safety layer for text-to-SQL systems. Across four benchmarks, LatentRefusal improves average F1 to 88.5 percent on both backbones while adding approximately 2 milliseconds of probe overhead. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10398 [ pdf , ps , other ] LatentRefusal: Latent-Signal Refusal for Unanswerable Text-to-SQL Queries Authors: Xuancheng Ren , Shijing Hu , Zhihui Lu , Jiangqi Huang , Qiang Duan Abstract : In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estima… ▽ More In LLM-based text-to-SQL systems, unanswerable and underspecified user queries may generate not only incorrect text but also executable programs that yield misleading results or violate safety constraints, posing a major barrier to safe deployment. Existing refusal strategies for such queries either rely on output-level instruction following, which is brittle due to model hallucinations, or estimate output uncertainty, which adds complexity and overhead. To address this challenge, we formalize safe refusal in text-to-SQL systems as an answerability-gating problem and propose LatentRefusal, a latent-signal refusal mechanism that predicts query answerability from intermediate hidden activations of a large language model. We introduce the Tri-Residual Gated Encoder, a lightweight probing architecture, to suppress schema noise and amplify sparse, localized cues of question-schema mismatch that indicate unanswerability. Extensive empirical evaluations across diverse ambiguous and unanswerable settings, together with ablation studies and interpretability analyses, demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach and show that LatentRefusal provides an attachable and efficient safety layer for text-to-SQL systems. Across four benchmarks, LatentRefusal improves average F1 to 88.5 percent on both backbones while adding approximately 2 milliseconds of probe overhead. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09668 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV STEP3-VL-10B Technical Report Authors: Ailin Huang , Chengyuan Yao , Chunrui Han , Fanqi Wan , Hangyu Guo , Haoran Lv , Hongyu Zhou , Jia Wang , Jian Zhou , Jianjian Sun , Jingcheng Hu , Kangheng Lin , Liang Zhao , Mitt Huang , Song Yuan , Wenwen Qu , Xiangfeng Wang , Yanlin Lai , Yingxiu Zhao , Yinmin Zhang , Yukang Shi , Yuyang Chen , Zejia Weng , Ziyang Meng , Ang Li , et al. (68 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish… ▽ More We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish intrinsic vision-language synergy; and second, a scaled post-training pipeline featuring over 1k iterations of reinforcement learning. Crucially, we implement Parallel Coordinated Reasoning (PaCoRe) to scale test-time compute, allocating resources to scalable perceptual reasoning that explores and synthesizes diverse visual hypotheses. Consequently, despite its compact 10B footprint, STEP3-VL-10B rivals or surpasses models 10$\times$-20$\times$ larger (e.g., GLM-4.6V-106B, Qwen3-VL-235B) and top-tier proprietary flagships like Gemini 2.5 Pro and Seed-1.5-VL. Delivering best-in-class performance, it records 92.2% on MMBench and 80.11% on MMMU, while excelling in complex reasoning with 94.43% on AIME2025 and 75.95% on MathVision. We release the full model suite to provide the community with a powerful, efficient, and reproducible baseline. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 50 pages arXiv:2601.09668 [ pdf , ps , other ] STEP3-VL-10B Technical Report Authors: Ailin Huang , Chengyuan Yao , Chunrui Han , Fanqi Wan , Hangyu Guo , Haoran Lv , Hongyu Zhou , Jia Wang , Jian Zhou , Jianjian Sun , Jingcheng Hu , Kangheng Lin , Liang Zhao , Mitt Huang , Song Yuan , Wenwen Qu , Xiangfeng Wang , Yanlin Lai , Yingxiu Zhao , Yinmin Zhang , Yukang Shi , Yuyang Chen , Zejia Weng , Ziyang Meng , Ang Li , et al. (68 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish… ▽ More We present STEP3-VL-10B, a lightweight open-source foundation model designed to redefine the trade-off between compact efficiency and frontier-level multimodal intelligence. STEP3-VL-10B is realized through two strategic shifts: first, a unified, fully unfrozen pre-training strategy on 1.2T multimodal tokens that integrates a language-aligned Perception Encoder with a Qwen3-8B decoder to establish intrinsic vision-language synergy; and second, a scaled post-training pipeline featuring over 1k iterations of reinforcement learning. Crucially, we implement Parallel Coordinated Reasoning (PaCoRe) to scale test-time compute, allocating resources to scalable perceptual reasoning that explores and synthesizes diverse visual hypotheses. Consequently, despite its compact 10B footprint, STEP3-VL-10B rivals or surpasses models 10$\times$-20$\times$ larger (e.g., GLM-4.6V-106B, Qwen3-VL-235B) and top-tier proprietary flagships like Gemini 2.5 Pro and Seed-1.5-VL. Delivering best-in-class performance, it records 92.2% on MMBench and 80.11% on MMMU, while excelling in complex reasoning with 94.43% on AIME2025 and 75.95% on MathVision. We release the full model suite to provide the community with a powerful, efficient, and reproducible baseline. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; v1 submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 50 pages arXiv:2601.09487 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL SlidesGen-Bench: Evaluating Slides Generation via Computational and Quantitative Metrics Authors: Yunqiao Yang , Wenbo Li , Houxing Ren , Zimu Lu , Ke Wang , Zhiyuan Huang , Zhuofan Zong , Mingjie Zhan , Hongsheng Li Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has fostered diverse paradigms for automated slide generation, ranging from code-driven layouts to image-centric synthesis. However, evaluating these heterogeneous systems remains challenging, as existing protocols often struggle to provide comparable scores across architectures or rely on uncalibrated judgments. In this paper, we introduce Slide… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has fostered diverse paradigms for automated slide generation, ranging from code-driven layouts to image-centric synthesis. However, evaluating these heterogeneous systems remains challenging, as existing protocols often struggle to provide comparable scores across architectures or rely on uncalibrated judgments. In this paper, we introduce SlidesGen-Bench, a benchmark designed to evaluate slide generation through a lens of three core principles: universality, quantification, and reliability. First, to establish a unified evaluation framework, we ground our analysis in the visual domain, treating terminal outputs as renderings to remain agnostic to the underlying generation method. Second, we propose a computational approach that quantitatively assesses slides across three distinct dimensions - Content, Aesthetics, and Editability - offering reproducible metrics where prior works relied on subjective or reference-dependent proxies. Finally, to ensure high correlation with human preference, we construct the Slides-Align1.5k dataset, a human preference aligned dataset covering slides from nine mainstream generation systems across seven scenarios. Our experiments demonstrate that SlidesGen-Bench achieves a higher degree of alignment with human judgment than existing evaluation pipelines. Our code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 37 pages, 34 figures arXiv:2601.09487 [ pdf , ps , other ] SlidesGen-Bench: Evaluating Slides Generation via Computational and Quantitative Metrics Authors: Yunqiao Yang , Wenbo Li , Houxing Ren , Zimu Lu , Ke Wang , Zhiyuan Huang , Zhuofan Zong , Mingjie Zhan , Hongsheng Li Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has fostered diverse paradigms for automated slide generation, ranging from code-driven layouts to image-centric synthesis. However, evaluating these heterogeneous systems remains challenging, as existing protocols often struggle to provide comparable scores across architectures or rely on uncalibrated judgments. In this paper, we introduce Slide… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) has fostered diverse paradigms for automated slide generation, ranging from code-driven layouts to image-centric synthesis. However, evaluating these heterogeneous systems remains challenging, as existing protocols often struggle to provide comparable scores across architectures or rely on uncalibrated judgments. In this paper, we introduce SlidesGen-Bench, a benchmark designed to evaluate slide generation through a lens of three core principles: universality, quantification, and reliability. First, to establish a unified evaluation framework, we ground our analysis in the visual domain, treating terminal outputs as renderings to remain agnostic to the underlying generation method. Second, we propose a computational approach that quantitatively assesses slides across three distinct dimensions - Content, Aesthetics, and Editability - offering reproducible metrics where prior works relied on subjective or reference-dependent proxies. Finally, to ensure high correlation with human preference, we construct the Slides-Align1.5k dataset, a human preference aligned dataset covering slides from nine mainstream generation systems across seven scenarios. Our experiments demonstrate that SlidesGen-Bench achieves a higher degree of alignment with human judgment than existing evaluation pipelines. Our code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 37 pages, 34 figures arXiv:2601.07344 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI PulseMind: A Multi-Modal Medical Model for Real-World Clinical Diagnosis Authors: Jiao Xu , Junwei Liu , Jiangwei Lao , Qi Zhu , Yunpeng Zhao , Congyun Jin , Shinan Liu , Zhihong Lu , Lihe Zhang , Xin Chen , Jian Wang , Ping Wang Abstract : Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-moda… ▽ More Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-modal diagnostic models that integrates a systematically curated dataset, a comprehensive evaluation benchmark, and a tailored training framework. Specifically, we first construct a diagnostic dataset, MediScope, which comprises 98,000 real-world multi-turn consultations and 601,500 medical images, spanning over 10 major clinical departments and more than 200 sub-specialties. Then, to better reflect the requirements of real-world clinical diagnosis, we develop the PulseMind Benchmark, a multi-turn diagnostic consultation benchmark with a four-dimensional evaluation protocol comprising proactiveness, accuracy, usefulness, and language quality. Finally, we design a training framework tailored for multi-modal clinical diagnostics, centered around a core component named Comparison-based Reinforcement Policy Optimization (CRPO). Compared to absolute score rewards, CRPO uses relative preference signals from multi-dimensional com-parisons to provide stable and human-aligned training guidance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PulseMind achieves competitive performance on both the diagnostic consultation benchmark and public medical benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.07344 [ pdf , ps , other ] PulseMind: A Multi-Modal Medical Model for Real-World Clinical Diagnosis Authors: Jiao Xu , Junwei Liu , Jiangwei Lao , Qi Zhu , Yunpeng Zhao , Congyun Jin , Shinan Liu , Zhihong Lu , Lihe Zhang , Xin Chen , Jian Wang , Ping Wang Abstract : Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-moda… ▽ More Recent advances in medical multi-modal models focus on specialized image analysis like dermatology, pathology, or radiology. However, they do not fully capture the complexity of real-world clinical diagnostics, which involve heterogeneous inputs and require ongoing contextual understanding during patient-physician interactions. To bridge this gap, we introduce PulseMind, a new family of multi-modal diagnostic models that integrates a systematically curated dataset, a comprehensive evaluation benchmark, and a tailored training framework. Specifically, we first construct a diagnostic dataset, MediScope, which comprises 98,000 real-world multi-turn consultations and 601,500 medical images, spanning over 10 major clinical departments and more than 200 sub-specialties. Then, to better reflect the requirements of real-world clinical diagnosis, we develop the PulseMind Benchmark, a multi-turn diagnostic consultation benchmark with a four-dimensional evaluation protocol comprising proactiveness, accuracy, usefulness, and language quality. Finally, we design a training framework tailored for multi-modal clinical diagnostics, centered around a core component named Comparison-based Reinforcement Policy Optimization (CRPO). Compared to absolute score rewards, CRPO uses relative preference signals from multi-dimensional com-parisons to provide stable and human-aligned training guidance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that PulseMind achieves competitive performance on both the diagnostic consultation benchmark and public medical benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2601.06559 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ArrowGEV: Grounding Events in Video via Learning the Arrow of Time Authors: Fangxu Yu , Ziyao Lu , Liqiang Niu , Fandong Meng , Jie Zhou Abstract : Grounding events in videos serves as a fundamental capability in video analysis. While Vision-Language Models (VLMs) are increasingly employed for this task, existing approaches predominantly train models to associate events with timestamps in the forward video only. This paradigm hinders VLMs from capturing the inherent temporal structure and directionality of events, thereby limiting robustness… ▽ More Grounding events in videos serves as a fundamental capability in video analysis. While Vision-Language Models (VLMs) are increasingly employed for this task, existing approaches predominantly train models to associate events with timestamps in the forward video only. This paradigm hinders VLMs from capturing the inherent temporal structure and directionality of events, thereby limiting robustness and generalization. To address this limitation, inspired by the arrow of time in physics, which characterizes the intrinsic directionality of temporal processes, we propose ArrowGEV, a reinforcement learning framework that explicitly models temporal directionality in events to improve both event grounding and temporal directionality understanding in VLMs. Specifically, we categorize events into time-sensitive (e.g., putting down a bag) and time-insensitive (e.g., holding a towel in the left hand). The former denote events whose reversal substantially alters their meaning, while the latter remain semantically unchanged under reversal. For time-sensitive events, ArrowGEV introduces a reward that encourages VLMs to discriminate between forward and backward videos, whereas for time-insensitive events, it enforces consistent grounding across both directions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ArrowGEV not only improves grounding precision and temporal directionality recognition, but also enhances general video understanding and reasoning ability. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06559 [ pdf , ps , other ] ArrowGEV: Grounding Events in Video via Learning the Arrow of Time Authors: Fangxu Yu , Ziyao Lu , Liqiang Niu , Fandong Meng , Jie Zhou Abstract : Grounding events in videos serves as a fundamental capability in video analysis. While Vision-Language Models (VLMs) are increasingly employed for this task, existing approaches predominantly train models to associate events with timestamps in the forward video only. This paradigm hinders VLMs from capturing the inherent temporal structure and directionality of events, thereby limiting robustness… ▽ More Grounding events in videos serves as a fundamental capability in video analysis. While Vision-Language Models (VLMs) are increasingly employed for this task, existing approaches predominantly train models to associate events with timestamps in the forward video only. This paradigm hinders VLMs from capturing the inherent temporal structure and directionality of events, thereby limiting robustness and generalization. To address this limitation, inspired by the arrow of time in physics, which characterizes the intrinsic directionality of temporal processes, we propose ArrowGEV, a reinforcement learning framework that explicitly models temporal directionality in events to improve both event grounding and temporal directionality understanding in VLMs. Specifically, we categorize events into time-sensitive (e.g., putting down a bag) and time-insensitive (e.g., holding a towel in the left hand). The former denote events whose reversal substantially alters their meaning, while the latter remain semantically unchanged under reversal. For time-sensitive events, ArrowGEV introduces a reward that encourages VLMs to discriminate between forward and backward videos, whereas for time-insensitive events, it enforces consistent grounding across both directions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ArrowGEV not only improves grounding precision and temporal directionality recognition, but also enhances general video understanding and reasoning ability. △ Less Submitted 10 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06411 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Structured Episodic Event Memory Authors: Zhengxuan Lu , Dongfang Li , Yukun Shi , Beilun Wang , Longyue Wang , Baotian Hu Abstract : Current approaches to memory in Large Language Models (LLMs) predominantly rely on static Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), which often results in scattered retrieval and fails to capture the structural dependencies required for complex reasoning. For autonomous agents, these passive and flat architectures lack the cognitive organization necessary to model the dynamic and associative nature of… ▽ More Current approaches to memory in Large Language Models (LLMs) predominantly rely on static Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), which often results in scattered retrieval and fails to capture the structural dependencies required for complex reasoning. For autonomous agents, these passive and flat architectures lack the cognitive organization necessary to model the dynamic and associative nature of long-term interaction. To address this, we propose Structured Episodic Event Memory (SEEM), a hierarchical framework that synergizes a graph memory layer for relational facts with a dynamic episodic memory layer for narrative progression. Grounded in cognitive frame theory, SEEM transforms interaction streams into structured Episodic Event Frames (EEFs) anchored by precise provenance pointers. Furthermore, we introduce an agentic associative fusion and Reverse Provenance Expansion (RPE) mechanism to reconstruct coherent narrative contexts from fragmented evidence. Experimental results on the LoCoMo and LongMemEval benchmarks demonstrate that SEEM significantly outperforms baselines, enabling agents to maintain superior narrative coherence and logical consistency. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06411 [ pdf , ps , other ] Structured Episodic Event Memory Authors: Zhengxuan Lu , Dongfang Li , Yukun Shi , Beilun Wang , Longyue Wang , Baotian Hu Abstract : Current approaches to memory in Large Language Models (LLMs) predominantly rely on static Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), which often results in scattered retrieval and fails to capture the structural dependencies required for complex reasoning. For autonomous agents, these passive and flat architectures lack the cognitive organization necessary to model the dynamic and associative nature of… ▽ More Current approaches to memory in Large Language Models (LLMs) predominantly rely on static Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), which often results in scattered retrieval and fails to capture the structural dependencies required for complex reasoning. For autonomous agents, these passive and flat architectures lack the cognitive organization necessary to model the dynamic and associative nature of long-term interaction. To address this, we propose Structured Episodic Event Memory (SEEM), a hierarchical framework that synergizes a graph memory layer for relational facts with a dynamic episodic memory layer for narrative progression. Grounded in cognitive frame theory, SEEM transforms interaction streams into structured Episodic Event Frames (EEFs) anchored by precise provenance pointers. Furthermore, we introduce an agentic associative fusion and Reverse Provenance Expansion (RPE) mechanism to reconstruct coherent narrative contexts from fragmented evidence. Experimental results on the LoCoMo and LongMemEval benchmarks demonstrate that SEEM significantly outperforms baselines, enabling agents to maintain superior narrative coherence and logical consistency. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04236 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.AI cs.RO eess.AS SmoothSync: Dual-Stream Diffusion Transformers for Jitter-Robust Beat-Synchronized Gesture Generation from Quantized Audio Authors: Yujiao Jiang , Qingmin Liao , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transforme… ▽ More Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architecture to synthesis holistic gestures and enhance sampling variation. Specifically, we (1) fuse audio-motion features via complementary transformer streams to achieve superior synchronization, (2) introduce a jitter-suppression loss to improve temporal smoothness, (3) implement probabilistic audio quantization to generate distinct gesture sequences from identical inputs. To reliably evaluate beat synchronization under jitter, we introduce Smooth-BC, a robust variant of the beat consistency metric less sensitive to motion noise. Comprehensive experiments on the BEAT2 and SHOW datasets demonstrate SmoothSync's superiority, outperforming state-of-the-art methods by -30.6% FGD, 10.3% Smooth-BC, and 8.4% Diversity on BEAT2, while reducing jitter and foot sliding by -62.9% and -17.1% respectively. The code will be released to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04236 [ pdf , ps , other ] SmoothSync: Dual-Stream Diffusion Transformers for Jitter-Robust Beat-Synchronized Gesture Generation from Quantized Audio Authors: Yujiao Jiang , Qingmin Liao , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transforme… ▽ More Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architecture to synthesis holistic gestures and enhance sampling variation. Specifically, we (1) fuse audio-motion features via complementary transformer streams to achieve superior synchronization, (2) introduce a jitter-suppression loss to improve temporal smoothness, (3) implement probabilistic audio quantization to generate distinct gesture sequences from identical inputs. To reliably evaluate beat synchronization under jitter, we introduce Smooth-BC, a robust variant of the beat consistency metric less sensitive to motion noise. Comprehensive experiments on the BEAT2 and SHOW datasets demonstrate SmoothSync's superiority, outperforming state-of-the-art methods by -30.6% FGD, 10.3% Smooth-BC, and 8.4% Diversity on BEAT2, while reducing jitter and foot sliding by -62.9% and -17.1% respectively. The code will be released to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2512.24157 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Training Report of TeleChat3-MoE Authors: Xinzhang Liu , Chao Wang , Zhihao Yang , Zhuo Jiang , Xuncheng Zhao , Haoran Wang , Lei Li , Dongdong He , Luobin Liu , Kaizhe Yuan , Han Gao , Zihan Wang , Yitong Yao , Sishi Xiong , Wenmin Deng , Haowei He , Kaidong Yu , Yu Zhao , Ruiyu Fang , Yuhao Jiang , Yingyan Li , Xiaohui Hu , Xi Yu , Jingqi Li , Yanwei Liu , et al. (29 additional authors not shown) Abstract : TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic met… ▽ More TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic methodologies for operator-level and end-to-end numerical accuracy verification, ensuring consistency across hardware platforms and distributed parallelism strategies. Furthermore, we introduce a suite of performance optimizations, including interleaved pipeline scheduling, attention-aware data scheduling for long-sequence training,hierarchical and overlapped communication for expert parallelism, and DVM-based operator fusion. A systematic parallelization framework, leveraging analytical estimation and integer linear programming, is also proposed to optimize multi-dimensional parallelism configurations. Additionally, we present methodological approaches to cluster-level optimizations, addressing host- and device-bound bottlenecks during large-scale training tasks. These infrastructure advancements yield significant throughput improvements and near-linear scaling on clusters comprising thousands of devices, providing a robust foundation for large-scale language model development on hardware ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24157 [ pdf , ps , other ] Training Report of TeleChat3-MoE Authors: Xinzhang Liu , Chao Wang , Zhihao Yang , Zhuo Jiang , Xuncheng Zhao , Haoran Wang , Lei Li , Dongdong He , Luobin Liu , Kaizhe Yuan , Han Gao , Zihan Wang , Yitong Yao , Sishi Xiong , Wenmin Deng , Haowei He , Kaidong Yu , Yu Zhao , Ruiyu Fang , Yuhao Jiang , Yingyan Li , Xiaohui Hu , Xi Yu , Jingqi Li , Yanwei Liu , et al. (29 additional authors not shown) Abstract : TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic met… ▽ More TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic methodologies for operator-level and end-to-end numerical accuracy verification, ensuring consistency across hardware platforms and distributed parallelism strategies. Furthermore, we introduce a suite of performance optimizations, including interleaved pipeline scheduling, attention-aware data scheduling for long-sequence training,hierarchical and overlapped communication for expert parallelism, and DVM-based operator fusion. A systematic parallelization framework, leveraging analytical estimation and integer linear programming, is also proposed to optimize multi-dimensional parallelism configurations. Additionally, we present methodological approaches to cluster-level optimizations, addressing host- and device-bound bottlenecks during large-scale training tasks. These infrastructure advancements yield significant throughput improvements and near-linear scaling on clusters comprising thousands of devices, providing a robust foundation for large-scale language model development on hardware ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23260 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG Interpretable Safety Alignment via SAE-Constructed Low-Rank Subspace Adaptation Authors: Dianyun Wang , Qingsen Ma , Yuhu Shang , Zhifeng Lu , Zhenbo Xu , Lechen Ning , Huijia Wu , Zhaofeng He Abstract : Safety alignment -- training large language models (LLMs) to refuse harmful requests while remaining helpful -- is critical for responsible deployment. Prior work established that safety behaviors are governed by low-rank structures, suggesting parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) should be well-suited for alignment. However, Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) consistently underperforms full fine-tuning… ▽ More Safety alignment -- training large language models (LLMs) to refuse harmful requests while remaining helpful -- is critical for responsible deployment. Prior work established that safety behaviors are governed by low-rank structures, suggesting parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) should be well-suited for alignment. However, Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) consistently underperforms full fine-tuning and reinforcement learning on safety benchmarks. We attribute this gap to semantic entanglement: safety-relevant directions are intertwined with unrelated concepts due to polysemanticity, impeding implicit subspace identification. To address this, we propose SAILS (Safety Alignment via Interpretable Low-rank Subspace), which leverages Sparse Autoencoders (SAEs) to disentangle representations into monosemantic features, constructs an interpretable safety subspace from SAE decoder directions, and uses it to initialize LoRA adapters. Theoretically, we prove that SAE-based identification achieves arbitrarily small recovery error under monosemanticity assumptions, while direct identification suffers an irreducible error floor. Empirically, SAILS achieves up to 99.6% safety rate on Gemma-2-9B -- exceeding full fine-tuning by 7.4 points and matching RLHF-based models -- while updating only 0.19% of parameters and providing interpretability. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; v1 submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23260 [ pdf , ps , other ] Interpretable Safety Alignment via SAE-Constructed Low-Rank Subspace Adaptation Authors: Dianyun Wang , Qingsen Ma , Yuhu Shang , Zhifeng Lu , Zhenbo Xu , Lechen Ning , Huijia Wu , Zhaofeng He Abstract : Safety alignment -- training large language models (LLMs) to refuse harmful requests while remaining helpful -- is critical for responsible deployment. Prior work established that safety behaviors are governed by low-rank structures, suggesting parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) should be well-suited for alignment. However, Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) consistently underperforms full fine-tuning… ▽ More Safety alignment -- training large language models (LLMs) to refuse harmful requests while remaining helpful -- is critical for responsible deployment. Prior work established that safety behaviors are governed by low-rank structures, suggesting parameter-efficient fine-tuning (PEFT) should be well-suited for alignment. However, Low-Rank Adaptation (LoRA) consistently underperforms full fine-tuning and reinforcement learning on safety benchmarks. We attribute this gap to semantic entanglement: safety-relevant directions are intertwined with unrelated concepts due to polysemanticity, impeding implicit subspace identification. To address this, we propose SAILS (Safety Alignment via Interpretable Low-rank Subspace), which leverages Sparse Autoencoders (SAEs) to disentangle representations into monosemantic features, constructs an interpretable safety subspace from SAE decoder directions, and uses it to initialize LoRA adapters. Theoretically, we prove that SAE-based identification achieves arbitrarily small recovery error under monosemanticity assumptions, while direct identification suffers an irreducible error floor. Empirically, SAILS achieves up to 99.6% safety rate on Gemma-2-9B -- exceeding full fine-tuning by 7.4 points and matching RLHF-based models -- while updating only 0.19% of parameters and providing interpretability. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; v1 submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22909 [ pdf , ps , other ] math.OC cs.LG math.NA stat.ML A first-order method for nonconvex-strongly-concave constrained minimax optimization Authors: Zhaosong Lu , Sanyou Mei Abstract : In this paper we study a nonconvex-strongly-concave constrained minimax problem. Specifically, we propose a first-order augmented Lagrangian method for solving it, whose subproblems are nonconvex-strongly-concave unconstrained minimax problems and suitably solved by a first-order method developed in this paper that leverages the strong concavity structure. Under suitable assumptions, the proposed… ▽ More In this paper we study a nonconvex-strongly-concave constrained minimax problem. Specifically, we propose a first-order augmented Lagrangian method for solving it, whose subproblems are nonconvex-strongly-concave unconstrained minimax problems and suitably solved by a first-order method developed in this paper that leverages the strong concavity structure. Under suitable assumptions, the proposed method achieves an operation complexity of $O(\varepsilon^{-3.5}\log\varepsilon^{-1})$, measured in terms of its fundamental operations, for finding an $\varepsilon$-KKT solution of the constrained minimax problem, which improves the previous best-known operation complexity by a factor of $\varepsilon^{-0.5}$. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by Optimization Methods and Software MSC Class: 90C26; 90C30; 90C47; 90C99; 65K05 arXiv:2512.22909 [ pdf , ps , other ] A first-order method for nonconvex-strongly-concave constrained minimax optimization Authors: Zhaosong Lu , Sanyou Mei Abstract : In this paper we study a nonconvex-strongly-concave constrained minimax problem. Specifically, we propose a first-order augmented Lagrangian method for solving it, whose subproblems are nonconvex-strongly-concave unconstrained minimax problems and suitably solved by a first-order method developed in this paper that leverages the strong concavity structure. Under suitable assumptions, the proposed… ▽ More In this paper we study a nonconvex-strongly-concave constrained minimax problem. Specifically, we propose a first-order augmented Lagrangian method for solving it, whose subproblems are nonconvex-strongly-concave unconstrained minimax problems and suitably solved by a first-order method developed in this paper that leverages the strong concavity structure. Under suitable assumptions, the proposed method achieves an operation complexity of $O(\varepsilon^{-3.5}\log\varepsilon^{-1})$, measured in terms of its fundamental operations, for finding an $\varepsilon$-KKT solution of the constrained minimax problem, which improves the previous best-known operation complexity by a factor of $\varepsilon^{-0.5}$. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; v1 submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by Optimization Methods and Software MSC Class: 90C26; 90C30; 90C47; 90C99; 65K05 arXiv:2512.21233 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO UniTacHand: Unified Spatio-Tactile Representation for Human to Robotic Hand Skill Transfer Authors: Chi Zhang , Penglin Cai , Haoqi Yuan , Chaoyi Xu , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misa… ▽ More Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misalignment between human and robotic tactile data makes it challenging to transfer policies learned from human data to robots. To bridge this gap, we propose UniTacHand, a unified representation to align robotic tactile information captured by dexterous hands with human hand touch obtained from gloves. First, we project tactile signals from both human hands and robotic hands onto a morphologically consistent 2D surface space of the MANO hand model. This unification standardizes the heterogeneous data structures and inherently embeds the tactile signals with spatial context. Then, we introduce a contrastive learning method to align them into a unified latent space, trained on only 10 minutes of paired data from our data collection system. Our approach enables zero-shot tactile-based policy transfer from humans to a real robot, generalizing to objects unseen in the pre-training data. We also demonstrate that co-training on mixed data, including both human and robotic demonstrations via UniTacHand, yields better performance and data efficiency compared with using only robotic data. UniTacHand paves a path toward general, scalable, and data-efficient learning for tactile-based dexterous hands. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The first two authors contributed equally arXiv:2512.21233 [ pdf , ps , other ] UniTacHand: Unified Spatio-Tactile Representation for Human to Robotic Hand Skill Transfer Authors: Chi Zhang , Penglin Cai , Haoqi Yuan , Chaoyi Xu , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misa… ▽ More Tactile sensing is crucial for robotic hands to achieve human-level dexterous manipulation, especially in scenarios with visual occlusion. However, its application is often hindered by the difficulty of collecting large-scale real-world robotic tactile data. In this study, we propose to collect low-cost human manipulation data using haptic gloves for tactile-based robotic policy learning. The misalignment between human and robotic tactile data makes it challenging to transfer policies learned from human data to robots. To bridge this gap, we propose UniTacHand, a unified representation to align robotic tactile information captured by dexterous hands with human hand touch obtained from gloves. First, we project tactile signals from both human hands and robotic hands onto a morphologically consistent 2D surface space of the MANO hand model. This unification standardizes the heterogeneous data structures and inherently embeds the tactile signals with spatial context. Then, we introduce a contrastive learning method to align them into a unified latent space, trained on only 10 minutes of paired data from our data collection system. Our approach enables zero-shot tactile-based policy transfer from humans to a real robot, generalizing to objects unseen in the pre-training data. We also demonstrate that co-training on mixed data, including both human and robotic demonstrations via UniTacHand, yields better performance and data efficiency compared with using only robotic data. UniTacHand paves a path toward general, scalable, and data-efficient learning for tactile-based dexterous hands. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; v1 submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: The first two authors contributed equally arXiv:2512.21227 [ pdf , ps , other ] cond-mat.mtrl-sci cs.AI PhononBench:A Large-Scale Phonon-Based Benchmark for Dynamical Stability in Crystal Generation Authors: Xiao-Qi Han , Peng-Jie Guo , Ze-Feng Gao , Zhong-Yi Lu Abstract : In this work, we introduce PhononBench, the first large-scale benchmark for dynamical stability in AI-generated crystals. Leveraging the recently developed MatterSim interatomic potential, which achieves DFT-level accuracy in phonon predictions across more than 10,000 materials, PhononBench enables efficient large-scale phonon calculations and dynamical-stability analysis for 108,843 crystal struc… ▽ More In this work, we introduce PhononBench, the first large-scale benchmark for dynamical stability in AI-generated crystals. Leveraging the recently developed MatterSim interatomic potential, which achieves DFT-level accuracy in phonon predictions across more than 10,000 materials, PhononBench enables efficient large-scale phonon calculations and dynamical-stability analysis for 108,843 crystal structures generated by six leading crystal generation models. PhononBench reveals a widespread limitation of current generative models in ensuring dynamical stability: the average dynamical-stability rate across all generated structures is only 25.83%, with the top-performing model, MatterGen, reaching just 41.0%. Further case studies show that in property-targeted generation-illustrated here by band-gap conditioning with MatterGen--the dynamical-stability rate remains as low as 23.5% even at the optimal band-gap condition of 0.5 eV. In space-group-controlled generation, higher-symmetry crystals exhibit better stability (e.g., cubic systems achieve rates up to 49.2%), yet the average stability across all controlled generations is still only 34.4%. An important additional outcome of this study is the identification of 28,119 crystal structures that are phonon-stable across the entire Brillouin zone, providing a substantial pool of reliable candidates for future materials exploration. By establishing the first large-scale dynamical-stability benchmark, this work systematically highlights the current limitations of crystal generation models and offers essential evaluation criteria and guidance for their future development toward the design and discovery of physically viable materials. All model-generated crystal structures, phonon calculation results, and the high-throughput evaluation workflows developed in PhononBench will be openly released at △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; v1 submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 19 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2512.21227 [ pdf , ps , other ] PhononBench:A Large-Scale Phonon-Based Benchmark for Dynamical Stability in Crystal Generation Authors: Xiao-Qi Han , Peng-Jie Guo , Ze-Feng Gao , Zhong-Yi Lu Abstract : In this work, we introduce PhononBench, the first large-scale benchmark for dynamical stability in AI-generated crystals. Leveraging the recently developed MatterSim interatomic potential, which achieves DFT-level accuracy in phonon predictions across more than 10,000 materials, PhononBench enables efficient large-scale phonon calculations and dynamical-stability analysis for 108,843 crystal struc… ▽ More In this work, we introduce PhononBench, the first large-scale benchmark for dynamical stability in AI-generated crystals. Leveraging the recently developed MatterSim interatomic potential, which achieves DFT-level accuracy in phonon predictions across more than 10,000 materials, PhononBench enables efficient large-scale phonon calculations and dynamical-stability analysis for 108,843 crystal structures generated by six leading crystal generation models. PhononBench reveals a widespread limitation of current generative models in ensuring dynamical stability: the average dynamical-stability rate across all generated structures is only 25.83%, with the top-performing model, MatterGen, reaching just 41.0%. Further case studies show that in property-targeted generation-illustrated here by band-gap conditioning with MatterGen--the dynamical-stability rate remains as low as 23.5% even at the optimal band-gap condition of 0.5 eV. In space-group-controlled generation, higher-symmetry crystals exhibit better stability (e.g., cubic systems achieve rates up to 49.2%), yet the average stability across all controlled generations is still only 34.4%. An important additional outcome of this study is the identification of 28,119 crystal structures that are phonon-stable across the entire Brillouin zone, providing a substantial pool of reliable candidates for future materials exploration. By establishing the first large-scale dynamical-stability benchmark, this work systematically highlights the current limitations of crystal generation models and offers essential evaluation criteria and guidance for their future development toward the design and discovery of physically viable materials. All model-generated crystal structures, phonon calculation results, and the high-throughput evaluation workflows developed in PhononBench will be openly released at △ Less Submitted 26 December, 2025; v1 submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 19 pages, 6 figures arXiv:2512.19933 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL PRISM: A Personality-Driven Multi-Agent Framework for Social Media Simulation Authors: Zhixiang Lu , Xueyuan Deng , Yiran Liu , Yulong Li , Qiang Yan , Imran Razzak , Jionglong Su Abstract : Traditional agent-based models (ABMs) of opinion dynamics often fail to capture the psychological heterogeneity driving online polarization due to simplistic homogeneity assumptions. This limitation obscures the critical interplay between individual cognitive biases and information propagation, thereby hindering a mechanistic understanding of how ideological divides are amplified. To address this… ▽ More Traditional agent-based models (ABMs) of opinion dynamics often fail to capture the psychological heterogeneity driving online polarization due to simplistic homogeneity assumptions. This limitation obscures the critical interplay between individual cognitive biases and information propagation, thereby hindering a mechanistic understanding of how ideological divides are amplified. To address this challenge, we introduce the Personality-Refracted Intelligent Simulation Model (PRISM), a hybrid framework coupling stochastic differential equations (SDE) for continuous emotional evolution with a personality-conditional partially observable Markov decision process (PC-POMDP) for discrete decision-making. In contrast to continuous trait approaches, PRISM assigns distinct Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) based cognitive policies to multimodal large language model (MLLM) agents, initialized via data-driven priors from large-scale social media datasets. PRISM achieves superior personality consistency aligned with human ground truth, significantly outperforming standard homogeneous and Big Five benchmarks. This framework effectively replicates emergent phenomena such as rational suppression and affective resonance, offering a robust tool for analyzing complex social media ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.19933 [ pdf , ps , other ] PRISM: A Personality-Driven Multi-Agent Framework for Social Media Simulation Authors: Zhixiang Lu , Xueyuan Deng , Yiran Liu , Yulong Li , Qiang Yan , Imran Razzak , Jionglong Su Abstract : Traditional agent-based models (ABMs) of opinion dynamics often fail to capture the psychological heterogeneity driving online polarization due to simplistic homogeneity assumptions. This limitation obscures the critical interplay between individual cognitive biases and information propagation, thereby hindering a mechanistic understanding of how ideological divides are amplified. To address this… ▽ More Traditional agent-based models (ABMs) of opinion dynamics often fail to capture the psychological heterogeneity driving online polarization due to simplistic homogeneity assumptions. This limitation obscures the critical interplay between individual cognitive biases and information propagation, thereby hindering a mechanistic understanding of how ideological divides are amplified. To address this challenge, we introduce the Personality-Refracted Intelligent Simulation Model (PRISM), a hybrid framework coupling stochastic differential equations (SDE) for continuous emotional evolution with a personality-conditional partially observable Markov decision process (PC-POMDP) for discrete decision-making. In contrast to continuous trait approaches, PRISM assigns distinct Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) based cognitive policies to multimodal large language model (MLLM) agents, initialized via data-driven priors from large-scale social media datasets. PRISM achieves superior personality consistency aligned with human ground truth, significantly outperforming standard homogeneous and Big Five benchmarks. This framework effectively replicates emergent phenomena such as rational suppression and affective resonance, offering a robust tool for analyzing complex social media ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.18735 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI $M^3-Verse$: A "Spot the Difference" Challenge for Large Multimodal Models Authors: Kewei Wei , Bocheng Hu , Jie Cao , Xiaohan Chen , Zhengxi Lu , Wubing Xia , Weili Xu , Jiaao Wu , Junchen He , Mingyu Jia , Ciyun Zhao , Ye Sun , Yizhi Li , Zhonghan Zhao , Jian Zhang , Gaoang Wang Abstract : Modern Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) have demonstrated extraordinary ability in static image and single-state spatial-temporal understanding. However, their capacity to comprehend the dynamic changes of objects within a shared spatial context between two distinct video observations, remains largely unexplored. This ability to reason about transformations within a consistent environment is particu… ▽ More Modern Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) have demonstrated extraordinary ability in static image and single-state spatial-temporal understanding. However, their capacity to comprehend the dynamic changes of objects within a shared spatial context between two distinct video observations, remains largely unexplored. This ability to reason about transformations within a consistent environment is particularly crucial for advancements in the field of spatial intelligence. In this paper, we introduce $M^3-Verse$, a Multi-Modal, Multi-State, Multi-Dimensional benchmark, to formally evaluate this capability. It is built upon paired videos that provide multi-perspective observations of an indoor scene before and after a state change. The benchmark contains a total of 270 scenes and 2,932 questions, which are categorized into over 50 subtasks that probe 4 core capabilities. We evaluate 16 state-of-the-art LMMs and observe their limitations in tracking state transitions. To address these challenges, we further propose a simple yet effective baseline that achieves significant performance improvements in multi-state perception. $M^3-Verse$ thus provides a challenging new testbed to catalyze the development of next-generation models with a more holistic understanding of our dynamic visual world. You can get the construction pipeline from and full benchmark data from △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.18735 [ pdf , ps , other ] $M^3-Verse$: A "Spot the Difference" Challenge for Large Multimodal Models Authors: Kewei Wei , Bocheng Hu , Jie Cao , Xiaohan Chen , Zhengxi Lu , Wubing Xia , Weili Xu , Jiaao Wu , Junchen He , Mingyu Jia , Ciyun Zhao , Ye Sun , Yizhi Li , Zhonghan Zhao , Jian Zhang , Gaoang Wang Abstract : Modern Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) have demonstrated extraordinary ability in static image and single-state spatial-temporal understanding. However, their capacity to comprehend the dynamic changes of objects within a shared spatial context between two distinct video observations, remains largely unexplored. This ability to reason about transformations within a consistent environment is particu… ▽ More Modern Large Multimodal Models (LMMs) have demonstrated extraordinary ability in static image and single-state spatial-temporal understanding. However, their capacity to comprehend the dynamic changes of objects within a shared spatial context between two distinct video observations, remains largely unexplored. This ability to reason about transformations within a consistent environment is particularly crucial for advancements in the field of spatial intelligence. In this paper, we introduce $M^3-Verse$, a Multi-Modal, Multi-State, Multi-Dimensional benchmark, to formally evaluate this capability. It is built upon paired videos that provide multi-perspective observations of an indoor scene before and after a state change. The benchmark contains a total of 270 scenes and 2,932 questions, which are categorized into over 50 subtasks that probe 4 core capabilities. We evaluate 16 state-of-the-art LMMs and observe their limitations in tracking state transitions. To address these challenges, we further propose a simple yet effective baseline that achieves significant performance improvements in multi-state perception. $M^3-Verse$ thus provides a challenging new testbed to catalyze the development of next-generation models with a more holistic understanding of our dynamic visual world. You can get the construction pipeline from and full benchmark data from △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16650 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CR Prefix Probing: Lightweight Harmful Content Detection for Large Language Models Authors: Jirui Yang , Hengqi Guo , Zhihui Lu , Yi Zhao , Yuansen Zhang , Shijing Hu , Qiang Duan , Yinggui Wang , Tao Wei Abstract : Large language models often face a three-way trade-off among detection accuracy, inference latency, and deployment cost when used in real-world safety-sensitive applications. This paper introduces Prefix Probing, a black-box harmful content detection method that compares the conditional log-probabilities of "agreement/execution" versus "refusal/safety" opening prefixes and leverages prefix caching… ▽ More Large language models often face a three-way trade-off among detection accuracy, inference latency, and deployment cost when used in real-world safety-sensitive applications. This paper introduces Prefix Probing, a black-box harmful content detection method that compares the conditional log-probabilities of "agreement/execution" versus "refusal/safety" opening prefixes and leverages prefix caching to reduce detection overhead to near first-token latency. During inference, the method requires only a single log-probability computation over the probe prefixes to produce a harmfulness score and apply a threshold, without invoking any additional models or multi-stage inference. To further enhance the discriminative power of the prefixes, we design an efficient prefix construction algorithm that automatically discovers highly informative prefixes, substantially improving detection performance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Prefix Probing achieves detection effectiveness comparable to mainstream external safety models while incurring only minimal computational cost and requiring no extra model deployment, highlighting its strong practicality and efficiency. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16650 [ pdf , ps , other ] Prefix Probing: Lightweight Harmful Content Detection for Large Language Models Authors: Jirui Yang , Hengqi Guo , Zhihui Lu , Yi Zhao , Yuansen Zhang , Shijing Hu , Qiang Duan , Yinggui Wang , Tao Wei Abstract : Large language models often face a three-way trade-off among detection accuracy, inference latency, and deployment cost when used in real-world safety-sensitive applications. This paper introduces Prefix Probing, a black-box harmful content detection method that compares the conditional log-probabilities of "agreement/execution" versus "refusal/safety" opening prefixes and leverages prefix caching… ▽ More Large language models often face a three-way trade-off among detection accuracy, inference latency, and deployment cost when used in real-world safety-sensitive applications. This paper introduces Prefix Probing, a black-box harmful content detection method that compares the conditional log-probabilities of "agreement/execution" versus "refusal/safety" opening prefixes and leverages prefix caching to reduce detection overhead to near first-token latency. During inference, the method requires only a single log-probability computation over the probe prefixes to produce a harmfulness score and apply a threshold, without invoking any additional models or multi-stage inference. To further enhance the discriminative power of the prefixes, we design an efficient prefix construction algorithm that automatically discovers highly informative prefixes, substantially improving detection performance. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Prefix Probing achieves detection effectiveness comparable to mainstream external safety models while incurring only minimal computational cost and requiring no extra model deployment, highlighting its strong practicality and efficiency. △ Less Submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16292 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.LG In-Context Probing for Membership Inference in Fine-Tuned Language Models Authors: Zhexi Lu , Hongliang Chi , Nathalie Baracaldo , Swanand Ravindra Kadhe , Yuseok Jeon , Lei Yu Abstract : Membership inference attacks (MIAs) pose a critical privacy threat to fine-tuned large language models (LLMs), especially when models are adapted to domain-specific tasks using sensitive data. While prior black-box MIA techniques rely on confidence scores or token likelihoods, these signals are often entangled with a sample's intrinsic properties - such as content difficulty or rarity - leading to… ▽ More Membership inference attacks (MIAs) pose a critical privacy threat to fine-tuned large language models (LLMs), especially when models are adapted to domain-specific tasks using sensitive data. While prior black-box MIA techniques rely on confidence scores or token likelihoods, these signals are often entangled with a sample's intrinsic properties - such as content difficulty or rarity - leading to poor generalization and low signal-to-noise ratios. In this paper, we propose ICP-MIA, a novel MIA framework grounded in the theory of training dynamics, particularly the phenomenon of diminishing returns during optimization. We introduce the Optimization Gap as a fundamental signal of membership: at convergence, member samples exhibit minimal remaining loss-reduction potential, while non-members retain significant potential for further optimization. To estimate this gap in a black-box setting, we propose In-Context Probing (ICP), a training-free method that simulates fine-tuning-like behavior via strategically constructed input contexts. We propose two probing strategies: reference-data-based (using semantically similar public samples) and self-perturbation (via masking or generation). Experiments on three tasks and multiple LLMs show that ICP-MIA significantly outperforms prior black-box MIAs, particularly at low false positive rates. We further analyze how reference data alignment, model type, PEFT configurations, and training schedules affect attack effectiveness. Our findings establish ICP-MIA as a practical and theoretically grounded framework for auditing privacy risks in deployed LLMs. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; v1 submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.16292 [ pdf , ps , other ] In-Context Probing for Membership Inference in Fine-Tuned Language Models Authors: Zhexi Lu , Hongliang Chi , Nathalie Baracaldo , Swanand Ravindra Kadhe , Yuseok Jeon , Lei Yu Abstract : Membership inference attacks (MIAs) pose a critical privacy threat to fine-tuned large language models (LLMs), especially when models are adapted to domain-specific tasks using sensitive data. While prior black-box MIA techniques rely on confidence scores or token likelihoods, these signals are often entangled with a sample's intrinsic properties - such as content difficulty or rarity - leading to… ▽ More Membership inference attacks (MIAs) pose a critical privacy threat to fine-tuned large language models (LLMs), especially when models are adapted to domain-specific tasks using sensitive data. While prior black-box MIA techniques rely on confidence scores or token likelihoods, these signals are often entangled with a sample's intrinsic properties - such as content difficulty or rarity - leading to poor generalization and low signal-to-noise ratios. In this paper, we propose ICP-MIA, a novel MIA framework grounded in the theory of training dynamics, particularly the phenomenon of diminishing returns during optimization. We introduce the Optimization Gap as a fundamental signal of membership: at convergence, member samples exhibit minimal remaining loss-reduction potential, while non-members retain significant potential for further optimization. To estimate this gap in a black-box setting, we propose In-Context Probing (ICP), a training-free method that simulates fine-tuning-like behavior via strategically constructed input contexts. We propose two probing strategies: reference-data-based (using semantically similar public samples) and self-perturbation (via masking or generation). Experiments on three tasks and multiple LLMs show that ICP-MIA significantly outperforms prior black-box MIAs, particularly at low false positive rates. We further analyze how reference data alignment, model type, PEFT configurations, and training schedules affect attack effectiveness. Our findings establish ICP-MIA as a practical and theoretically grounded framework for auditing privacy risks in deployed LLMs. △ Less Submitted 21 December, 2025; v1 submitted 18 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13868 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.SY cs.LG math.OC Safe Online Control-Informed Learning Authors: Tianyu Zhou , Zihao Liang , Zehui Lu , Shaoshuai Mou Abstract : This paper proposes a Safe Online Control-Informed Learning framework for safety-critical autonomous systems. The framework unifies optimal control, parameter estimation, and safety constraints into an online learning process. It employs an extended Kalman filter to incrementally update system parameters in real time, enabling robust and data-efficient adaptation under uncertainty. A softplus barr… ▽ More This paper proposes a Safe Online Control-Informed Learning framework for safety-critical autonomous systems. The framework unifies optimal control, parameter estimation, and safety constraints into an online learning process. It employs an extended Kalman filter to incrementally update system parameters in real time, enabling robust and data-efficient adaptation under uncertainty. A softplus barrier function enforces constraint satisfaction during learning and control while eliminating the dependence on high-quality initial guesses. Theoretical analysis establishes convergence and safety guarantees, and the framework's effectiveness is demonstrated on cart-pole and robot-arm systems. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13868 [ pdf , ps , other ] Safe Online Control-Informed Learning Authors: Tianyu Zhou , Zihao Liang , Zehui Lu , Shaoshuai Mou Abstract : This paper proposes a Safe Online Control-Informed Learning framework for safety-critical autonomous systems. The framework unifies optimal control, parameter estimation, and safety constraints into an online learning process. It employs an extended Kalman filter to incrementally update system parameters in real time, enabling robust and data-efficient adaptation under uncertainty. A softplus barr… ▽ More This paper proposes a Safe Online Control-Informed Learning framework for safety-critical autonomous systems. The framework unifies optimal control, parameter estimation, and safety constraints into an online learning process. It employs an extended Kalman filter to incrementally update system parameters in real time, enabling robust and data-efficient adaptation under uncertainty. A softplus barrier function enforces constraint satisfaction during learning and control while eliminating the dependence on high-quality initial guesses. Theoretical analysis establishes convergence and safety guarantees, and the framework's effectiveness is demonstrated on cart-pole and robot-arm systems. △ Less Submitted 23 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13635 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV SCR2-ST: Combine Single Cell with Spatial Transcriptomics for Efficient Active Sampling via Reinforcement Learning Authors: Junchao Zhu , Ruining Deng , Junlin Guo , Tianyuan Yao , Chongyu Qu , Juming Xiong , Siqi Lu , Zhengyi Lu , Yanfan Zhu , Marilyn Lionts , Yuechen Yang , Yalin Zheng , Yu Wang , Shilin Zhao , Haichun Yang , Yuankai Huo Abstract : Spatial transcriptomics (ST) is an emerging technology that enables researchers to investigate the molecular relationships underlying tissue morphology. However, acquiring ST data remains prohibitively expensive, and traditional fixed-grid sampling strategies lead to redundant measurements of morphologically similar or biologically uninformative regions, thus resulting in scarce data that constrai… ▽ More Spatial transcriptomics (ST) is an emerging technology that enables researchers to investigate the molecular relationships underlying tissue morphology. However, acquiring ST data remains prohibitively expensive, and traditional fixed-grid sampling strategies lead to redundant measurements of morphologically similar or biologically uninformative regions, thus resulting in scarce data that constrain current methods. The well-established single-cell sequencing field, however, could provide rich biological data as an effective auxiliary source to mitigate this limitation. To bridge these gaps, we introduce SCR2-ST, a unified framework that leverages single-cell prior knowledge to guide efficient data acquisition and accurate expression prediction. SCR2-ST integrates a single-cell guided reinforcement learning-based (SCRL) active sampling and a hybrid regression-retrieval prediction network SCR2Net. SCRL combines single-cell foundation model embeddings with spatial density information to construct biologically grounded reward signals, enabling selective acquisition of informative tissue regions under constrained sequencing budgets. SCR2Net then leverages the actively sampled data through a hybrid architecture combining regression-based modeling with retrieval-augmented inference, where a majority cell-type filtering mechanism suppresses noisy matches and retrieved expression profiles serve as soft labels for auxiliary supervision. We evaluated SCR2-ST on three public ST datasets, demonstrating SOTA performance in both sampling efficiency and prediction accuracy, particularly under low-budget scenarios. Code is publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13635 [ pdf , ps , other ] SCR2-ST: Combine Single Cell with Spatial Transcriptomics for Efficient Active Sampling via Reinforcement Learning Authors: Junchao Zhu , Ruining Deng , Junlin Guo , Tianyuan Yao , Chongyu Qu , Juming Xiong , Siqi Lu , Zhengyi Lu , Yanfan Zhu , Marilyn Lionts , Yuechen Yang , Yalin Zheng , Yu Wang , Shilin Zhao , Haichun Yang , Yuankai Huo Abstract : Spatial transcriptomics (ST) is an emerging technology that enables researchers to investigate the molecular relationships underlying tissue morphology. However, acquiring ST data remains prohibitively expensive, and traditional fixed-grid sampling strategies lead to redundant measurements of morphologically similar or biologically uninformative regions, thus resulting in scarce data that constrai… ▽ More Spatial transcriptomics (ST) is an emerging technology that enables researchers to investigate the molecular relationships underlying tissue morphology. However, acquiring ST data remains prohibitively expensive, and traditional fixed-grid sampling strategies lead to redundant measurements of morphologically similar or biologically uninformative regions, thus resulting in scarce data that constrain current methods. The well-established single-cell sequencing field, however, could provide rich biological data as an effective auxiliary source to mitigate this limitation. To bridge these gaps, we introduce SCR2-ST, a unified framework that leverages single-cell prior knowledge to guide efficient data acquisition and accurate expression prediction. SCR2-ST integrates a single-cell guided reinforcement learning-based (SCRL) active sampling and a hybrid regression-retrieval prediction network SCR2Net. SCRL combines single-cell foundation model embeddings with spatial density information to construct biologically grounded reward signals, enabling selective acquisition of informative tissue regions under constrained sequencing budgets. SCR2Net then leverages the actively sampled data through a hybrid architecture combining regression-based modeling with retrieval-augmented inference, where a majority cell-type filtering mechanism suppresses noisy matches and retrieved expression profiles serve as soft labels for auxiliary supervision. We evaluated SCR2-ST on three public ST datasets, demonstrating SOTA performance in both sampling efficiency and prediction accuracy, particularly under low-budget scenarios. Code is publicly available at: △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13380 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Universal Dexterous Functional Grasping via Demonstration-Editing Reinforcement Learning Authors: Chuan Mao , Haoqi Yuan , Ziye Huang , Chaoyi Xu , Kai Ma , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps across diverse objects, the difficulty of multi-task RL exploration, and the challenge of sim-to-real transfer. In this work, we propose DemoFunGrasp for universal dexterous functional grasping. We factorize functional grasping conditions into two complementary components - grasping style and affordance - and integrate them into an RL framework that can learn to grasp any object with any functional grasping condition. To address the multi-task optimization challenge, we leverage a single grasping demonstration and reformulate the RL problem as one-step demonstration editing, substantially enhancing sample efficiency and performance. Experimental results in both simulation and the real world show that DemoFunGrasp generalizes to unseen combinations of objects, affordances, and grasping styles, outperforming baselines in both success rate and functional grasping accuracy. In addition to strong sim-to-real capability, by incorporating a vision-language model (VLM) for planning, our system achieves autonomous instruction-following grasp execution. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 19 pages arXiv:2512.13380 [ pdf , ps , other ] Universal Dexterous Functional Grasping via Demonstration-Editing Reinforcement Learning Authors: Chuan Mao , Haoqi Yuan , Ziye Huang , Chaoyi Xu , Kai Ma , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps… ▽ More Reinforcement learning (RL) has achieved great success in dexterous grasping, significantly improving grasp performance and generalization from simulation to the real world. However, fine-grained functional grasping, which is essential for downstream manipulation tasks, remains underexplored and faces several challenges: the complexity of specifying goals and reward functions for functional grasps across diverse objects, the difficulty of multi-task RL exploration, and the challenge of sim-to-real transfer. In this work, we propose DemoFunGrasp for universal dexterous functional grasping. We factorize functional grasping conditions into two complementary components - grasping style and affordance - and integrate them into an RL framework that can learn to grasp any object with any functional grasping condition. To address the multi-task optimization challenge, we leverage a single grasping demonstration and reformulate the RL problem as one-step demonstration editing, substantially enhancing sample efficiency and performance. Experimental results in both simulation and the real world show that DemoFunGrasp generalizes to unseen combinations of objects, affordances, and grasping styles, outperforming baselines in both success rate and functional grasping accuracy. In addition to strong sim-to-real capability, by incorporating a vision-language model (VLM) for planning, our system achieves autonomous instruction-following grasp execution. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 19 pages arXiv:2512.13080 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining through Visual-Physical Alignment from Human Videos Authors: Yicheng Feng , Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Sipeng Zheng , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradig… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradigm that performs explicit alignment between visual space and physical space during pretraining, enabling models to acquire 3D spatial understanding before robot policy learning. Starting from pretrained vision-language models, we leverage large-scale human demonstration videos to extract 3D visual and 3D action annotations, forming a new source of supervision that aligns 2D visual observations with 3D spatial reasoning. We instantiate this paradigm with VIPA-VLA, a dual-encoder architecture that incorporates a 3D visual encoder to augment semantic visual representations with 3D-aware features. When adapted to downstream robot tasks, VIPA-VLA achieves significantly improved grounding between 2D vision and 3D action, resulting in more robust and generalizable robotic policies. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13080 [ pdf , ps , other ] Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining through Visual-Physical Alignment from Human Videos Authors: Yicheng Feng , Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Sipeng Zheng , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradig… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models provide a promising paradigm for robot learning by integrating visual perception with language-guided policy learning. However, most existing approaches rely on 2D visual inputs to perform actions in 3D physical environments, creating a significant gap between perception and action grounding. To bridge this gap, we propose a Spatial-Aware VLA Pretraining paradigm that performs explicit alignment between visual space and physical space during pretraining, enabling models to acquire 3D spatial understanding before robot policy learning. Starting from pretrained vision-language models, we leverage large-scale human demonstration videos to extract 3D visual and 3D action annotations, forming a new source of supervision that aligns 2D visual observations with 3D spatial reasoning. We instantiate this paradigm with VIPA-VLA, a dual-encoder architecture that incorporates a 3D visual encoder to augment semantic visual representations with 3D-aware features. When adapted to downstream robot tasks, VIPA-VLA achieves significantly improved grounding between 2D vision and 3D action, resulting in more robust and generalizable robotic policies. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13043 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI GTR-Turbo: Merged Checkpoint is Secretly a Free Teacher for Agentic VLM Training Authors: Tong Wei , Yijun Yang , Changhao Zhang , Junliang Xing , Yuanchun Shi , Zongqing Lu , Deheng Ye Abstract : Multi-turn reinforcement learning (RL) for multi-modal agents built upon vision-language models (VLMs) is hampered by sparse rewards and long-horizon credit assignment. Recent methods densify the reward by querying a teacher that provides step-level feedback, e.g., Guided Thought Reinforcement (GTR) and On-Policy Distillation, but rely on costly, often privileged models as the teacher, limiting pr… ▽ More Multi-turn reinforcement learning (RL) for multi-modal agents built upon vision-language models (VLMs) is hampered by sparse rewards and long-horizon credit assignment. Recent methods densify the reward by querying a teacher that provides step-level feedback, e.g., Guided Thought Reinforcement (GTR) and On-Policy Distillation, but rely on costly, often privileged models as the teacher, limiting practicality and reproducibility. We introduce GTR-Turbo, a highly efficient upgrade to GTR, which matches the performance without training or querying an expensive teacher model. Specifically, GTR-Turbo merges the weights of checkpoints produced during the ongoing RL training, and then uses this merged model as a "free" teacher to guide the subsequent RL via supervised fine-tuning or soft logit distillation. This design removes dependence on privileged VLMs (e.g., GPT or Gemini), mitigates the "entropy collapse" observed in prior work, and keeps training stable. Across diverse visual agentic tasks, GTR-Turbo improves the accuracy of the baseline model by 10-30% while reducing wall-clock training time by 50% and compute cost by 60% relative to GTR. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13043 [ pdf , ps , other ] GTR-Turbo: Merged Checkpoint is Secretly a Free Teacher for Agentic VLM Training Authors: Tong Wei , Yijun Yang , Changhao Zhang , Junliang Xing , Yuanchun Shi , Zongqing Lu , Deheng Ye Abstract : Multi-turn reinforcement learning (RL) for multi-modal agents built upon vision-language models (VLMs) is hampered by sparse rewards and long-horizon credit assignment. Recent methods densify the reward by querying a teacher that provides step-level feedback, e.g., Guided Thought Reinforcement (GTR) and On-Policy Distillation, but rely on costly, often privileged models as the teacher, limiting pr… ▽ More Multi-turn reinforcement learning (RL) for multi-modal agents built upon vision-language models (VLMs) is hampered by sparse rewards and long-horizon credit assignment. Recent methods densify the reward by querying a teacher that provides step-level feedback, e.g., Guided Thought Reinforcement (GTR) and On-Policy Distillation, but rely on costly, often privileged models as the teacher, limiting practicality and reproducibility. We introduce GTR-Turbo, a highly efficient upgrade to GTR, which matches the performance without training or querying an expensive teacher model. Specifically, GTR-Turbo merges the weights of checkpoints produced during the ongoing RL training, and then uses this merged model as a "free" teacher to guide the subsequent RL via supervised fine-tuning or soft logit distillation. This design removes dependence on privileged VLMs (e.g., GPT or Gemini), mitigates the "entropy collapse" observed in prior work, and keeps training stable. Across diverse visual agentic tasks, GTR-Turbo improves the accuracy of the baseline model by 10-30% while reducing wall-clock training time by 50% and compute cost by 60% relative to GTR. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.12967 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL QwenLong-L1.5: Post-Training Recipe for Long-Context Reasoning and Memory Management Authors: Weizhou Shen , Ziyi Yang , Chenliang Li , Zhiyuan Lu , Miao Peng , Huashan Sun , Yingcheng Shi , Shengyi Liao , Shaopeng Lai , Bo Zhang , Dayiheng Liu , Fei Huang , Jingren Zhou , Ming Yan Abstract : We introduce QwenLong-L1.5, a model that achieves superior long-context reasoning capabilities through systematic post-training innovations. The key technical breakthroughs of QwenLong-L1.5 are as follows: (1) Long-Context Data Synthesis Pipeline: We develop a systematic synthesis framework that generates challenging reasoning tasks requiring multi-hop grounding over globally distributed evidence.… ▽ More We introduce QwenLong-L1.5, a model that achieves superior long-context reasoning capabilities through systematic post-training innovations. The key technical breakthroughs of QwenLong-L1.5 are as follows: (1) Long-Context Data Synthesis Pipeline: We develop a systematic synthesis framework that generates challenging reasoning tasks requiring multi-hop grounding over globally distributed evidence. By deconstructing documents into atomic facts and their underlying relationships, and then programmatically composing verifiable reasoning questions, our approach creates high-quality training data at scale, moving substantially beyond simple retrieval tasks to enable genuine long-range reasoning capabilities. (2) Stabilized Reinforcement Learning for Long-Context Training: To overcome the critical instability in long-context RL, we introduce task-balanced sampling with task-specific advantage estimation to mitigate reward bias, and propose Adaptive Entropy-Controlled Policy Optimization (AEPO) that dynamically regulates exploration-exploitation trade-offs. (3) Memory-Augmented Architecture for Ultra-Long Contexts: Recognizing that even extended context windows cannot accommodate arbitrarily long sequences, we develop a memory management framework with multi-stage fusion RL training that seamlessly integrates single-pass reasoning with iterative memory-based processing for tasks exceeding 4M tokens. Based on Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking, QwenLong-L1.5 achieves performance comparable to GPT-5 and Gemini-2.5-Pro on long-context reasoning benchmarks, surpassing its baseline by 9.90 points on average. On ultra-long tasks (1M~4M tokens), QwenLong-L1.5's memory-agent framework yields a 9.48-point gain over the agent baseline. Additionally, the acquired long-context reasoning ability translates to enhanced performance in general domains like scientific reasoning, memory tool using, and extended dialogue. △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.12967 [ pdf , ps , other ] QwenLong-L1.5: Post-Training Recipe for Long-Context Reasoning and Memory Management Authors: Weizhou Shen , Ziyi Yang , Chenliang Li , Zhiyuan Lu , Miao Peng , Huashan Sun , Yingcheng Shi , Shengyi Liao , Shaopeng Lai , Bo Zhang , Dayiheng Liu , Fei Huang , Jingren Zhou , Ming Yan Abstract : We introduce QwenLong-L1.5, a model that achieves superior long-context reasoning capabilities through systematic post-training innovations. The key technical breakthroughs of QwenLong-L1.5 are as follows: (1) Long-Context Data Synthesis Pipeline: We develop a systematic synthesis framework that generates challenging reasoning tasks requiring multi-hop grounding over globally distributed evidence.… ▽ More We introduce QwenLong-L1.5, a model that achieves superior long-context reasoning capabilities through systematic post-training innovations. The key technical breakthroughs of QwenLong-L1.5 are as follows: (1) Long-Context Data Synthesis Pipeline: We develop a systematic synthesis framework that generates challenging reasoning tasks requiring multi-hop grounding over globally distributed evidence. By deconstructing documents into atomic facts and their underlying relationships, and then programmatically composing verifiable reasoning questions, our approach creates high-quality training data at scale, moving substantially beyond simple retrieval tasks to enable genuine long-range reasoning capabilities. (2) Stabilized Reinforcement Learning for Long-Context Training: To overcome the critical instability in long-context RL, we introduce task-balanced sampling with task-specific advantage estimation to mitigate reward bias, and propose Adaptive Entropy-Controlled Policy Optimization (AEPO) that dynamically regulates exploration-exploitation trade-offs. (3) Memory-Augmented Architecture for Ultra-Long Contexts: Recognizing that even extended context windows cannot accommodate arbitrarily long sequences, we develop a memory management framework with multi-stage fusion RL training that seamlessly integrates single-pass reasoning with iterative memory-based processing for tasks exceeding 4M tokens. Based on Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking, QwenLong-L1.5 achieves performance comparable to GPT-5 and Gemini-2.5-Pro on long-context reasoning benchmarks, surpassing its baseline by 9.90 points on average. On ultra-long tasks (1M~4M tokens), QwenLong-L1.5's memory-agent framework yields a 9.48-point gain over the agent baseline. Additionally, the acquired long-context reasoning ability translates to enhanced performance in general domains like scientific reasoning, memory tool using, and extended dialogue. △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.12703 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Robust Motion Generation using Part-level Reliable Data from Videos Authors: Boyuan Li , Sipeng Zheng , Bin Cao , Ruihua Song , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Extracting human motion from large-scale web videos offers a scalable solution to the data scarcity issue in character animation. However, some human parts in many video frames cannot be seen due to off-screen captures or occlusions. It brings a dilemma: discarding the data missing any part limits scale and diversity, while retaining it compromises data quality and model performance. To address… ▽ More Extracting human motion from large-scale web videos offers a scalable solution to the data scarcity issue in character animation. However, some human parts in many video frames cannot be seen due to off-screen captures or occlusions. It brings a dilemma: discarding the data missing any part limits scale and diversity, while retaining it compromises data quality and model performance. To address this problem, we propose leveraging credible part-level data extracted from videos to enhance motion generation via a robust part-aware masked autoregression model. First, we decompose a human body into five parts and detect the parts clearly seen in a video frame as "credible". Second, the credible parts are encoded into latent tokens by our proposed part-aware variational autoencoder. Third, we propose a robust part-level masked generation model to predict masked credible parts, while ignoring those noisy parts. In addition, we contribute K700-M, a challenging new benchmark comprising approximately 200k real-world motion sequences, for evaluation. Experimental results indicate that our method successfully outperforms baselines on both clean and noisy datasets in terms of motion quality, semantic consistency and diversity. Project page: △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.12703 [ pdf , ps , other ] Robust Motion Generation using Part-level Reliable Data from Videos Authors: Boyuan Li , Sipeng Zheng , Bin Cao , Ruihua Song , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Extracting human motion from large-scale web videos offers a scalable solution to the data scarcity issue in character animation. However, some human parts in many video frames cannot be seen due to off-screen captures or occlusions. It brings a dilemma: discarding the data missing any part limits scale and diversity, while retaining it compromises data quality and model performance. To address… ▽ More Extracting human motion from large-scale web videos offers a scalable solution to the data scarcity issue in character animation. However, some human parts in many video frames cannot be seen due to off-screen captures or occlusions. It brings a dilemma: discarding the data missing any part limits scale and diversity, while retaining it compromises data quality and model performance. To address this problem, we propose leveraging credible part-level data extracted from videos to enhance motion generation via a robust part-aware masked autoregression model. First, we decompose a human body into five parts and detect the parts clearly seen in a video frame as "credible". Second, the credible parts are encoded into latent tokens by our proposed part-aware variational autoencoder. Third, we propose a robust part-level masked generation model to predict masked credible parts, while ignoring those noisy parts. In addition, we contribute K700-M, a challenging new benchmark comprising approximately 200k real-world motion sequences, for evaluation. Experimental results indicate that our method successfully outperforms baselines on both clean and noisy datasets in terms of motion quality, semantic consistency and diversity. Project page: △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.11557 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV 3DTeethSAM: Taming SAM2 for 3D Teeth Segmentation Authors: Zhiguo Lu , Jianwen Lou , Mingjun Ma , Hairong Jin , Youyi Zheng , Kun Zhou Abstract : 3D teeth segmentation, involving the localization of tooth instances and their semantic categorization in 3D dental models, is a critical yet challenging task in digital dentistry due to the complexity of real-world dentition. In this paper, we propose 3DTeethSAM, an adaptation of the Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2) for 3D teeth segmentation. SAM2 is a pretrained foundation model for image and vid… ▽ More 3D teeth segmentation, involving the localization of tooth instances and their semantic categorization in 3D dental models, is a critical yet challenging task in digital dentistry due to the complexity of real-world dentition. In this paper, we propose 3DTeethSAM, an adaptation of the Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2) for 3D teeth segmentation. SAM2 is a pretrained foundation model for image and video segmentation, demonstrating a strong backbone in various downstream scenarios. To adapt SAM2 for 3D teeth data, we render images of 3D teeth models from predefined views, apply SAM2 for 2D segmentation, and reconstruct 3D results using 2D-3D projections. Since SAM2's performance depends on input prompts and its initial outputs often have deficiencies, and given its class-agnostic nature, we introduce three light-weight learnable modules: (1) a prompt embedding generator to derive prompt embeddings from image embeddings for accurate mask decoding, (2) a mask refiner to enhance SAM2's initial segmentation results, and (3) a mask classifier to categorize the generated masks. Additionally, we incorporate Deformable Global Attention Plugins (DGAP) into SAM2's image encoder. The DGAP enhances both the segmentation accuracy and the speed of the training process. Our method has been validated on the 3DTeethSeg benchmark, achieving an IoU of 91.90% on high-resolution 3D teeth meshes, establishing a new state-of-the-art in the field. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.11557 [ pdf , ps , other ] 3DTeethSAM: Taming SAM2 for 3D Teeth Segmentation Authors: Zhiguo Lu , Jianwen Lou , Mingjun Ma , Hairong Jin , Youyi Zheng , Kun Zhou Abstract : 3D teeth segmentation, involving the localization of tooth instances and their semantic categorization in 3D dental models, is a critical yet challenging task in digital dentistry due to the complexity of real-world dentition. In this paper, we propose 3DTeethSAM, an adaptation of the Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2) for 3D teeth segmentation. SAM2 is a pretrained foundation model for image and vid… ▽ More 3D teeth segmentation, involving the localization of tooth instances and their semantic categorization in 3D dental models, is a critical yet challenging task in digital dentistry due to the complexity of real-world dentition. In this paper, we propose 3DTeethSAM, an adaptation of the Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2) for 3D teeth segmentation. SAM2 is a pretrained foundation model for image and video segmentation, demonstrating a strong backbone in various downstream scenarios. To adapt SAM2 for 3D teeth data, we render images of 3D teeth models from predefined views, apply SAM2 for 2D segmentation, and reconstruct 3D results using 2D-3D projections. Since SAM2's performance depends on input prompts and its initial outputs often have deficiencies, and given its class-agnostic nature, we introduce three light-weight learnable modules: (1) a prompt embedding generator to derive prompt embeddings from image embeddings for accurate mask decoding, (2) a mask refiner to enhance SAM2's initial segmentation results, and (3) a mask classifier to categorize the generated masks. Additionally, we incorporate Deformable Global Attention Plugins (DGAP) into SAM2's image encoder. The DGAP enhances both the segmentation accuracy and the speed of the training process. Our method has been validated on the 3DTeethSeg benchmark, achieving an IoU of 91.90% on high-resolution 3D teeth meshes, establishing a new state-of-the-art in the field. △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2512.09927 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO Token Expand-Merge: Training-Free Token Compression for Vision-Language-Action Models Authors: Yifan Ye , Jiaqi Ma , Jun Cen , Zhihe Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models pretrained on large-scale multimodal datasets have emerged as powerful foundations for robotic perception and control. However, their massive scale, often billions of parameters, poses significant challenges for real-time deployment, as inference becomes computationally expensive and latency-sensitive in dynamic environments. To address this, we propose Token Ex… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models pretrained on large-scale multimodal datasets have emerged as powerful foundations for robotic perception and control. However, their massive scale, often billions of parameters, poses significant challenges for real-time deployment, as inference becomes computationally expensive and latency-sensitive in dynamic environments. To address this, we propose Token Expand-and-Merge-VLA (TEAM-VLA), a training-free token compression framework that accelerates VLA inference while preserving task performance. TEAM-VLA introduces a dynamic token expansion mechanism that identifies and samples additional informative tokens in the spatial vicinity of attention-highlighted regions, enhancing contextual completeness. These expanded tokens are then selectively merged in deeper layers under action-aware guidance, effectively reducing redundancy while maintaining semantic coherence. By coupling expansion and merging within a single feed-forward pass, TEAM-VLA achieves a balanced trade-off between efficiency and effectiveness, without any retraining or parameter updates. Extensive experiments on LIBERO benchmark demonstrate that TEAM-VLA consistently improves inference speed while maintaining or even surpassing the task success rate of full VLA models. The code is public available on \href{ △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2512.09927 [ pdf , ps , other ] Token Expand-Merge: Training-Free Token Compression for Vision-Language-Action Models Authors: Yifan Ye , Jiaqi Ma , Jun Cen , Zhihe Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models pretrained on large-scale multimodal datasets have emerged as powerful foundations for robotic perception and control. However, their massive scale, often billions of parameters, poses significant challenges for real-time deployment, as inference becomes computationally expensive and latency-sensitive in dynamic environments. To address this, we propose Token Ex… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models pretrained on large-scale multimodal datasets have emerged as powerful foundations for robotic perception and control. However, their massive scale, often billions of parameters, poses significant challenges for real-time deployment, as inference becomes computationally expensive and latency-sensitive in dynamic environments. To address this, we propose Token Expand-and-Merge-VLA (TEAM-VLA), a training-free token compression framework that accelerates VLA inference while preserving task performance. TEAM-VLA introduces a dynamic token expansion mechanism that identifies and samples additional informative tokens in the spatial vicinity of attention-highlighted regions, enhancing contextual completeness. These expanded tokens are then selectively merged in deeper layers under action-aware guidance, effectively reducing redundancy while maintaining semantic coherence. By coupling expansion and merging within a single feed-forward pass, TEAM-VLA achieves a balanced trade-off between efficiency and effectiveness, without any retraining or parameter updates. Extensive experiments on LIBERO benchmark demonstrate that TEAM-VLA consistently improves inference speed while maintaining or even surpassing the task success rate of full VLA models. The code is public available on \href{ △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 8 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2512.07917 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.AI physics.flu-dyn CFD-copilot: leveraging domain-adapted large language model and model context protocol to enhance simulation automation Authors: Zhehao Dong , Shanghai Du , Zhen Lu , Yue Yang Abstract : Configuring computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations requires significant expertise in physics modeling and numerical methods, posing a barrier to non-specialists. Although automating scientific tasks with large language models (LLMs) has attracted attention, applying them to the complete, end-to-end CFD workflow remains a challenge due to its stringent domain-specific requirements. We intro… ▽ More Configuring computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations requires significant expertise in physics modeling and numerical methods, posing a barrier to non-specialists. Although automating scientific tasks with large language models (LLMs) has attracted attention, applying them to the complete, end-to-end CFD workflow remains a challenge due to its stringent domain-specific requirements. We introduce CFD-copilot, a domain-specialized LLM framework designed to facilitate natural language-driven CFD simulation from setup to post-processing. The framework employs a fine-tuned LLM to directly translate user descriptions into executable CFD setups. A multi-agent system integrates the LLM with simulation execution, automatic error correction, and result analysis. For post-processing, the framework utilizes the model context protocol (MCP), an open standard that decouples LLM reasoning from external tool execution. This modular design allows the LLM to interact with numerous specialized post-processing functions through a unified and scalable interface, improving the automation of data extraction and analysis. The framework was evaluated on benchmarks including the NACA~0012 airfoil and the three-element 30P-30N airfoil. The results indicate that domain-specific adaptation and the incorporation of the MCP jointly enhance the reliability and efficiency of LLM-driven engineering workflows. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.07917 [ pdf , ps , other ] CFD-copilot: leveraging domain-adapted large language model and model context protocol to enhance simulation automation Authors: Zhehao Dong , Shanghai Du , Zhen Lu , Yue Yang Abstract : Configuring computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations requires significant expertise in physics modeling and numerical methods, posing a barrier to non-specialists. Although automating scientific tasks with large language models (LLMs) has attracted attention, applying them to the complete, end-to-end CFD workflow remains a challenge due to its stringent domain-specific requirements. We intro… ▽ More Configuring computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations requires significant expertise in physics modeling and numerical methods, posing a barrier to non-specialists. Although automating scientific tasks with large language models (LLMs) has attracted attention, applying them to the complete, end-to-end CFD workflow remains a challenge due to its stringent domain-specific requirements. We introduce CFD-copilot, a domain-specialized LLM framework designed to facilitate natural language-driven CFD simulation from setup to post-processing. The framework employs a fine-tuned LLM to directly translate user descriptions into executable CFD setups. A multi-agent system integrates the LLM with simulation execution, automatic error correction, and result analysis. For post-processing, the framework utilizes the model context protocol (MCP), an open standard that decouples LLM reasoning from external tool execution. This modular design allows the LLM to interact with numerous specialized post-processing functions through a unified and scalable interface, improving the automation of data extraction and analysis. The framework was evaluated on benchmarks including the NACA~0012 airfoil and the three-element 30P-30N airfoil. The results indicate that domain-specific adaptation and the incorporation of the MCP jointly enhance the reliability and efficiency of LLM-driven engineering workflows. △ Less Submitted 8 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01715 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO DiG-Flow: Discrepancy-Guided Flow Matching for Robust VLA Models Authors: Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Yicheng Feng , Sipeng Zheng , Qin Jin , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robust… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robustness through geometric regularization. Our key insight is that the distributional discrepancy between observation and action embeddings provides a meaningful geometric signal: lower transport cost indicates compatible representations, while higher cost suggests potential misalignment. DiG-Flow computes a discrepancy measure between empirical distributions of observation and action embeddings, maps it to a modulation weight via a monotone function, and applies residual updates to the observation embeddings before flow matching. Crucially, this intervention operates at the representation level without modifying the flow matching path or target vector field. We provide theoretical guarantees showing that discrepancy-guided training provably decreases the training objective, and that guided inference refinement converges with contraction. Empirically, DiG-Flow integrates into existing VLA architectures with negligible overhead and consistently improves performance, with particularly pronounced gains on complex multi-step tasks and under limited training data. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01715 [ pdf , ps , other ] DiG-Flow: Discrepancy-Guided Flow Matching for Robust VLA Models Authors: Wanpeng Zhang , Ye Wang , Hao Luo , Haoqi Yuan , Yicheng Feng , Sipeng Zheng , Qin Jin , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robust… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action (VLA) models trained with flow matching have demonstrated impressive capabilities on robotic manipulation tasks. However, their performance often degrades under distribution shift and on complex multi-step tasks, suggesting that the learned representations may not robustly capture task-relevant semantics. We introduce DiG-Flow, a principled framework that enhances VLA robustness through geometric regularization. Our key insight is that the distributional discrepancy between observation and action embeddings provides a meaningful geometric signal: lower transport cost indicates compatible representations, while higher cost suggests potential misalignment. DiG-Flow computes a discrepancy measure between empirical distributions of observation and action embeddings, maps it to a modulation weight via a monotone function, and applies residual updates to the observation embeddings before flow matching. Crucially, this intervention operates at the representation level without modifying the flow matching path or target vector field. We provide theoretical guarantees showing that discrepancy-guided training provably decreases the training objective, and that guided inference refinement converges with contraction. Empirically, DiG-Flow integrates into existing VLA architectures with negligible overhead and consistently improves performance, with particularly pronounced gains on complex multi-step tasks and under limited training data. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2511.22466 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV RoadSceneBench: A Lightweight Benchmark for Mid-Level Road Scene Understanding Authors: Xiyan Liu , Han Wang , Yuhu Wang , Junjie Cai , Zhe Cao , Jianzhong Yang , Zhen Lu Abstract : Understanding mid-level road semantics, which capture the structural and contextual cues that link low-level perception to high-level planning, is essential for reliable autonomous driving and digital map construction. However, existing benchmarks primarily target perception tasks such as detection or segmentation, overlooking the reasoning capabilities required to infer road topology and dynamic… ▽ More Understanding mid-level road semantics, which capture the structural and contextual cues that link low-level perception to high-level planning, is essential for reliable autonomous driving and digital map construction. However, existing benchmarks primarily target perception tasks such as detection or segmentation, overlooking the reasoning capabilities required to infer road topology and dynamic scene structure. To address this gap, we present RoadSceneBench, a lightweight yet information-rich benchmark designed to evaluate and advance visual reasoning in complex road environments. Unlike large-scale perception datasets, RoadSceneBench emphasizes relational understanding and structural consistency, encouraging models to capture the underlying logic of real-world road scenes. Furthermore, to enhance reasoning reliability, we propose Hierarchical Relational Reward Propagation with Temporal Consistency (HRRP-T), a training framework for Vision-Language Models (VLMs) in which reward signals adaptively promote spatial coherence and semantic alignment throughout the reasoning process. This paradigm enables models to move beyond static recognition toward geometry-aware and temporally consistent reasoning. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance across diverse road configurations. RoadSceneBench thus provides a compact yet powerful foundation for studying mid-level road semantics and fostering structure-aware autonomous perception. Our dataset is available at △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.22466 [ pdf , ps , other ] RoadSceneBench: A Lightweight Benchmark for Mid-Level Road Scene Understanding Authors: Xiyan Liu , Han Wang , Yuhu Wang , Junjie Cai , Zhe Cao , Jianzhong Yang , Zhen Lu Abstract : Understanding mid-level road semantics, which capture the structural and contextual cues that link low-level perception to high-level planning, is essential for reliable autonomous driving and digital map construction. However, existing benchmarks primarily target perception tasks such as detection or segmentation, overlooking the reasoning capabilities required to infer road topology and dynamic… ▽ More Understanding mid-level road semantics, which capture the structural and contextual cues that link low-level perception to high-level planning, is essential for reliable autonomous driving and digital map construction. However, existing benchmarks primarily target perception tasks such as detection or segmentation, overlooking the reasoning capabilities required to infer road topology and dynamic scene structure. To address this gap, we present RoadSceneBench, a lightweight yet information-rich benchmark designed to evaluate and advance visual reasoning in complex road environments. Unlike large-scale perception datasets, RoadSceneBench emphasizes relational understanding and structural consistency, encouraging models to capture the underlying logic of real-world road scenes. Furthermore, to enhance reasoning reliability, we propose Hierarchical Relational Reward Propagation with Temporal Consistency (HRRP-T), a training framework for Vision-Language Models (VLMs) in which reward signals adaptively promote spatial coherence and semantic alignment throughout the reasoning process. This paradigm enables models to move beyond static recognition toward geometry-aware and temporally consistent reasoning. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance across diverse road configurations. RoadSceneBench thus provides a compact yet powerful foundation for studying mid-level road semantics and fostering structure-aware autonomous perception. Our dataset is available at △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.21398 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.HC cs.MA Prune4Web: DOM Tree Pruning Programming for Web Agent Authors: Jiayuan Zhang , Kaiquan Chen , Zhihao Lu , Enshen Zhou , Qian Yu , Jing Zhang Abstract : Web automation employs intelligent agents to execute high-level tasks by mimicking human interactions with web interfaces. Despite the capabilities of recent Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents, navigating complex, real-world webpages efficiently remains a significant hurdle due to the prohibitively large size of Document Object Model (DOM) structures, often ranging from 10,000 to 100,000… ▽ More Web automation employs intelligent agents to execute high-level tasks by mimicking human interactions with web interfaces. Despite the capabilities of recent Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents, navigating complex, real-world webpages efficiently remains a significant hurdle due to the prohibitively large size of Document Object Model (DOM) structures, often ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 tokens. Existing strategies typically rely on crude DOM truncation -- risking the loss of critical information -- or employ inefficient heuristics and separate ranking models, failing to achieve an optimal balance between precision and scalability. To address these challenges, we introduce Prune4Web, a novel paradigm that shifts DOM processing from resource-intensive LLM reading to efficient programmatic pruning. Central to our approach is DOM Tree Pruning Programming, where an LLM generates executable Python scoring scripts to dynamically filter DOM elements based on semantic cues from decomposed sub-tasks. This mechanism eliminates the need for LLMs to ingest raw, massive DOMs, instead delegating traversal and scoring to lightweight, interpretable programs. This methodology achieves a 25x to 50x reduction in candidate elements for grounding, thereby facilitating precise action localization while mitigating attention dilution. Furthermore, we propose a specialized data annotation pipeline and a two-turn dialogue training strategy that jointly optimizes the Planner, Programmatic Filter, and Grounder within a unified framework. Extensive experiments demonstrate state-of-the-art performance. Notably, on our low-level grounding task, Prune4Web dramatically improves accuracy from 46.8% to 88.28%, underscoring its efficacy in real-world web automation. △ Less Submitted 26 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Paper accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.21398 [ pdf , ps , other ] Prune4Web: DOM Tree Pruning Programming for Web Agent Authors: Jiayuan Zhang , Kaiquan Chen , Zhihao Lu , Enshen Zhou , Qian Yu , Jing Zhang Abstract : Web automation employs intelligent agents to execute high-level tasks by mimicking human interactions with web interfaces. Despite the capabilities of recent Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents, navigating complex, real-world webpages efficiently remains a significant hurdle due to the prohibitively large size of Document Object Model (DOM) structures, often ranging from 10,000 to 100,000… ▽ More Web automation employs intelligent agents to execute high-level tasks by mimicking human interactions with web interfaces. Despite the capabilities of recent Large Language Model (LLM)-based web agents, navigating complex, real-world webpages efficiently remains a significant hurdle due to the prohibitively large size of Document Object Model (DOM) structures, often ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 tokens. Existing strategies typically rely on crude DOM truncation -- risking the loss of critical information -- or employ inefficient heuristics and separate ranking models, failing to achieve an optimal balance between precision and scalability. To address these challenges, we introduce Prune4Web, a novel paradigm that shifts DOM processing from resource-intensive LLM reading to efficient programmatic pruning. Central to our approach is DOM Tree Pruning Programming, where an LLM generates executable Python scoring scripts to dynamically filter DOM elements based on semantic cues from decomposed sub-tasks. This mechanism eliminates the need for LLMs to ingest raw, massive DOMs, instead delegating traversal and scoring to lightweight, interpretable programs. This methodology achieves a 25x to 50x reduction in candidate elements for grounding, thereby facilitating precise action localization while mitigating attention dilution. Furthermore, we propose a specialized data annotation pipeline and a two-turn dialogue training strategy that jointly optimizes the Planner, Programmatic Filter, and Grounder within a unified framework. Extensive experiments demonstrate state-of-the-art performance. Notably, on our low-level grounding task, Prune4Web dramatically improves accuracy from 46.8% to 88.28%, underscoring its efficacy in real-world web automation. △ Less Submitted 26 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Paper accepted to AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.20156 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.RO Map-World: Masked Action planning and Path-Integral World Model for Autonomous Driving Authors: Bin Hu , Zijian Lu , Haicheng Liao , Chengran Yuan , Bin Rao , Yongkang Li , Guofa Li , Zhiyong Cui , Cheng-zhong Xu , Zhenning Li Abstract : Motion planning for autonomous driving must handle multiple plausible futures while remaining computationally efficient. Recent end-to-end systems and world-model-based planners predict rich multi-modal trajectories, but typically rely on handcrafted anchors or reinforcement learning to select a single best mode for training and control. This selection discards information about alternative future… ▽ More Motion planning for autonomous driving must handle multiple plausible futures while remaining computationally efficient. Recent end-to-end systems and world-model-based planners predict rich multi-modal trajectories, but typically rely on handcrafted anchors or reinforcement learning to select a single best mode for training and control. This selection discards information about alternative futures and complicates optimization. We propose MAP-World, a prior-free multi-modal planning framework that couples masked action planning with a path-weighted world model. The Masked Action Planning (MAP) module treats future ego motion as masked sequence completion: past waypoints are encoded as visible tokens, future waypoints are represented as mask tokens, and a driving-intent path provides a coarse scaffold. A compact latent planning state is expanded into multiple trajectory queries with injected noise, yielding diverse, temporally consistent modes without anchor libraries or teacher policies. A lightweight world model then rolls out future BEV semantics conditioned on each candidate trajectory. During training, semantic losses are computed as an expectation over modes, using trajectory probabilities as discrete path weights, so the planner learns from the full distribution of plausible futures instead of a single selected path. On NAVSIM, our method matches anchor-based approaches and achieves state-of-the-art performance among world-model-based methods, while avoiding reinforcement learning and maintaining real-time inference latency. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.20156 [ pdf , ps , other ] Map-World: Masked Action planning and Path-Integral World Model for Autonomous Driving Authors: Bin Hu , Zijian Lu , Haicheng Liao , Chengran Yuan , Bin Rao , Yongkang Li , Guofa Li , Zhiyong Cui , Cheng-zhong Xu , Zhenning Li Abstract : Motion planning for autonomous driving must handle multiple plausible futures while remaining computationally efficient. Recent end-to-end systems and world-model-based planners predict rich multi-modal trajectories, but typically rely on handcrafted anchors or reinforcement learning to select a single best mode for training and control. This selection discards information about alternative future… ▽ More Motion planning for autonomous driving must handle multiple plausible futures while remaining computationally efficient. Recent end-to-end systems and world-model-based planners predict rich multi-modal trajectories, but typically rely on handcrafted anchors or reinforcement learning to select a single best mode for training and control. This selection discards information about alternative futures and complicates optimization. We propose MAP-World, a prior-free multi-modal planning framework that couples masked action planning with a path-weighted world model. The Masked Action Planning (MAP) module treats future ego motion as masked sequence completion: past waypoints are encoded as visible tokens, future waypoints are represented as mask tokens, and a driving-intent path provides a coarse scaffold. A compact latent planning state is expanded into multiple trajectory queries with injected noise, yielding diverse, temporally consistent modes without anchor libraries or teacher policies. A lightweight world model then rolls out future BEV semantics conditioned on each candidate trajectory. During training, semantic losses are computed as an expectation over modes, using trajectory probabilities as discrete path weights, so the planner learns from the full distribution of plausible futures instead of a single selected path. On NAVSIM, our method matches anchor-based approaches and achieves state-of-the-art performance among world-model-based methods, while avoiding reinforcement learning and maintaining real-time inference latency. △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.19684 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.HC cs.RO IndEgo: A Dataset of Industrial Scenarios and Collaborative Work for Egocentric Assistants Authors: Vivek Chavan , Yasmina Imgrund , Tung Dao , Sanwantri Bai , Bosong Wang , Ze Lu , Oliver Heimann , Jörg Krüger Abstract : We introduce IndEgo, a multimodal egocentric and exocentric dataset addressing common industrial tasks, including assembly/disassembly, logistics and organisation, inspection and repair, woodworking, and others. The dataset contains 3,460 egocentric recordings (approximately 197 hours), along with 1,092 exocentric recordings (approximately 97 hours). A key focus of the dataset is collaborative wor… ▽ More We introduce IndEgo, a multimodal egocentric and exocentric dataset addressing common industrial tasks, including assembly/disassembly, logistics and organisation, inspection and repair, woodworking, and others. The dataset contains 3,460 egocentric recordings (approximately 197 hours), along with 1,092 exocentric recordings (approximately 97 hours). A key focus of the dataset is collaborative work, where two workers jointly perform cognitively and physically intensive tasks. The egocentric recordings include rich multimodal data and added context via eye gaze, narration, sound, motion, and others. We provide detailed annotations (actions, summaries, mistake annotations, narrations), metadata, processed outputs (eye gaze, hand pose, semi-dense point cloud), and benchmarks on procedural and non-procedural task understanding, Mistake Detection, and reasoning-based Question Answering. Baseline evaluations for Mistake Detection, Question Answering and collaborative task understanding show that the dataset presents a challenge for the state-of-the-art multimodal models. Our dataset is available at: △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted to NeurIPS 2025 D&B Track. Project Page: arXiv:2511.19684 [ pdf , ps , other ] IndEgo: A Dataset of Industrial Scenarios and Collaborative Work for Egocentric Assistants Authors: Vivek Chavan , Yasmina Imgrund , Tung Dao , Sanwantri Bai , Bosong Wang , Ze Lu , Oliver Heimann , Jörg Krüger Abstract : We introduce IndEgo, a multimodal egocentric and exocentric dataset addressing common industrial tasks, including assembly/disassembly, logistics and organisation, inspection and repair, woodworking, and others. The dataset contains 3,460 egocentric recordings (approximately 197 hours), along with 1,092 exocentric recordings (approximately 97 hours). A key focus of the dataset is collaborative wor… ▽ More We introduce IndEgo, a multimodal egocentric and exocentric dataset addressing common industrial tasks, including assembly/disassembly, logistics and organisation, inspection and repair, woodworking, and others. The dataset contains 3,460 egocentric recordings (approximately 197 hours), along with 1,092 exocentric recordings (approximately 97 hours). A key focus of the dataset is collaborative work, where two workers jointly perform cognitively and physically intensive tasks. The egocentric recordings include rich multimodal data and added context via eye gaze, narration, sound, motion, and others. We provide detailed annotations (actions, summaries, mistake annotations, narrations), metadata, processed outputs (eye gaze, hand pose, semi-dense point cloud), and benchmarks on procedural and non-procedural task understanding, Mistake Detection, and reasoning-based Question Answering. Baseline evaluations for Mistake Detection, Question Answering and collaborative task understanding show that the dataset presents a challenge for the state-of-the-art multimodal models. Our dataset is available at: △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted to NeurIPS 2025 D&B Track. Project Page: arXiv:2511.19433 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI cs.CV Mixture of Horizons in Action Chunking Authors: Dong Jing , Gang Wang , Jiaqi Liu , Weiliang Tang , Zelong Sun , Yunchao Yao , Zhenyu Wei , Yunhui Liu , Zhiwu Lu , Mingyu Ding Abstract : Vision-language-action (VLA) models have shown remarkable capabilities in robotic manipulation, but their performance is sensitive to the $\textbf{action chunk length}$ used during training, termed $\textbf{horizon}$. Our empirical study reveals an inherent trade-off: longer horizons provide stronger global foresight but degrade fine-grained accuracy, while shorter ones sharpen local control yet s… ▽ More Vision-language-action (VLA) models have shown remarkable capabilities in robotic manipulation, but their performance is sensitive to the $\textbf{action chunk length}$ used during training, termed $\textbf{horizon}$. Our empirical study reveals an inherent trade-off: longer horizons provide stronger global foresight but degrade fine-grained accuracy, while shorter ones sharpen local control yet struggle on long-term tasks, implying fixed choice of single horizons being suboptimal. To mitigate the trade-off, we propose a $\textbf{mixture of horizons (MoH)}$ strategy. MoH rearranges the action chunk into several segments with different horizons, processes them in parallel with a shared action transformer, and fuses outputs with a light linear gate. It has three appealing benefits. 1) MoH exploits long-term foresight and short-term precision jointly within a single model, improving both performance and generalizability to complex tasks. 2) MoH is plug-and-play for full-attention action modules with minimal training or inference overhead. 3) MoH enables dynamic inference with adaptive horizons, which selects stable actions through cross-horizon consensus, achieving 2.5$\times$ higher throughput than baselines while preserving superior performance. Extensive experiments over flow-based policies $π_0$, $π_{0.5}$, and one-step regression policy $π_{\text{reg}}$ demonstrate that MoH yields consistent and significant gains on both simulations and real-world tasks. Notably, under mixed-task setting, $π_{0.5}$ with MoH reaches a new state-of-the-art with 99$\%$ average success rate on LIBERO after only $30k$ training iterations. Project page: △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 15 pages, 14 figures arXiv:2511.19433 [ pdf , ps , other ] Mixture of Horizons in Action Chunking Authors: Dong Jing , Gang Wang , Jiaqi Liu , Weiliang Tang , Zelong Sun , Yunchao Yao , Zhenyu Wei , Yunhui Liu , Zhiwu Lu , Mingyu Ding Abstract : Vision-language-action (VLA) models have shown remarkable capabilities in robotic manipulation, but their performance is sensitive to the $\textbf{action chunk length}$ used during training, termed $\textbf{horizon}$. Our empirical study reveals an inherent trade-off: longer horizons provide stronger global foresight but degrade fine-grained accuracy, while shorter ones sharpen local control yet s… ▽ More Vision-language-action (VLA) models have shown remarkable capabilities in robotic manipulation, but their performance is sensitive to the $\textbf{action chunk length}$ used during training, termed $\textbf{horizon}$. Our empirical study reveals an inherent trade-off: longer horizons provide stronger global foresight but degrade fine-grained accuracy, while shorter ones sharpen local control yet struggle on long-term tasks, implying fixed choice of single horizons being suboptimal. To mitigate the trade-off, we propose a $\textbf{mixture of horizons (MoH)}$ strategy. MoH rearranges the action chunk into several segments with different horizons, processes them in parallel with a shared action transformer, and fuses outputs with a light linear gate. It has three appealing benefits. 1) MoH exploits long-term foresight and short-term precision jointly within a single model, improving both performance and generalizability to complex tasks. 2) MoH is plug-and-play for full-attention action modules with minimal training or inference overhead. 3) MoH enables dynamic inference with adaptive horizons, which selects stable actions through cross-horizon consensus, achieving 2.5$\times$ higher throughput than baselines while preserving superior performance. Extensive experiments over flow-based policies $π_0$, $π_{0.5}$, and one-step regression policy $π_{\text{reg}}$ demonstrate that MoH yields consistent and significant gains on both simulations and real-world tasks. Notably, under mixed-task setting, $π_{0.5}$ with MoH reaches a new state-of-the-art with 99$\%$ average success rate on LIBERO after only $30k$ training iterations. Project page: △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 15 pages, 14 figures arXiv:2511.19236 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI SENTINEL: A Fully End-to-End Language-Action Model for Humanoid Whole Body Control Authors: Yuxuan Wang , Haobin Jiang , Shiqing Yao , Ziluo Ding , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Existing humanoid control systems often rely on teleoperation or modular generation pipelines that separate language understanding from physical execution. However, the former is entirely human-driven, and the latter lacks tight alignment between language commands and physical behaviors. In this paper, we present SENTINEL, a fully end-to-end language-action model for humanoid whole-body control. W… ▽ More Existing humanoid control systems often rely on teleoperation or modular generation pipelines that separate language understanding from physical execution. However, the former is entirely human-driven, and the latter lacks tight alignment between language commands and physical behaviors. In this paper, we present SENTINEL, a fully end-to-end language-action model for humanoid whole-body control. We construct a large-scale dataset by tracking human motions in simulation using a pretrained whole body controller, combined with their text annotations. The model directly maps language commands and proprioceptive inputs to low-level actions without any intermediate representation. The model generates action chunks using flow matching, which can be subsequently refined by a residual action head for real-world deployment. Our method exhibits strong semantic understanding and stable execution on humanoid robots in both simulation and real-world deployment, and also supports multi-modal extensions by converting inputs into texts. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 23 pages, 8 figures, 11 tables arXiv:2511.19236 [ pdf , ps , other ] SENTINEL: A Fully End-to-End Language-Action Model for Humanoid Whole Body Control Authors: Yuxuan Wang , Haobin Jiang , Shiqing Yao , Ziluo Ding , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Existing humanoid control systems often rely on teleoperation or modular generation pipelines that separate language understanding from physical execution. However, the former is entirely human-driven, and the latter lacks tight alignment between language commands and physical behaviors. In this paper, we present SENTINEL, a fully end-to-end language-action model for humanoid whole-body control. W… ▽ More Existing humanoid control systems often rely on teleoperation or modular generation pipelines that separate language understanding from physical execution. However, the former is entirely human-driven, and the latter lacks tight alignment between language commands and physical behaviors. In this paper, we present SENTINEL, a fully end-to-end language-action model for humanoid whole-body control. We construct a large-scale dataset by tracking human motions in simulation using a pretrained whole body controller, combined with their text annotations. The model directly maps language commands and proprioceptive inputs to low-level actions without any intermediate representation. The model generates action chunks using flow matching, which can be subsequently refined by a residual action head for real-world deployment. Our method exhibits strong semantic understanding and stable execution on humanoid robots in both simulation and real-world deployment, and also supports multi-modal extensions by converting inputs into texts. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 23 pages, 8 figures, 11 tables arXiv:2511.19126 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV When Semantics Regulate: Rethinking Patch Shuffle and Internal Bias for Generated Image Detection with CLIP Authors: Beilin Chu , Weike You , Mengtao Li , Tingting Zheng , Kehan Zhao , Xuan Xu , Zhigao Lu , Jia Song , Moxuan Xu , Linna Zhou Abstract : The rapid progress of GANs and Diffusion Models poses new challenges for detecting AI-generated images. Although CLIP-based detectors exhibit promising generalization, they often rely on semantic cues rather than generator artifacts, leading to brittle performance under distribution shifts. In this work, we revisit the nature of semantic bias and uncover that Patch Shuffle provides an unusually st… ▽ More The rapid progress of GANs and Diffusion Models poses new challenges for detecting AI-generated images. Although CLIP-based detectors exhibit promising generalization, they often rely on semantic cues rather than generator artifacts, leading to brittle performance under distribution shifts. In this work, we revisit the nature of semantic bias and uncover that Patch Shuffle provides an unusually strong benefit for CLIP, that disrupts global semantic continuity while preserving local artifact cues, which reduces semantic entropy and homogenizes feature distributions between natural and synthetic images. Through a detailed layer-wise analysis, we further show that CLIP's deep semantic structure functions as a regulator that stabilizes cross-domain representations once semantic bias is suppressed. Guided by these findings, we propose SemAnti, a semantic-antagonistic fine-tuning paradigm that freezes the semantic subspace and adapts only artifact-sensitive layers under shuffled semantics. Despite its simplicity, SemAnti achieves state-of-the-art cross-domain generalization on AIGCDetectBenchmark and GenImage, demonstrating that regulating semantics is key to unlocking CLIP's full potential for robust AI-generated image detection. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 14 pages, 7 figures and 7 tables arXiv:2511.19126 [ pdf , ps , other ] When Semantics Regulate: Rethinking Patch Shuffle and Internal Bias for Generated Image Detection with CLIP Authors: Beilin Chu , Weike You , Mengtao Li , Tingting Zheng , Kehan Zhao , Xuan Xu , Zhigao Lu , Jia Song , Moxuan Xu , Linna Zhou Abstract : The rapid progress of GANs and Diffusion Models poses new challenges for detecting AI-generated images. Although CLIP-based detectors exhibit promising generalization, they often rely on semantic cues rather than generator artifacts, leading to brittle performance under distribution shifts. In this work, we revisit the nature of semantic bias and uncover that Patch Shuffle provides an unusually st… ▽ More The rapid progress of GANs and Diffusion Models poses new challenges for detecting AI-generated images. Although CLIP-based detectors exhibit promising generalization, they often rely on semantic cues rather than generator artifacts, leading to brittle performance under distribution shifts. In this work, we revisit the nature of semantic bias and uncover that Patch Shuffle provides an unusually strong benefit for CLIP, that disrupts global semantic continuity while preserving local artifact cues, which reduces semantic entropy and homogenizes feature distributions between natural and synthetic images. Through a detailed layer-wise analysis, we further show that CLIP's deep semantic structure functions as a regulator that stabilizes cross-domain representations once semantic bias is suppressed. Guided by these findings, we propose SemAnti, a semantic-antagonistic fine-tuning paradigm that freezes the semantic subspace and adapts only artifact-sensitive layers under shuffled semantics. Despite its simplicity, SemAnti achieves state-of-the-art cross-domain generalization on AIGCDetectBenchmark and GenImage, demonstrating that regulating semantics is key to unlocking CLIP's full potential for robust AI-generated image detection. △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 14 pages, 7 figures and 7 tables arXiv:2511.18870 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV HunyuanVideo 1.5 Technical Report Authors: Bing Wu , Chang Zou , Changlin Li , Duojun Huang , Fang Yang , Hao Tan , Jack Peng , Jianbing Wu , Jiangfeng Xiong , Jie Jiang , Linus , Patrol , Peizhen Zhang , Peng Chen , Penghao Zhao , Qi Tian , Songtao Liu , Weijie Kong , Weiyan Wang , Xiao He , Xin Li , Xinchi Deng , Xuefei Zhe , Yang Li , Yanxin Long , et al. (56 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present HunyuanVideo 1.5, a lightweight yet powerful open-source video generation model that achieves state-of-the-art visual quality and motion coherence with only 8.3 billion parameters, enabling efficient inference on consumer-grade GPUs. This achievement is built upon several key components, including meticulous data curation, an advanced DiT architecture featuring selective and sliding til… ▽ More We present HunyuanVideo 1.5, a lightweight yet powerful open-source video generation model that achieves state-of-the-art visual quality and motion coherence with only 8.3 billion parameters, enabling efficient inference on consumer-grade GPUs. This achievement is built upon several key components, including meticulous data curation, an advanced DiT architecture featuring selective and sliding tile attention (SSTA), enhanced bilingual understanding through glyph-aware text encoding, progressive pre-training and post-training, and an efficient video super-resolution network. Leveraging these designs, we developed a unified framework capable of high-quality text-to-video and image-to-video generation across multiple durations and resolutions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that this compact and proficient model establishes a new state-of-the-art among open-source video generation models. By releasing the code and model weights, we provide the community with a high-performance foundation that lowers the barrier to video creation and research, making advanced video generation accessible to a broader audience. All open-source assets are publicly available at △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; v1 submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.18870 [ pdf , ps , other ] HunyuanVideo 1.5 Technical Report Authors: Bing Wu , Chang Zou , Changlin Li , Duojun Huang , Fang Yang , Hao Tan , Jack Peng , Jianbing Wu , Jiangfeng Xiong , Jie Jiang , Linus , Patrol , Peizhen Zhang , Peng Chen , Penghao Zhao , Qi Tian , Songtao Liu , Weijie Kong , Weiyan Wang , Xiao He , Xin Li , Xinchi Deng , Xuefei Zhe , Yang Li , Yanxin Long , et al. (56 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present HunyuanVideo 1.5, a lightweight yet powerful open-source video generation model that achieves state-of-the-art visual quality and motion coherence with only 8.3 billion parameters, enabling efficient inference on consumer-grade GPUs. This achievement is built upon several key components, including meticulous data curation, an advanced DiT architecture featuring selective and sliding til… ▽ More We present HunyuanVideo 1.5, a lightweight yet powerful open-source video generation model that achieves state-of-the-art visual quality and motion coherence with only 8.3 billion parameters, enabling efficient inference on consumer-grade GPUs. This achievement is built upon several key components, including meticulous data curation, an advanced DiT architecture featuring selective and sliding tile attention (SSTA), enhanced bilingual understanding through glyph-aware text encoding, progressive pre-training and post-training, and an efficient video super-resolution network. Leveraging these designs, we developed a unified framework capable of high-quality text-to-video and image-to-video generation across multiple durations and resolutions. Extensive experiments demonstrate that this compact and proficient model establishes a new state-of-the-art among open-source video generation models. By releasing the code and model weights, we provide the community with a high-performance foundation that lowers the barrier to video creation and research, making advanced video generation accessible to a broader audience. All open-source assets are publicly available at △ Less Submitted 24 November, 2025; v1 submitted 24 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.18463 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Alternating Perception-Reasoning for Hallucination-Resistant Video Understanding Authors: Bowei Pu , Chuanbin Liu , Yifan Ge , Peicheng Zhou , Yiwei Sun , Zhiying Lu , Jiankang Wang , Hongtao Xie Abstract : Sufficient visual perception is the foundation of video reasoning. Nevertheless, existing Video Reasoning LLMs suffer from perception shortcuts, relying on a flawed single-step perception paradigm. This paradigm describes the video and then conducts reasoning, which runs the risk of insufficient evidence and emergent hallucinations. To address these issues, we introduce a new framework that integr… ▽ More Sufficient visual perception is the foundation of video reasoning. Nevertheless, existing Video Reasoning LLMs suffer from perception shortcuts, relying on a flawed single-step perception paradigm. This paradigm describes the video and then conducts reasoning, which runs the risk of insufficient evidence and emergent hallucinations. To address these issues, we introduce a new framework that integrates a loop-based paradigm with an anti-hallucination reward. First, to address the insufficient evidence, we introduce the Perception Loop Reasoning (PLR) paradigm. Instead of describing the video at once, each loop requires the model to describe a video segment with precise timestamps, analyze this segment, and decide the next action. Second, for the risk of hallucinations, the Factual-Aware Evaluator (FAE) evaluates each perception result as a reliable anti-hallucination reward. This reward encourages the model to provide sufficient and precise video evidence. Our FAE, which performs comparably to GPT-4o, is tuned on our AnetHallu-117K, a large-scale hallucination judgment preference dataset. Extensive experiments show that our Video-PLR achieves the state-of-the-art in both 3B and 7B parameter scales and has the best data efficiency. Our code, models, and datasets are released on: △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; v1 submitted 23 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 32 pages, 36 figures ACM Class: I.4 arXiv:2511.18463 [ pdf , ps , other ] Alternating Perception-Reasoning for Hallucination-Resistant Video Understanding Authors: Bowei Pu , Chuanbin Liu , Yifan Ge , Peicheng Zhou , Yiwei Sun , Zhiying Lu , Jiankang Wang , Hongtao Xie Abstract : Sufficient visual perception is the foundation of video reasoning. Nevertheless, existing Video Reasoning LLMs suffer from perception shortcuts, relying on a flawed single-step perception paradigm. This paradigm describes the video and then conducts reasoning, which runs the risk of insufficient evidence and emergent hallucinations. To address these issues, we introduce a new framework that integr… ▽ More Sufficient visual perception is the foundation of video reasoning. Nevertheless, existing Video Reasoning LLMs suffer from perception shortcuts, relying on a flawed single-step perception paradigm. This paradigm describes the video and then conducts reasoning, which runs the risk of insufficient evidence and emergent hallucinations. To address these issues, we introduce a new framework that integrates a loop-based paradigm with an anti-hallucination reward. First, to address the insufficient evidence, we introduce the Perception Loop Reasoning (PLR) paradigm. Instead of describing the video at once, each loop requires the model to describe a video segment with precise timestamps, analyze this segment, and decide the next action. Second, for the risk of hallucinations, the Factual-Aware Evaluator (FAE) evaluates each perception result as a reliable anti-hallucination reward. This reward encourages the model to provide sufficient and precise video evidence. Our FAE, which performs comparably to GPT-4o, is tuned on our AnetHallu-117K, a large-scale hallucination judgment preference dataset. Extensive experiments show that our Video-PLR achieves the state-of-the-art in both 3B and 7B parameter scales and has the best data efficiency. Our code, models, and datasets are released on: △ Less Submitted 25 November, 2025; v1 submitted 23 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 32 pages, 36 figures ACM Class: I.4 arXiv:2511.18262 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MammothModa2: A Unified AR-Diffusion Framework for Multimodal Understanding and Generation Authors: Tao Shen , Xin Wan , Taicai Chen , Rui Zhang , Junwen Pan , Dawei Lu , Fanding Lei , Zhilin Lu , Yunfei Yang , Chen Cheng , Qi She , Chang Liu , Zhenbang Sun Abstract : Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generat… ▽ More Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generation. Mammoth2 adopts a serial design: an AR path equipped with generation experts performs global semantic modeling over discrete tokens, while a single-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) decoder handles high-fidelity image synthesis. A carefully designed AR-Diffusion feature alignment module combines multi-layer feature aggregation, unified condition encoding, and in-context conditioning to stably align AR's representations with the diffusion decoder's continuous latents. Mammoth2 is trained end-to-end with joint Next-Token Prediction and Flow Matching objectives, followed by supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning over both generation and editing. With roughly 60M supervised generation samples and no reliance on pre-trained generators, Mammoth2 delivers strong text-to-image and instruction-based editing performance on public benchmarks, achieving 0.87 on GenEval, 87.2 on DPGBench, and 4.06 on ImgEdit, while remaining competitive with understanding-only backbones (e.g., Qwen3-VL-8B) on multimodal understanding tasks. These results suggest that a carefully coupled AR-Diffusion architecture can provide high-fidelity generation and editing while maintaining strong multimodal comprehension within a single, parameter- and data-efficient model. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.18262 [ pdf , ps , other ] MammothModa2: A Unified AR-Diffusion Framework for Multimodal Understanding and Generation Authors: Tao Shen , Xin Wan , Taicai Chen , Rui Zhang , Junwen Pan , Dawei Lu , Fanding Lei , Zhilin Lu , Yunfei Yang , Chen Cheng , Qi She , Chang Liu , Zhenbang Sun Abstract : Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generat… ▽ More Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generation. Mammoth2 adopts a serial design: an AR path equipped with generation experts performs global semantic modeling over discrete tokens, while a single-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) decoder handles high-fidelity image synthesis. A carefully designed AR-Diffusion feature alignment module combines multi-layer feature aggregation, unified condition encoding, and in-context conditioning to stably align AR's representations with the diffusion decoder's continuous latents. Mammoth2 is trained end-to-end with joint Next-Token Prediction and Flow Matching objectives, followed by supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning over both generation and editing. With roughly 60M supervised generation samples and no reliance on pre-trained generators, Mammoth2 delivers strong text-to-image and instruction-based editing performance on public benchmarks, achieving 0.87 on GenEval, 87.2 on DPGBench, and 4.06 on ImgEdit, while remaining competitive with understanding-only backbones (e.g., Qwen3-VL-8B) on multimodal understanding tasks. These results suggest that a carefully coupled AR-Diffusion architecture can provide high-fidelity generation and editing while maintaining strong multimodal comprehension within a single, parameter- and data-efficient model. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.17792 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.RO Target-Bench: Can World Models Achieve Mapless Path Planning with Semantic Targets? Authors: Dingrui Wang , Hongyuan Ye , Zhihao Liang , Zhexiao Sun , Zhaowei Lu , Yuchen Zhang , Yuyu Zhao , Yuan Gao , Marvin Seegert , Finn Schäfer , Haotong Qin , Wei Li , Luigi Palmieri , Felix Jahncke , Mattia Piccinini , Johannes Betz Abstract : While recent world models generate highly realistic videos, their ability to perform robot path planning remains unclear and unquantified. We introduce Target-Bench, the first benchmark specifically designed to evaluate world models on mapless path planning toward semantic targets in real-world environments. Target-Bench provides 450 robot-collected video sequences spanning 45 semantic categories… ▽ More While recent world models generate highly realistic videos, their ability to perform robot path planning remains unclear and unquantified. We introduce Target-Bench, the first benchmark specifically designed to evaluate world models on mapless path planning toward semantic targets in real-world environments. Target-Bench provides 450 robot-collected video sequences spanning 45 semantic categories with SLAM-based ground truth trajectories. Our evaluation pipeline recovers camera motion from generated videos and measures planning performance using five complementary metrics that quantify target-reaching capability, trajectory accuracy, and directional consistency. We evaluate state-of-the-art models including Sora 2, Veo 3.1, and the Wan series. The best off-the-shelf model (Wan2.2-Flash) achieves only 0.299 overall score, revealing significant limitations in current world models for robotic planning tasks. We show that fine-tuning an open-source 5B-parameter model on only 325 scenarios from our dataset achieves 0.345 overall score -- an improvement of more than 400% over its base version (0.066) and 15% higher than the best off-the-shelf model. We will open-source the code and dataset. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 10 pages arXiv:2511.17792 [ pdf , ps , other ] Target-Bench: Can World Models Achieve Mapless Path Planning with Semantic Targets? Authors: Dingrui Wang , Hongyuan Ye , Zhihao Liang , Zhexiao Sun , Zhaowei Lu , Yuchen Zhang , Yuyu Zhao , Yuan Gao , Marvin Seegert , Finn Schäfer , Haotong Qin , Wei Li , Luigi Palmieri , Felix Jahncke , Mattia Piccinini , Johannes Betz Abstract : While recent world models generate highly realistic videos, their ability to perform robot path planning remains unclear and unquantified. We introduce Target-Bench, the first benchmark specifically designed to evaluate world models on mapless path planning toward semantic targets in real-world environments. Target-Bench provides 450 robot-collected video sequences spanning 45 semantic categories… ▽ More While recent world models generate highly realistic videos, their ability to perform robot path planning remains unclear and unquantified. We introduce Target-Bench, the first benchmark specifically designed to evaluate world models on mapless path planning toward semantic targets in real-world environments. Target-Bench provides 450 robot-collected video sequences spanning 45 semantic categories with SLAM-based ground truth trajectories. Our evaluation pipeline recovers camera motion from generated videos and measures planning performance using five complementary metrics that quantify target-reaching capability, trajectory accuracy, and directional consistency. We evaluate state-of-the-art models including Sora 2, Veo 3.1, and the Wan series. The best off-the-shelf model (Wan2.2-Flash) achieves only 0.299 overall score, revealing significant limitations in current world models for robotic planning tasks. We show that fine-tuning an open-source 5B-parameter model on only 325 scenarios from our dataset achieves 0.345 overall score -- an improvement of more than 400% over its base version (0.066) and 15% higher than the best off-the-shelf model. We will open-source the code and dataset. △ Less Submitted 21 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 10 pages arXiv:2511.16518 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CL cs.CV MiMo-Embodied: X-Embodied Foundation Model Technical Report Authors: Xiaoshuai Hao , Lei Zhou , Zhijian Huang , Zhiwen Hou , Yingbo Tang , Lingfeng Zhang , Guang Li , Zheng Lu , Shuhuai Ren , Xianhui Meng , Yuchen Zhang , Jing Wu , Jinghui Lu , Chenxu Dang , Jiayi Guan , Jianhua Wu , Zhiyi Hou , Hanbing Li , Shumeng Xia , Mingliang Zhou , Yinan Zheng , Zihao Yue , Shuhao Gu , Hao Tian , Yuannan Shen , et al. (19 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We open-source MiMo-Embodied, the first cross-embodied foundation model to successfully integrate and achieve state-of-the-art performance in both Autonomous Driving and Embodied AI. MiMo-Embodied sets new records across 17 embodied AI benchmarks in Task Planning, Affordance Prediction and Spatial Understanding, while also excelling in 12 autonomous driving benchmarks across Environmental Percepti… ▽ More We open-source MiMo-Embodied, the first cross-embodied foundation model to successfully integrate and achieve state-of-the-art performance in both Autonomous Driving and Embodied AI. MiMo-Embodied sets new records across 17 embodied AI benchmarks in Task Planning, Affordance Prediction and Spatial Understanding, while also excelling in 12 autonomous driving benchmarks across Environmental Perception, Status Prediction, and Driving Planning. Across these tasks, MiMo-Embodied significantly outperforms existing open-source, closed-source, and specialized baselines. Our results indicate that through multi-stage learning, curated data construction, and CoT/RL fine-tuning, these two domains exhibit strong positive transfer and mutually reinforce one another. We provide a detailed analysis of our model design and training methodologies to facilitate further research. Code and models are available at △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Code: Model: arXiv:2511.16518 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiMo-Embodied: X-Embodied Foundation Model Technical Report Authors: Xiaoshuai Hao , Lei Zhou , Zhijian Huang , Zhiwen Hou , Yingbo Tang , Lingfeng Zhang , Guang Li , Zheng Lu , Shuhuai Ren , Xianhui Meng , Yuchen Zhang , Jing Wu , Jinghui Lu , Chenxu Dang , Jiayi Guan , Jianhua Wu , Zhiyi Hou , Hanbing Li , Shumeng Xia , Mingliang Zhou , Yinan Zheng , Zihao Yue , Shuhao Gu , Hao Tian , Yuannan Shen , et al. (19 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We open-source MiMo-Embodied, the first cross-embodied foundation model to successfully integrate and achieve state-of-the-art performance in both Autonomous Driving and Embodied AI. MiMo-Embodied sets new records across 17 embodied AI benchmarks in Task Planning, Affordance Prediction and Spatial Understanding, while also excelling in 12 autonomous driving benchmarks across Environmental Percepti… ▽ More We open-source MiMo-Embodied, the first cross-embodied foundation model to successfully integrate and achieve state-of-the-art performance in both Autonomous Driving and Embodied AI. MiMo-Embodied sets new records across 17 embodied AI benchmarks in Task Planning, Affordance Prediction and Spatial Understanding, while also excelling in 12 autonomous driving benchmarks across Environmental Perception, Status Prediction, and Driving Planning. Across these tasks, MiMo-Embodied significantly outperforms existing open-source, closed-source, and specialized baselines. Our results indicate that through multi-stage learning, curated data construction, and CoT/RL fine-tuning, these two domains exhibit strong positive transfer and mutually reinforce one another. We provide a detailed analysis of our model design and training methodologies to facilitate further research. Code and models are available at △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Code: Model: arXiv:2511.14592 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.AI Is Your VLM for Autonomous Driving Safety-Ready? A Comprehensive Benchmark for Evaluating External and In-Cabin Risks Authors: Xianhui Meng , Yuchen Zhang , Zhijian Huang , Zheng Lu , Ziling Ji , Yaoyao Yin , Hongyuan Zhang , Guangfeng Jiang , Yandan Lin , Long Chen , Hangjun Ye , Li Zhang , Jun Liu , Xiaoshuai Hao Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs) show great promise for autonomous driving, but their suitability for safety-critical scenarios is largely unexplored, raising safety concerns. This issue arises from the lack of comprehensive benchmarks that assess both external environmental risks and in-cabin driving behavior safety simultaneously. To bridge this critical gap, we introduce DSBench, the first compreh… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs) show great promise for autonomous driving, but their suitability for safety-critical scenarios is largely unexplored, raising safety concerns. This issue arises from the lack of comprehensive benchmarks that assess both external environmental risks and in-cabin driving behavior safety simultaneously. To bridge this critical gap, we introduce DSBench, the first comprehensive Driving Safety Benchmark designed to assess a VLM's awareness of various safety risks in a unified manner. DSBench encompasses two major categories: external environmental risks and in-cabin driving behavior safety, divided into 10 key categories and a total of 28 sub-categories. This comprehensive evaluation covers a wide range of scenarios, ensuring a thorough assessment of VLMs' performance in safety-critical contexts. Extensive evaluations across various mainstream open-source and closed-source VLMs reveal significant performance degradation under complex safety-critical situations, highlighting urgent safety concerns. To address this, we constructed a large dataset of 98K instances focused on in-cabin and external safety scenarios, showing that fine-tuning on this dataset significantly enhances the safety performance of existing VLMs and paves the way for advancing autonomous driving technology. The benchmark toolkit, code, and model checkpoints will be publicly accessible. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.14592 [ pdf , ps , other ] Is Your VLM for Autonomous Driving Safety-Ready? A Comprehensive Benchmark for Evaluating External and In-Cabin Risks Authors: Xianhui Meng , Yuchen Zhang , Zhijian Huang , Zheng Lu , Ziling Ji , Yaoyao Yin , Hongyuan Zhang , Guangfeng Jiang , Yandan Lin , Long Chen , Hangjun Ye , Li Zhang , Jun Liu , Xiaoshuai Hao Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs) show great promise for autonomous driving, but their suitability for safety-critical scenarios is largely unexplored, raising safety concerns. This issue arises from the lack of comprehensive benchmarks that assess both external environmental risks and in-cabin driving behavior safety simultaneously. To bridge this critical gap, we introduce DSBench, the first compreh… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs) show great promise for autonomous driving, but their suitability for safety-critical scenarios is largely unexplored, raising safety concerns. This issue arises from the lack of comprehensive benchmarks that assess both external environmental risks and in-cabin driving behavior safety simultaneously. To bridge this critical gap, we introduce DSBench, the first comprehensive Driving Safety Benchmark designed to assess a VLM's awareness of various safety risks in a unified manner. DSBench encompasses two major categories: external environmental risks and in-cabin driving behavior safety, divided into 10 key categories and a total of 28 sub-categories. This comprehensive evaluation covers a wide range of scenarios, ensuring a thorough assessment of VLMs' performance in safety-critical contexts. Extensive evaluations across various mainstream open-source and closed-source VLMs reveal significant performance degradation under complex safety-critical situations, highlighting urgent safety concerns. To address this, we constructed a large dataset of 98K instances focused on in-cabin and external safety scenarios, showing that fine-tuning on this dataset significantly enhances the safety performance of existing VLMs and paves the way for advancing autonomous driving technology. The benchmark toolkit, code, and model checkpoints will be publicly accessible. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.14291 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI GEN3D: Generating Domain-Free 3D Scenes from a Single Image Authors: Yuxin Zhang , Ziyu Lu , Hongbo Duan , Keyu Fan , Pengting Luo , Peiyu Zhuang , Mengyu Yang , Houde Liu Abstract : Despite recent advancements in neural 3D reconstruction, the dependence on dense multi-view captures restricts their broader applicability. Additionally, 3D scene generation is vital for advancing embodied AI and world models, which depend on diverse, high-quality scenes for learning and evaluation. In this work, we propose Gen3d, a novel method for generation of high-quality, wide-scope, and gene… ▽ More Despite recent advancements in neural 3D reconstruction, the dependence on dense multi-view captures restricts their broader applicability. Additionally, 3D scene generation is vital for advancing embodied AI and world models, which depend on diverse, high-quality scenes for learning and evaluation. In this work, we propose Gen3d, a novel method for generation of high-quality, wide-scope, and generic 3D scenes from a single image. After the initial point cloud is created by lifting the RGBD image, Gen3d maintains and expands its world model. The 3D scene is finalized through optimizing a Gaussian splatting representation. Extensive experiments on diverse datasets demonstrate the strong generalization capability and superior performance of our method in generating a world model and Synthesizing high-fidelity and consistent novel views. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 5 pages , 2 figures arXiv:2511.14291 [ pdf , ps , other ] GEN3D: Generating Domain-Free 3D Scenes from a Single Image Authors: Yuxin Zhang , Ziyu Lu , Hongbo Duan , Keyu Fan , Pengting Luo , Peiyu Zhuang , Mengyu Yang , Houde Liu Abstract : Despite recent advancements in neural 3D reconstruction, the dependence on dense multi-view captures restricts their broader applicability. Additionally, 3D scene generation is vital for advancing embodied AI and world models, which depend on diverse, high-quality scenes for learning and evaluation. In this work, we propose Gen3d, a novel method for generation of high-quality, wide-scope, and gene… ▽ More Despite recent advancements in neural 3D reconstruction, the dependence on dense multi-view captures restricts their broader applicability. Additionally, 3D scene generation is vital for advancing embodied AI and world models, which depend on diverse, high-quality scenes for learning and evaluation. In this work, we propose Gen3d, a novel method for generation of high-quality, wide-scope, and generic 3D scenes from a single image. After the initial point cloud is created by lifting the RGBD image, Gen3d maintains and expands its world model. The 3D scene is finalized through optimizing a Gaussian splatting representation. Extensive experiments on diverse datasets demonstrate the strong generalization capability and superior performance of our method in generating a world model and Synthesizing high-fidelity and consistent novel views. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 5 pages , 2 figures arXiv:2511.13897 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Temporal Realism Evaluation of Generated Videos Using Compressed-Domain Motion Vectors Authors: Mert Onur Cakiroglu , Idil Bilge Altun , Zhihe Lu , Mehmet Dalkilic , Hasan Kurban Abstract : Temporal realism remains a central weakness of current generative video models, as most evaluation metrics prioritize spatial appearance and offer limited sensitivity to motion. We introduce a scalable, model-agnostic framework that assesses temporal behavior using motion vectors (MVs) extracted directly from compressed video streams. Codec-generated MVs from standards such as H.264 and HEVC provi… ▽ More Temporal realism remains a central weakness of current generative video models, as most evaluation metrics prioritize spatial appearance and offer limited sensitivity to motion. We introduce a scalable, model-agnostic framework that assesses temporal behavior using motion vectors (MVs) extracted directly from compressed video streams. Codec-generated MVs from standards such as H.264 and HEVC provide lightweight, resolution-consistent descriptors of motion dynamics. We quantify realism by computing Kullback-Leibler, Jensen-Shannon, and Wasserstein divergences between MV statistics of real and generated videos. Experiments on the GenVidBench dataset containing videos from eight state-of-the-art generators reveal systematic discrepancies from real motion: entropy-based divergences rank Pika and SVD as closest to real videos, MV-sum statistics favor VC2 and Text2Video-Zero, and CogVideo shows the largest deviations across both measures. Visualizations of MV fields and class-conditional motion heatmaps further reveal center bias, sparse and piecewise constant flows, and grid-like artifacts that frame-level metrics do not capture. Beyond evaluation, we investigate MV-RGB fusion through channel concatenation, cross-attention, joint embedding, and a motion-aware fusion module. Incorporating MVs improves downstream classification across ResNet, I3D, and TSN backbones, with ResNet-18 and ResNet-34 reaching up to 97.4% accuracy and I3D achieving 99.0% accuracy on real-versus-generated discrimination. These findings demonstrate that compressed-domain MVs provide an effective temporal signal for diagnosing motion defects in generative videos and for strengthening temporal reasoning in discriminative models. The implementation is available at: △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13897 [ pdf , ps , other ] Temporal Realism Evaluation of Generated Videos Using Compressed-Domain Motion Vectors Authors: Mert Onur Cakiroglu , Idil Bilge Altun , Zhihe Lu , Mehmet Dalkilic , Hasan Kurban Abstract : Temporal realism remains a central weakness of current generative video models, as most evaluation metrics prioritize spatial appearance and offer limited sensitivity to motion. We introduce a scalable, model-agnostic framework that assesses temporal behavior using motion vectors (MVs) extracted directly from compressed video streams. Codec-generated MVs from standards such as H.264 and HEVC provi… ▽ More Temporal realism remains a central weakness of current generative video models, as most evaluation metrics prioritize spatial appearance and offer limited sensitivity to motion. We introduce a scalable, model-agnostic framework that assesses temporal behavior using motion vectors (MVs) extracted directly from compressed video streams. Codec-generated MVs from standards such as H.264 and HEVC provide lightweight, resolution-consistent descriptors of motion dynamics. We quantify realism by computing Kullback-Leibler, Jensen-Shannon, and Wasserstein divergences between MV statistics of real and generated videos. Experiments on the GenVidBench dataset containing videos from eight state-of-the-art generators reveal systematic discrepancies from real motion: entropy-based divergences rank Pika and SVD as closest to real videos, MV-sum statistics favor VC2 and Text2Video-Zero, and CogVideo shows the largest deviations across both measures. Visualizations of MV fields and class-conditional motion heatmaps further reveal center bias, sparse and piecewise constant flows, and grid-like artifacts that frame-level metrics do not capture. Beyond evaluation, we investigate MV-RGB fusion through channel concatenation, cross-attention, joint embedding, and a motion-aware fusion module. Incorporating MVs improves downstream classification across ResNet, I3D, and TSN backbones, with ResNet-18 and ResNet-34 reaching up to 97.4% accuracy and I3D achieving 99.0% accuracy on real-versus-generated discrimination. These findings demonstrate that compressed-domain MVs provide an effective temporal signal for diagnosing motion defects in generative videos and for strengthening temporal reasoning in discriminative models. The implementation is available at: △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13593 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL O-Mem: Omni Memory System for Personalized, Long Horizon, Self-Evolving Agents Authors: Piaohong Wang , Motong Tian , Jiaxian Li , Yuan Liang , Yuqing Wang , Qianben Chen , Tiannan Wang , Zhicong Lu , Jiawei Ma , Yuchen Eleanor Jiang , Wangchunshu Zhou Abstract : Recent advancements in LLM-powered agents have demonstrated significant potential in generating human-like responses; however, they continue to face challenges in maintaining long-term interactions within complex environments, primarily due to limitations in contextual consistency and dynamic personalization. Existing memory systems often depend on semantic grouping prior to retrieval, which can o… ▽ More Recent advancements in LLM-powered agents have demonstrated significant potential in generating human-like responses; however, they continue to face challenges in maintaining long-term interactions within complex environments, primarily due to limitations in contextual consistency and dynamic personalization. Existing memory systems often depend on semantic grouping prior to retrieval, which can overlook semantically irrelevant yet critical user information and introduce retrieval noise. In this report, we propose the initial design of O-Mem, a novel memory framework based on active user profiling that dynamically extracts and updates user characteristics and event records from their proactive interactions with agents. O-Mem supports hierarchical retrieval of persona attributes and topic-related context, enabling more adaptive and coherent personalized responses. O-Mem achieves 51.67% on the public LoCoMo benchmark, a nearly 3% improvement upon LangMem,the previous state-of-the-art, and it achieves 62.99% on PERSONAMEM, a 3.5% improvement upon A-Mem,the previous state-of-the-art. O-Mem also boosts token and interaction response time efficiency compared to previous memory frameworks. Our work opens up promising directions for developing efficient and human-like personalized AI assistants in the future. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13593 [ pdf , ps , other ] O-Mem: Omni Memory System for Personalized, Long Horizon, Self-Evolving Agents Authors: Piaohong Wang , Motong Tian , Jiaxian Li , Yuan Liang , Yuqing Wang , Qianben Chen , Tiannan Wang , Zhicong Lu , Jiawei Ma , Yuchen Eleanor Jiang , Wangchunshu Zhou Abstract : Recent advancements in LLM-powered agents have demonstrated significant potential in generating human-like responses; however, they continue to face challenges in maintaining long-term interactions within complex environments, primarily due to limitations in contextual consistency and dynamic personalization. Existing memory systems often depend on semantic grouping prior to retrieval, which can o… ▽ More Recent advancements in LLM-powered agents have demonstrated significant potential in generating human-like responses; however, they continue to face challenges in maintaining long-term interactions within complex environments, primarily due to limitations in contextual consistency and dynamic personalization. Existing memory systems often depend on semantic grouping prior to retrieval, which can overlook semantically irrelevant yet critical user information and introduce retrieval noise. In this report, we propose the initial design of O-Mem, a novel memory framework based on active user profiling that dynamically extracts and updates user characteristics and event records from their proactive interactions with agents. O-Mem supports hierarchical retrieval of persona attributes and topic-related context, enabling more adaptive and coherent personalized responses. O-Mem achieves 51.67% on the public LoCoMo benchmark, a nearly 3% improvement upon LangMem,the previous state-of-the-art, and it achieves 62.99% on PERSONAMEM, a 3.5% improvement upon A-Mem,the previous state-of-the-art. O-Mem also boosts token and interaction response time efficiency compared to previous memory frameworks. Our work opens up promising directions for developing efficient and human-like personalized AI assistants in the future. △ Less Submitted 10 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13442 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Unlocking the Forgery Detection Potential of Vanilla MLLMs: A Novel Training-Free Pipeline Authors: Rui Zuo , Qinyue Tong , Zhe-Ming Lu , Ziqian Lu Abstract : With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence-generated content (AIGC) technologies, including multimodal large language models (MLLMs) and diffusion models, image generation and manipulation have become remarkably effortless. Existing image forgery detection and localization (IFDL) methods often struggle to generalize across diverse datasets and offer limited interpretability. Nowadays, M… ▽ More With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence-generated content (AIGC) technologies, including multimodal large language models (MLLMs) and diffusion models, image generation and manipulation have become remarkably effortless. Existing image forgery detection and localization (IFDL) methods often struggle to generalize across diverse datasets and offer limited interpretability. Nowadays, MLLMs demonstrate strong generalization potential across diverse vision-language tasks, and some studies introduce this capability to IFDL via large-scale training. However, such approaches cost considerable computational resources, while failing to reveal the inherent generalization potential of vanilla MLLMs to address this problem. Inspired by this observation, we propose Foresee, a training-free MLLM-based pipeline tailored for image forgery analysis. It eliminates the need for additional training and enables a lightweight inference process, while surpassing existing MLLM-based methods in both tamper localization accuracy and the richness of textual explanations. Foresee employs a type-prior-driven strategy and utilizes a Flexible Feature Detector (FFD) module to specifically handle copy-move manipulations, thereby effectively unleashing the potential of vanilla MLLMs in the forensic domain. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our approach simultaneously achieves superior localization accuracy and provides more comprehensive textual explanations. Moreover, Foresee exhibits stronger generalization capability, outperforming existing IFDL methods across various tampering types, including copy-move, splicing, removal, local enhancement, deepfake, and AIGC-based editing. The code will be released in the final version. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13442 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unlocking the Forgery Detection Potential of Vanilla MLLMs: A Novel Training-Free Pipeline Authors: Rui Zuo , Qinyue Tong , Zhe-Ming Lu , Ziqian Lu Abstract : With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence-generated content (AIGC) technologies, including multimodal large language models (MLLMs) and diffusion models, image generation and manipulation have become remarkably effortless. Existing image forgery detection and localization (IFDL) methods often struggle to generalize across diverse datasets and offer limited interpretability. Nowadays, M… ▽ More With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence-generated content (AIGC) technologies, including multimodal large language models (MLLMs) and diffusion models, image generation and manipulation have become remarkably effortless. Existing image forgery detection and localization (IFDL) methods often struggle to generalize across diverse datasets and offer limited interpretability. Nowadays, MLLMs demonstrate strong generalization potential across diverse vision-language tasks, and some studies introduce this capability to IFDL via large-scale training. However, such approaches cost considerable computational resources, while failing to reveal the inherent generalization potential of vanilla MLLMs to address this problem. Inspired by this observation, we propose Foresee, a training-free MLLM-based pipeline tailored for image forgery analysis. It eliminates the need for additional training and enables a lightweight inference process, while surpassing existing MLLM-based methods in both tamper localization accuracy and the richness of textual explanations. Foresee employs a type-prior-driven strategy and utilizes a Flexible Feature Detector (FFD) module to specifically handle copy-move manipulations, thereby effectively unleashing the potential of vanilla MLLMs in the forensic domain. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our approach simultaneously achieves superior localization accuracy and provides more comprehensive textual explanations. Moreover, Foresee exhibits stronger generalization capability, outperforming existing IFDL methods across various tampering types, including copy-move, splicing, removal, local enhancement, deepfake, and AIGC-based editing. The code will be released in the final version. △ Less Submitted 18 November, 2025; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.13365 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI cs.DC InfoDecom: Decomposing Information for Defending Against Privacy Leakage in Split Inference Authors: Ruijun Deng , Zhihui Lu , Qiang Duan Abstract : Split inference (SI) enables users to access deep learning (DL) services without directly transmitting raw data. However, recent studies reveal that data reconstruction attacks (DRAs) can recover the original inputs from the smashed data sent from the client to the server, leading to significant privacy leakage. While various defenses have been proposed, they often result in substantial utility de… ▽ More Split inference (SI) enables users to access deep learning (DL) services without directly transmitting raw data. However, recent studies reveal that data reconstruction attacks (DRAs) can recover the original inputs from the smashed data sent from the client to the server, leading to significant privacy leakage. While various defenses have been proposed, they often result in substantial utility degradation, particularly when the client-side model is shallow. We identify a key cause of this trade-off: existing defenses apply excessive perturbation to redundant information in the smashed data. To address this issue in computer vision tasks, we propose InfoDecom, a defense framework that first decomposes and removes redundant information and then injects noise calibrated to provide theoretically guaranteed privacy. Experiments demonstrate that InfoDecom achieves a superior utility-privacy trade-off compared to existing baselines. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 11pages, 6figures. Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.13365 [ pdf , ps , other ] InfoDecom: Decomposing Information for Defending Against Privacy Leakage in Split Inference Authors: Ruijun Deng , Zhihui Lu , Qiang Duan Abstract : Split inference (SI) enables users to access deep learning (DL) services without directly transmitting raw data. However, recent studies reveal that data reconstruction attacks (DRAs) can recover the original inputs from the smashed data sent from the client to the server, leading to significant privacy leakage. While various defenses have been proposed, they often result in substantial utility de… ▽ More Split inference (SI) enables users to access deep learning (DL) services without directly transmitting raw data. However, recent studies reveal that data reconstruction attacks (DRAs) can recover the original inputs from the smashed data sent from the client to the server, leading to significant privacy leakage. While various defenses have been proposed, they often result in substantial utility degradation, particularly when the client-side model is shallow. We identify a key cause of this trade-off: existing defenses apply excessive perturbation to redundant information in the smashed data. To address this issue in computer vision tasks, we propose InfoDecom, a defense framework that first decomposes and removes redundant information and then injects noise calibrated to provide theoretically guaranteed privacy. Experiments demonstrate that InfoDecom achieves a superior utility-privacy trade-off compared to existing baselines. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; v1 submitted 17 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 11pages, 6figures. Accepted by AAAI 2026 arXiv:2511.12547 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV HiGFA: Hierarchical Guidance for Fine-grained Data Augmentation with Diffusion Models Authors: Zhiguang Lu , Qianqian Xu , Peisong Wen , Siran Dai , Qingming Huang Abstract : Generative diffusion models show promise for data augmentation. However, applying them to fine-grained tasks presents a significant challenge: ensuring synthetic images accurately capture the subtle, category-defining features critical for high fidelity. Standard approaches, such as text-based Classifier-Free Guidance (CFG), often lack the required specificity, potentially generating misleading ex… ▽ More Generative diffusion models show promise for data augmentation. However, applying them to fine-grained tasks presents a significant challenge: ensuring synthetic images accurately capture the subtle, category-defining features critical for high fidelity. Standard approaches, such as text-based Classifier-Free Guidance (CFG), often lack the required specificity, potentially generating misleading examples that degrade fine-grained classifier performance. To address this, we propose Hierarchically Guided Fine-grained Augmentation (HiGFA). HiGFA leverages the temporal dynamics of the diffusion sampling process. It employs strong text and transformed contour guidance with fixed strengths in the early-to-mid sampling stages to establish overall scene, style, and structure. In the final sampling stages, HiGFA activates a specialized fine-grained classifier guidance and dynamically modulates the strength of all guidance signals based on prediction confidence. This hierarchical, confidence-driven orchestration enables HiGFA to generate diverse yet faithful synthetic images by intelligently balancing global structure formation with precise detail refinement. Experiments on several FGVC datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of HiGFA. △ Less Submitted 30 November, 2025; v1 submitted 16 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.12547 [ pdf , ps , other ] HiGFA: Hierarchical Guidance for Fine-grained Data Augmentation with Diffusion Models Authors: Zhiguang Lu , Qianqian Xu , Peisong Wen , Siran Dai , Qingming Huang Abstract : Generative diffusion models show promise for data augmentation. However, applying them to fine-grained tasks presents a significant challenge: ensuring synthetic images accurately capture the subtle, category-defining features critical for high fidelity. Standard approaches, such as text-based Classifier-Free Guidance (CFG), often lack the required specificity, potentially generating misleading ex… ▽ More Generative diffusion models show promise for data augmentation. However, applying them to fine-grained tasks presents a significant challenge: ensuring synthetic images accurately capture the subtle, category-defining features critical for high fidelity. Standard approaches, such as text-based Classifier-Free Guidance (CFG), often lack the required specificity, potentially generating misleading examples that degrade fine-grained classifier performance. To address this, we propose Hierarchically Guided Fine-grained Augmentation (HiGFA). HiGFA leverages the temporal dynamics of the diffusion sampling process. It employs strong text and transformed contour guidance with fixed strengths in the early-to-mid sampling stages to establish overall scene, style, and structure. In the final sampling stages, HiGFA activates a specialized fine-grained classifier guidance and dynamically modulates the strength of all guidance signals based on prediction confidence. This hierarchical, confidence-driven orchestration enables HiGFA to generate diverse yet faithful synthetic images by intelligently balancing global structure formation with precise detail refinement. Experiments on several FGVC datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of HiGFA. △ Less Submitted 30 November, 2025; v1 submitted 16 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.12110 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI MediRound: Multi-Round Entity-Level Reasoning Segmentation in Medical Images Authors: Qinyue Tong , Ziqian Lu , Jun Liu , Rui Zuo , Zheming Lu Abstract : Despite the progress in medical image segmentation, most existing methods remain task-specific and lack interactivity. Although recent text-prompt-based segmentation approaches enhance user-driven and reasoning-based segmentation, they remain confined to single-round dialogues and fail to perform multi-round reasoning. In this work, we introduce Multi-Round Entity-Level Medical Reasoning Segmentat… ▽ More Despite the progress in medical image segmentation, most existing methods remain task-specific and lack interactivity. Although recent text-prompt-based segmentation approaches enhance user-driven and reasoning-based segmentation, they remain confined to single-round dialogues and fail to perform multi-round reasoning. In this work, we introduce Multi-Round Entity-Level Medical Reasoning Segmentation (MEMR-Seg), a new task that requires generating segmentation masks through multi-round queries with entity-level reasoning. To support this task, we construct MR-MedSeg, a large-scale dataset of 177K multi-round medical segmentation dialogues, featuring entity-based reasoning across rounds. Furthermore, we propose MediRound, an effective baseline model designed for multi-round medical reasoning segmentation. To mitigate the inherent error propagation in the chain-like pipeline of multi-round segmentation, we introduce a lightweight yet effective Judgment & Correction Mechanism during model inference. Experimental results demonstrate that our method effectively addresses the MEMR-Seg task and outperforms conventional medical referring segmentation methods. △ Less Submitted 15 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 12pages, 6 figures arXiv:2511.12110 [ pdf , ps , other ] MediRound: Multi-Round Entity-Level Reasoning Segmentation in Medical Images Authors: Qinyue Tong , Ziqian Lu , Jun Liu , Rui Zuo , Zheming Lu Abstract : Despite the progress in medical image segmentation, most existing methods remain task-specific and lack interactivity. Although recent text-prompt-based segmentation approaches enhance user-driven and reasoning-based segmentation, they remain confined to single-round dialogues and fail to perform multi-round reasoning. In this work, we introduce Multi-Round Entity-Level Medical Reasoning Segmentat… ▽ More Despite the progress in medical image segmentation, most existing methods remain task-specific and lack interactivity. Although recent text-prompt-based segmentation approaches enhance user-driven and reasoning-based segmentation, they remain confined to single-round dialogues and fail to perform multi-round reasoning. In this work, we introduce Multi-Round Entity-Level Medical Reasoning Segmentation (MEMR-Seg), a new task that requires generating segmentation masks through multi-round queries with entity-level reasoning. To support this task, we construct MR-MedSeg, a large-scale dataset of 177K multi-round medical segmentation dialogues, featuring entity-based reasoning across rounds. Furthermore, we propose MediRound, an effective baseline model designed for multi-round medical reasoning segmentation. To mitigate the inherent error propagation in the chain-like pipeline of multi-round segmentation, we introduce a lightweight yet effective Judgment & Correction Mechanism during model inference. Experimental results demonstrate that our method effectively addresses the MEMR-Seg task and outperforms conventional medical referring segmentation methods. △ Less Submitted 15 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 12pages, 6 figures arXiv:2511.11999 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE WITNESS: A lightweight and practical approach to fine-grained predictive mutation testing Authors: Zeyu Lu , Peng Zhang , Chun Yong Chong , Shan Gao , Yibiao Yang , Yanhui Li , Lin Chen , Yuming Zhou Abstract : Existing fine-grained predictive mutation testing studies predominantly rely on deep learning, which faces two critical limitations in practice: (1) Exorbitant computational costs. The deep learning models adopted in these studies demand significant computational resources for training and inference acceleration. This introduces high costs and undermines the cost-reduction goal of predictive mutat… ▽ More Existing fine-grained predictive mutation testing studies predominantly rely on deep learning, which faces two critical limitations in practice: (1) Exorbitant computational costs. The deep learning models adopted in these studies demand significant computational resources for training and inference acceleration. This introduces high costs and undermines the cost-reduction goal of predictive mutation testing. (2) Constrained applicability. Although modern mutation testing tools generate mutants both inside and outside methods, current fine-grained predictive mutation testing approaches handle only inside-method mutants. As a result, they cannot predict outside-method mutants, limiting their applicability in real-world scenarios. We propose WITNESS, a new fine-grained predictive mutation testing approach. WITNESS adopts a twofold design: (1) With collected features from both inside-method and outside-method mutants, WITNESS is suitable for all generated mutants. (2) Instead of using computationally expensive deep learning, WITNESS employs lightweight classical machine learning models for training and prediction. This makes it more cost-effective and enabling straightforward explanations of the decision-making processes behind the adopted models. Evaluations on Defects4J projects show that WITNESS consistently achieves state-of-the-art predictive performance across different scenarios. Additionally, WITNESS significantly enhances the efficiency of kill matrix prediction. Post-hoc analysis reveals that features incorporating information from before and after the mutation are the most important among those used in WITNESS. Test case prioritization based on the predicted kill matrix shows that WITNESS delivers results much closer to those obtained by using the actual kill matrix, outperforming baseline approaches. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11999 [ pdf , ps , other ] WITNESS: A lightweight and practical approach to fine-grained predictive mutation testing Authors: Zeyu Lu , Peng Zhang , Chun Yong Chong , Shan Gao , Yibiao Yang , Yanhui Li , Lin Chen , Yuming Zhou Abstract : Existing fine-grained predictive mutation testing studies predominantly rely on deep learning, which faces two critical limitations in practice: (1) Exorbitant computational costs. The deep learning models adopted in these studies demand significant computational resources for training and inference acceleration. This introduces high costs and undermines the cost-reduction goal of predictive mutat… ▽ More Existing fine-grained predictive mutation testing studies predominantly rely on deep learning, which faces two critical limitations in practice: (1) Exorbitant computational costs. The deep learning models adopted in these studies demand significant computational resources for training and inference acceleration. This introduces high costs and undermines the cost-reduction goal of predictive mutation testing. (2) Constrained applicability. Although modern mutation testing tools generate mutants both inside and outside methods, current fine-grained predictive mutation testing approaches handle only inside-method mutants. As a result, they cannot predict outside-method mutants, limiting their applicability in real-world scenarios. We propose WITNESS, a new fine-grained predictive mutation testing approach. WITNESS adopts a twofold design: (1) With collected features from both inside-method and outside-method mutants, WITNESS is suitable for all generated mutants. (2) Instead of using computationally expensive deep learning, WITNESS employs lightweight classical machine learning models for training and prediction. This makes it more cost-effective and enabling straightforward explanations of the decision-making processes behind the adopted models. Evaluations on Defects4J projects show that WITNESS consistently achieves state-of-the-art predictive performance across different scenarios. Additionally, WITNESS significantly enhances the efficiency of kill matrix prediction. Post-hoc analysis reveals that features incorporating information from before and after the mutation are the most important among those used in WITNESS. Test case prioritization based on the predicted kill matrix shows that WITNESS delivers results much closer to those obtained by using the actual kill matrix, outperforming baseline approaches. △ Less Submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11238 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Virtual Width Networks Authors: Seed , Baisheng Li , Banggu Wu , Bole Ma , Bowen Xiao , Chaoyi Zhang , Cheng Li , Chengyi Wang , Chengyin Xu , Chi Zhang , Chong Hu , Daoguang Zan , Defa Zhu , Dongyu Xu , Du Li , Faming Wu , Fan Xia , Ge Zhang , Guang Shi , Haobin Chen , Hongyu Zhu , Hongzhi Huang , Huan Zhou , Huanzhang Dou , Jianhui Duan , et al. (94 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Virtual Width Networks (VWN), a framework that delivers the benefits of wider representations without incurring the quadratic cost of increasing the hidden size. VWN decouples representational width from backbone width, expanding the embedding space while keeping backbone compute nearly constant. In our large-scale experiment, an 8-times expansion accelerates optimization by over 2 ti… ▽ More We introduce Virtual Width Networks (VWN), a framework that delivers the benefits of wider representations without incurring the quadratic cost of increasing the hidden size. VWN decouples representational width from backbone width, expanding the embedding space while keeping backbone compute nearly constant. In our large-scale experiment, an 8-times expansion accelerates optimization by over 2 times for next-token and 3 times for next-2-token prediction. The advantage amplifies over training as both the loss gap grows and the convergence-speedup ratio increases, showing that VWN is not only token-efficient but also increasingly effective with scale. Moreover, we identify an approximately log-linear scaling relation between virtual width and loss reduction, offering an initial empirical basis and motivation for exploring virtual-width scaling as a new dimension of large-model efficiency. △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; v1 submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.11238 [ pdf , ps , other ] Virtual Width Networks Authors: Seed , Baisheng Li , Banggu Wu , Bole Ma , Bowen Xiao , Chaoyi Zhang , Cheng Li , Chengyi Wang , Chengyin Xu , Chi Zhang , Chong Hu , Daoguang Zan , Defa Zhu , Dongyu Xu , Du Li , Faming Wu , Fan Xia , Ge Zhang , Guang Shi , Haobin Chen , Hongyu Zhu , Hongzhi Huang , Huan Zhou , Huanzhang Dou , Jianhui Duan , et al. (94 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We introduce Virtual Width Networks (VWN), a framework that delivers the benefits of wider representations without incurring the quadratic cost of increasing the hidden size. VWN decouples representational width from backbone width, expanding the embedding space while keeping backbone compute nearly constant. In our large-scale experiment, an 8-times expansion accelerates optimization by over 2 ti… ▽ More We introduce Virtual Width Networks (VWN), a framework that delivers the benefits of wider representations without incurring the quadratic cost of increasing the hidden size. VWN decouples representational width from backbone width, expanding the embedding space while keeping backbone compute nearly constant. In our large-scale experiment, an 8-times expansion accelerates optimization by over 2 times for next-token and 3 times for next-2-token prediction. The advantage amplifies over training as both the loss gap grows and the convergence-speedup ratio increases, showing that VWN is not only token-efficient but also increasingly effective with scale. Moreover, we identify an approximately log-linear scaling relation between virtual width and loss reduction, offering an initial empirical basis and motivation for exploring virtual-width scaling as a new dimension of large-model efficiency. △ Less Submitted 17 November, 2025; v1 submitted 14 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.10303 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Rectify Evaluation Preference: Improving LLMs' Critique on Math Reasoning via Perplexity-aware Reinforcement Learning Authors: Changyuan Tian , Zhicong Lu , Shuang Qian , Nayu Liu , Peiguang Li , Li Jin , Leiyi Hu , Zhizhao Zeng , Sirui Wang , Ke Zeng , Zhi Guo Abstract : To improve Multi-step Mathematical Reasoning (MsMR) of Large Language Models (LLMs), it is crucial to obtain scalable supervision from the corpus by automatically critiquing mistakes in the reasoning process of MsMR and rendering a final verdict of the problem-solution. Most existing methods rely on crafting high-quality supervised fine-tuning demonstrations for critiquing capability enhancement a… ▽ More To improve Multi-step Mathematical Reasoning (MsMR) of Large Language Models (LLMs), it is crucial to obtain scalable supervision from the corpus by automatically critiquing mistakes in the reasoning process of MsMR and rendering a final verdict of the problem-solution. Most existing methods rely on crafting high-quality supervised fine-tuning demonstrations for critiquing capability enhancement and pay little attention to delving into the underlying reason for the poor critiquing performance of LLMs. In this paper, we orthogonally quantify and investigate the potential reason -- imbalanced evaluation preference, and conduct a statistical preference analysis. Motivated by the analysis of the reason, a novel perplexity-aware reinforcement learning algorithm is proposed to rectify the evaluation preference, elevating the critiquing capability. Specifically, to probe into LLMs' critiquing characteristics, a One-to-many Problem-Solution (OPS) benchmark is meticulously constructed to quantify the behavior difference of LLMs when evaluating the problem solutions generated by itself and others. Then, to investigate the behavior difference in depth, we conduct a statistical preference analysis oriented on perplexity and find an intriguing phenomenon -- ``LLMs incline to judge solutions with lower perplexity as correct'', which is dubbed as \textit{imbalanced evaluation preference}. To rectify this preference, we regard perplexity as the baton in the algorithm of Group Relative Policy Optimization, supporting the LLMs to explore trajectories that judge lower perplexity as wrong and higher perplexity as correct. Extensive experimental results on our built OPS and existing available critic benchmarks demonstrate the validity of our method. △ Less Submitted 13 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI2026 arXiv:2511.10303 [ pdf , ps , other ] Rectify Evaluation Preference: Improving LLMs' Critique on Math Reasoning via Perplexity-aware Reinforcement Learning Authors: Changyuan Tian , Zhicong Lu , Shuang Qian , Nayu Liu , Peiguang Li , Li Jin , Leiyi Hu , Zhizhao Zeng , Sirui Wang , Ke Zeng , Zhi Guo Abstract : To improve Multi-step Mathematical Reasoning (MsMR) of Large Language Models (LLMs), it is crucial to obtain scalable supervision from the corpus by automatically critiquing mistakes in the reasoning process of MsMR and rendering a final verdict of the problem-solution. Most existing methods rely on crafting high-quality supervised fine-tuning demonstrations for critiquing capability enhancement a… ▽ More To improve Multi-step Mathematical Reasoning (MsMR) of Large Language Models (LLMs), it is crucial to obtain scalable supervision from the corpus by automatically critiquing mistakes in the reasoning process of MsMR and rendering a final verdict of the problem-solution. Most existing methods rely on crafting high-quality supervised fine-tuning demonstrations for critiquing capability enhancement and pay little attention to delving into the underlying reason for the poor critiquing performance of LLMs. In this paper, we orthogonally quantify and investigate the potential reason -- imbalanced evaluation preference, and conduct a statistical preference analysis. Motivated by the analysis of the reason, a novel perplexity-aware reinforcement learning algorithm is proposed to rectify the evaluation preference, elevating the critiquing capability. Specifically, to probe into LLMs' critiquing characteristics, a One-to-many Problem-Solution (OPS) benchmark is meticulously constructed to quantify the behavior difference of LLMs when evaluating the problem solutions generated by itself and others. Then, to investigate the behavior difference in depth, we conduct a statistical preference analysis oriented on perplexity and find an intriguing phenomenon -- ``LLMs incline to judge solutions with lower perplexity as correct'', which is dubbed as \textit{imbalanced evaluation preference}. To rectify this preference, we regard perplexity as the baton in the algorithm of Group Relative Policy Optimization, supporting the LLMs to explore trajectories that judge lower perplexity as wrong and higher perplexity as correct. Extensive experimental results on our built OPS and existing available critic benchmarks demonstrate the validity of our method. △ Less Submitted 13 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted by AAAI2026 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Standard wiki programs, by programming language Toggle Standard wiki programs, by programming language subsection 1.1 JavaScript-based 1.2 Java-based 1.3 Perl-based 1.4 PHP-based 1.5 Python-based 1.6 Ruby-based 1.7 Other languages 1.1 JavaScript-based 1.2 Java-based 1.3 Perl-based 1.4 PHP-based 1.5 Python-based 1.6 Ruby-based 1.7 Other languages 2 Personal wiki software 3 Hosted-only software 4 Content management and social software with wiki functionality Toggle Content management and social software with wiki functionality subsection 4.1 Java-based 4.2 Perl-based 4.3 PHP-based 4.4 Other languages 4.1 Java-based 4.2 Perl-based 4.3 PHP-based 4.4 Other languages 5 Project management software with wiki functionality 6 See also 7 References List of wiki software Boarisch Čeština Deutsch فارسی Français 한국어 Italiano Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "List of wiki software" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( November 2023 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This is a list of wiki software programs. They are grouped by use case: standard wiki programs, personal wiki programs, hosted-only wikis, wiki-based content management software, and wiki-based project management software. They are further subdivided by the language of implementation: JavaScript, Java, PHP , Python, Perl , Ruby , and so on. Standard wiki programs, by programming language JavaScript-based TiddlyWiki is a HTML - JavaScript -based server-less wiki in which the entire site/wiki is contained in a single file, or as a Node.js -based wiki application. It is designed for maximum customization possibilities. [ 1 ] Wiki.js is an open-source, Node.js-based wiki application using git as the back end storage mechanism and automatically syncs with any git repository . It provides a visual Markdown editor with assets management , authentication system and a built-in search engine . Java-based XWiki is a free wiki software platform written in Java with a design emphasis on extensibility. [ 2 ] XWiki is an enterprise wiki engine with a complete wiki feature set (version control, attachments, etc.) and a database engine and programming language which allows database driven applications to be created using the wiki interface. Perl-based Foswiki is a structured wiki, typically used to run a collaboration platform , knowledge or document management system a knowledge based , or team portal , which enables users to create "wiki applications". ikiwiki , a "wiki compiler" - can use Subversion or git as the back end storage mechanism. ikiwiki converts wiki pages into HTML pages suitable for publishing on a website. TWiki is a flexible, powerful, secure, simple Enterprise wiki and application platform. is a structured wiki, typically used to run a project development space, a document management system, a knowledge base , or any other groupware tool. Also available as a VMware appliance. UseModWiki is a wiki software written in Perl and licensed under General Public License . Created by Clifford Adams in 2000, it is a clone of AtisWiki . WikiWikiWeb , the first wiki and its associated software. PHP-based BookStack is released under the MIT License. It uses the ideas of books to organize pages and store information. DokuWiki is a wiki application licensed under GPLv2 and written in PHP. It is aimed at the documentation needs of a small company. DokuWiki was built for small companies and organizations that need a simple way to manage information, build knowledge bases and collaborate. It uses plain text files and has a simple but powerful syntax which ensures the datafiles remain readable outside the wiki. MediaWiki is a free and open-source wiki software package written in PHP. It serves as the platform for Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia projects run by the Wikimedia Foundation . It is also publicly available for use in other wikis, and has widespread popularity among smaller, non-Wikimedia wikis. MediaWiki is a free and open-source wiki software. It was developed for use on Wikipedia in 2002, and given the name "MediaWiki" in 2003. Semantic MediaWiki lets you store and query data within the wiki's pages like a database. It is also designed to ease and combine collaborative authoring within a wiki with semantic technology . BlueSpice extends MediaWiki in usability, quality management, process support, administration, editing and security. Semantic MediaWiki lets you store and query data within the wiki's pages like a database. It is also designed to ease and combine collaborative authoring within a wiki with semantic technology . BlueSpice extends MediaWiki in usability, quality management, process support, administration, editing and security. MindTouch is an application that began as a fork of MediaWiki; it has a C# back-end and a PHP front-end. PhpWiki is a WikiWikiWeb clone in PHP . PmWiki is a PHP-based wiki. Features include: GPL-licensed, easy installation/customization, designed for collaborative authoring and maintenance of web sites, and support for internationalization . Does not require a database. Python-based LocalWiki is a wiki engine based on Django , with mapping features and a WYSIWYG editor. The LocalWiki project was founded by DavisWiki creators Mike Ivanov and Philip Neustrom and is a 501 nonprofit organization based in San Francisco. MoinMoin is a wiki engine written in Python . Trac is an enhanced wiki and issue tracking system for software development projects. Ruby-based Gollum uses git as the backend storage mechanism. It is written mostly in Ruby and was originally used as GitHub 's wiki system. Other languages Cliki is written in Common Lisp . FlexWiki is written in C# , uses the .NET framework, and stores data in files or Microsoft SQL Server . Development stopped in 2009. Swiki is written in Squeak . It runs on common platforms, including Macintosh, Windows, Linux, and others. Wiki Server is proprietary software distributed with Mac OS X Server . Personal wiki software There are also wiki applications designed for personal use, [ 3 ] apps for mobile use, [ 4 ] and apps for use from USB flash drives . [ 5 ] They often include more features than traditional wikis, including: Dynamic tree views of the wiki Drag-and-drop support for images, text and video, mathematics Use of OLE or Linkback to allow wikis to act as relational superstructures for multiple desktop-type documents Multimedia embedding, with links to internal aspects of movies, soundtracks, notes and comments Macros and macro scripting A list of such software: ConnectedText was a commercial Windows-based personal wiki system with features including full text searches , visual link tree , customizable interface, image and file control, CSS-based page display, exports to HTML and HTML Help, and plug-ins. Joplin , an open-source note-taking app that uses markdown. Microsoft OneNote , note taking software with a structure of notebooks, sections, and pages that can include fonts, media, links to other notes, and hyperlinks. Obsidian is a knowledge base and note-taking software application that operates on Markdown files. Journler was a free, open-source personal information manager with personal wiki features for OS X. MyInfo is a commercial, Windows-based personal information manager with wiki features. smasi App is a simple wiki for local use on Android, iOS, MacOS or Windows. The personal knowledge base is stored directly on the device. TiddlyWiki is a free, open-source personal use (single-machine) wiki based on HTML/JavaScript for any browser and OS. It supports customization and a wide range of add-ons. Vimwiki is a personal wiki for the text editor Vim . It operates on interlinked, plain text files written in one of several markup languages and provides features such as HTML export, search, outlined notes and tasks, tagging and auto-formatted tables. WhizFolders was a commercial Windows-based personal wiki software with rich text wiki items that support inserting links to other wiki items or external files. Zim is a free, open-source standalone wiki based on Python and GTK with a WYSIWYG editor. Hosted-only software Elium (previously Knowledge Plaza [ 6 ] ) is a knowledge management tool that provides both wiki environments for collaborative topic/project work and an enterprise bookmarking tool. Content management and social software with wiki functionality Java-based ConcourseConnect is a freely available J2EE application made by Concursive which brings together Corporate Social Networking , Online Community , Business directory , and Customer relationship management capabilities. Features include wiki, blog, document management , ratings, reviews, online classified advertising, and project management modules. The wiki allows both wiki markup and WYSIWYG editing. Confluence is a commercial J2EE application which combines wiki and some blog functionality. Its features include PDF page export and page refactoring, and it can be run on any application server using any RDBMS backend. IBM Connections is an Enterprise Social Software made by IBM which combines Wikis, Blogs, Files, Forums, Microblogging, Social Analytics, and document management. Jive (formerly known as Clearspace, Jive SBS and Jive Engage) is a commercial J2EE application, made by Jive Software , which combines wiki, blog and document management functionality. Jive uses WYSIWYG editing, and includes workflow management. Liferay is an open source enterprise portal project with a built-in web content management and web application framework. Core portlets offer a great number of functionalities, including Wiki (both Creole and MediaWiki syntax). Mindquarry creates a WYSIWYG wiki for each team. It is built using Apache Cocoon and thus based on Java (Mozilla Public License) Traction TeamPage is a commercial enterprise wiki also incorporating blog, project management, document management, discussion and tagging capabilities. The wiki has a draft moderation capability allowing administrators to indicate who can read published vs. draft versions, and who can publish vs. author and edit. The dynamic view architecture allows for easy organization of pages and to collect any set of pages for view, email or export. It is based on the principles of Douglas Engelbart 's On-Line System (NLS) which aggregates multiple blog/wiki spaces using a sophisticated permission and inline comment model. XWiki includes the standard wiki functionality as well as WYSIWYG editing, OpenDocument based document import/export, semantic annotations and tagging, and advanced permissions management. Perl-based Socialtext is a company based in Palo Alto, California, that produces enterprise social software , enterprise wiki and weblog engine partially derived from open-source Kwiki. Socialtext is available as a hosted service, or a dedicated hardware appliance. PHP-based Drupal installations can be configured as wikis with MediaWiki-style wiki markup . Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware is one of the larger and more ambitious wiki development projects, including a variety of additional groupware features (message forums, articles, etc.). Other languages Microsoft SharePoint is a web-based collaborative platform that integrates with Microsoft Office . Launched in 2001, SharePoint is primarily sold as a document management and storage system, but the product is highly configurable and its usage varies substantially among organizations. It has built-in wiki support . It is built on ASP.NET , C# language and Microsoft SQL Server . Telligent, A Verint Company is an enterprise collaboration and community software business founded in 2004 by Rob Howard. The company changed its name to Zimbra, Inc in September 2013 after completing the acquisition of Zimbra from VMWare . In August 2015 Zimbra's Telligent business was acquired by Verint Systems . Project management software with wiki functionality Altova MetaTeam integrates a wiki and glossary with project management, collaborative decision-making and team performance management Code Co-op is a distributed revision control system with wiki functionality. Fossil is a distributed revision control system that integrates a distributed wiki capability, written in C. Redmine is a project management web application. Trac integrates simple issue tracking and an interface to Subversion. See also Comparison of wiki software History of wikis References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "TiddlyWiki - a reusable non-linear personal web notebook" . www.w3.org . Retrieved 2023-11-03 . ^ "Features (XWiki.org)" . www.xwiki.org . Retrieved 2023-11-03 . ^ WikiMatrix search for personal wiki software , wikimatrix.org. Accessed 2012-4-17. ^ Personal wiki Apps – Android , androidzoom.com. Accessed 2012-4-17. ^ Run Your Personal Wikipedia from a USB Stick , lifehacker.com. Accessed 2012-4-17. ^ "Press release: Knowledge Plaza becomes Elium | elium" . elium . 2017-03-09 . Retrieved 2017-05-15 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Lists of software Wiki software Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from November 2023 All articles needing additional references This page was last edited on 4 January 2026, at 07:57 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Take it slow 2 Lead by example 3 Give the benefit of the doubt 4 Seek other opinions 5 See also Wikipedia : Truce فارسی Magyar Türkçe Tiếng Việt 中文 Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is an essay . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:TRUCE WP:TRUCE WP:TRUCE WP:TRUCE This page in a nutshell: When in a dispute, attempt to reach a compromise or declare a truce. Working on Wikipedia, you may occasionally get into a dispute with another person. That person may seem like a troll or a hothead to you, but it's usually best to assume that you are dealing with a reasonable person who is simply confused on a particular issue or has a point of view different from your own. No matter what the problem is, flaming is not going to solve it. Try to reach a truce. Take it slow If the behavior of another editor has upset you, consider doing something else for a little while. Take a walk. Do some laundry. Allowing some time for both you and the other editor to cool off makes it much more likely the dispute will be resolved amicably. If your next move is carefully considered and rational, rather than ill-considered, you'll give the impression of being a more reasonable person, and you'll be much more likely to prevail. Also, giving the other person time to cool down means they will be more willing to listen to reason. They may even start to regret acting rashly, or forget why they very much wanted things a certain way. Instead of immediately using your second revert, mark the article as disputed (if it's important that readers know about the problem) and put a note on the talk page. Lead by example If you are in an edit war , end it now. Be the first one to go to talk, ask for protection, or place a generous note on the other's talk page. (Try very hard to give a compliment for every criticism, and to admit your own mistakes.) Obey Policy . Always strive for wikiquette . Maintain Verifiability . Consider joining the Harmonious editing club . If things are out of control, move to the next step on Wikipedia:Conflict resolution . Never flame, try to get a rise out of somebody or get too emotional. This is only an encyclopedia , mind you. Give the benefit of the doubt Practically everyone here cares about quality articles. No one (outside of a vandal ) intentionally puts inaccurate information into an article. It is almost certain that they meant well with their edit. If you have reverted already, try to look again to see if there is a better way to phrase things. One of the best parts of the Wikipedia is the opportunity for constant improvement. Take this opportunity to make a quality change, write a necessary addition, or move on to write an original article elsewhere. It's very satisfying! Seek other opinions If you are unable to resolve your problems, despite having tried the above, you should seek input from other people. If the accuracy or neutrality of an article is in dispute, consider adding a dispute header ( Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute or Wikipedia:NPOV dispute ). Seek input from others by listing the article at Wikipedia:Requests for comment . See also Wikipedia:Avoid repeated arguments Wikipedia:Forgive and forget Wikipedia:Mutual withdrawal Wikipedia:No angry mastodons .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About essays Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Essay guide Value of essays Difference between policies, guidelines and essays Don't cite essays as if they were policy Avoid writing redundant essays Finding an essay Quote your own essay Policies and guidelines About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard About policies and guidelines Policies Guidelines Policies Guidelines How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Policy writing is hard Wikipedia essays Wikipedia dispute resolution This page was last edited on 26 January 2023, at 16:02 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario 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Du kan hjælpe ved at angive troværdige kilder til de påstande, som fremføres i artiklen. 2. verdenskrig Set øverst fra venstre som en urskive: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Kinesiske styrker ved slaget om Wanjialing Australsk haubits kanon ved det første slag om el-Alamein Tyske Junkers Ju 87 styrtbombefly på Østfronten i december 1943 Den amerikanske flåde Lingayen-bugten Wilhelm Keitel underskriver Tysklands betingelsesløse overgivelse Sovjetiske soldater under slaget om Stalingrad Dato 1. september 1939 – 2. september 1945 Sted Europa , Stillehavet , Sydøstasien , Middelhavet , Mellemøsten og Afrika . Resultat Allieret sejr. USA og Sovjetunionen etablerer sig som supermagter. Opståen af Den første og anden verden førende til den kolde krig . De allieredes kolonier bliver selvstændige. Casus belli Tysklands invasion af Polen Parter De Allierede Herunder Storbritannien Frankrig Sovjetunionen USA Republikken Kina Aksemagterne Herunder Nazi-Tyskland Italien Kejserriget Japan Ledere Winston Churchill Josef Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Tab Militære: 17.000.000 Civile : 33.000.000 Totalt: 50.000.000 Militære: 8.000.000 Civile : 4.000.000 Totalt: 12.000.000 2. Verdenskrig var en global krig , der varede fra 1939 til 1945 . Størstedelen af verdens lande – hvilket indbefattede alle stormagter – dannede to store militæralliancer, som stod overfor hinanden: de allierede og aksemagterne . En tilstand af total krig involverede direkte mere end 100 millioner mennesker fra mere end 30 forskellige lande. De væsentligste krigsdeltagere stillede hele deres økonomiske, industrielle og videnskabelige kapacitet bag krigsindsatsen, hvilket medførte, at man ikke længere skelnede mellem civile og militære ressourcer. Anden Verdenskrig var den mest dødelige konflikt i den menneskelige historie, hvilket kostede mellem 50 og 85 millioner mennesker livet, hvoraf de fleste var civile i Sovjetunionen og Kina . Krigen inkluderede adskillige massakrer, folkedrabet på jøderne i form af Holocaust , strategiske bombninger, tiltænkte hungersnødsepidemier og den eneste brug af atomvåben i en krig. Japan , hvis mål var at dominere Asien og Stillehavsområdet – var i krig med Kina fra 1937 , omend ingen af parterne officielt havde erklæret den anden krig. Generelt sætter man Anden Verdenskrigs start til at være 1. september 1939 med det Tyske Tredje Riges angreb på Polen , og Frankrig og Storbritanniens efterfølgende krigserklæringer mod Tyskland. Fra den sene del af 1939 og til den tidlige del af 1941 var Tyskland i stand til at gennemføre en række kampagner og aftaler, der sikrede landet kontrollen med store dele af det kontinentale Europa , hvor det samtidig dannede aksemagterne i fællesskab med Italien og Japan. Med baggrund i Molotov-Ribbentrop-Aftalen i august 1939 aftalte Tyskland og Sovjetunionen at annektere områder i de lande, der lå imellem dem, hvilket gjaldt Polen, Finland , Rumænien og de baltiske lande . I midten af 1940 faldt Frankrig til Tyskland, og krigen fortsatte primært med militære kampagner i Nord - og Østafrika som en kamp imellem Aksemagterne og det Britiske Imperium . Efterfølgende fik man krigen på Balkan , luftslaget om de britiske øer , blitzangrebene og det langvarige slag om Atlanterhavet . Den 22. juni 1941 påbegyndte aksemagterne en invasion af Sovjetunionen , hvilket åbnede for den største landkrig i den menneskelige historie. Østfronten lokkede aksemagterne i en fælde – mest afgørende den tyske værnemagt – i form af nedslidning af ressourcer. I december 1941 foretog Japan et overraskelsesangreb på USA og de europæiske kolonier i Stillehavet . Det medførte prompte, at USA – i fælles støtte med Storbritannien – erklærede krig mod Japan, og de europæiske aksemagter fulgte hurtigt op med at erklære USA krig i solidaritet med Japan. Den hurtige japanske erobring af det meste af det vestlige Stillehav blev opfattet af mange asiater som en befrielse fra vestlig dominans og medførte japansk støtte fra langt de fleste besejrede og erobrede lande. Aksemagternes fremmarch i Stillehavsområdet begyndte at stå stille i 1942 , da Japan tabte det afgørende slag om Midway . Senere da Tyskland og Italien blev besejret i Nordafrika og endeligt afgørende, da de blev stoppet ved Stalingrad af Sovjetunionen. I 1943 oplevede tyskerne en række nederlag på Østfronten, allierede landgange på Sicilien og Syditalien med invasion til følge og en række allierede sejre i Stillehavsområdet, hvilket tvang aksemagterne til en række strategiske tilbagetog på alle fronter. I 1944 foretog de vestlige allierede en landgang 6. juni på D-dag i Normandiet i Frankrig, som man tilbageerobrede, og Sovjetunionen var i stand til at genvinde alle de territorier, det havde tabt og derpå sætte angreb ind mod selve Tyskland og dets allierede. I løbet af 1944 og 1945 led Japan nederlag i fastlands-Asien i det sydlige centrale Kina og Burma , mens de allierede stort set ødelagde den japanske flåde og erobrede en række nøgleøer i den vestlige del af Stillehavet. Krigen i Europa sluttede med de allieredes invasion af Tyskland med klimakset i form af sovjetiske troppers erobring af Berlin , Adolf Hitlers selvmord og den tyske betingelsesløse kapitulation den 8. maj 1945 . De tre regeringsledere Josef Stalin (Sovjetunionen), Harry S. Truman (USA) og Winston Churchill mødtes på Potsdamkonferencen fra 17. juli til 2. august 1945. Konferencen sluttede med fredstraktaten: Potsdam-deklarationen den 2. august 1945. Her blev Tyskland og de øvrige krigsskyldiges fremtid afgjort, og den bestod i en fremtidig besættelse af Tyskland og Østrig fordelt mellem de fire sejrsmagter, der også talte Frankrig. Den 26. juli 1945 var de allierede blevet enige om Potsdam-deklarationen på Potsdamkonferencen, hvor man oplistede kravene til Japan for overgivelse: Japan nægtede. Den 6. og 9. august 1945 gav USA ordre til at kaste atombomber ned over byerne Hiroshima og Nagasaki . Da en invasion af den japanske øgruppe stod for døren, og muligheden for yderligere atombomber og en sovjetisk indblanding i krigen som følge af dets erobring af Manchuriet , overgav Japan sig den 15. august 1945 . Det markerede den totale allierede sejr i Asien. Efterfølgende satte de allierede krigsforbrydertribunaler op mod såvel tyskerne som japanerne. 2. verdenskrig ændrede verdens politiske logik og sociale struktur. De Forenede Nationer (FN) blev etableret for at støtte internationalt samarbejde og at forhindre fremtidige konflikter. De sejrende stormagter – Kina, Frankrig, Sovjetunionen, Storbritannien og USA – blev permanente medlemmer af dets sikkerhedsråd . Sovjetunionen og USA blev rivaliserende supermagter, hvilket satte scenen for et halvt århundrede med den kolde krig . Europa var blevet hårdt ramt af krigens ødelæggelser, og en del indflydelse gled over til de nye supermagter, og landene måtte efterfølgende starte en afkolonisering i Afrika og Asien. De fleste lande, hvis industrier var blevet ødelagt under krigen, søgte økonomisk genrejsning. Politisk integration – særlig i Europa – var med til at bilægge fjendtlighederne fra før krigen og skabe en fælles identitet. 2. verdenskrig Set øverst fra venstre som en urskive: .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Kinesiske styrker ved slaget om Wanjialing Australsk haubits kanon ved det første slag om el-Alamein Tyske Junkers Ju 87 styrtbombefly på Østfronten i december 1943 Den amerikanske flåde Lingayen-bugten Wilhelm Keitel underskriver Tysklands betingelsesløse overgivelse Sovjetiske soldater under slaget om Stalingrad Kinesiske styrker ved slaget om Wanjialing Australsk haubits kanon ved det første slag om el-Alamein Tyske Junkers Ju 87 styrtbombefly på Østfronten i december 1943 Den amerikanske flåde Lingayen-bugten Wilhelm Keitel underskriver Tysklands betingelsesløse overgivelse Sovjetiske soldater under slaget om Stalingrad Dato 1. september 1939 – 2. september 1945 Sted Europa , Stillehavet , Sydøstasien , Middelhavet , Mellemøsten og Afrika . Resultat Allieret sejr. USA og Sovjetunionen etablerer sig som supermagter. Opståen af Den første og anden verden førende til den kolde krig . De allieredes kolonier bliver selvstændige. Casus belli Tysklands invasion af Polen Dato 1. september 1939 – 2. september 1945 Sted Europa , Stillehavet , Sydøstasien , Middelhavet , Mellemøsten og Afrika . Resultat Allieret sejr. USA og Sovjetunionen etablerer sig som supermagter. Opståen af Den første og anden verden førende til den kolde krig . De allieredes kolonier bliver selvstændige. Casus belli Tysklands invasion af Polen Parter De Allierede Herunder Storbritannien Frankrig Sovjetunionen USA Republikken Kina Frankrig Sovjetunionen USA Republikken Kina Aksemagterne Herunder Nazi-Tyskland Italien Kejserriget Japan Nazi-Tyskland Italien Kejserriget Japan Ledere Winston Churchill Josef Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Josef Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Chiang Kai-shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Tab Militære: 17.000.000 Civile : 33.000.000 Totalt: 50.000.000 Civile : 33.000.000 Totalt: 50.000.000 Militære: 8.000.000 Civile : 4.000.000 Totalt: 12.000.000 Civile : 4.000.000 Totalt: 12.000.000 2. Verdenskrig var en global krig , der varede fra 1939 til 1945 . Størstedelen af verdens lande – hvilket indbefattede alle stormagter – dannede to store militæralliancer, som stod overfor hinanden: de allierede og aksemagterne . En tilstand af total krig involverede direkte mere end 100 millioner mennesker fra mere end 30 forskellige lande. De væsentligste krigsdeltagere stillede hele deres økonomiske, industrielle og videnskabelige kapacitet bag krigsindsatsen, hvilket medførte, at man ikke længere skelnede mellem civile og militære ressourcer. Anden Verdenskrig var den mest dødelige konflikt i den menneskelige historie, hvilket kostede mellem 50 og 85 millioner mennesker livet, hvoraf de fleste var civile i Sovjetunionen og Kina . Krigen inkluderede adskillige massakrer, folkedrabet på jøderne i form af Holocaust , strategiske bombninger, tiltænkte hungersnødsepidemier og den eneste brug af atomvåben i en krig. Japan , hvis mål var at dominere Asien og Stillehavsområdet – var i krig med Kina fra 1937 , omend ingen af parterne officielt havde erklæret den anden krig. Generelt sætter man Anden Verdenskrigs start til at være 1. september 1939 med det Tyske Tredje Riges angreb på Polen , og Frankrig og Storbritanniens efterfølgende krigserklæringer mod Tyskland. Fra den sene del af 1939 og til den tidlige del af 1941 var Tyskland i stand til at gennemføre en række kampagner og aftaler, der sikrede landet kontrollen med store dele af det kontinentale Europa , hvor det samtidig dannede aksemagterne i fællesskab med Italien og Japan. Med baggrund i Molotov-Ribbentrop-Aftalen i august 1939 aftalte Tyskland og Sovjetunionen at annektere områder i de lande, der lå imellem dem, hvilket gjaldt Polen, Finland , Rumænien og de baltiske lande . I midten af 1940 faldt Frankrig til Tyskland, og krigen fortsatte primært med militære kampagner i Nord - og Østafrika som en kamp imellem Aksemagterne og det Britiske Imperium . Efterfølgende fik man krigen på Balkan , luftslaget om de britiske øer , blitzangrebene og det langvarige slag om Atlanterhavet . Den 22. juni 1941 påbegyndte aksemagterne en invasion af Sovjetunionen , hvilket åbnede for den største landkrig i den menneskelige historie. Østfronten lokkede aksemagterne i en fælde – mest afgørende den tyske værnemagt – i form af nedslidning af ressourcer. I december 1941 foretog Japan et overraskelsesangreb på USA og de europæiske kolonier i Stillehavet . Det medførte prompte, at USA – i fælles støtte med Storbritannien – erklærede krig mod Japan, og de europæiske aksemagter fulgte hurtigt op med at erklære USA krig i solidaritet med Japan. Den hurtige japanske erobring af det meste af det vestlige Stillehav blev opfattet af mange asiater som en befrielse fra vestlig dominans og medførte japansk støtte fra langt de fleste besejrede og erobrede lande. Aksemagternes fremmarch i Stillehavsområdet begyndte at stå stille i 1942 , da Japan tabte det afgørende slag om Midway . Senere da Tyskland og Italien blev besejret i Nordafrika og endeligt afgørende, da de blev stoppet ved Stalingrad af Sovjetunionen. I 1943 oplevede tyskerne en række nederlag på Østfronten, allierede landgange på Sicilien og Syditalien med invasion til følge og en række allierede sejre i Stillehavsområdet, hvilket tvang aksemagterne til en række strategiske tilbagetog på alle fronter. I 1944 foretog de vestlige allierede en landgang 6. juni på D-dag i Normandiet i Frankrig, som man tilbageerobrede, og Sovjetunionen var i stand til at genvinde alle de territorier, det havde tabt og derpå sætte angreb ind mod selve Tyskland og dets allierede. I løbet af 1944 og 1945 led Japan nederlag i fastlands-Asien i det sydlige centrale Kina og Burma , mens de allierede stort set ødelagde den japanske flåde og erobrede en række nøgleøer i den vestlige del af Stillehavet. Krigen i Europa sluttede med de allieredes invasion af Tyskland med klimakset i form af sovjetiske troppers erobring af Berlin , Adolf Hitlers selvmord og den tyske betingelsesløse kapitulation den 8. maj 1945 . De tre regeringsledere Josef Stalin (Sovjetunionen), Harry S. Truman (USA) og Winston Churchill mødtes på Potsdamkonferencen fra 17. juli til 2. august 1945. Konferencen sluttede med fredstraktaten: Potsdam-deklarationen den 2. august 1945. Her blev Tyskland og de øvrige krigsskyldiges fremtid afgjort, og den bestod i en fremtidig besættelse af Tyskland og Østrig fordelt mellem de fire sejrsmagter, der også talte Frankrig. Den 26. juli 1945 var de allierede blevet enige om Potsdam-deklarationen på Potsdamkonferencen, hvor man oplistede kravene til Japan for overgivelse: Japan nægtede. Den 6. og 9. august 1945 gav USA ordre til at kaste atombomber ned over byerne Hiroshima og Nagasaki . Da en invasion af den japanske øgruppe stod for døren, og muligheden for yderligere atombomber og en sovjetisk indblanding i krigen som følge af dets erobring af Manchuriet , overgav Japan sig den 15. august 1945 . Det markerede den totale allierede sejr i Asien. Efterfølgende satte de allierede krigsforbrydertribunaler op mod såvel tyskerne som japanerne. 2. verdenskrig ændrede verdens politiske logik og sociale struktur. De Forenede Nationer (FN) blev etableret for at støtte internationalt samarbejde og at forhindre fremtidige konflikter. De sejrende stormagter – Kina, Frankrig, Sovjetunionen, Storbritannien og USA – blev permanente medlemmer af dets sikkerhedsråd . Sovjetunionen og USA blev rivaliserende supermagter, hvilket satte scenen for et halvt århundrede med den kolde krig . Europa var blevet hårdt ramt af krigens ødelæggelser, og en del indflydelse gled over til de nye supermagter, og landene måtte efterfølgende starte en afkolonisering i Afrika og Asien. De fleste lande, hvis industrier var blevet ødelagt under krigen, søgte økonomisk genrejsning. Politisk integration – særlig i Europa – var med til at bilægge fjendtlighederne fra før krigen og skabe en fælles identitet. Forudgående begivenheder Uddybende artikel: Tysklands oprustning i 1930'erne To diktatorer mødes i det besatte Jugoslavien : Til venstre Italiens Benito Mussolini , til højre Tysklands Adolf Hitler I Europa var forudsætningerne for krigen tæt forbundet med fremgangen for fascismen , specielt nationalsocialismen i Tyskland. Det er nødvendigt for at forstå, hvorfor nazisterne kom til magten. Den væsentligste årsag er 1. verdenskrig ( 1914 - 18 ). Under 1. verdenskrig blev Tyskland under den ultranationalistiske kejser Wilhelm 2. og dets allierede ( Centralmagterne ) besejret af Ententen , som bl.a. omfattede Storbritannien , USA og Frankrig . Ansvaret for krigen lagde sejrherrerne på det national-militaristiske kejserlige Tyskland. Det var Tyskland, der indledte krigen med sit angreb på Frankrig gennem Belgien . Frankrig, som i den fransk-tyske krig i 1870 - 71 havde tabt til Preussen (som efter sejren dannede kejserriget Tyskland), krævede kompensation for ydmygelse og ruinering under 1. verdenskrig. Det indebar, at fredstraktaterne som Versaillestraktaten dikterede strenge finansielle erstatninger fra Tyskland samtidig med, at landet måtte affinde sig med en lang række økonomiske og militære begrænsninger og afgivelse af landområder, bl.a. Elsass og Lothringen , til Frankrig. En ny demokratisk tysk republik Weimarrepublikken opstod efter 1. verdenskrig. Efter nogen succes blev republikken ramt af hyperinflation og andre alvorlige økonomiske problemer. Højre-nationale bevægelser som Adolf Hitlers nationalsocialistiske parti lagde skylden for de ydmygende betingelser i fredsaftalen på det demokratiske system, marxister og jøder, som de påstod havde taget finansielt kvælertag på Tyskland og var skyld i det økonomiske og moralske morads ( dolkestødslegenden ). Efter en række kaotiske valg blev Hitler udnævnt til rigskansler den 30. januar 1933 af den aldrende præsident Paul von Hindenburg . Hitlers regering overtog magten ved at bruge de ekstraordinære rettigheder, som grundloven gav præsidenten. Det muliggjorde, at regeringen kunne omgå rigsdagen. Rigsdagsbranden i 1933 medførte udelukkelse af kommunisterne og øgede højrefløjens stemmeandel, og en forordning fra præsidenten øgede rigskanslerens (Hitlers) magt. En passus i Weimarrepublikkens grundlov sagde, at ved præsidentens død ville hans embede midlertidigt blive overtaget af kansleren. Så da Hindenburg døde i 1934 , overtog Adolf Hitler embedet som præsident, og han kunne nu opnå diktatorisk kontrol med Tyskland. Også den italienske økonomi var ude for stor tilbagegang efter 1. verdenskrig. Anarkister , kommunister og andre socialistiske agitatorer opnåede stor magt i fagforeningerne , og mange var alvorligt bekymrede for, at en kommunistisk revolution var nært forestående. Efter at en række liberale regeringer forgæves havde søgt at bekæmpe dem, inviterede Italiens konge , Victor Emmanuel 3. , den højreorienterede politiker Benito Mussolini og hans fascistparti til at danne regering i 1922 efter deres Marcia su Roma (March til Rom). Fascisterne bevarede en bevæbnet paramilitær fløj, som var udset til at bekæmpe anarkister, kommunister og socialister. Efter en årrække havde Mussolini tilkæmpet sig diktatorisk magt, og Italien blev en politistat . Den 7. januar 1935 underskrev Mussolini og den franske udenrigsminister Pierre Laval den italiensk-franske aftale. I mellemtiden flyttede Adolf Hitler fokus til udenrigspolitikken, da hans indenrigspolitiske magt nu var befæstet. Han traf en række beslutninger med stigende udfordringer til sejrherrerne. Den 16. marts 1935 blev Versaillestraktaten overtrådt, da Hitler beordrede en genoprustning af Tyskland . Massiv militær værnepligt blev indført (traktaten krævede, at den tyske hær ikke oversteg 100.000 mand). Det medførte kun officielle protester fra Storbritannien og Frankrig. (Storbritannien og Tyskland indgik i 1935 en flådeaftale, der bl.a. udvidede grænserne for Tysklands flådeoprustning). De to lande var i langt højere grad fokuseret på de økonomiske betingelser i traktaten end på de militære. Mange briter følte selv, at restriktionerne på Tyskland i Versaillestraktaten var for hårde og mente, at Hitlers mål alene var at fjerne de værste konsekvenser af traktaten. Den 7. marts førte Hitler sin hær ind i Rhinlandet . Ifølge Versaillestraktaten skulle Rhinlandet være afmilitariseret. Frankrig ønskede, at området skulle være en buffer mod Tyskland. Den første tyske anneksion var Østrig . Efter at Italien havde tilsluttet sig Antikominternpagten i 1937 og dermed fjernet den største forhindring for en sammenslutning af Østrig til Tyskland, erklærede Tyskland Østrig for annekteret den 12. marts 1938 ( Anschluss ). Hermed blev Østrig en tysk provins under navnet Gau Ostmark. Med Østrig som en del af riget flyttede Hitler fokus til Tjekkoslovakiet . Hans første ordre var at indlemme Sudeterlandet , de tysktalende grænseområder i Tjekkoslovakiet. Med Østrig på tyske hænder var den lille stat næsten omringet. Efter lange forhandlinger og udbredte krigstrusler fra Hitler tog den britiske premierminister Neville Chamberlain og de franske ledere af sted for at "glæde" Hitler, selv om Storbritannien tidligere havde garanteret for Tjekkoslovakiets sikkerhed. München-aftalen den 30. september 1938 tillod tyske tropper at besætte Sudeterlandet. Tjekkoslovakiske repræsentanter blev ikke inviteret til forhandlingerne. Landet var magtesløst uden britisk og fransk støtte. I marts 1939 kom resten af Tjekkiet under tysk styre som et protektorat. Den 14. marts erklærede Slovakiet sig uafhængigt og blev anerkendt af Frankrig, Storbritannien og andre vigtige magter. Den slovakiske stat forsøgte at undgå nazificering, men blev besat af Nazi-Tyskland i september 1944 . Italien, som stod overfor modstand fra Folkeforbundet på grund af sin krig i Etiopien , dannede en alliance med Nazi-Tyskland, som havde forladt Folkeforbundet i 1933 . I maj 1939 dannede Tyskland Stålpagten , som udvidede alliancen og etablerede en Rom-Berlin akse. Japans ekspansion i Østasien Uddybende artikler: 2. kinesisk-japanske krig og Sovjetisk-japanske grænsekonflikt Situationen i Kina 1940 Pink områder er under japansk kontrol I Stillehavsregionen blev krigen ikke officielt erklæret mellem USA og Japan før efter det japanske angreb på Pearl Harbor den 7. december 1941 . Der var en lang række af kampe mellem Japan og Kina igennem 1930'erne , specielt med baggrund i den politiske uro i Kina og landets deraf følgende militære svaghed. Japan stod stærkt og havde en meget militaristisk og ekspansiv ideologi. Japan manglede råstoffer, og mange af dem fandtes i Kina. I 1920'erne blev Kina delt i en række regioner, hver med sin krigsherre . Regeringen var derfor svag, og Japan øgede sin indflydelse gennem en række traktater med den centrale regering. Situationen var dog stærk ustabil, da traktaterne i tilfælde at et totalt sammenbrud i Kina ikke ville kunne opretholdes, samtidig med at et stærkere Kina ville kunne fremtvinge nye og mindre fordelagtige aftaler for Japan. I 1927 ledede Chiang Kai-Shek og den nationale revolutionære hær en kampagne mod krigsherrerne. Det lykkedes ham militært at bekæmpe krigsherrerne i det sydlige og centrale Kina og komme tæt på en alliance med krigsherrerne i det nordlige kina. Frygt for, at Zhang Xueliang (Krigsherren med kontrol over Manchuriet ) ville erklære en alliance med Chiang, fik Japan til at gribe ind og oprette en marionetstat i Manchuriet. I 1931 invaderede japanske tropper Manchuriet uden tilladelse fra regeringen i Tokyo. Anledningen var Mukden-episoden , en sabotageaktion mod den japanskejede og -drevne Sydmanchuriske jernbane . De japanske soldater stod selv bag aktionen. Året efter blev Manchuriet til kejserdømmet Manchukuo med den tidligere kinesiske kejser Puyi på tronen, men i realiteten blev kejserdømmet styret af Japan. I 1937 udløste Episoden på Marco-Polo-Broen den 2. kinesisk-japanske krig . Selv om de kinesiske styrker var langt større end de japanske, var det japanerne som i løbet af de næste år erobrede størstedelen af det østlige Kina ved hjælp af deres bedre våben og træning. I 1938 forsøgte japanerne i den Sovjetisk-japanske grænsekonflikt at trænge ind i Mongoliet, men her kom de op imod den sovjetiske Røde Hær , som blev ledet af den senere så berømte Georgij Zjukov , og i 1939 løb de ind i et alvorligt nederlag i Slaget ved Khalkhin Gol . Det førte til konfliktens afslutning og senere til den Sovjetisk-japanske neutralitetspagt . Chamberlains bekendtgørelse for den britiske befolkning af krigserklæringen, 3. september 1939 Er der problemer med lyden? Se da eventuelt Hjælp:Ogg Vorbis eller "Media help" (engelsk) Forudgående begivenheder I Europa var forudsætningerne for krigen tæt forbundet med fremgangen for fascismen , specielt nationalsocialismen i Tyskland. Det er nødvendigt for at forstå, hvorfor nazisterne kom til magten. Den væsentligste årsag er 1. verdenskrig ( 1914 - 18 ). Under 1. verdenskrig blev Tyskland under den ultranationalistiske kejser Wilhelm 2. og dets allierede ( Centralmagterne ) besejret af Ententen , som bl.a. omfattede Storbritannien , USA og Frankrig . Ansvaret for krigen lagde sejrherrerne på det national-militaristiske kejserlige Tyskland. Det var Tyskland, der indledte krigen med sit angreb på Frankrig gennem Belgien . Frankrig, som i den fransk-tyske krig i 1870 - 71 havde tabt til Preussen (som efter sejren dannede kejserriget Tyskland), krævede kompensation for ydmygelse og ruinering under 1. verdenskrig. Det indebar, at fredstraktaterne som Versaillestraktaten dikterede strenge finansielle erstatninger fra Tyskland samtidig med, at landet måtte affinde sig med en lang række økonomiske og militære begrænsninger og afgivelse af landområder, bl.a. Elsass og Lothringen , til Frankrig. En ny demokratisk tysk republik Weimarrepublikken opstod efter 1. verdenskrig. Efter nogen succes blev republikken ramt af hyperinflation og andre alvorlige økonomiske problemer. Højre-nationale bevægelser som Adolf Hitlers nationalsocialistiske parti lagde skylden for de ydmygende betingelser i fredsaftalen på det demokratiske system, marxister og jøder, som de påstod havde taget finansielt kvælertag på Tyskland og var skyld i det økonomiske og moralske morads ( dolkestødslegenden ). Efter en række kaotiske valg blev Hitler udnævnt til rigskansler den 30. januar 1933 af den aldrende præsident Paul von Hindenburg . Hitlers regering overtog magten ved at bruge de ekstraordinære rettigheder, som grundloven gav præsidenten. Det muliggjorde, at regeringen kunne omgå rigsdagen. Rigsdagsbranden i 1933 medførte udelukkelse af kommunisterne og øgede højrefløjens stemmeandel, og en forordning fra præsidenten øgede rigskanslerens (Hitlers) magt. En passus i Weimarrepublikkens grundlov sagde, at ved præsidentens død ville hans embede midlertidigt blive overtaget af kansleren. Så da Hindenburg døde i 1934 , overtog Adolf Hitler embedet som præsident, og han kunne nu opnå diktatorisk kontrol med Tyskland. Også den italienske økonomi var ude for stor tilbagegang efter 1. verdenskrig. Anarkister , kommunister og andre socialistiske agitatorer opnåede stor magt i fagforeningerne , og mange var alvorligt bekymrede for, at en kommunistisk revolution var nært forestående. Efter at en række liberale regeringer forgæves havde søgt at bekæmpe dem, inviterede Italiens konge , Victor Emmanuel 3. , den højreorienterede politiker Benito Mussolini og hans fascistparti til at danne regering i 1922 efter deres Marcia su Roma (March til Rom). Fascisterne bevarede en bevæbnet paramilitær fløj, som var udset til at bekæmpe anarkister, kommunister og socialister. Efter en årrække havde Mussolini tilkæmpet sig diktatorisk magt, og Italien blev en politistat . Den 7. januar 1935 underskrev Mussolini og den franske udenrigsminister Pierre Laval den italiensk-franske aftale. I mellemtiden flyttede Adolf Hitler fokus til udenrigspolitikken, da hans indenrigspolitiske magt nu var befæstet. Han traf en række beslutninger med stigende udfordringer til sejrherrerne. Den 16. marts 1935 blev Versaillestraktaten overtrådt, da Hitler beordrede en genoprustning af Tyskland . Massiv militær værnepligt blev indført (traktaten krævede, at den tyske hær ikke oversteg 100.000 mand). Det medførte kun officielle protester fra Storbritannien og Frankrig. (Storbritannien og Tyskland indgik i 1935 en flådeaftale, der bl.a. udvidede grænserne for Tysklands flådeoprustning). De to lande var i langt højere grad fokuseret på de økonomiske betingelser i traktaten end på de militære. Mange briter følte selv, at restriktionerne på Tyskland i Versaillestraktaten var for hårde og mente, at Hitlers mål alene var at fjerne de værste konsekvenser af traktaten. Den 7. marts førte Hitler sin hær ind i Rhinlandet . Ifølge Versaillestraktaten skulle Rhinlandet være afmilitariseret. Frankrig ønskede, at området skulle være en buffer mod Tyskland. Den første tyske anneksion var Østrig . Efter at Italien havde tilsluttet sig Antikominternpagten i 1937 og dermed fjernet den største forhindring for en sammenslutning af Østrig til Tyskland, erklærede Tyskland Østrig for annekteret den 12. marts 1938 ( Anschluss ). Hermed blev Østrig en tysk provins under navnet Gau Ostmark. Med Østrig som en del af riget flyttede Hitler fokus til Tjekkoslovakiet . Hans første ordre var at indlemme Sudeterlandet , de tysktalende grænseområder i Tjekkoslovakiet. Med Østrig på tyske hænder var den lille stat næsten omringet. Efter lange forhandlinger og udbredte krigstrusler fra Hitler tog den britiske premierminister Neville Chamberlain og de franske ledere af sted for at "glæde" Hitler, selv om Storbritannien tidligere havde garanteret for Tjekkoslovakiets sikkerhed. München-aftalen den 30. september 1938 tillod tyske tropper at besætte Sudeterlandet. Tjekkoslovakiske repræsentanter blev ikke inviteret til forhandlingerne. Landet var magtesløst uden britisk og fransk støtte. I marts 1939 kom resten af Tjekkiet under tysk styre som et protektorat. Den 14. marts erklærede Slovakiet sig uafhængigt og blev anerkendt af Frankrig, Storbritannien og andre vigtige magter. Den slovakiske stat forsøgte at undgå nazificering, men blev besat af Nazi-Tyskland i september 1944 . Italien, som stod overfor modstand fra Folkeforbundet på grund af sin krig i Etiopien , dannede en alliance med Nazi-Tyskland, som havde forladt Folkeforbundet i 1933 . I maj 1939 dannede Tyskland Stålpagten , som udvidede alliancen og etablerede en Rom-Berlin akse. Japans ekspansion i Østasien Uddybende artikler: 2. kinesisk-japanske krig og Sovjetisk-japanske grænsekonflikt Situationen i Kina 1940 Pink områder er under japansk kontrol I Stillehavsregionen blev krigen ikke officielt erklæret mellem USA og Japan før efter det japanske angreb på Pearl Harbor den 7. december 1941 . Der var en lang række af kampe mellem Japan og Kina igennem 1930'erne , specielt med baggrund i den politiske uro i Kina og landets deraf følgende militære svaghed. Japan stod stærkt og havde en meget militaristisk og ekspansiv ideologi. Japan manglede råstoffer, og mange af dem fandtes i Kina. I 1920'erne blev Kina delt i en række regioner, hver med sin krigsherre . Regeringen var derfor svag, og Japan øgede sin indflydelse gennem en række traktater med den centrale regering. Situationen var dog stærk ustabil, da traktaterne i tilfælde at et totalt sammenbrud i Kina ikke ville kunne opretholdes, samtidig med at et stærkere Kina ville kunne fremtvinge nye og mindre fordelagtige aftaler for Japan. I 1927 ledede Chiang Kai-Shek og den nationale revolutionære hær en kampagne mod krigsherrerne. Det lykkedes ham militært at bekæmpe krigsherrerne i det sydlige og centrale Kina og komme tæt på en alliance med krigsherrerne i det nordlige kina. Frygt for, at Zhang Xueliang (Krigsherren med kontrol over Manchuriet ) ville erklære en alliance med Chiang, fik Japan til at gribe ind og oprette en marionetstat i Manchuriet. I 1931 invaderede japanske tropper Manchuriet uden tilladelse fra regeringen i Tokyo. Anledningen var Mukden-episoden , en sabotageaktion mod den japanskejede og -drevne Sydmanchuriske jernbane . De japanske soldater stod selv bag aktionen. Året efter blev Manchuriet til kejserdømmet Manchukuo med den tidligere kinesiske kejser Puyi på tronen, men i realiteten blev kejserdømmet styret af Japan. I 1937 udløste Episoden på Marco-Polo-Broen den 2. kinesisk-japanske krig . Selv om de kinesiske styrker var langt større end de japanske, var det japanerne som i løbet af de næste år erobrede størstedelen af det østlige Kina ved hjælp af deres bedre våben og træning. I 1938 forsøgte japanerne i den Sovjetisk-japanske grænsekonflikt at trænge ind i Mongoliet, men her kom de op imod den sovjetiske Røde Hær , som blev ledet af den senere så berømte Georgij Zjukov , og i 1939 løb de ind i et alvorligt nederlag i Slaget ved Khalkhin Gol . Det førte til konfliktens afslutning og senere til den Sovjetisk-japanske neutralitetspagt . Chamberlains bekendtgørelse for den britiske befolkning af krigserklæringen, 3. september 1939 Er der problemer med lyden? Se da eventuelt Hjælp:Ogg Vorbis eller "Media help" (engelsk) Japans ekspansion i Østasien I Stillehavsregionen blev krigen ikke officielt erklæret mellem USA og Japan før efter det japanske angreb på Pearl Harbor den 7. december 1941 . Der var en lang række af kampe mellem Japan og Kina igennem 1930'erne , specielt med baggrund i den politiske uro i Kina og landets deraf følgende militære svaghed. Japan stod stærkt og havde en meget militaristisk og ekspansiv ideologi. Japan manglede råstoffer, og mange af dem fandtes i Kina. I 1920'erne blev Kina delt i en række regioner, hver med sin krigsherre . Regeringen var derfor svag, og Japan øgede sin indflydelse gennem en række traktater med den centrale regering. Situationen var dog stærk ustabil, da traktaterne i tilfælde at et totalt sammenbrud i Kina ikke ville kunne opretholdes, samtidig med at et stærkere Kina ville kunne fremtvinge nye og mindre fordelagtige aftaler for Japan. I 1927 ledede Chiang Kai-Shek og den nationale revolutionære hær en kampagne mod krigsherrerne. Det lykkedes ham militært at bekæmpe krigsherrerne i det sydlige og centrale Kina og komme tæt på en alliance med krigsherrerne i det nordlige kina. Frygt for, at Zhang Xueliang (Krigsherren med kontrol over Manchuriet ) ville erklære en alliance med Chiang, fik Japan til at gribe ind og oprette en marionetstat i Manchuriet. I 1931 invaderede japanske tropper Manchuriet uden tilladelse fra regeringen i Tokyo. Anledningen var Mukden-episoden , en sabotageaktion mod den japanskejede og -drevne Sydmanchuriske jernbane . De japanske soldater stod selv bag aktionen. Året efter blev Manchuriet til kejserdømmet Manchukuo med den tidligere kinesiske kejser Puyi på tronen, men i realiteten blev kejserdømmet styret af Japan. I 1937 udløste Episoden på Marco-Polo-Broen den 2. kinesisk-japanske krig . Selv om de kinesiske styrker var langt større end de japanske, var det japanerne som i løbet af de næste år erobrede størstedelen af det østlige Kina ved hjælp af deres bedre våben og træning. I 1938 forsøgte japanerne i den Sovjetisk-japanske grænsekonflikt at trænge ind i Mongoliet, men her kom de op imod den sovjetiske Røde Hær , som blev ledet af den senere så berømte Georgij Zjukov , og i 1939 løb de ind i et alvorligt nederlag i Slaget ved Khalkhin Gol . Det førte til konfliktens afslutning og senere til den Sovjetisk-japanske neutralitetspagt . Chamberlains bekendtgørelse for den britiske befolkning af krigserklæringen, 3. september 1939 Er der problemer med lyden? Se da eventuelt Hjælp:Ogg Vorbis eller "Media help" (engelsk) Er der problemer med lyden? Se da eventuelt Hjælp:Ogg Vorbis eller "Media help" (engelsk) Tyskland og Sovjetunionen invaderer Polen Uddybende artikler: Felttoget i Polen i 1939 og Sovjetunionens invasion af Polen i 1939 Tyskland og Sovjetunionen, de to mægtigste diktaturer i Europa, var indædte modstandere, men politik gjorde, at de underskrev en ikke-angrebspagt ( Molotov-Ribbentrop-pagten ) i august 1939 med en hemmelig passus om at dele Polen, de baltiske lande og Finland mellem sig. Krigen brød ud den 1. september 1939 , da Tyskland invaderede Polen, som både Storbritannien og Frankrig havde garanteret. Den 17. september invaderede Sovjetunionen Polen fra øst. Polen blev hurtigt erobret, og hovedparten af hæren og dens enheder overgav sig den 5. oktober . Polske soldater vedblev at kæmpe på de allieredes side under hele krigen. Polen var et af de lande, der havde det største civile tab: Polen mistede ca. 6 millioner borgere. Tyskland og Sovjetunionen invaderer Polen Tyskland og Sovjetunionen, de to mægtigste diktaturer i Europa, var indædte modstandere, men politik gjorde, at de underskrev en ikke-angrebspagt ( Molotov-Ribbentrop-pagten ) i august 1939 med en hemmelig passus om at dele Polen, de baltiske lande og Finland mellem sig. Krigen brød ud den 1. september 1939 , da Tyskland invaderede Polen, som både Storbritannien og Frankrig havde garanteret. Den 17. september invaderede Sovjetunionen Polen fra øst. Polen blev hurtigt erobret, og hovedparten af hæren og dens enheder overgav sig den 5. oktober . Polske soldater vedblev at kæmpe på de allieredes side under hele krigen. Polen var et af de lande, der havde det største civile tab: Polen mistede ca. 6 millioner borgere. Sovjetunionen angriber Finland og de baltiske lande Uddybende artikler: Sovjetunionens besættelse af de baltiske lande og Vinterkrigen En række andre lande blev inddraget i konflikten. De baltiske lande følte den 28. september 1939, at de ikke havde nogen anden mulighed end at tillade Sovjetunionen at oprette baser og udstationere tropper på deres territorium. Det blev i juni 1940 udgangspunkt for, at Sovjetunionen let kunne besætte og senere annektere De baltiske lande. Finske skitropper i det nordlige Finland under Vinterkrigen 1939-40 Finland blev den 30. november 1939 invaderet af Sovjetunionen. Dette begyndte Den finske Vinterkrig . Efter mere end tre måneder med hårde kampe og store tab måtte Finland slutte fred. Sovjetunionen havde langt større tab end Finland men også en langt større hær. Ved Fredstraktaten i Moskva den 12. marts 1940 opgav Finland 10% af sit territorium. Finnerne var bitre over at skulle afgive mere land, end de havde måttet afgive på slagmarken. Hitler mente, at resultatet viste, at Den Røde Hær ikke ville blive et problem for Tyskland. Sovjetunionen angriber Finland og de baltiske lande En række andre lande blev inddraget i konflikten. De baltiske lande følte den 28. september 1939, at de ikke havde nogen anden mulighed end at tillade Sovjetunionen at oprette baser og udstationere tropper på deres territorium. Det blev i juni 1940 udgangspunkt for, at Sovjetunionen let kunne besætte og senere annektere De baltiske lande. Finland blev den 30. november 1939 invaderet af Sovjetunionen. Dette begyndte Den finske Vinterkrig . Efter mere end tre måneder med hårde kampe og store tab måtte Finland slutte fred. Sovjetunionen havde langt større tab end Finland men også en langt større hær. Ved Fredstraktaten i Moskva den 12. marts 1940 opgav Finland 10% af sit territorium. Finnerne var bitre over at skulle afgive mere land, end de havde måttet afgive på slagmarken. Hitler mente, at resultatet viste, at Den Røde Hær ikke ville blive et problem for Tyskland. Angrebet på Danmark og Norge Uddybende artikler: Operation Weserübung og Besættelsen Den 9. april 1940 indledte Tyskland med Operation Weserübung : besættelsen af Danmark og Norge . Tyskland udlagde angrebet som en defensiv foranstaltning for at hindre Frankrig og Storbritannien i at invadere de to lande for at standse eksporten af svensk jernmalm til Tyskland. Endvidere var kontrollen over Nordatlanten vigtig for Tyskland. Efter en fejlslagen britisk militærindsats i Norge var Finland og Sverige nærmest afskåret fra Vesten, og Tyskland kunne lægge pres på det neutrale Sverige for at få landet til at tillade transit af forsyninger og soldater på orlov. Tysk tilstedeværelse i Finland blev af finnerne anset som en forbedring af deres strategiske situation. Angrebet på Danmark skete, fordi Hitler ville sikre forbindelsen til Norge. Der blev bygget store forsvarsværker på vestkysten. Især i Hirtshals og Hanstholm blev der bygget store bunkers og lagt miner ud. Den 12. april 1940 besatte britiske tropper Færøerne i Operation Valentine , og den 10. maj 1940 blev Island besat af britiske tropper i Operation Fork . Den britiske besættelse af Island varede til juli 1941 , hvor amerikanske tropper overtog kontrollen med Island. Angrebet på Danmark og Norge Den 9. april 1940 indledte Tyskland med Operation Weserübung : besættelsen af Danmark og Norge . Tyskland udlagde angrebet som en defensiv foranstaltning for at hindre Frankrig og Storbritannien i at invadere de to lande for at standse eksporten af svensk jernmalm til Tyskland. Endvidere var kontrollen over Nordatlanten vigtig for Tyskland. Efter en fejlslagen britisk militærindsats i Norge var Finland og Sverige nærmest afskåret fra Vesten, og Tyskland kunne lægge pres på det neutrale Sverige for at få landet til at tillade transit af forsyninger og soldater på orlov. Tysk tilstedeværelse i Finland blev af finnerne anset som en forbedring af deres strategiske situation. Angrebet på Danmark skete, fordi Hitler ville sikre forbindelsen til Norge. Der blev bygget store forsvarsværker på vestkysten. Især i Hirtshals og Hanstholm blev der bygget store bunkers og lagt miner ud. Den 12. april 1940 besatte britiske tropper Færøerne i Operation Valentine , og den 10. maj 1940 blev Island besat af britiske tropper i Operation Fork . Den britiske besættelse af Island varede til juli 1941 , hvor amerikanske tropper overtog kontrollen med Island. Vestfronten 1940 Uddybende artikler: Slaget om Frankrig , Slaget om Holland og Slaget om Belgien (1940) Britiske fanger på Veules-Les-Roses i juni 1940. Selv om de allierede fik evakueret mange soldater i Operation Dynamo , endte mange af dem i tysk fangeskab. På grund af den store aktivitet på østfronten var grænsen mellem Frankrig og Tyskland særdeles fredelig. Den var præget af "manglende" krigskonfrontationer (Spøgelseskrigen - engelsk The Phoney War, tysk der Sitzkrieg ) og fortsatte til den 10. maj 1940 . Den 18. marts 1940 blev Hitler og Mussolini enige om at gøre Stålpagten til en alliance mod Frankrig og Storbritannien. Spøgelseskrigen ophørte, da vestfronten blev åbnet med det tyske angreb på Belgien , Holland og Luxembourg den 10. maj . Hermed blev den franske Maginot-linje omgået. Efter en hurtig invasion gik de tyske styrker den 13. maj mod Frankrig. De gik gennem Ardennerne . Frankrig havde begået den katastrofale fejl at lade området være næsten uforsvaret, fordi det angiveligt ikke kunne passeres af kampvogne. De fleste allierede styrker stod i Flandern og Nordfrankrig, hvor de afventede en gentagelse af 1. verdenskrig . De blev afskåret fra det centrale Frankrig. En langt bedre kommunikation mellem de tyske styrker gjorde også, at slaget om Frankrig blev en kort affære. Kampen varede seks uger, hvorefter Frankrig overgav sig. Frankrig blev yderligere ydmyget ved, at Hitler krævede, at overgivelsesdokumenterne skulle underskrives i den jernbanevogn, hvor den tyske overgivelse var underskrevet i 1918 . Frankrigs nederlag lod Storbritannien og dets imperium alene i krigen mod Tyskland. Heldigvis for Storbritannien blev største delen af hæren evakueret i alt, hvad der kunne sejle, fra den nordfranske havn Dunkirk . Den heldige evakuering blev i England til noget, som lignede en sejr. I alt blev 330.000 mand reddet heraf 230.000 briter. Men alt materiellet måtte efterlades. Vestfronten 1940 På grund af den store aktivitet på østfronten var grænsen mellem Frankrig og Tyskland særdeles fredelig. Den var præget af "manglende" krigskonfrontationer (Spøgelseskrigen - engelsk The Phoney War, tysk der Sitzkrieg ) og fortsatte til den 10. maj 1940 . Den 18. marts 1940 blev Hitler og Mussolini enige om at gøre Stålpagten til en alliance mod Frankrig og Storbritannien. Spøgelseskrigen ophørte, da vestfronten blev åbnet med det tyske angreb på Belgien , Holland og Luxembourg den 10. maj . Hermed blev den franske Maginot-linje omgået. Efter en hurtig invasion gik de tyske styrker den 13. maj mod Frankrig. De gik gennem Ardennerne . Frankrig havde begået den katastrofale fejl at lade området være næsten uforsvaret, fordi det angiveligt ikke kunne passeres af kampvogne. De fleste allierede styrker stod i Flandern og Nordfrankrig, hvor de afventede en gentagelse af 1. verdenskrig . De blev afskåret fra det centrale Frankrig. En langt bedre kommunikation mellem de tyske styrker gjorde også, at slaget om Frankrig blev en kort affære. Kampen varede seks uger, hvorefter Frankrig overgav sig. Frankrig blev yderligere ydmyget ved, at Hitler krævede, at overgivelsesdokumenterne skulle underskrives i den jernbanevogn, hvor den tyske overgivelse var underskrevet i 1918 . Frankrigs nederlag lod Storbritannien og dets imperium alene i krigen mod Tyskland. Heldigvis for Storbritannien blev største delen af hæren evakueret i alt, hvad der kunne sejle, fra den nordfranske havn Dunkirk . Den heldige evakuering blev i England til noget, som lignede en sejr. I alt blev 330.000 mand reddet heraf 230.000 briter. Men alt materiellet måtte efterlades. Slaget om England Uddybende artikel: Slaget om England Propagandaplakat efter slaget om England med Churchills berømte tak til de engelske jagerpiloter, som han mente havde reddet landet fra invasion. Tyske flystyrker blev i stort antal udstationeret i Nordfrankrig for at forberede en planlagt invasion af England under kodeordet "Operation Søløve". Luftkampene blev igangsat af Luftwaffe mod RAF og blev kendt som Slaget om England . Det er nu anerkendt, at en invasion ikke kunne afvikles med held, selv om det var lykkedes Luftwaffe at drive RAF væk fra Kanalen og det sydlige Storbritannien. Storbritannien ville stadig have sine jagere i den centrale del af Storbritannien samt bombe- og jagereskadriller i den nordlige del af landet. Helt afgørende var den betydelige ildkraft fra britiske flåde . Slaget om England blev med en meget lille margin vundet af det britiske luftforsvar, og Luftwaffe skiftede taktik og gik over til bombekampagner mod de vigtigste engelske byer. Under bombekampagnerne blev alle de væsentlige britiske industriområder udsat for kraftige bombardementer. Især London blev ramt, hvor de natlige togter varede i flere måneder. Øvrige målområder var Birmingham og Coventry og væsentlige strategiske mål som flådebasen Plymouth samt Kingston upon Hull -havnen. Der var store civile tab i de britiske byer. Krigen i luften tiltrak verdens opmærksomhed. Da der ikke var væsentlige land- eller søslag, blev luftkrigen anset som særdeles kritisk. Træfningerne i Slaget om Atlanten og de britiske kommandoraids i det besatte Europa blev overskygget af luftkrigen. Den militære doktrin før 2. verdenskrig var, at bølger af bombetogter mod fjendens byer ville skabe massepanik og føre til et hurtigt kollaps af fjendens modstandsvilje. Derfor havde RAF opbygget en stor strategisk bombefly -kapacitet, mens det tyske luftvåben var udstyret til at yde hæren støtte. De tyske bombefly var ofte mindre end deres britiske modstykker, og tyskerne udviklede kun et enkelt fire-motoret tungt bombefly ( Focke-Wulf Fw 200 ) i et lille antal, som kunne modsvare Avro Lancaster , B-17 Flying Fortress eller B-24 Liberator . Den største koncentration af tyske bombetogter mod de britiske byer var fra efteråret 1940 til foråret 1941. Herefter blev en væsentlig del af Luftwaffe overført til Østfronten. Tyske togter fortsatte i mindre skala under resten af krigen, og senere blev også V1'ere og V2-raketter anvendt. Balancen i form af bombetonnage, der blev anvendt mod modparten, skiftede kraftigt i RAF's favør. I 1942 sendte den britiske bombekommando 1.000 bombefly på togt mod en tysk by. Det krævede, at samtlige fly med besætninger under optræning blev anvendt i togtet. Det var først i 1943, at disse store bombetogter blev mulige uden specialplanlægning og inddragelse af alle ressourcer. Fra 1942 blev krigsindsatsen suppleret af det amerikanske 8. luftvåben. Briterne foretog togter om natten og amerikanerne om dagen. I 1943 blev Hamborg ramt af en af historiens værste ildstorme, antændt af et bombetogt. 40.000 mennesker blev dræbt. Bombetogtet blev alene overgået – i antallet af ofre – af bombetogtet mod Dresden i 1945, bombningen af Tokyo og atombomberne i 1945. Ud over den direkte skade, som bombetogterne havde, medførte de, at en lang række ressourcer måtte anvendes på luftforsvaret af Tyskland. Allerede tidligt i krigen udviklede begge parter nye avancerede teknikker. Det drejede sig om radiopejling af mål, radar osv. Slaget om England Tyske flystyrker blev i stort antal udstationeret i Nordfrankrig for at forberede en planlagt invasion af England under kodeordet "Operation Søløve". Luftkampene blev igangsat af Luftwaffe mod RAF og blev kendt som Slaget om England . Det er nu anerkendt, at en invasion ikke kunne afvikles med held, selv om det var lykkedes Luftwaffe at drive RAF væk fra Kanalen og det sydlige Storbritannien. Storbritannien ville stadig have sine jagere i den centrale del af Storbritannien samt bombe- og jagereskadriller i den nordlige del af landet. Helt afgørende var den betydelige ildkraft fra britiske flåde . Slaget om England blev med en meget lille margin vundet af det britiske luftforsvar, og Luftwaffe skiftede taktik og gik over til bombekampagner mod de vigtigste engelske byer. Under bombekampagnerne blev alle de væsentlige britiske industriområder udsat for kraftige bombardementer. Især London blev ramt, hvor de natlige togter varede i flere måneder. Øvrige målområder var Birmingham og Coventry og væsentlige strategiske mål som flådebasen Plymouth samt Kingston upon Hull -havnen. Der var store civile tab i de britiske byer. Krigen i luften tiltrak verdens opmærksomhed. Da der ikke var væsentlige land- eller søslag, blev luftkrigen anset som særdeles kritisk. Træfningerne i Slaget om Atlanten og de britiske kommandoraids i det besatte Europa blev overskygget af luftkrigen. Den militære doktrin før 2. verdenskrig var, at bølger af bombetogter mod fjendens byer ville skabe massepanik og føre til et hurtigt kollaps af fjendens modstandsvilje. Derfor havde RAF opbygget en stor strategisk bombefly -kapacitet, mens det tyske luftvåben var udstyret til at yde hæren støtte. De tyske bombefly var ofte mindre end deres britiske modstykker, og tyskerne udviklede kun et enkelt fire-motoret tungt bombefly ( Focke-Wulf Fw 200 ) i et lille antal, som kunne modsvare Avro Lancaster , B-17 Flying Fortress eller B-24 Liberator . Den største koncentration af tyske bombetogter mod de britiske byer var fra efteråret 1940 til foråret 1941. Herefter blev en væsentlig del af Luftwaffe overført til Østfronten. Tyske togter fortsatte i mindre skala under resten af krigen, og senere blev også V1'ere og V2-raketter anvendt. Balancen i form af bombetonnage, der blev anvendt mod modparten, skiftede kraftigt i RAF's favør. I 1942 sendte den britiske bombekommando 1.000 bombefly på togt mod en tysk by. Det krævede, at samtlige fly med besætninger under optræning blev anvendt i togtet. Det var først i 1943, at disse store bombetogter blev mulige uden specialplanlægning og inddragelse af alle ressourcer. Fra 1942 blev krigsindsatsen suppleret af det amerikanske 8. luftvåben. Briterne foretog togter om natten og amerikanerne om dagen. I 1943 blev Hamborg ramt af en af historiens værste ildstorme, antændt af et bombetogt. 40.000 mennesker blev dræbt. Bombetogtet blev alene overgået – i antallet af ofre – af bombetogtet mod Dresden i 1945, bombningen af Tokyo og atombomberne i 1945. Ud over den direkte skade, som bombetogterne havde, medførte de, at en lang række ressourcer måtte anvendes på luftforsvaret af Tyskland. Allerede tidligt i krigen udviklede begge parter nye avancerede teknikker. Det drejede sig om radiopejling af mål, radar osv. Kampe i Nordafrika Uddybende artikel: Felttoget i Nordafrika Den nordafrikanske kampagne begyndte i 1940, da små britiske styrker i Egypten standsede en italiensk fremmarch i Libyen . Den britiske fremgang blev stoppet i 1941, da tyske tropper under Erwin Rommel blev landsat i Libyen. Det førte til kamphandlinger, som kulminerede i de to slag ved El-Alamein . Det første slag foregik i sommeren 1942. Tyskerne havde nået El-Alamein, det sidste forsvarspunkt for de allierede før Alexandria og Suez-kanalen . Som i Sovjetunionen manglede tyskerne forsyninger, og det britiske forsvar stoppede deres offensiv. Det andet slag ved El-Alamein foregik sidst i oktober 1942, og nu var de britiske styrker i offensiven. Rommel blev tvunget tilbage og måtte fortsætte sit tilbagetog helt til Tunesien . De allierede styrker i Nordafrika udgjordes af britiske, australske, new zealandske, indiske, sydafrikanske og græske styrker ( Den Græske Brigade , 15.000 mand [ kilde mangler ] ). Senere også franske styrker, se nedenfor. For at underbygge denne sejr gik amerikanske og britiske styrker i land i Marokko og Algeriet den 8. november 1942 i Operation Torch . Vichy -franske styrker ydede kun begrænset modstand, før de skiftede side. De tyske og italienske styrker var herefter fanget mellem de allierede styrker, der trængte frem fra både øst og vest. De tyske tropper kapitulerede den 13. maj 1943 , og 250.000 tyskere måtte vandre i fangenskab. Kampe i Nordafrika Den nordafrikanske kampagne begyndte i 1940, da små britiske styrker i Egypten standsede en italiensk fremmarch i Libyen . Den britiske fremgang blev stoppet i 1941, da tyske tropper under Erwin Rommel blev landsat i Libyen. Det førte til kamphandlinger, som kulminerede i de to slag ved El-Alamein . Det første slag foregik i sommeren 1942. Tyskerne havde nået El-Alamein, det sidste forsvarspunkt for de allierede før Alexandria og Suez-kanalen . Som i Sovjetunionen manglede tyskerne forsyninger, og det britiske forsvar stoppede deres offensiv. Det andet slag ved El-Alamein foregik sidst i oktober 1942, og nu var de britiske styrker i offensiven. Rommel blev tvunget tilbage og måtte fortsætte sit tilbagetog helt til Tunesien . De allierede styrker i Nordafrika udgjordes af britiske, australske, new zealandske, indiske, sydafrikanske og græske styrker ( Den Græske Brigade , 15.000 mand [ kilde mangler ] ). Senere også franske styrker, se nedenfor. For at underbygge denne sejr gik amerikanske og britiske styrker i land i Marokko og Algeriet den 8. november 1942 i Operation Torch . Vichy -franske styrker ydede kun begrænset modstand, før de skiftede side. De tyske og italienske styrker var herefter fanget mellem de allierede styrker, der trængte frem fra både øst og vest. De tyske tropper kapitulerede den 13. maj 1943 , og 250.000 tyskere måtte vandre i fangenskab. Aksemagterne invaderer Balkan Uddybende artikel: Balkanfelttoget Italien invaderede Albanien den 7. april 1939 og Grækenland den 28. oktober 1940 helt uden aftale med deres tyske allierede. Mussolini ønskede at vise Hitler, at også han og hans land havde store militære evner. Iflg. den italienske udenrigsminister grev Galeazzo Ciano sagde Mussolini: "Hitler kan læse om min invasion af Grækenland i aviserne". Resultatet var langtfra den succes, de tyske styrker havde nået i Frankrig . Ikke alene mislykkedes det at erobre Grækenland, men det græske modangreb blev ført helt ind i Albanien. Det udløste tysk intervention også i Jugoslavien , hvor et pro-tysk kup var mislykkedes et par dage før. Britiske styrker blev sendt fra Egypten til Grækenland, men led et sviende nederlag. Efter at det græske fastland var erobret, rettede tyskerne opmærksomheden mod Kreta . Slaget om Kreta blev en massiv luftoperation med tyske faldskærmstropper i stort antal. Øen blev erobret, men de tyske tab var så store, at ingen i krigen forsøgte en lignende operation. Et helt specielt forhold for 2. Verdenskrig var, at Hitler pga. sin forkærlighed for græske kultur, og fordi han mente, at Mussolini selv var ude om det sviende nederlag, gav ordre til at de 218.000 fangne græske soldater skulle frigives umiddelbart efter afvæbning. De græske officerer fik endda lov til at beholde deres pistoler. Tyskland tog således ingen græske krigsfanger , og alle blev løsladt. Hitler sagde i sin tale til Rigsdagen, at de græske soldater har kæmpet ypperligt og ærefuldt, og pga. deres "hæderfulde æt" omgående ville blive frigivet. Hitler skal have givet strenge ordrer om, under ingen omstændigheder at ødelægge arkæologiske områder , templer etc. Aksemagterne invaderer Balkan Italien invaderede Albanien den 7. april 1939 og Grækenland den 28. oktober 1940 helt uden aftale med deres tyske allierede. Mussolini ønskede at vise Hitler, at også han og hans land havde store militære evner. Iflg. den italienske udenrigsminister grev Galeazzo Ciano sagde Mussolini: "Hitler kan læse om min invasion af Grækenland i aviserne". Resultatet var langtfra den succes, de tyske styrker havde nået i Frankrig . Ikke alene mislykkedes det at erobre Grækenland, men det græske modangreb blev ført helt ind i Albanien. Det udløste tysk intervention også i Jugoslavien , hvor et pro-tysk kup var mislykkedes et par dage før. Britiske styrker blev sendt fra Egypten til Grækenland, men led et sviende nederlag. Efter at det græske fastland var erobret, rettede tyskerne opmærksomheden mod Kreta . Slaget om Kreta blev en massiv luftoperation med tyske faldskærmstropper i stort antal. Øen blev erobret, men de tyske tab var så store, at ingen i krigen forsøgte en lignende operation. Et helt specielt forhold for 2. Verdenskrig var, at Hitler pga. sin forkærlighed for græske kultur, og fordi han mente, at Mussolini selv var ude om det sviende nederlag, gav ordre til at de 218.000 fangne græske soldater skulle frigives umiddelbart efter afvæbning. De græske officerer fik endda lov til at beholde deres pistoler. Tyskland tog således ingen græske krigsfanger , og alle blev løsladt. Hitler sagde i sin tale til Rigsdagen, at de græske soldater har kæmpet ypperligt og ærefuldt, og pga. deres "hæderfulde æt" omgående ville blive frigivet. Hitler skal have givet strenge ordrer om, under ingen omstændigheder at ødelægge arkæologiske områder , templer etc. Tyskland angriber Sovjetunionen 1941 Uddybende artikler: Østfronten under 2. verdenskrig og Operation Barbarossa Efter at Balkan nu var på tyskernes hænder, blev næste operation igangsættelsen den historisk største militære landoffensiv, der flere gange var blevet udskudt, operation Barbarossa . Om morgenen den 22. juni 1941 gik 2,5 million tyske og tyskallierede soldater til angreb på Sovjetunionen. Det angreb blev kaldt Operation Barbarossa , historiens største og blodigste militære felttog. Den sovjetiske hær blev taget på sengen. Efterretningrapporter, som advarede om store tyske troppekoncentrationer tæt op til grænsen, var få dage forinden blevet afvist af Stalin som upålidelige. Aksemagternes styrker havde i tiden efter angrebet enorm fremgang, i høj grad på grund af inkompetence fra Stalin og de sovjetiske generaler. Den røde hær var dårligt organiseret og mangelfuldt udrustet. Den tyske Blitzkriegtaktik med motoriserede enheders koncentrerede stormangreb og intense flyangreb viste sig meget effektive i de første måneder af krigen. Stalins ordre om forbud mod al tilbagetrækning medvirkede i høj grad til at Wehrmachts knibtangsmanøvrer hurtigt omringede betydelige sovjetiske styrker. 2,4 millioner sovjetiske soldater blev krigsfanger det første halve år. De tyske styrker var delt i tre hærgrupper. Heeresgruppe Nord rykkede ind i de baltiske stater, som i 1940 var blevet indlemmet i Sovjetunionen. Først i september nåede den Leningrad og indledte en belejring af byen , som skulle vare over 900 dage. Heeresgruppe Süd angreb Ukraine og havde som mål oliefeltener i Kaukasus . Inden vinteren kom havde den erobret hele Ukraine og var nået helt til Rostov ved indgangen til Kaukasus. Størstedelen af angrebet kom gennem Hviderusland , hvor Heeresgruppe Mitte havde kurs mod Ruslands hjerte. Ved Minsk og Smolensk vandt Tyskland store sejre og rykkede frem med stormskridt mod den sovjetiske hovedstad Moskva . I begyndelsen af oktober kunne de tyske fortropper skimte Kreml i horisonten, og situationen så håbløs ud for Sovjetunionen. Wehrmacht formåede imidlertid ikke at nå deres mål, før vinterkulden tvang angrebstyrkerne til at indstille fremrykningen. Den raske fremrykning gennem de enorme landområder havde været resursekrævende, og tyskerne var ikke forberedt på vinterkrig. Mens de havde problemer med forsyningslinjerne og ventede på forstærkninger til det endelige angreb på Moskva, fik Den røde hær tid til at omorganisere sig og forberede et modangreb. Slaget om Moskva varede i tre måneder og endte med sovjetisk sejr. Med temperaturer omkring 30 minusgrader led de tyske styrker under Fedor von Bock kraftigt, og da den sovjetiske kommandant Georgij Zjukov satte modangrebet ind den 5. december, mistede tyskerne initiativet og blev drevet tilbage. Tyskland angriber Sovjetunionen 1941 Efter at Balkan nu var på tyskernes hænder, blev næste operation igangsættelsen den historisk største militære landoffensiv, der flere gange var blevet udskudt, operation Barbarossa . Om morgenen den 22. juni 1941 gik 2,5 million tyske og tyskallierede soldater til angreb på Sovjetunionen. Det angreb blev kaldt Operation Barbarossa , historiens største og blodigste militære felttog. Den sovjetiske hær blev taget på sengen. Efterretningrapporter, som advarede om store tyske troppekoncentrationer tæt op til grænsen, var få dage forinden blevet afvist af Stalin som upålidelige. Aksemagternes styrker havde i tiden efter angrebet enorm fremgang, i høj grad på grund af inkompetence fra Stalin og de sovjetiske generaler. Den røde hær var dårligt organiseret og mangelfuldt udrustet. Den tyske Blitzkriegtaktik med motoriserede enheders koncentrerede stormangreb og intense flyangreb viste sig meget effektive i de første måneder af krigen. Stalins ordre om forbud mod al tilbagetrækning medvirkede i høj grad til at Wehrmachts knibtangsmanøvrer hurtigt omringede betydelige sovjetiske styrker. 2,4 millioner sovjetiske soldater blev krigsfanger det første halve år. De tyske styrker var delt i tre hærgrupper. Heeresgruppe Nord rykkede ind i de baltiske stater, som i 1940 var blevet indlemmet i Sovjetunionen. Først i september nåede den Leningrad og indledte en belejring af byen , som skulle vare over 900 dage. Heeresgruppe Süd angreb Ukraine og havde som mål oliefeltener i Kaukasus . Inden vinteren kom havde den erobret hele Ukraine og var nået helt til Rostov ved indgangen til Kaukasus. Størstedelen af angrebet kom gennem Hviderusland , hvor Heeresgruppe Mitte havde kurs mod Ruslands hjerte. Ved Minsk og Smolensk vandt Tyskland store sejre og rykkede frem med stormskridt mod den sovjetiske hovedstad Moskva . I begyndelsen af oktober kunne de tyske fortropper skimte Kreml i horisonten, og situationen så håbløs ud for Sovjetunionen. Wehrmacht formåede imidlertid ikke at nå deres mål, før vinterkulden tvang angrebstyrkerne til at indstille fremrykningen. Den raske fremrykning gennem de enorme landområder havde været resursekrævende, og tyskerne var ikke forberedt på vinterkrig. Mens de havde problemer med forsyningslinjerne og ventede på forstærkninger til det endelige angreb på Moskva, fik Den røde hær tid til at omorganisere sig og forberede et modangreb. Slaget om Moskva varede i tre måneder og endte med sovjetisk sejr. Med temperaturer omkring 30 minusgrader led de tyske styrker under Fedor von Bock kraftigt, og da den sovjetiske kommandant Georgij Zjukov satte modangrebet ind den 5. december, mistede tyskerne initiativet og blev drevet tilbage. Japan angriber vestmagterne Uddybende artikler: Stillehavskrigen og Angrebet på Pearl Harbor Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , præsident Franklin D. Roosevelt og premierminister Winston Churchill mødtes ved Cairo-konferencen den 25. november 1943. Krigsskibene USS West Virginia og USS Tennessee står i flammer under det japanske angreb på Pearl Harbor . Japans militære engagement i Kina og Fransk Indokina havde ført til, at Storbritannien , USA og Holland havde lukket for olieforsyningen til Japan. Det var en stor trussel for den japanske krigsmaskine, og som et resultat måtte japanerne skaffe sig olie på egen hånd. Den oplagte løsning var det oliebesiddende Hollandsk Ostindien (i dag Indonesien ), hvor en svag hollandsk eksilregering næppe ville kunne stå imod et japansk angreb. Den japanske regering antog, at et sådant angreb ikke ville blive godtaget af USA og Storbritannien og gjorde det nødvendigt at komme dem i forkøbet med et overraskelsesangreb. Om morgenen den 7. december 1941 gik den japanske flåde til angreb på den amerikanske flådebase Pearl Harbor . Angrebet blev til en vis grad en succes, da japanerne fik sænket 18 amerikanske skibe (hvoraf fem krigsskibe) med amerikanske tabstal på 2403 mand mod bare 29 japanske fly, fem japanske ubåde og 64 mand. Hovedmålet for det japanske angreb, ødelæggelsen af de amerikanske hangarskibe , mislykkedes, fordi de var ude på øvelse. Samtidigt erobrede japanske styrker den britiske kronkoloni Hong Kong . Dagen efter, den 10. december, blev de to britiske krigsskibe HMS Repulse og HMS Prince of Wales sænket ud for kysten af Britisk Malaya . Thailand blev tvunget med i krigen på japansk side, og samtidigt faldt de to amerikanske øer Guam og Wake Island . Det japanske angreb førte til, at den amerikanske Kongres erklærede krig mod Japan den 8. december. Tre dage senere erklærede Tyskland krig mod USA. Det førte til, at de hidtil uafhængige krige i Europa og Asien blev forbundet til en global konflikt, altså en verdenskrig. I januar 1942 tog Japan magten i Burma og Britisk Malaya. Samtidigt blev Ny Guinea , Filippinerne og Hollands Ostindien blev invaderet. I februar blev den britiske bastion Singapore erobret og 130.000 allierede soldater kom i japansk krigsfangenskab. I slaget i Javahavet i februar-marts blev den allierede flåde knust, hvilket bragte Hollandsk Ostindien under japansk kontrol. I løbet af foråret blev også de amerikanske styrker på Filippinerne slået og Japan tog også magten på denne øgruppe. Derudover blev Salomonøerne besat, da de kunne bruges som base for bombefly , som kunne true konvojer til Australien . Japan angriber vestmagterne Japans militære engagement i Kina og Fransk Indokina havde ført til, at Storbritannien , USA og Holland havde lukket for olieforsyningen til Japan. Det var en stor trussel for den japanske krigsmaskine, og som et resultat måtte japanerne skaffe sig olie på egen hånd. Den oplagte løsning var det oliebesiddende Hollandsk Ostindien (i dag Indonesien ), hvor en svag hollandsk eksilregering næppe ville kunne stå imod et japansk angreb. Den japanske regering antog, at et sådant angreb ikke ville blive godtaget af USA og Storbritannien og gjorde det nødvendigt at komme dem i forkøbet med et overraskelsesangreb. Om morgenen den 7. december 1941 gik den japanske flåde til angreb på den amerikanske flådebase Pearl Harbor . Angrebet blev til en vis grad en succes, da japanerne fik sænket 18 amerikanske skibe (hvoraf fem krigsskibe) med amerikanske tabstal på 2403 mand mod bare 29 japanske fly, fem japanske ubåde og 64 mand. Hovedmålet for det japanske angreb, ødelæggelsen af de amerikanske hangarskibe , mislykkedes, fordi de var ude på øvelse. Samtidigt erobrede japanske styrker den britiske kronkoloni Hong Kong . Dagen efter, den 10. december, blev de to britiske krigsskibe HMS Repulse og HMS Prince of Wales sænket ud for kysten af Britisk Malaya . Thailand blev tvunget med i krigen på japansk side, og samtidigt faldt de to amerikanske øer Guam og Wake Island . Det japanske angreb førte til, at den amerikanske Kongres erklærede krig mod Japan den 8. december. Tre dage senere erklærede Tyskland krig mod USA. Det førte til, at de hidtil uafhængige krige i Europa og Asien blev forbundet til en global konflikt, altså en verdenskrig. I januar 1942 tog Japan magten i Burma og Britisk Malaya. Samtidigt blev Ny Guinea , Filippinerne og Hollands Ostindien blev invaderet. I februar blev den britiske bastion Singapore erobret og 130.000 allierede soldater kom i japansk krigsfangenskab. I slaget i Javahavet i februar-marts blev den allierede flåde knust, hvilket bragte Hollandsk Ostindien under japansk kontrol. I løbet af foråret blev også de amerikanske styrker på Filippinerne slået og Japan tog også magten på denne øgruppe. Derudover blev Salomonøerne besat, da de kunne bruges som base for bombefly , som kunne true konvojer til Australien . De allieredes invasion af Italien Uddybende artikler: Felttoget i Italien og Invasionen af Sicilien Fra deres basis i Nordafrika foretog de allierede nu en invasion ind i, hvad Winston Churchill kaldte "Europas bløde underliv". Som forløber blev Sicilien erobret den 10. juli 1943 . Som en direkte konsekvens blev Mussolini afsat den 25. juli 1943 . Han blev arresteret og sat i husarrest i et isoleret bjergområde. Hans efterfølger, general Pietro Badoglio , forhandlede sig til en våbenhvile med de allierede den 8. september 1943 , og Italien var hermed ikke længere Tysklands allierede. Nu var der repressalier mod italienske soldater i selve Italien og i de besatte lande som Grækenland, hvor tyskerne henrettede italienske soldater i massevis: på Korfu blev de italienske soldater i sække og smidt levende ud fra en klippe. Tyskerne handlede hurtigt i situationen med en afvæbning af de italienske styrker og etableringen af en stærk forsvarslinje. De allierede styrker gik i land på det italienske hovedland den 9. september 1943 ; amerikanerne ved Salerno , briterne ved Taranto . Mussolini blev befriet af tyske tropper og genindsat som overhoved i Salò-republikken , en fascistisk lydstat i Norditalien. Han fortsatte, til han blev fanget af den italienske modstandsbevægelse og henrettet ved skydning. Den 28. april 1945 hængte de italienske partisaner ham op i benene på Piazzale Loreto i Milano . Tyskerne havde bygget en stærk forsvarslinje i bjergene – Gustav-linjen – hvor de allierede led store tab. Til sidst blev linjen indtaget ved angreb mod Monte Cassino fra syd og ved landgang nord for linjen ved Anzio . Slaget om Monte Cassino var ualmindeligt blodigt og blev bl.a. udført af polske, græske og algeriske soldater i allieret tjeneste. De allierede indtog Rom den 4. juni 1944 , to dage før landgangen i Normandiet . Tyskerne opstillede en ny forsvarslinje længere mod nord – Gotenstellung . De allierede foretog Operation Dragoon , en landgang i det sydlige Frankrig i august for at true den tyske flanke, samtidig med at de angreb "den gotiske forsvarslinje" den 10. september . Offensiven fra de allierede og enkelte italienske styrker fortsatte, til de tyske tropper i Italien overgav sig den 29. april , to dage efter Mussolini blev fanget. De allieredes invasion af Italien Fra deres basis i Nordafrika foretog de allierede nu en invasion ind i, hvad Winston Churchill kaldte "Europas bløde underliv". Som forløber blev Sicilien erobret den 10. juli 1943 . Som en direkte konsekvens blev Mussolini afsat den 25. juli 1943 . Han blev arresteret og sat i husarrest i et isoleret bjergområde. Hans efterfølger, general Pietro Badoglio , forhandlede sig til en våbenhvile med de allierede den 8. september 1943 , og Italien var hermed ikke længere Tysklands allierede. Nu var der repressalier mod italienske soldater i selve Italien og i de besatte lande som Grækenland, hvor tyskerne henrettede italienske soldater i massevis: på Korfu blev de italienske soldater i sække og smidt levende ud fra en klippe. Tyskerne handlede hurtigt i situationen med en afvæbning af de italienske styrker og etableringen af en stærk forsvarslinje. De allierede styrker gik i land på det italienske hovedland den 9. september 1943 ; amerikanerne ved Salerno , briterne ved Taranto . Mussolini blev befriet af tyske tropper og genindsat som overhoved i Salò-republikken , en fascistisk lydstat i Norditalien. Han fortsatte, til han blev fanget af den italienske modstandsbevægelse og henrettet ved skydning. Den 28. april 1945 hængte de italienske partisaner ham op i benene på Piazzale Loreto i Milano . Tyskerne havde bygget en stærk forsvarslinje i bjergene – Gustav-linjen – hvor de allierede led store tab. Til sidst blev linjen indtaget ved angreb mod Monte Cassino fra syd og ved landgang nord for linjen ved Anzio . Slaget om Monte Cassino var ualmindeligt blodigt og blev bl.a. udført af polske, græske og algeriske soldater i allieret tjeneste. De allierede indtog Rom den 4. juni 1944 , to dage før landgangen i Normandiet . Tyskerne opstillede en ny forsvarslinje længere mod nord – Gotenstellung . De allierede foretog Operation Dragoon , en landgang i det sydlige Frankrig i august for at true den tyske flanke, samtidig med at de angreb "den gotiske forsvarslinje" den 10. september . Offensiven fra de allierede og enkelte italienske styrker fortsatte, til de tyske tropper i Italien overgav sig den 29. april , to dage efter Mussolini blev fanget. Befrielsen af Frankrig Hovedartikel: Operation Overlord . Omaha Beach efter hårde kampe. Forstærkninger ankommer og soldater rykker ind i landet den 7. juni 1944. Omtrent samtidig med befrielsen af Rom kom den længe ventede invasion af Frankrig. Under Operation Neptune og den følgende Operation Overlord blev allierede tropper sat i land i Normandiet den 6. juni 1944 og etablerede et brohoved , som det trods ihærdige anstrengelser ikke lykkedes for tyskerne at eliminere. Herefter fulgte en to måneder lang kampagne, hvor amerikanske, britiske og canadiske tropper forsøgte at bryde ud fra det forholdsvis snævre brohoved. Da udbruddet endelig kom, skete det hurtigt, og amerikanske styrker under bl.a. George Patton kørte hurtigt gennem Frankrig mod den tyske grænse. Tyske tropper, der havde kæmpet i Normandiet, blev omringet i et område omkring Falaise . Meget omfattende bombninger af den tyske infrastruktur og byer var årsag til enorme tab og ødelæggelser. I Tyskland overlevede Hitler flere attentatforsøg. Det mest alvorlige skete den 20. juli , hvor han blev lettere såret. Invasionen i Normandiet blev fulgt af en invasion i det sydlige Frankrig i august måned under betegnelsen " Operation Dragoon ". I september var tre allierede hærgrupper opstillet over for den tyske vestfront, som stort set fulgte rigsgrænsen. De allierede nærede en forsigtig optimisme og alle troede, at krigen i Europa forhåbentlig ville være ovre ved udgangen af 1944. Den 25. august 1944 blev Paris befriet . De allierede forsøgte at presse krigslykken med " Operation Market Garden ", hvor de forsøgte at erobre en række broer ved Arnhem i Holland ved et luftbåret angreb. Forsøget blev gjort for at åbne en vej ind i Tyskland og for at befri det nordlige Nederland. Der var dog stærke tyske styrker til stede, og den britiske 1. luftbårne division blev næsten udslettet. De allierede havde erobret Antwerpen og dens store havneanlæg i starten af september, men tyske tropper holdt fortsat den nordlige del af indløbet til havnen besat. I slaget ved Schelde lykkedes det at fjerne de tyske tropper efter særdeles hårde kampe, og fra slutningen af november kunne havnen i Antwerpen lette på de allieredes forsyningssituation. Efter at den vanskelige forsyningssituation havde ført til stagnation af fronten, kom de allierede kun langsom frem i efteråret 1944. Amerikanerne kæmpede hårdt i slaget om Hürtgenskoven og havde svært ved at planlægge offensiver. Det forværredes den 16. december 1944 , da tyskerne indledte en modoffensiv i slaget om Ardennerne . De tyske styrker drev de allierede tilbage og omringede en række amerikanske styrker. Det lykkedes de allierede at standse modoffensiven og til sidst at presse tyskerne tilbage igen. Slaget om Ardennerne blev tyskernes sidste store offensiv i krigen. Den sidste forhindring for de allierede var Rhinen . Den krydsede de i marts 1945, og herefter lå vejen ind i Tyskland åben. De sidste tyske styrker i vest blev omringet i Ruhr-distriktet . Befrielsen af Frankrig Omtrent samtidig med befrielsen af Rom kom den længe ventede invasion af Frankrig. Under Operation Neptune og den følgende Operation Overlord blev allierede tropper sat i land i Normandiet den 6. juni 1944 og etablerede et brohoved , som det trods ihærdige anstrengelser ikke lykkedes for tyskerne at eliminere. Herefter fulgte en to måneder lang kampagne, hvor amerikanske, britiske og canadiske tropper forsøgte at bryde ud fra det forholdsvis snævre brohoved. Da udbruddet endelig kom, skete det hurtigt, og amerikanske styrker under bl.a. George Patton kørte hurtigt gennem Frankrig mod den tyske grænse. Tyske tropper, der havde kæmpet i Normandiet, blev omringet i et område omkring Falaise . Meget omfattende bombninger af den tyske infrastruktur og byer var årsag til enorme tab og ødelæggelser. I Tyskland overlevede Hitler flere attentatforsøg. Det mest alvorlige skete den 20. juli , hvor han blev lettere såret. Invasionen i Normandiet blev fulgt af en invasion i det sydlige Frankrig i august måned under betegnelsen " Operation Dragoon ". I september var tre allierede hærgrupper opstillet over for den tyske vestfront, som stort set fulgte rigsgrænsen. De allierede nærede en forsigtig optimisme og alle troede, at krigen i Europa forhåbentlig ville være ovre ved udgangen af 1944. Den 25. august 1944 blev Paris befriet . De allierede forsøgte at presse krigslykken med " Operation Market Garden ", hvor de forsøgte at erobre en række broer ved Arnhem i Holland ved et luftbåret angreb. Forsøget blev gjort for at åbne en vej ind i Tyskland og for at befri det nordlige Nederland. Der var dog stærke tyske styrker til stede, og den britiske 1. luftbårne division blev næsten udslettet. De allierede havde erobret Antwerpen og dens store havneanlæg i starten af september, men tyske tropper holdt fortsat den nordlige del af indløbet til havnen besat. I slaget ved Schelde lykkedes det at fjerne de tyske tropper efter særdeles hårde kampe, og fra slutningen af november kunne havnen i Antwerpen lette på de allieredes forsyningssituation. Efter at den vanskelige forsyningssituation havde ført til stagnation af fronten, kom de allierede kun langsom frem i efteråret 1944. Amerikanerne kæmpede hårdt i slaget om Hürtgenskoven og havde svært ved at planlægge offensiver. Det forværredes den 16. december 1944 , da tyskerne indledte en modoffensiv i slaget om Ardennerne . De tyske styrker drev de allierede tilbage og omringede en række amerikanske styrker. Det lykkedes de allierede at standse modoffensiven og til sidst at presse tyskerne tilbage igen. Slaget om Ardennerne blev tyskernes sidste store offensiv i krigen. Den sidste forhindring for de allierede var Rhinen . Den krydsede de i marts 1945, og herefter lå vejen ind i Tyskland åben. De sidste tyske styrker i vest blev omringet i Ruhr-distriktet . Krigen slutter Uddybende artikler: De vestallieredes invasion af Tyskland og Slaget om Berlin Krigen koster omkring 60 millioner mennesker livet, hvoraf halvdelen er civile ofre. I løbet af de første måneder af 1945 trængte de Vestallierede frem til Rhinen . I begyndelsen af marts nåede amerikanerne frem til Rhinen ved Remagen og erobrede den 7. marts en jernbanebro intakt, hvorefter amerikanske styrker straks begyndte at etablere et brohoved på Rhinens østlige bred. Den 22. marts begyndte amerikanske tropper at overskride Rhinen ved Mainz og i de følgende dage fulgte yderligere overgange i syd og nord. Ruhr-området blev hurtigt omringet, og mens Ruhr blev erobret fortsatte de Vestallierede styrker hastigt øst på og erobrede hele det tyske område vest for Elben foruden store dele af Tjekkoslovakiet og Østrig. I de første måneder af 1945 var de sovjetiske styrker trængt frem til Oder og havde etableret et brohoved på flodens vestlige bred. Den 16. april gik de sovjetiske styrker til angreb over Oder og omringede hurtigt Berlin. Mens de sovjetiske styrker kæmpede mod et indædt tysk forsvar af Berlin mødtes amerikanske og sovjetiske tropper den 25. april 1945 ved Torgau , som ligger ved Elben . Montreal Daily Star : "Germany Quit", 7. maj 1945 Da de sovjetiske styrker var trængt ind i Berlins centrum og alt var tabt, valgte Hitler den 30. april at begå selvmord i sin bunker sammen med elskerinden Eva Braun , som han ægtede i sidste øjeblik. For Hitlers efterfølger storadmiral Karl Dönitz var der kun tilbage at kapitulere. De officielle kapitulationsdokumenter blev underskrevet af general Alfred Jodl den 7. maj 1945 . Den 8. maj blev erklæret for sejrsdag i Europa, VE-day . Det tyske rige blev opdelt i allierede kontrolzoner , Sovjetunionen i øst, USA i syd, Storbritannien i nordvest og Frankrig i sydvest. Ved afslutningen af krigen opstod i Danmark et ønske om retsforfølgning af tyskvenlige personer. Her demonstration i Odense. Under fremmarchen gennem de tidligere tyske besættelsesområder og selve Tyskland stødte de allierede styrker på koncentrationslejre , som nazisterne havde fængslet og udryddet cirka 12 millioner mennesker i. Den største enkeltgruppe var jøder (cirka halvdelen ifølge Nürnbergprocessen ). Andre minoriteter som sigøjnere , slaver , homoseksuelle og handicappede samt politiske fjender var blandt ofrene. Den mest omtalte af disse dødslejre er Auschwitz , Auschwitz-museet anslår dødstallet til ca. 1,1 million: 1 million jøder, 70-75.000 ikke-jødiske polakker, 21.000 sigøjnere , 15.000 sovjetiske krigsfanger og 10-15.000 fra andre lande. [ 1 ] Folkedrabet " Holocaust " er en væsentlig del af historien om 2. verdenskrig. I maj og juni 1945 blev tusinder af flygtninge fra Jugoslavien og Sovjetunionen samlet i Østrig og sendt retur via Operation Keelhaul . Flygtningene blev enten skudt eller deporteret af Sovjetunionen. Også det slagne Finland og det neutrale Sverige sendte flygtninge retur til samme skæbne. Flygtninge fra Tyskland i Danmark blev nægtet lægehjælp, og 4000 børn døde. Krigen i Europa sluttede den 8. maj, men fortsatte i Asien. Efter nedkastningen af atombomber i Hiroshima den 6. og Nagasaki den 9. august angreb Sovjetunionen Japan ved Operation Auguststorm og invaderede Manchuriet . Herefter besluttede den japanske krigsledelse den 15. august at overgive sig betingelsesløst. Den 2. september 1945 blev freden underskrevet og 2. verdenskrig var slut. De sidste tyske krigsfanger blev i 1955 løsladt af Sovjetunionen, efter Stalins død. I efteråret 1953 blev de sidste danskere, der var gået i tysk krigstjeneste, løsladt fra sovjetisk fangenskab. Krigen slutter I løbet af de første måneder af 1945 trængte de Vestallierede frem til Rhinen . I begyndelsen af marts nåede amerikanerne frem til Rhinen ved Remagen og erobrede den 7. marts en jernbanebro intakt, hvorefter amerikanske styrker straks begyndte at etablere et brohoved på Rhinens østlige bred. Den 22. marts begyndte amerikanske tropper at overskride Rhinen ved Mainz og i de følgende dage fulgte yderligere overgange i syd og nord. Ruhr-området blev hurtigt omringet, og mens Ruhr blev erobret fortsatte de Vestallierede styrker hastigt øst på og erobrede hele det tyske område vest for Elben foruden store dele af Tjekkoslovakiet og Østrig. I de første måneder af 1945 var de sovjetiske styrker trængt frem til Oder og havde etableret et brohoved på flodens vestlige bred. Den 16. april gik de sovjetiske styrker til angreb over Oder og omringede hurtigt Berlin. Mens de sovjetiske styrker kæmpede mod et indædt tysk forsvar af Berlin mødtes amerikanske og sovjetiske tropper den 25. april 1945 ved Torgau , som ligger ved Elben . Da de sovjetiske styrker var trængt ind i Berlins centrum og alt var tabt, valgte Hitler den 30. april at begå selvmord i sin bunker sammen med elskerinden Eva Braun , som han ægtede i sidste øjeblik. For Hitlers efterfølger storadmiral Karl Dönitz var der kun tilbage at kapitulere. De officielle kapitulationsdokumenter blev underskrevet af general Alfred Jodl den 7. maj 1945 . Den 8. maj blev erklæret for sejrsdag i Europa, VE-day . Det tyske rige blev opdelt i allierede kontrolzoner , Sovjetunionen i øst, USA i syd, Storbritannien i nordvest og Frankrig i sydvest. Under fremmarchen gennem de tidligere tyske besættelsesområder og selve Tyskland stødte de allierede styrker på koncentrationslejre , som nazisterne havde fængslet og udryddet cirka 12 millioner mennesker i. Den største enkeltgruppe var jøder (cirka halvdelen ifølge Nürnbergprocessen ). Andre minoriteter som sigøjnere , slaver , homoseksuelle og handicappede samt politiske fjender var blandt ofrene. Den mest omtalte af disse dødslejre er Auschwitz , Auschwitz-museet anslår dødstallet til ca. 1,1 million: 1 million jøder, 70-75.000 ikke-jødiske polakker, 21.000 sigøjnere , 15.000 sovjetiske krigsfanger og 10-15.000 fra andre lande. [ 1 ] Folkedrabet " Holocaust " er en væsentlig del af historien om 2. verdenskrig. I maj og juni 1945 blev tusinder af flygtninge fra Jugoslavien og Sovjetunionen samlet i Østrig og sendt retur via Operation Keelhaul . Flygtningene blev enten skudt eller deporteret af Sovjetunionen. Også det slagne Finland og det neutrale Sverige sendte flygtninge retur til samme skæbne. Flygtninge fra Tyskland i Danmark blev nægtet lægehjælp, og 4000 børn døde. Krigen i Europa sluttede den 8. maj, men fortsatte i Asien. Efter nedkastningen af atombomber i Hiroshima den 6. og Nagasaki den 9. august angreb Sovjetunionen Japan ved Operation Auguststorm og invaderede Manchuriet . Herefter besluttede den japanske krigsledelse den 15. august at overgive sig betingelsesløst. Den 2. september 1945 blev freden underskrevet og 2. verdenskrig var slut. De sidste tyske krigsfanger blev i 1955 løsladt af Sovjetunionen, efter Stalins død. I efteråret 1953 blev de sidste danskere, der var gået i tysk krigstjeneste, løsladt fra sovjetisk fangenskab. Danske soldater i fremmed tjeneste 66 danskere fløj i de allierede flystyrker ( RAF , Royal Canadian Air Force og de Frie Norske Flyverstyrker), hvoraf 26 omkom. [ 2 ] Yderligere kæmpede omkring 5.000 danskere på tysk side i Frikorps Danmark ved østfronten. Navne Listen er påbegyndt og ufuldstændig På allieret side Kaj Birksted Anders Lassen Christian Michael Rottbøll På aksemagternes side Peter Horn Søren Kam Christian Frederik von Schalburg Poul Sommer Knud Børge Martinsen Christian Peder Kryssing Danske soldater i fremmed tjeneste 66 danskere fløj i de allierede flystyrker ( RAF , Royal Canadian Air Force og de Frie Norske Flyverstyrker), hvoraf 26 omkom. [ 2 ] Yderligere kæmpede omkring 5.000 danskere på tysk side i Frikorps Danmark ved østfronten. Navne Listen er påbegyndt og ufuldstændig På allieret side Kaj Birksted Anders Lassen Christian Michael Rottbøll På aksemagternes side Peter Horn Søren Kam Christian Frederik von Schalburg Poul Sommer Knud Børge Martinsen Christian Peder Kryssing Navne Listen er påbegyndt og ufuldstændig På allieret side Kaj Birksted Anders Lassen Christian Michael Rottbøll På allieret side Kaj Birksted Anders Lassen Christian Michael Rottbøll På aksemagternes side Peter Horn Søren Kam Christian Frederik von Schalburg Poul Sommer Knud Børge Martinsen Christian Peder Kryssing På aksemagternes side Peter Horn Søren Kam Christian Frederik von Schalburg Poul Sommer Knud Børge Martinsen Christian Peder Kryssing Se også Blitzkrieg (computerspil) - realtidsrelateret strategisk computerspil (2003) Hearts of Iron 4 (computerspil) realtidsrelateret strategisk computerspil, (2016) Se også Blitzkrieg (computerspil) - realtidsrelateret strategisk computerspil (2003) Hearts of Iron 4 (computerspil) realtidsrelateret strategisk computerspil, (2016) Eksterne kilder/henvisninger Wikimedia Commons har medier relateret til: 2. verdenskrig .mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman} ↑ The number of victims ↑ Ole Steen Hansen: "Dansk Flyvning", Flachs, 2006, ISBN 87-627-0908-9 Bunkere fra 2. verdenskrig i Danmark Arkiveret 26. oktober 2020 hos Wayback Machine [ permanent dødt link ] [ permanent dødt link ] Linkbox med leksikale artikler og analyser om krigen generelt, med engelske og danske links (På Modkraft.dk) Podcast med en af 2.000 danske politifolk i Buchenwald Arkiveret 20. februar 2007 hos Wayback Machine Arkiveret 2. december 2009 hos Wayback Machine – spor af anden verdenskrig i Europa "Anden Verdenskrig Hvornår-Skete-Det" af Ole Helmer Jensen, Politikens Forlag 1968. .mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}} .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v d r 2. verdenskrig Vesteuropa Østeuropa Afrika ( N Ø V ) Italien Middelhavet Asien og Stillehavet Atlanten Tab Militært engagement Emner Konferencer Militære ledere Involverede lande De Allierede ( ledere ) Tjekkoslovakiet Polen Storbritannien Frankrig Indien Australien New Zealand Sydafrika Canada Norge Belgien Holland Grækenland Jugoslavien Sovjetunionen USA Filippinerne Mexico Brasilien Italien Rumænien Bulgarien Finland september 1944 – april 45 Aksemagterne ( ledere ) Japan Tyskland Slovakiet Italien Bulgarien Kroatien Finland Ungarn Irak Rumænien Thailand Salò-republikken Serbien Montenegro Albanien Modstandsbevægelser Abessinien Baltiske lande Danmark Filippinerne Frankrig Grækenland Holland Italien Jødisk Korea Norge Polen Thailand Tjekkoslovakiet Tyskland Sovjetunionen Slovakiet Ukraine Vietnam Østrig Jugoslavien: partisaner og tjetnik Tidslinje Forudgående Årsager i Asien i Europa ( Tyskland : Militært Politisk ) 1939 Polen Spøgelseskrigen Vinterkrigen Atlanten Changsha (1939) 1940 Weserübung ( Danmark og Norge ) Holland Belgien Frankrigs fald England Libyen og Egypten Britisk Somaliland De baltiske lande Bessarabien og Bukovinen Indokina Grækenland Compass 1941 Østafrika Jugoslavien Jugoslaviske front Grækenland Kreta Sovjetunionen ( Barbarossa ) Finland Mellemøsten Kiev Iran Leningrad Moskva Sevastopol Pearl Harbor Hongkong Filippinerne Changsha (1941) Malaya Borneo 1942 Burma Changsha (1942) Koralhavet Gazala Midway Blau Stalingrad Dieppe el-Alamein Torch Guadalcanal Madagaskar Henderson Field 1943 Enden i Afrika Kursk Smolensk Salomonøerne Sicilien Dnepr Italien Gilbert- og Marshalløerne Changde 1944 Cassino og Anzio Narva Ichi-Go D-dag Normandiet Marianerne og Palau Dragoon Bagration Vestukraine Jugoslavien Warszawaopstanden Østrumænien Paris Gotiskelinje Market Garden Crossbow Pointblank Lapland Ungarn Leyte Gulf Ardennerne Burma 1945 Wisła-Oder Vulkan- og Ryukyuøerne ( Iwo Jima Okinawa ) Italiens overgivelse Invasionen af Tyskland Berlin Clausewitz Tjekkoslovakiet Vestlige Hunan Tysklands overgivelse Manchuriet ( Auguststorm ) Filippinerne Borneo Hiroshima og Nagasaki Japans overgivelse Aspekter Generelle aspekter Angreb på Amerika Blitzkrieg Militær rang Kryptografi Hjemmefronten Militære udmærkelser Militært udstyr Militærproduktion Nazistisk kunstplyndring Modstandsbevægelser Teknologi Total krig Efterfølgerne/ konsekvenser Effekter / Tab Udvisning af tyskere Operation Paperclip Tysklands besættelse Morgenthauplanen Territoriale ændringer Marshallplanen Nürnbergprocessen Japans besættelse Fransk-vietnamesiske krig Den kolde krig I moderne kultur Civile indvirkninger/ grusomheder Allierede krigsforbrydelser Tyske krigsforbrydelser Italienske krigsforbrydelser Japanske krigsforbrydelser Sovjetiske krigsforbrydelser Holocaust Bombning af civilbefolkningen Kategori Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Medier relateret til 2. verdenskrig på Commons Autoritetsdata LCCN : sh85148273 GND : 4079167-1 SELIBR : 139432 BNF : cb11996115g (data) HDS : 008927 LIR : 1129 NDL : 00570524 NKC : ph117270 BNE : XX526764 KulturNav : id DSD : 2._Verdenskrig Eksterne kilder/henvisninger Wikimedia Commons har medier relateret til: 2. verdenskrig ↑ The number of victims ↑ Ole Steen Hansen: "Dansk Flyvning", Flachs, 2006, ISBN 87-627-0908-9 Bunkere fra 2. verdenskrig i Danmark Arkiveret 26. oktober 2020 hos Wayback Machine [ permanent dødt link ] [ permanent dødt link ] Linkbox med leksikale artikler og analyser om krigen generelt, med engelske og danske links (På Modkraft.dk) Podcast med en af 2.000 danske politifolk i Buchenwald Arkiveret 20. februar 2007 hos Wayback Machine Arkiveret 2. december 2009 hos Wayback Machine – spor af anden verdenskrig i Europa "Anden Verdenskrig Hvornår-Skete-Det" af Ole Helmer Jensen, Politikens Forlag 1968. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v d r 2. verdenskrig v d r Vesteuropa Østeuropa Afrika ( N Ø V ) Italien Middelhavet Asien og Stillehavet Atlanten Tab Militært engagement Emner Konferencer Militære ledere Vesteuropa Østeuropa Afrika ( N Ø V ) Italien Middelhavet Asien og Stillehavet Atlanten Tab Militært engagement Emner Konferencer Militære ledere Involverede lande De Allierede ( ledere ) Tjekkoslovakiet Polen Storbritannien Frankrig Indien Australien New Zealand Sydafrika Canada Norge Belgien Holland Grækenland Jugoslavien Sovjetunionen USA Filippinerne Mexico Brasilien Italien Rumænien Bulgarien Finland september 1944 – april 45 Aksemagterne ( ledere ) Japan Tyskland Slovakiet Italien Bulgarien Kroatien Finland Ungarn Irak Rumænien Thailand Salò-republikken Serbien Montenegro Albanien Modstandsbevægelser Abessinien Baltiske lande Danmark Filippinerne Frankrig Grækenland Holland Italien Jødisk Korea Norge Polen Thailand Tjekkoslovakiet Tyskland Sovjetunionen Slovakiet Ukraine Vietnam Østrig Jugoslavien: partisaner og tjetnik De Allierede ( ledere ) Tjekkoslovakiet Polen Storbritannien Frankrig Indien Australien New Zealand Sydafrika Canada Norge Belgien Holland Grækenland Jugoslavien Sovjetunionen USA Filippinerne Mexico Brasilien Italien Rumænien Bulgarien Finland september 1944 – april 45 Tjekkoslovakiet Polen Storbritannien Frankrig Indien Australien New Zealand Sydafrika Canada Norge Belgien Holland Grækenland Jugoslavien Sovjetunionen USA Filippinerne Mexico Brasilien Italien Rumænien Bulgarien Finland september 1944 – april 45 Aksemagterne ( ledere ) Japan Tyskland Slovakiet Italien Bulgarien Kroatien Finland Ungarn Irak Rumænien Thailand Salò-republikken Serbien Montenegro Albanien Japan Tyskland Slovakiet Italien Bulgarien Kroatien Finland Ungarn Irak Rumænien Thailand Salò-republikken Serbien Montenegro Albanien Modstandsbevægelser Abessinien Baltiske lande Danmark Filippinerne Frankrig Grækenland Holland Italien Jødisk Korea Norge Polen Thailand Tjekkoslovakiet Tyskland Sovjetunionen Slovakiet Ukraine Vietnam Østrig Jugoslavien: partisaner og tjetnik Abessinien Baltiske lande Danmark Filippinerne Frankrig Grækenland Holland Italien Jødisk Korea Norge Polen Thailand Tjekkoslovakiet Tyskland Sovjetunionen Slovakiet Ukraine Vietnam Østrig Jugoslavien: partisaner og tjetnik Tidslinje Forudgående Årsager i Asien i Europa ( Tyskland : Militært Politisk ) 1939 Polen Spøgelseskrigen Vinterkrigen Atlanten Changsha (1939) 1940 Weserübung ( Danmark og Norge ) Holland Belgien Frankrigs fald England Libyen og Egypten Britisk Somaliland De baltiske lande Bessarabien og Bukovinen Indokina Grækenland Compass 1941 Østafrika Jugoslavien Jugoslaviske front Grækenland Kreta Sovjetunionen ( Barbarossa ) Finland Mellemøsten Kiev Iran Leningrad Moskva Sevastopol Pearl Harbor Hongkong Filippinerne Changsha (1941) Malaya Borneo 1942 Burma Changsha (1942) Koralhavet Gazala Midway Blau Stalingrad Dieppe el-Alamein Torch Guadalcanal Madagaskar Henderson Field 1943 Enden i Afrika Kursk Smolensk Salomonøerne Sicilien Dnepr Italien Gilbert- og Marshalløerne Changde 1944 Cassino og Anzio Narva Ichi-Go D-dag Normandiet Marianerne og Palau Dragoon Bagration Vestukraine Jugoslavien Warszawaopstanden Østrumænien Paris Gotiskelinje Market Garden Crossbow Pointblank Lapland Ungarn Leyte Gulf Ardennerne Burma 1945 Wisła-Oder Vulkan- og Ryukyuøerne ( Iwo Jima Okinawa ) Italiens overgivelse Invasionen af Tyskland Berlin Clausewitz Tjekkoslovakiet Vestlige Hunan Tysklands overgivelse Manchuriet ( Auguststorm ) Filippinerne Borneo Hiroshima og Nagasaki Japans overgivelse Forudgående Årsager i Asien i Europa ( Tyskland : Militært Politisk ) Årsager i Asien i Europa ( Tyskland : Militært Politisk ) 1939 Polen Spøgelseskrigen Vinterkrigen Atlanten Changsha (1939) Polen Spøgelseskrigen Vinterkrigen Atlanten Changsha (1939) 1940 Weserübung ( Danmark og Norge ) Holland Belgien Frankrigs fald England Libyen og Egypten Britisk Somaliland De baltiske lande Bessarabien og Bukovinen Indokina Grækenland Compass Weserübung ( Danmark og Norge ) Holland Belgien Frankrigs fald England Libyen og Egypten Britisk Somaliland De baltiske lande Bessarabien og Bukovinen Indokina Grækenland Compass 1941 Østafrika Jugoslavien Jugoslaviske front Grækenland Kreta Sovjetunionen ( Barbarossa ) Finland Mellemøsten Kiev Iran Leningrad Moskva Sevastopol Pearl Harbor Hongkong Filippinerne Changsha (1941) Malaya Borneo Østafrika Jugoslavien Jugoslaviske front Grækenland Kreta Sovjetunionen ( Barbarossa ) Finland Mellemøsten Kiev Iran Leningrad Moskva Sevastopol Pearl Harbor Hongkong Filippinerne Changsha (1941) Malaya Borneo 1942 Burma Changsha (1942) Koralhavet Gazala Midway Blau Stalingrad Dieppe el-Alamein Torch Guadalcanal Madagaskar Henderson Field Burma Changsha (1942) Koralhavet Gazala Midway Blau Stalingrad Dieppe el-Alamein Torch Guadalcanal Madagaskar Henderson Field 1943 Enden i Afrika Kursk Smolensk Salomonøerne Sicilien Dnepr Italien Gilbert- og Marshalløerne Changde Enden i Afrika Kursk Smolensk Salomonøerne Sicilien Dnepr Italien Gilbert- og Marshalløerne Changde 1944 Cassino og Anzio Narva Ichi-Go D-dag Normandiet Marianerne og Palau Dragoon Bagration Vestukraine Jugoslavien Warszawaopstanden Østrumænien Paris Gotiskelinje Market Garden Crossbow Pointblank Lapland Ungarn Leyte Gulf Ardennerne Burma Cassino og Anzio Narva Ichi-Go D-dag Normandiet Marianerne og Palau Dragoon Bagration Vestukraine Jugoslavien Warszawaopstanden Østrumænien Paris Gotiskelinje Market Garden Crossbow Pointblank Lapland Ungarn Leyte Gulf Ardennerne Burma 1945 Wisła-Oder Vulkan- og Ryukyuøerne ( Iwo Jima Okinawa ) Italiens overgivelse Invasionen af Tyskland Berlin Clausewitz Tjekkoslovakiet Vestlige Hunan Tysklands overgivelse Manchuriet ( Auguststorm ) Filippinerne Borneo Hiroshima og Nagasaki Japans overgivelse Wisła-Oder Vulkan- og Ryukyuøerne ( Iwo Jima Okinawa ) Italiens overgivelse Invasionen af Tyskland Berlin Clausewitz Tjekkoslovakiet Vestlige Hunan Tysklands overgivelse Manchuriet ( Auguststorm ) Filippinerne Borneo Hiroshima og Nagasaki Japans overgivelse Aspekter Generelle aspekter Angreb på Amerika Blitzkrieg Militær rang Kryptografi Hjemmefronten Militære udmærkelser Militært udstyr Militærproduktion Nazistisk kunstplyndring Modstandsbevægelser Teknologi Total krig Efterfølgerne/ konsekvenser Effekter / Tab Udvisning af tyskere Operation Paperclip Tysklands besættelse Morgenthauplanen Territoriale ændringer Marshallplanen Nürnbergprocessen Japans besættelse Fransk-vietnamesiske krig Den kolde krig I moderne kultur Civile indvirkninger/ grusomheder Allierede krigsforbrydelser Tyske krigsforbrydelser Italienske krigsforbrydelser Japanske krigsforbrydelser Sovjetiske krigsforbrydelser Holocaust Bombning af civilbefolkningen Generelle aspekter Angreb på Amerika Blitzkrieg Militær rang Kryptografi Hjemmefronten Militære udmærkelser Militært udstyr Militærproduktion Nazistisk kunstplyndring Modstandsbevægelser Teknologi Total krig Angreb på Amerika Blitzkrieg Militær rang Kryptografi Hjemmefronten Militære udmærkelser Militært udstyr Militærproduktion Nazistisk kunstplyndring Modstandsbevægelser Teknologi Total krig 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: C-GRASP: Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing Abstract: Heart rate variability (HRV) is a pivotal noninvasive marker for autonomic monitoring; however, applying Large Language Models (LLMs) to HRV interpretation is hindered by physiological hallucinations. These include respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) contamination, short-data instability in nonlinear metrics, and the neglect of individualized baselines in favor of population norms. We propose C-GRASP (Clinically-Grounded Reasoning for Affective Signal Processing), a guardrailed RAG-enhanced pipeline that decomposes HRV interpretation into eight traceable reasoning steps. Central to C-GRASP is a Z-score Priority Hierarchy that enforces the weighting of individualized baseline shifts over normative statistics. The system effectively mitigates spectral hallucinations through automated RSA-aware guardrails, preventing contamination of frequency-domain indices. Evaluated on 414 trials from the DREAMER dataset, C-GRASP integrated with high-scale reasoning models (e.g., MedGemma3-thinking) achieved superior performance in 4-class emotion classification (37.3% accuracy) and a Clinical Reasoning Consistency (CRC) score of 69.6%. Ablation studies confirm that the individualized Delta Z-score module serves as the critical logical anchor, preventing the "population bias" common in native LLMs. Ultimately, C-GRASP transitions affective computing from black-box classification to transparent, evidence-based clinical decision support, paving the way for safer AI integration in biomedical engineering. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10342 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10342v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Skip to content Accessibility Help Your account Home News Sport Earth Reel Worklife Travel Culture Future Music TV Weather Sounds More menu Home News Sport Earth Reel Worklife Travel Culture Future Music TV Weather Sounds Home Football Cricket Formula 1 Rugby U Tennis Golf Athletics Cycling American Football Athletics Basketball Boxing Cricket Cycling Darts Disability Sport Football Formula 1 Gaelic Games Golf Gymnastics Horse Racing Mixed Martial Arts Motorsport Netball Olympic Sports Rugby League Rugby Union Snooker Swimming Tennis Winter Sports Full Sports A-Z England Scotland Wales Northern Ireland News Feeds Help & FAQs Football Scores & Fixtures Tables Gossip Transfers Top Scorers Women European All Teams Leagues & Cups Quizzes Premier League news conferences: Arteta speaking; Slot on Salah & Robertson Summary Premier League news conferences taking place on Friday; managers providing team news updates and discuss transfers Premier League news conferences taking place on Friday; managers providing team news updates and discuss transfers Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta speaking as his table-topping side go to Nottingham Forest on Saturday Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta speaking as his table-topping side go to Nottingham Forest on Saturday Arteta on the form of Viktor Gyokeres: 'He knows the level we want and he wants to fulfil the level we expect of him' Arteta on the form of Viktor Gyokeres: 'He knows the level we want and he wants to fulfil the level we expect of him' Arne Slot spoke earlier on Mohamed Salah's imminent return from the Africa Cup of Nations and on Andy Robertson's future - here's a recap of what Slot said Arne Slot spoke earlier on Mohamed Salah's imminent return from the Africa Cup of Nations and on Andy Robertson's future - here's a recap of what Slot said Also speaking this morning: Fabian Hurzeler and Eddie Howe Also speaking this morning: Fabian Hurzeler and Eddie Howe Team news: Arteta vague | Only long-term absentees for Liverpool | Schar surgery Team news: Arteta vague | Only long-term absentees for Liverpool | Schar surgery Click ' Get Involved ' to have your say Click ' Get Involved ' to have your say Your views before the Premier League weekend Live Reporting Written by Ben Ramsdale, Adwaidh Rajan, Ailsa Cowen & George Booth. 'Osula and Burn getting closer' published at 11:45 GMT 11:45 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on Will Osula and Dan Burn's injury updates : "They're both getting closer. Will, hopefully, will be training imminently. Then, of course, we have to make a decision about when we can include him in the matchday squad. "With Dan, he is improving, he is running, his fitness will be OK. That won't be an issue, it is just managing the pain of the injury. He looks in good shape, it is just the top end pain when he is sprinting." 3 1 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'Osula and Burn getting closer' published at 11:45 GMT 11:45 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on Will Osula and Dan Burn's injury updates : "They're both getting closer. Will, hopefully, will be training imminently. Then, of course, we have to make a decision about when we can include him in the matchday squad. "With Dan, he is improving, he is running, his fitness will be OK. That won't be an issue, it is just managing the pain of the injury. He looks in good shape, it is just the top end pain when he is sprinting." 'Osula and Burn getting closer' published at 11:45 GMT 11:45 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on Will Osula and Dan Burn's injury updates : "They're both getting closer. Will, hopefully, will be training imminently. Then, of course, we have to make a decision about when we can include him in the matchday squad. "With Dan, he is improving, he is running, his fitness will be OK. That won't be an issue, it is just managing the pain of the injury. He looks in good shape, it is just the top end pain when he is sprinting." 'The prognosis is better than first feared' published at 11:40 GMT 11:40 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images After undergoing an operation on his ankle Newcastle’s defender, Fabian Schar posted an update from hospital on Instagram: “Thank you for all the well wishes over the past few weeks - It means a lot! “The prognosis is better than first feared… and most importantly, the surgery went well in London today! “I’ll be supporting the boys from the stands in the meantime and can’t wait to get back out there” 15 0 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'The prognosis is better than first feared' published at 11:40 GMT 11:40 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images After undergoing an operation on his ankle Newcastle’s defender, Fabian Schar posted an update from hospital on Instagram: “Thank you for all the well wishes over the past few weeks - It means a lot! “The prognosis is better than first feared… and most importantly, the surgery went well in London today! “I’ll be supporting the boys from the stands in the meantime and can’t wait to get back out there” 'The prognosis is better than first feared' published at 11:40 GMT 11:40 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United After undergoing an operation on his ankle Newcastle’s defender, Fabian Schar posted an update from hospital on Instagram: “Thank you for all the well wishes over the past few weeks - It means a lot! “The prognosis is better than first feared… and most importantly, the surgery went well in London today! “I’ll be supporting the boys from the stands in the meantime and can’t wait to get back out there” 'Schar had successful surgery' published at 11:37 GMT 11:37 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on Fabian Schar's surgery for an injured ankle: "He had a successful surgery yesterday, which is great news. I think it is difficult to give a definitive [return date], but roughly about three months is the plan we will work towards. "We need to give Fabian the time to recover. It is quite a serious injury." 11 1 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing Return to the latest post 'Schar had successful surgery' published at 11:37 GMT 11:37 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on Fabian Schar's surgery for an injured ankle: "He had a successful surgery yesterday, which is great news. I think it is difficult to give a definitive [return date], but roughly about three months is the plan we will work towards. "We need to give Fabian the time to recover. It is quite a serious injury." 'Schar had successful surgery' published at 11:37 GMT 11:37 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on Fabian Schar's surgery for an injured ankle: "He had a successful surgery yesterday, which is great news. I think it is difficult to give a definitive [return date], but roughly about three months is the plan we will work towards. "We need to give Fabian the time to recover. It is quite a serious injury." 'We can't allow our standards to drop' published at 11:33 GMT 11:33 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on aiming for Champions League qualification: "It is nice to come back to the Premier League in a positive frame of mind. We haven't always had that this season. That is a really good thing for us. We know that the Premier League is such an important competition for us. "It is where you consistently and your true strength shows. "We want to stay in the upper parts of the league. The big challenge for us is to challenge that consistency that we have built up in the last few games. "We can't allow our standards to drop at any moment. There is a lot of games to come in a short space of time." 14 2 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'We can't allow our standards to drop' published at 11:33 GMT 11:33 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on aiming for Champions League qualification: "It is nice to come back to the Premier League in a positive frame of mind. We haven't always had that this season. That is a really good thing for us. We know that the Premier League is such an important competition for us. "It is where you consistently and your true strength shows. "We want to stay in the upper parts of the league. The big challenge for us is to challenge that consistency that we have built up in the last few games. "We can't allow our standards to drop at any moment. There is a lot of games to come in a short space of time." 'We can't allow our standards to drop' published at 11:33 GMT 11:33 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Newcastle United boss Eddie Howe on aiming for Champions League qualification: "It is nice to come back to the Premier League in a positive frame of mind. We haven't always had that this season. That is a really good thing for us. We know that the Premier League is such an important competition for us. "It is where you consistently and your true strength shows. "We want to stay in the upper parts of the league. The big challenge for us is to challenge that consistency that we have built up in the last few games. "We can't allow our standards to drop at any moment. There is a lot of games to come in a short space of time." Post published at 11:30 GMT 11:30 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images It's time now to turn our focus to Newcastle. Eddie Howe's side are on a three-game winning run in the Premier League but over the past few days have scraped through on penalties against Bournemouth in the FA Cup and lost 2-0 to Manchester City in the Carabao Cup semi-final first leg. 8 6 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing Post published at 11:30 GMT 11:30 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United Image source, Getty Images It's time now to turn our focus to Newcastle. Eddie Howe's side are on a three-game winning run in the Premier League but over the past few days have scraped through on penalties against Bournemouth in the FA Cup and lost 2-0 to Manchester City in the Carabao Cup semi-final first leg. Post published at 11:30 GMT 11:30 GMT Wolves v Newcastle (Sun, 14:00 GMT) Newcastle United It's time now to turn our focus to Newcastle. Eddie Howe's side are on a three-game winning run in the Premier League but over the past few days have scraped through on penalties against Bournemouth in the FA Cup and lost 2-0 to Manchester City in the Carabao Cup semi-final first leg. Recap: Mikel Arteta news conference published at 11:25 GMT 11:25 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta has been speaking to the media this morning before his side's trip to Nottingham Forest on Saturday evening. The Gunners lead at the top could be cut to three points before they kick-off should Manchester City get a positive result against Manchester United in the lunchtime game. Here are the top lines from his news conference: The Arsenal boss delivered his usual vague update with regard to team news He said striker Viktor Gyokeres has "set the standard" in recent years with his performances and it's one they "expect him to maintain" Arteta was full of praise for Nottingham Forest and their manager Sean Dyche He said the team's recent form should help them to be "very convinced" that they can achieve something special in 2026 Midfielder Martin Zubimendi has "earned the respect of everyone" since his arrival at the club And finally, Arteta commented on the clip that was published on social media of Declan Rice arguing with assistant manager Albert Stuivenberg, saying that the problem was "all sorted" 16 8 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing Recap: Mikel Arteta news conference published at 11:25 GMT 11:25 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta has been speaking to the media this morning before his side's trip to Nottingham Forest on Saturday evening. The Gunners lead at the top could be cut to three points before they kick-off should Manchester City get a positive result against Manchester United in the lunchtime game. Here are the top lines from his news conference: The Arsenal boss delivered his usual vague update with regard to team news He said striker Viktor Gyokeres has "set the standard" in recent years with his performances and it's one they "expect him to maintain" Arteta was full of praise for Nottingham Forest and their manager Sean Dyche He said the team's recent form should help them to be "very convinced" that they can achieve something special in 2026 Midfielder Martin Zubimendi has "earned the respect of everyone" since his arrival at the club And finally, Arteta commented on the clip that was published on social media of Declan Rice arguing with assistant manager Albert Stuivenberg, saying that the problem was "all sorted" Recap: Mikel Arteta news conference published at 11:25 GMT 11:25 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta has been speaking to the media this morning before his side's trip to Nottingham Forest on Saturday evening. The Gunners lead at the top could be cut to three points before they kick-off should Manchester City get a positive result against Manchester United in the lunchtime game. Here are the top lines from his news conference: The Arsenal boss delivered his usual vague update with regard to team news He said striker Viktor Gyokeres has "set the standard" in recent years with his performances and it's one they "expect him to maintain" Arteta was full of praise for Nottingham Forest and their manager Sean Dyche He said the team's recent form should help them to be "very convinced" that they can achieve something special in 2026 Midfielder Martin Zubimendi has "earned the respect of everyone" since his arrival at the club And finally, Arteta commented on the clip that was published on social media of Declan Rice arguing with assistant manager Albert Stuivenberg, saying that the problem was "all sorted" get involved Get Involved - 'Arsenal not playing like proper champions-elect' published at 11:19 GMT 11:19 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Dave @ 10:50 Every team has a dip in form, City have had theirs and are still only a couple of wins away from Arsenal and they know how to sustain a title bid all the way to the finish line, Arsenal don't. James, London As a Tottenham fan, I'm fully with Dave, couldn't agree with him more... (in hope!) Ollie, Brighton Arsenal may be top of the EPL, but they are not playing with swagger and blowing teams away like a proper champions-elect. Also, they are beginning to look nervous and conceding needless goals lately. Kani, Bolton 60 171 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing get involved Get Involved - 'Arsenal not playing like proper champions-elect' published at 11:19 GMT 11:19 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Dave @ 10:50 Every team has a dip in form, City have had theirs and are still only a couple of wins away from Arsenal and they know how to sustain a title bid all the way to the finish line, Arsenal don't. James, London As a Tottenham fan, I'm fully with Dave, couldn't agree with him more... (in hope!) Ollie, Brighton Arsenal may be top of the EPL, but they are not playing with swagger and blowing teams away like a proper champions-elect. Also, they are beginning to look nervous and conceding needless goals lately. Kani, Bolton Get Involved - 'Arsenal not playing like proper champions-elect' published at 11:19 GMT 11:19 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Dave @ 10:50 Every team has a dip in form, City have had theirs and are still only a couple of wins away from Arsenal and they know how to sustain a title bid all the way to the finish line, Arsenal don't. James, London As a Tottenham fan, I'm fully with Dave, couldn't agree with him more... (in hope!) Ollie, Brighton Arsenal may be top of the EPL, but they are not playing with swagger and blowing teams away like a proper champions-elect. Also, they are beginning to look nervous and conceding needless goals lately. Kani, Bolton 'All sorted' - Arteta on Rice arguing with assistant published at 11:16 GMT 11:16 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal A final word from Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Declan Rice and assistant manager Albert Stuivenberg having a disagreement in the tunnel during the Carabao Cup semi-final first leg : "All sorted, all good. "The good thing is that by the time I found out, the problem was resolved. So that's very good." 62 18 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'All sorted' - Arteta on Rice arguing with assistant published at 11:16 GMT 11:16 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal A final word from Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Declan Rice and assistant manager Albert Stuivenberg having a disagreement in the tunnel during the Carabao Cup semi-final first leg : "All sorted, all good. "The good thing is that by the time I found out, the problem was resolved. So that's very good." 'All sorted' - Arteta on Rice arguing with assistant published at 11:16 GMT 11:16 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal A final word from Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Declan Rice and assistant manager Albert Stuivenberg having a disagreement in the tunnel during the Carabao Cup semi-final first leg : "All sorted, all good. "The good thing is that by the time I found out, the problem was resolved. So that's very good." get involved Get Involved - 'Remember Arsenal have to go to the Etihad' published at 11:13 GMT 11:13 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Dave of Lancs - agree. It could easily fall apart or have Man City’s 3 draws on the trot handed the title to Arsenal? More twists to come no doubt and remember Arsenal have to go to the Etihad. Alan, West Sussex Dave @ 10:50 - he's right in the sense Arsenal are nowhere near their best, but they're not needing to be. Man City aren't good enough at the back & Villa don't have the squad to sustain a title challenge. Paul, London 82 26 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing get involved Get Involved - 'Remember Arsenal have to go to the Etihad' published at 11:13 GMT 11:13 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Dave of Lancs - agree. It could easily fall apart or have Man City’s 3 draws on the trot handed the title to Arsenal? More twists to come no doubt and remember Arsenal have to go to the Etihad. Alan, West Sussex Dave @ 10:50 - he's right in the sense Arsenal are nowhere near their best, but they're not needing to be. Man City aren't good enough at the back & Villa don't have the squad to sustain a title challenge. Paul, London Get Involved - 'Remember Arsenal have to go to the Etihad' published at 11:13 GMT 11:13 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Dave of Lancs - agree. It could easily fall apart or have Man City’s 3 draws on the trot handed the title to Arsenal? More twists to come no doubt and remember Arsenal have to go to the Etihad. Alan, West Sussex Dave @ 10:50 - he's right in the sense Arsenal are nowhere near their best, but they're not needing to be. Man City aren't good enough at the back & Villa don't have the squad to sustain a title challenge. Paul, London 'Everybody is in contention' published at 11:10 GMT 11:10 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Ethan Nwaneri: "They all have the option to play. We have to see which ones. We have certain limitations especially in the league with the numbers that we can bring into the squad unfortunately. But everybody is in contention." Image source, Getty Images 39 12 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'Everybody is in contention' published at 11:10 GMT 11:10 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Ethan Nwaneri: "They all have the option to play. We have to see which ones. We have certain limitations especially in the league with the numbers that we can bring into the squad unfortunately. But everybody is in contention." Image source, Getty Images 'Everybody is in contention' published at 11:10 GMT 11:10 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Ethan Nwaneri: "They all have the option to play. We have to see which ones. We have certain limitations especially in the league with the numbers that we can bring into the squad unfortunately. But everybody is in contention." 'Having these options very interesting' published at 11:08 GMT 11:08 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on playing Kai Havertz and Gabriel Jesus together against Chelsea: "The spaces were opening up. We needed somebody who could arrive in the box. We have combinations and players can alter positions as well. "In certain games that we are going to have in the next weeks, to have these options when we expect certain kind of behaviours from opponents can be very interesting." 47 10 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'Having these options very interesting' published at 11:08 GMT 11:08 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on playing Kai Havertz and Gabriel Jesus together against Chelsea: "The spaces were opening up. We needed somebody who could arrive in the box. We have combinations and players can alter positions as well. "In certain games that we are going to have in the next weeks, to have these options when we expect certain kind of behaviours from opponents can be very interesting." 'Having these options very interesting' published at 11:08 GMT 11:08 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on playing Kai Havertz and Gabriel Jesus together against Chelsea: "The spaces were opening up. We needed somebody who could arrive in the box. We have combinations and players can alter positions as well. "In certain games that we are going to have in the next weeks, to have these options when we expect certain kind of behaviours from opponents can be very interesting." Post published at 11:06 GMT 11:06 GMT Ben Ramsdale BBC Sport You've spiced it up good and proper, Dave. That's just four of A LOT of texts coming in disagreeing with you, there. Anyone out there want to back poor Dave? Does anyone truly believe the Gunners are heading for a bad spell? Click that 'Get Involved' button if you do... 18 50 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing Post published at 11:06 GMT 11:06 GMT Ben Ramsdale BBC Sport You've spiced it up good and proper, Dave. That's just four of A LOT of texts coming in disagreeing with you, there. Anyone out there want to back poor Dave? Does anyone truly believe the Gunners are heading for a bad spell? Click that 'Get Involved' button if you do... Post published at 11:06 GMT 11:06 GMT Ben Ramsdale BBC Sport You've spiced it up good and proper, Dave. That's just four of A LOT of texts coming in disagreeing with you, there. Anyone out there want to back poor Dave? Does anyone truly believe the Gunners are heading for a bad spell? Click that 'Get Involved' button if you do... get involved Get Involved - 'It is just you, Dave...' published at 11:01 GMT 11:01 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say To Dave @ 10:50. It's just you Dave....... Jason, Barbados Haha "Are Arsenal hovering above where they collapse". Change the record people, you just look bitter. We have played like that for 3 months with the heavy schedule and got wins while others have lost points. When the games thin out and the injuries ease you will be shocked. Matt, Leeds Dave @10:50 One defeat in all comps since AUGUST. It's just you mate Meu, Wales Re Dave 10:50: I'm a typically cautious Arsenal fan but I certainly don't feel doubt creeping in! The team looks mentally stronger and this is the first year I'm actually confident we can see it through. March/April will be when we see how much this team has grown. Ollie, London 180 47 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing get involved Get Involved - 'It is just you, Dave...' published at 11:01 GMT 11:01 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say To Dave @ 10:50. It's just you Dave....... Jason, Barbados Haha "Are Arsenal hovering above where they collapse". Change the record people, you just look bitter. We have played like that for 3 months with the heavy schedule and got wins while others have lost points. When the games thin out and the injuries ease you will be shocked. Matt, Leeds Dave @10:50 One defeat in all comps since AUGUST. It's just you mate Meu, Wales Re Dave 10:50: I'm a typically cautious Arsenal fan but I certainly don't feel doubt creeping in! The team looks mentally stronger and this is the first year I'm actually confident we can see it through. March/April will be when we see how much this team has grown. Ollie, London Get Involved - 'It is just you, Dave...' published at 11:01 GMT 11:01 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say To Dave @ 10:50. It's just you Dave....... Jason, Barbados Haha "Are Arsenal hovering above where they collapse". Change the record people, you just look bitter. We have played like that for 3 months with the heavy schedule and got wins while others have lost points. When the games thin out and the injuries ease you will be shocked. Matt, Leeds Dave @10:50 One defeat in all comps since AUGUST. It's just you mate Meu, Wales Re Dave 10:50: I'm a typically cautious Arsenal fan but I certainly don't feel doubt creeping in! The team looks mentally stronger and this is the first year I'm actually confident we can see it through. March/April will be when we see how much this team has grown. Ollie, London 'They're trying everything to simplify offside rules' published at 10:59 GMT 10:59 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on whether he is happy with the offside rules: "Happy depends on the situation you have to face. That's honestly talking. I know they are trying everything they can to simplify to bring as much clarity as possible, but it's still a very difficult decision to make. So you have to understand that. "On top of that, there is maybe a new possible rule coming. We are not going to have any say." "They are constantly trying to improve the game and be consistent and clear as possible. They are looking at options, they will decide and we will have to adapt." 31 13 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'They're trying everything to simplify offside rules' published at 10:59 GMT 10:59 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on whether he is happy with the offside rules: "Happy depends on the situation you have to face. That's honestly talking. I know they are trying everything they can to simplify to bring as much clarity as possible, but it's still a very difficult decision to make. So you have to understand that. "On top of that, there is maybe a new possible rule coming. We are not going to have any say." "They are constantly trying to improve the game and be consistent and clear as possible. They are looking at options, they will decide and we will have to adapt." 'They're trying everything to simplify offside rules' published at 10:59 GMT 10:59 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on whether he is happy with the offside rules: "Happy depends on the situation you have to face. That's honestly talking. I know they are trying everything they can to simplify to bring as much clarity as possible, but it's still a very difficult decision to make. So you have to understand that. "On top of that, there is maybe a new possible rule coming. We are not going to have any say." "They are constantly trying to improve the game and be consistent and clear as possible. They are looking at options, they will decide and we will have to adapt." Zubimendi 'has earned the respect of everyone' published at 10:56 GMT 10:56 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Image source, Getty Images Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Martin Zubimendi: "Very happy, in the manner that he has settled at the club. When you talk to any member of the staff or player about him, there's a big smile on their face and something very positive coming out of their mouths. "He has earned the respect of everyone here very very quickly and of the supporters. He's very humble, very focussed. Incredibly consistent. And on top of that, he has surprised a few people with his ability to attack in the box." 110 24 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing Zubimendi 'has earned the respect of everyone' published at 10:56 GMT 10:56 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Image source, Getty Images Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Martin Zubimendi: "Very happy, in the manner that he has settled at the club. When you talk to any member of the staff or player about him, there's a big smile on their face and something very positive coming out of their mouths. "He has earned the respect of everyone here very very quickly and of the supporters. He's very humble, very focussed. Incredibly consistent. And on top of that, he has surprised a few people with his ability to attack in the box." Zubimendi 'has earned the respect of everyone' published at 10:56 GMT 10:56 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on Martin Zubimendi: "Very happy, in the manner that he has settled at the club. When you talk to any member of the staff or player about him, there's a big smile on their face and something very positive coming out of their mouths. "He has earned the respect of everyone here very very quickly and of the supporters. He's very humble, very focussed. Incredibly consistent. And on top of that, he has surprised a few people with his ability to attack in the box." 'Social skills necessary and undervalued' published at 10:53 GMT 10:53 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal More from Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on England manager Thomas Tuchel's comments that players need social skills to make World Cup squad: "I fully agree with Thomas. It is something that's incredibly necessary and many times undervalued. "There are players who do not have impact in terms of minutes but they have the impact in and around the team to bring everybody together and create that atmosphere to support the team is critical in my opinion." 96 14 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'Social skills necessary and undervalued' published at 10:53 GMT 10:53 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal More from Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on England manager Thomas Tuchel's comments that players need social skills to make World Cup squad: "I fully agree with Thomas. It is something that's incredibly necessary and many times undervalued. "There are players who do not have impact in terms of minutes but they have the impact in and around the team to bring everybody together and create that atmosphere to support the team is critical in my opinion." 'Social skills necessary and undervalued' published at 10:53 GMT 10:53 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal More from Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on England manager Thomas Tuchel's comments that players need social skills to make World Cup squad: "I fully agree with Thomas. It is something that's incredibly necessary and many times undervalued. "There are players who do not have impact in terms of minutes but they have the impact in and around the team to bring everybody together and create that atmosphere to support the team is critical in my opinion." get involved Get Involved - 'You can feel the self-doubt creeping in for Arsenal' published at 10:50 GMT 10:50 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Is it just me or does it feel like Arsenal are just hovering above that point where everything falls to pieces? They looked nervous against Chelsea midweek, conceding two goals. You can just feel the self-doubt creeping in before the inevitable happens yet again. Dave, Lancs 193 815 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing get involved Get Involved - 'You can feel the self-doubt creeping in for Arsenal' published at 10:50 GMT 10:50 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Is it just me or does it feel like Arsenal are just hovering above that point where everything falls to pieces? They looked nervous against Chelsea midweek, conceding two goals. You can just feel the self-doubt creeping in before the inevitable happens yet again. Dave, Lancs Get Involved - 'You can feel the self-doubt creeping in for Arsenal' published at 10:50 GMT 10:50 GMT Click 'Get Involved' to have your say Is it just me or does it feel like Arsenal are just hovering above that point where everything falls to pieces? They looked nervous against Chelsea midweek, conceding two goals. You can just feel the self-doubt creeping in before the inevitable happens yet again. Dave, Lancs 'Having players back is very helpful' published at 10:48 GMT 10:48 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on the challenge of playing so many away games: “In certain things yes. On looking at the opponents and the thing that we are able to train and replicate in those things, ideally we want to plan. But sometimes it's impossible and you have to go game by game. "We have more players back now, we have better options. That's very helpful. We are giving game time to almost every player." Image source, Getty Images 65 14 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'Having players back is very helpful' published at 10:48 GMT 10:48 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on the challenge of playing so many away games: “In certain things yes. On looking at the opponents and the thing that we are able to train and replicate in those things, ideally we want to plan. But sometimes it's impossible and you have to go game by game. "We have more players back now, we have better options. That's very helpful. We are giving game time to almost every player." Image source, Getty Images 'Having players back is very helpful' published at 10:48 GMT 10:48 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on the challenge of playing so many away games: “In certain things yes. On looking at the opponents and the thing that we are able to train and replicate in those things, ideally we want to plan. But sometimes it's impossible and you have to go game by game. "We have more players back now, we have better options. That's very helpful. We are giving game time to almost every player." 'Organisation and desire' key to good defence published at 10:45 GMT 10:45 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on his team's defensive record: "[We have done that] with the right level of organisation but especially with the desire the players show every day and the commitment they show to do all their duties that are necessary for us to be a team that is very difficult to play and score against." 69 14 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'Organisation and desire' key to good defence published at 10:45 GMT 10:45 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on his team's defensive record: "[We have done that] with the right level of organisation but especially with the desire the players show every day and the commitment they show to do all their duties that are necessary for us to be a team that is very difficult to play and score against." 'Organisation and desire' key to good defence published at 10:45 GMT 10:45 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on his team's defensive record: "[We have done that] with the right level of organisation but especially with the desire the players show every day and the commitment they show to do all their duties that are necessary for us to be a team that is very difficult to play and score against." 'We are building very good momentum' published at 10:41 GMT 10:41 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Image source, Getty Images Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on his team's current form: "We are building very good momentum. And the belief comes from performances and the level of consistency we have shown already this season. What we did at Stamford Bridge should help us to be very convinced that we have the ability. "But the reality is that you have to show it in every game. We are very happy that we are still alive in all four competitions." 101 22 Share close panel Share page Copy link About sharing 'We are building very good momentum' published at 10:41 GMT 10:41 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Image source, Getty Images Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on his team's current form: "We are building very good momentum. And the belief comes from performances and the level of consistency we have shown already this season. What we did at Stamford Bridge should help us to be very convinced that we have the ability. "But the reality is that you have to show it in every game. We are very happy that we are still alive in all four competitions." 'We are building very good momentum' published at 10:41 GMT 10:41 GMT Nottingham Forest v Arsenal (Sat, 17:30 GMT) Arsenal Arsenal manager Mikel Arteta on his team's current form: "We are building very good momentum. And the belief comes from performances and the level of consistency we have shown already this season. What we did at Stamford Bridge should help us to be very convinced that we have the ability. "But the reality is that you have to show it in every game. We are very happy that we are still alive in all four competitions." 1 2 3 … 4 Home News Sport Earth Reel Worklife Travel Culture Future Music TV Weather Sounds Terms of Use About the BBC Privacy Policy Cookies Accessibility Help Parental Guidance Contact the BBC BBC emails for you Advertise with us Copyright © 2026 BBC. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking.
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Biography Toggle Biography subsection 1.1 Early life and marriage 1.2 Widowhood and annexation 1.3 Outbreak of rebellion 1.4 British hostility and Siege of Jhansi 1.5 Escape and final battles 1.6 Aftermath 1.1 Early life and marriage 1.2 Widowhood and annexation 1.3 Outbreak of rebellion 1.4 British hostility and Siege of Jhansi 1.5 Escape and final battles 1.6 Aftermath 2 Cultural legacy Toggle Cultural legacy subsection 2.1 Literature 2.2 Visual arts 2.1 Literature 2.2 Visual arts 3 References Toggle References subsection 3.1 Notes 3.2 Citations 3.3 Sources 3.1 Notes 3.2 Citations 3.3 Sources 4 External links Rani of Jhansi Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া تۆرکجه বাংলা भोजपुरी Bikol Central Català Чӑвашла Čeština Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Igbo Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული کٲشُر Latina मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Русский संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Shqip Simple English سنڌي کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย ತುಳು Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi A posthumous depiction of the Rani of Jhansi dressed for battle Born Manikarnika Tambe 1827–30, or 1835 Varanasi , British India Died ( 1858-06-18 ) 18 June 1858 Gwalior , British India Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Raja Gangadhar Rao ( m. 1842; died 1853) Issue Damodar Rao (adopted) The Rani of Jhansi [ a ] (born Manikarnika Tambe ; 1827–30, or 1835 – 18 June 1858), also known as Rani Lakshmibai , was one of the leading figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The queen consort of the princely state of Jhansi from 1843 to 1853, she assumed its leadership after the outbreak of the conflict and fought several battles against the British . Her life and deeds are celebrated in modern India and she remains a potent symbol of Indian nationalism . Born into a Marathi family in Varanasi , Manikarnika Tambe was married to the raja of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao , at a young age, taking the name Rani Lakshmibai. The couple had one son but he died young, and so when Gangadhar Rao was on his deathbed in 1853, he adopted Damodar Rao , a young relative, to be his successor. The British East India Company , which by then had subjugated much of India , including Jhansi, refused to recognise this succession and annexed Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse , ignoring the Rani's vigorous protests to the Governor-General Lord Dalhousie . In May 1857, the Indian troops stationed at Jhansi mutinied and massacred most of the British in the town; the Rani's complicity and participation in these events was and remains contested. She took over the rulership of Jhansi and recruited an army to see off incursions from neighbouring states. Although her relations with the British were initially neutral, they decided to treat her as an enemy: Major General Hugh Rose attacked and captured Jhansi in March and April 1858. The Rani escaped the siege on horseback and joined other rebel leaders at Kalpi , where Rose defeated them on 22 May. The rebels fled to Gwalior Fort , where they made their last stand; the Rani died there in battle. After the rebellion, the Rani's name and actions became closely associated with nationalist movements in India. Her legend, influenced by Hindu mythology , became hugely influential because of its universal applicability. She was regarded as a great heroine by the Indian independence movement and remains revered in modern India, although Dalit communities tend to view her negatively. Rani Lakshmibai has been extensively depicted in artwork, cinema, and literature, most notably in the 1930 poem " Jhansi Ki Rani " and Vrindavan Lal Verma 's 1946 novel Jhansi Ki Rani Lakshmibai . Biography Little is known for certain about the Rani's life before 1857, because there was then no need to record details about an as-yet ordinary young girl. As a result, every biography of her life relies on a mixture of factual evidence and legendary tales, especially when concerning her childhood and adolescence. [ 1 ] Early life and marriage Moropant Tambe was a Karhada Brahmin who served the Maratha noble Chimaji, whose brother Baji Rao II had been deposed as Maratha peshwa (ruler) in 1817. [ 2 ] In the city of Varanasi , he and his wife Bhagirathi had a daughter, whom they named Manikarnika, an epithet of the River Ganges ; [ b ] in childhood she was known by the diminutive Manu. [ 4 ] Her birth year is disputed: British sources tended towards the year 1827, whereas Indian sources generally preferred the year 1835. [ 5 ] The historians Tapti Roy and Rudrangshu Mukherjee have argued that the latter account is implausible because of chronological irregularities; they place Manikarnika's birth between 1828 and 1830. [ 6 ] Manikarnika's mother Bhagirathi died when she was four, a year after the death of her father's employer Chimaji. [ 7 ] Moropant moved to the court of Baji Rao at Bithur , who gave him a job and who became fond of Manikarnika. [ 8 ] According to uncorroborated popular legend, her childhood playmates in Bithur included Nana Sahib and Tatya Tope , who would similarly become prominent in 1857. These stories say that Manikarnika, deprived of a feminine influence by her mother's death, was allowed to play and learn with her male playmates: she was literate , skilled in horseriding, and—extremely unusually for a girl, if true—was given lessons in fencing, swordplay, and even firearms. [ 9 ] It is presumed that Baji Rao brought Manikarnika to the attention of Gangadhar Rao , the old raja (king) of Jhansi who had no children and greatly desired an heir. The ambitious Moropant accepted the unexpectedly prestigious marriage offer, and the couple wed, according to Indian sources, in May 1842. If the traditional Indian chronology is correct, Manakarnika would have been seven years old, and the marriage would not have been consummated until she was fourteen. [ 10 ] Accorded the name Lakshmi, after the Hindu goddess , she was thereafter known as the Rani Lakshmibai. [ 11 ] Both Indian and British sources portray Gangadhar Rao as an apolitical figure uninterested in rulership—thus increasing the scope for depicting the Rani's leadership abilities—but while British sources characterise him as debauched and imbecilic, Indian sources interpret these traits as evidence of his cultured nature. [ 12 ] According to popular legend, he turned a blind eye to Rani Lakshmibai's equipping and training of an armed all-female regiment, but if it existed, it was probably formed after Gangadhar Rao's death. [ 13 ] God willing I still hope to recover and regain my health. I am not too old, so I may still father children. In case that happens, I will take the proper measures concerning my adopted son. But if I fail to live, please take my previous loyalty into account and show kindness to my son. Please acknowledge my widow as the mother of this boy during her lifetime. May the government approve of her as the queen and ruler of this kingdom as long as the boy is still under age. Please take care that no injustice is done to her. God willing I still hope to recover and regain my health. I am not too old, so I may still father children. In case that happens, I will take the proper measures concerning my adopted son. But if I fail to live, please take my previous loyalty into account and show kindness to my son. Please acknowledge my widow as the mother of this boy during her lifetime. May the government approve of her as the queen and ruler of this kingdom as long as the boy is still under age. Please take care that no injustice is done to her. In 1851, Lakshmibai gave birth to a son amid much rejoicing, but he died at a few months old to the great grief of his parents. [ 15 ] Gangadhar Rao's health deteriorated over the following two years. As was customary, he adopted a young boy on his deathbed—in this case, a five-year-old relative named Anand Rao, who was renamed Damodar Rao —before dying on 21 November 1853. [ 16 ] Two days before his death, Gangadhar Rao wrote a letter to East India Company officials, pleading with them to recognise Damodar Rao as the new ruler and the Rani Lakshmibai as his regent. [ 14 ] Widowhood and annexation By the mid-nineteenth century, the armies of the British East India Company , a merchant corporation-turned political entity, had subjugated much of the Indian subcontinent ; [ 17 ] Jhansi itself had been ceded to the Company in 1817. [ 18 ] By 1853, the Company administration , led by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie , had for several years enforced a " doctrine of lapse ", wherein Indian states whose Hindu rulers died without a natural heir were annexed by Britain. This policy was quickly enforced on Jhansi after Gangadhar Rao's death, to the Rani's dismay. [ 19 ] She wrote a letter to the Company protesting against the annexation on 16 February 1854. [ 20 ] Dalhousie issued a lengthy minute in response eleven days later. He characterised Gangadhar Rao's rule as one of decline and mismanagement, asserted that Jhansi and its people would benefit from direct British rule, and argued that since the British had conquered the Marathas, Jhansi's former overlords, the Company was now the "paramount power" with the authority to decide the succession. [ 21 ] Lakshmibai fought the decision through diplomatic channels. She initiated conversations with Major Ellis, a sympathetic local Company official, and engaged John Lang , an Australian lawyer, to represent her. [ 22 ] She wrote multiple appeals to Dalhousie, outlining previous British treaties with Jhansi in 1803, 1817, and 1842 which recognised the rajas of Jhansi as legitimate rulers. [ 23 ] She also cited specific terminology and Hindu shastra tradition to argue that Damodar Rao should be entitled to the throne. [ 24 ] Dalhousie bluntly rejected these appeals without refuting the arguments contained within, but still the Rani persisted: her final appeals concluded that the annexation constituted a "gross violation ... of treaties" and that Jhansi was reduced to "subjection, dishonour, and poverty". [ c ] [ 26 ] None of these appeals came to fruition, and Jhansi lapsed to the Company in May 1854. [ 26 ] Granted a lifetime pension of five thousand rupees per month (or £6,000 yearly) by the new Company superintendent of Jhansi, Captain Alexander Skene, Lakshmibai was required to vacate the fort but allowed to keep the two-storey palace; [ 27 ] she was also granted immunity to British courts. [ 28 ] The Company however deemed her liable for 36,000 rupees of debt Gangadhar Rao had incurred. Through her lawyer, the Rani argued that these debts were the responsibility of the state and thus had been assumed by the British during the annexation. The issue was never resolved. [ 29 ] Other disagreements included the 1854 lifting of the ban on cattle slaughter in Jhansi, the British occupation of a temple outside the town, and of course the continued foreign rule. [ 30 ] Later songs and poems retell Lakshmibai's defiant mantra, "I will never give up my Jhansi!", which she is traditionally said to have cried during this period. She continued to train her all-female regiment, if it existed, and paraded them on horseback through the town. [ 31 ] Roy has argued that her quiet displays of religious virtue, in scrupulously visiting her temple twice-weekly and devoutly respecting tradition, allowed her more unconventional habits to become generally accepted even by conservative Hindu priests. [ 32 ] She may have proposed that she return to Varanasi; the Company, worrying that the negative economic and social effects on Jhansi would be too great, declined. [ 33 ] Outbreak of rebellion On 10 May 1857, native sepoy troops stationed in Meerut mutinied against their British officers, sparking the Indian Rebellion . [ 34 ] The nascent rebellion swiftly grew as towns and troops across northern India, including Delhi , joined in. Nana Sahib organised massacres of the British at Kanpur , while similar events occurred in Lucknow ; news of these killings had not reached Jhansi by the end of May. [ 35 ] The garrison, commanded by Skene, consisted of native troops of the 12th Native Infantry and the 14th Irregular Cavalry, and oversaw a strategic position at the junction of four major roads: northwest to Agra and Delhi, northeast to Kanpur and Lucknow, east to Allahabad , and south across the Deccan Plateau . [ 36 ] Skene was not initially alarmed, and allowed the Rani to raise a bodyguard for her own protection. [ 37 ] However, on 5 June, a company of infantry took control of the ammunition store, and shot their British commanding officer when he attempted to reassert control the next day. The remaining sixty British men, women, and children took refuge in the main fort, where they were besieged. [ 38 ] According to a servant of a British captain, the Rani sent a letter claiming that the sepoys, accusing her of protecting the British, had surrounded her palace and demanded she provide assistance. [ 39 ] The sepoys subsequently threatened to set fire to her palace and even to kill her if she refused to support them; she provided a thousand men and two previously-buried heavy guns. Her position was severely compromised because many of her own guards had joined the rebels. [ 40 ] On 8 June, the British surrendered and asked for safe passage; after an unknown person acquiesced, they were led to the Jokhan Bagh garden, where nearly all of them were killed. [ d ] [ 42 ] The Rani's involvement in this massacre is a subject of debate. S. Thornton, a tax collector in Samthar State , wrote that the Rani had instigated the revolt, while two somewhat questionable eyewitness accounts reported that she executed three British messengers and gave the rest false promise of safe passage. [ 43 ] Other contemporary reports claimed the Rani was innocent, while the official report by F.W. Pinkney came to no clear conclusion. [ 44 ] Lakshmibai herself claimed, in two mid-June letters to Major Erskine, commissioner of the Saugor division , that she had been at the mercy of the mutineers and could not help the besieged British. She wished damnation upon the mutineers, asserted that she was governing only while Company rule was absent, and asked for government assistance to combat prevalent disorder. Erskine believed her account, but his superiors in Fort William were less trusting. [ 45 ] Even if the Rani was not involved with the mutiny, its outcome had spectacularly coincided with her prior aims, and items belonging to the massacred were later found in her palace. [ 46 ] Roy has also drawn attention to the active participation of her father Moropant Tambe in the events, drawing suspicion to the knowledge and complicity of his daughter. [ 47 ] For a short period, the rebels were in control of Jhansi. Threatening to offer Jhansi to Sadasheo Rao, a cousin of Gangadhar Rao, they demanded 125,000 rupees from the Rani as a ransom for her position, but she negotiated the price down to 15,000 rupees. They took the money and left for Delhi on the evening of 11 June. [ 48 ] Shortly after their departure, the Rani officially proclaimed that she had assumed rulership of Jhansi. [ e ] [ 50 ] Through correspondence, Erskine authorised the Rani to rule until the British returned. In this capacity, she collected taxes, repaired the fort, and distributed donations to the poor. [ 51 ] Jawahar Singh, one of her generals, defeated Sadasheo Rao, who twice tried to claim Jhansi for himself. [ 52 ] Jhansi also saw off the nearby kingdoms of Orchha and Datia , whose leaders judged that the British would turn a blind eye if they divided Jhansi between them. Invading on 10 August, they besieged Jhansi from early September to late October, when they were driven off by the raja of Banpur 's troops. [ 53 ] These battles led the Rani to focus on re-establishing military authority, and so she ordered the recruitment of troops and the manufacturing of cannon and other weapons. [ 54 ] British hostility and Siege of Jhansi In September 1857, with Jhansi under Orchha siege, the Rani requested that Major Erskine send forces to help, as he had earlier promised when authorising her rule. On 19 October, he replied in the negative, and further added that the conduct of all at Jhansi would be investigated. [ 55 ] Even though she feared the British regarded her as an enemy, the Rani was not yet ready to take the rebels' side, although she was dismayed by the British failures to reply. [ 56 ] Unable to persuade the Rani to commit to the rebellion, the raja of Banpur left Jhansi in January 1858. Some of her advisors advocated for peace with the British; others, including her father, for war. [ 57 ] Remaining rebel leaders had begun to gather at Jhansi, including the raja of Banpur, who returned with 3,500 men on 15 March. This encouraged the Rani, who was still in two minds: she continued to send unanswered conciliations to the British, while at the same time militantly preparing arms and ammunition. [ 58 ] The Rani was still attempting to negotiate with the British in mid-March, only a few days before they attacked Jhansi; the assault was reported to cause her great distress. [ 59 ] Her position may have eventually been decided by her troops, who demanded to fight. [ 60 ] Because of her conflict with the Company-loyal state of Orchha and her rescue by the rebel raja of Banpur, the British had probably decided that the Rani was an enemy. [ 61 ] Kanpur had been retaken on 16 July, followed by Lucknow and, on 22 September, Delhi. Their attention now fell on the remaining pockets of resistance in Central India: Jhansi, a pivotal strategic location, was a prime target. [ 62 ] As the rebel strongholds were sequentially defeated, the participants fled to places which remained outside the British sphere of influence, such as Jhansi. Their numbers and unruliness would have compelled the Rani to accept their presence, which the British likely interpreted as her intentionally amassing a large rebel force. [ 63 ] Her position was further eroded by religious anti-British pamphlets circulated around Bundelkhand which were incorrectly attributed to her and then passed on to British intelligence. [ 64 ] Command of the Central India Field Force of 4,300 men was given to the capable Major General Hugh Rose , who set out from Indore on 6 January 1858. [ 65 ] His counter-insurgency force [ 66 ] relieved Sagar on 3 February, defeated the army of Shahgarh and sacked Banpur in early March, and then marched on Jhansi. [ 67 ] Rose's army, by now numbering around 3,000 men, approached Jhansi from several directions. Reconnaissance found that not only were the defences in excellent condition, with 25-foot (7.6 m) loopholed granite walls topped by large guns and batteries able to enfilade each other , but the surrounding countryside had been removed of all cover and foliage . [ 68 ] The inhabitants of the town, including 11,500 soldiers, had stockpiled hundreds of tons of supplies in preparation for the upcoming siege. [ 69 ] It began on 22 March with consistent artillery fire against Jhansi's ramparts. Although the Rani's forces returned fire capably, her best gunners were soon killed, and the defender's situation became increasingly dire. A breach was made on 29 March, although it was quickly stockaded . Rose was making preparations for an assault when news reached him that the Rani's childhood friend Tatya Tope was marching to rescue Jhansi with more than 20,000 men. [ 70 ] Rose, unable to confront the new enemy with his whole force for fear that the defenders of Jhansi would sortie into his rear, detached just 1,200 men to confront Tatya Tope. Despite the numerical advantages of the rebel force, the vast majority of them was untrained, and they used old, slow guns. In the Battle of Betwa on 1 April, accurate British artillery fire repelled the first rebel line, and organisational mistakes meant the second line was unable to assist. In a comprehensive victory, the British lost less than one hundred men, and inflicted over 1,500 casualties on Tatya Tope's army. [ 72 ] At 3am on 3 April, two columns assaulted the south wall of Jhansi—one through the breach and one using ladders in an escalade —and both penetrated the defences. The Rani personally led a counter-attack with 1,500 Afghan troops, but steady British reinforcement drove them back, and she retreated to the fort. [ 73 ] Rose's forces controlled the whole town, excluding the north-east quarter and fort, by sunset. [ 74 ] The defenders fought stubbornly in hand-to-hand fighting, and killed several British soldiers through igniting trails of gunpowder . No mercy was given in return: the British killed around three thousand people. Some defenders, including the Rani's father Moropant, escaped the city and reformed on a nearby hill. Moropant was captured and, on 20 April, executed. [ 75 ] Rose planned to assault the fort next, but learned on the morning of 4 April that the Rani had escaped from it overnight. [ 76 ] Escape and final battles How the Rani managed to escape is not known fully—there are multiple accounts. One tradition tells that riding a horse, she jumped off the fort walls. [ 77 ] One British account holds that a native soldier serving under Rose secretly arranged for a horse to be brought to the fort, so that the Rani could be lowered onto it with her adopted son. [ 78 ] Another, told by Rose's aide-de-camp Anthony Lyster, suggests that Rose desired to avoid the extreme casualties that an assault of the fort would result in. He thus arranged a 400-yard (370 m) gap in the sentry line to bait the Rani into attempting an escape, whereupon she would be captured. Such a plan could only have been made if Rose was unaware of the Rani's skill on horseback—as he was certainly aware, Lyster's account is questionable. [ 79 ] Whatever the truth, accompanied by around three hundred soldiers, and with her adopted son Damodar Rao tied to her waist, the Rani managed to escape a very precarious situation. [ 80 ] Legends say that her contingent rode the 102 miles (164 km) northeast to Kalpi in one night; more reliable sources state that she narrowly escaped a pursuing British detachment when stopping to eat a morning meal, and that she arrived at midnight on 5 April—still a feat of endurance. [ 81 ] Kalpi, a strategic location on the Yamuna River , [ 82 ] was the headquarters of Rao Sahib, the nephew of Lakshmibai's old friend Nana Sahib. By 27 April, an army of ten thousand soldiers had assembled there under the Rani, Tatya Tope, the raja of Banpur, and other leaders. [ 83 ] To the Rani's disappointment, she was overlooked for command of the rebel force in favour of Tatya Tope, who probably resented her subsequent efforts to increase their force's discipline. [ 84 ] Rose's army advanced from Jhansi against Kalpi on the 26th, and Tatya Tope led his forces to confront the British at the town of Kunch . He failed to heed the Rani's advice to protect his flanks and Rose outmanoeuvred him, inflicting six hundred casualties, capturing all opposing guns, and causing severe infighting in the rebel army. [ 85 ] Following the defeat, Tatya Tope headed to Gwalior , where he hoped to gain the allegiance of the city's eponymous Contingent. Rose regarded the Gwalior Contingent as the best army in India, but thus far they had remained loyal to the maharaja of Gwalior , whose allegiance was to the British. [ 82 ] Meanwhile, the Rani and the other rebel leaders had prepared five lines of defence around the walls and ravines of Kalpi Fort, and attacked Rose's besieging force under a smoke screen on 22 May. Once again, the Rani's advice—to not attack on difficult ground—was ignored, and accurate musket fire followed by a bayonet charge repulsed the attack. Although Rose's army was severely weakened by the battle and the extreme heat, he did not have to attack Kalpi—the rebel leaders fled in the night. [ 86 ] One British officer gave the Rani credit for the idea to march to Gwalior, stating that only "she possessed the genius, the daring, the despair necessary for the conception of great deeds", although most evidence implies that it was Tatya Tope's plan. [ 87 ] Around this time, Charles Canning , Dalhousie's successor as Governor-General, declared the Rani a rebel leader and announced a bounty of 20,000 rupees for her capture. [ 88 ] After a brief skirmish on 31 May, the Gwalior Contingent turned on their raja, who fled to the British, and welcomed the rebels to the strategically-important Gwalior Fort . [ 89 ] At a durbar (ceremonial court gathering) on 3 June, Rao Sahib was proclaimed viceroy of his uncle Nana Sahib amid feasts and revelry. The Rani refused to attend, because she felt the rebels were celebrating when they should have been preparing for battle; she convinced Rao Sahib to focus on the coming warfare on 5 June. [ 90 ] The following day, Rose's army left Kalpi, arriving before Gwalior ten days later. Having studied the terrain, he ordered an attack from the south-east on 17 June. [ 91 ] At 7:30 am, units from the 95th Regiment of Foot twice engaged rebel forces commanded by the Rani on hilly ground between Kotah-ki-Serai and Gwalior. [ 92 ] A charge by a squadron of the Eighth Hussars surprised and scattered her bodyguard; according to an eyewitness, the Rani, possibly accompanied by a woman companion named Mundar, charged at them. [ 93 ] The exact manner of her death is unknown, but all accounts agree she died fighting. [ 94 ] Aftermath The Rani's body was likely cremated by her followers. [ 96 ] Her death greatly demoralised the defenders of Gwalior, and Rose captured the city on 19 June, ending the last major battle of the rebellion. [ 97 ] British reactions to her death were varied: one officer felt that the "beast of Jhansi [...] had too easy a death", while others expressed mixed pleasure and regret at the death of a worthy adversary. [ 98 ] Rose's post-mortem assessment has been remembered, especially in India. He wrote that she was "remarkable for her beauty, cleverness, perseverance [and] generosity to her subordinates. These qualities, combined with her rank, rendered her most dangerous of all the rebel leaders." [ 98 ] In his battle report, he wrote that she was the "best and bravest of the rebels". [ 99 ] Others noted how Indian resistance collapsed after the death of their "most determined, spirited, and influential head", who had, as the commander of the Hussars put it, "fought like bricks". [ 100 ] After the fall of Gwalior, Tatya Tope and Rao Sahib continued to lead guerilla resistance against the British; eventually, both were captured and hanged. [ 101 ] Nana Sahib's fate is unknown; rumours of his death abounded, but he continued to be "sighted" until 1895. [ 102 ] Because of the Rani's rebellion, her adopted son Damodar Rao was stripped of the 600,000 rupees held in trust for him, and was instead allocated a monthly pension of 150 rupees. In an 1898 court case aiming to increase this to 250 rupees, he argued that his adopted mother had been a faithful and misunderstood British subject, an argument that was received badly by Indian nationalists . [ 103 ] Cultural legacy The story of Rani Lakshmibai, an enigmatic figure central to the events of 1857, became a legend of immense potency in India; [ 104 ] she has been described by Harleen Singh, a scholar of South Asian women's history , as "the greatest heroine of Indian history". [ 105 ] Many aspects of the Rani's life—the many unknown facts, her martyr -like death in battle in uncertain circumstances, and her unaccomplished goals—made her story easily transformable into myth, especially in the Indian peasant culture based around oral traditions . [ 106 ] These traditions associate the Rani with the leitmotifs of deities of nearly all Hindu denominations : the bravery and ferocity of Durga and her aspect Chandi ; the name of Lakshmi ; the leaps of Hanuman ; or the androgyny of Shiva . Most of all, she symbolised both the mother goddess and the primal female embodiment of reality, the Shakti . The universality of her legend's applicability contributed to its influence. [ 107 ] The story of the Rani became closely connected with Indian nationalism : in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, even naming her in literature symbolised a nationalist spirit prohibited by the British-controlled state media . [ 108 ] The Indian independence movement regarded the Rani as a hero in the mould of the warlord Shivaji and the mythical figures Rama , Krishna and Arjuna . [ 109 ] After independence , this nationalist association continued in media and in education. [ 110 ] More recently, campaign advertising from the Indian National Congress political party has depicted its leaders Indira Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi as Rani Lakshmibai reincarnated, [ 111 ] while proponents of the Hindutva ideology idealise the Rani as a defender of Hinduism. [ 112 ] In the contentious paradigm of the Indian caste system , the Rani has however also come to represent the narrative of the higher castes, who some feel had been as unfair as the British for centuries. [ 113 ] Dalit writers have invented or embellished figures like Uda Devi and Matadin Bhangi to displace the traditionally high-caste heroes of the rebellion. [ 114 ] One of the most famous of these Dalit heroes is Jhalkaribai : Dalit accounts often claim she was the confidante of the Rani, equal to her in martial arts, horse riding, and leadership, and superior in rebellious spirit. These accounts, which state Jhalkaribai disguised herself as the Rani to allow her to escape from Jhansi and allege that the Rani was a coward who fled and died of old age, indicate attempts to undermine the traditional upper-caste narrative. [ 115 ] Festivals honouring the Rani and Jhalkaribai generally do not mention the other figure and are attended and promoted by different communities. [ 116 ] In 1943, the revolutionary Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose helped to form the Indian National Army in an effort to force the British out of India as part of World War Two . Recognising the potent symbolism of the Rani, he issued a call for female volunteers, who were formed into the Rani of Jhansi Regiment . [ 117 ] They were trained in military tactics and discipline in Singapore, and served in support roles during the brutal Burma campaign between March 1944 and August 1945, although they never fought in combat. [ 118 ] Streets throughout India, including in the capital New Delhi, have been named after Rani Lakshmibai. She is a popular namesake for buildings, especially women's higher education institutions . She has also been depicted on postage stamps . [ 119 ] [ g ] Literature Contemporary British literature linked the Rani with the savage goddess Kali , with whose purported thuggee worshippers the British public was already acquainted. [ 120 ] As a powerful female rebel, she was portrayed as the antithesis of British society and culture, a masculine figure who was said to have played a key role in instigating the rape and sexual violence the rebels allegedly perpetrated. [ 121 ] Nevertheless, her heroic death in battle simultaneously allowed her to be romanticised in British literature as an analogue to Joan of Arc or Boudica ; [ 122 ] her royal status also led to comparisons with Britain's Queen Victoria . [ 123 ] These dichotomies have influenced British depictions of the Rani, such as Alexander Rogers' 1895 novel in verse The Rani of Jhansi or The Widowed Queen , Philip Cox's 1933 play The Rani of Jhansi , and George MacDonald Fraser 's 1975 novel Flashman in the Great Game , among others. [ 88 ] Both Cox's and Fraser's works aroused controversy in India: the former for questioning the Rani's honour and revolutionary spirit, and the latter for containing explicit sexual encounters between the Rani and the English protagonist. [ 124 ] [ h ] As pro-rebel narratives were barred from publication in India in the aftermath of 1857, the first Indian depictions of the Rani were oral poetry: one 1857 folk song and two ballads written in 1861 and 1870 survive. [ 126 ] A very early Indian prose account, titled Jhansir Rani , was written in 1877 by Rabindranath Tagore , then sixteen years old. The essay praised all the heroes of 1857 but drew special attention to the Rani, whom Tagore depicted as the "epitome of virtue", in Mukherjee's words. [ 127 ] The 1930 poem Jhansi Ki Rani by Subhadra Kumari Chauhan is perhaps the most famous literary representation of Rani Lakshmibai in India. [ 128 ] Studied and memorised by generations of Indian children, the lengthy narrative poem remains iconic and was performed by Shubha Mudgal in Parliament House to mark the rebellion's sesquicentenary in 2007. [ 129 ] It is especially known for the rhyming couplet which ends every stanza: [ 130 ] बुंदेले हरबोलों के मुँह हमने सुनी कहानी थी खूब लड़ी मर्दानी वह तो झाँसी वाली रानी थी We heard this story from the singers of the Bundela clan It was the Rani of Jhansi who fought like a man. बुंदेले हरबोलों के मुँह हमने सुनी कहानी थी खूब लड़ी मर्दानी वह तो झाँसी वाली रानी थी We heard this story from the singers of the Bundela clan It was the Rani of Jhansi who fought like a man. — Subhadra Kumari Chauhan , Jhansi Ki Rani Another prominent work is Vrindavan Lal Verma 's 1946 novel Jhansi Ki Rani Lakshmibai , a work so influential it is often accorded canonical status in Indian education and literature. [ 131 ] The quote most associated with the Rani ("I will never give up my Jhansi!") was in fact invented for the novel. [ 128 ] Verma, who was himself a native of Jhansi, firmly established the Rani as an archetype of heroic Indian nationalism: she is explicitly depicted as an advocate of swaraj , Mahatma Gandhi 's concept of "self-rule" manifested in the struggle for independence. [ 132 ] His novel was highly praised for its strong female characters , especially the character of the Rani, who combined masculine and feminine roles, and for combining fragmentary historical narratives into a coherent, authoritarive, and yet still enjoyable work. [ 133 ] One other work of note is Mahasweta Devi 's Jhansi Rani (1956), which paid special attention to folk traditions, stories, and oral testimony especially from Dalit communities. [ 134 ] Indian narratives have generally struggled most with evaluating the massacre at Jhansi: either the Rani was an active participant in the rebellion from its outset, in which case she tainted her moral virtue by perpetrating the killings, or she was only a reluctant participant, which implies her subsequent heroic actions were less intentional than the traditional nationalist narrative demands. [ 135 ] Visual arts No contemporary portrait of the Rani survives, although some of the artists who painted her posthumously may have seen her when she was alive. One often-copied portrait ( see top of article ) originally depicted her riding a horse sidesaddle, but the lower half of the painting, found in a family home in Indore , has decayed. The other major depiction ( see #Early life and marriage ) is less immediately recognisable as the Rani, as it only depicts her head adorned with a sari and jewellery. Under British rule, the production of these and later paintings served as covert political commentary. [ 136 ] Numerous statues of the Rani have also been created, most portray her escape on horseback with Damodar Rao on her back, although the bronze statue on her cremation site at Gwalior depicts her alone. [ 137 ] In 1953, Sohrab Modi directed India's first Technicolor film, titled Jhansi Ki Rani and starring the actress Mehtab in the title role. The Rani is depicted as a revolutionary, nationalist leader from childhood, albeit one guided by a fictional male advisor. In the wake of the traumatic events of India's partition , the film includes political commentary by depicting a prominent Muslim subject as reverential towards Hindu rulers and faiths, a portrayal deliberately at odds with contemporary Islamic attitudes in India. [ 138 ] The film ends by depicting the Rani, dying in battle, whispering her last words to the echo of the Indian national anthem , evoking an explicit connection between historical nationalism and modern independence. [ 139 ] Twenty-first-century depictions of Rani Lakshmibai include a television serial, Ek Veer Stree Ki Kahaani – Jhansi Ki Rani , which aired between 2009 and 2011, and the 2019 film Manikarnika: The Queen of Jhansi . Manikarnika met with protests before release, because of rumours it was based on a 2007 novel by Jaishree Misra which was banned in Uttar Pradesh because it depicted a romance between the Rani and a British officer. [ 140 ] The film in reality contained no such story; directed by and starring Kangana Ranaut , it continued the traditional nationalist portrayal by depicting the Rani ripping the Union Jack with her sword and expertly fighting in battle. [ 141 ] References Notes ^ Hindi : jhānsi ki rāni ^ Manikarnika's mother Bhagirathi was similarly named after an epithet of the Ganges. [ 3 ] ^ Mukherjee notes that of a long line of Indian rulers whose sovereignty had been usurped by the British since Mir Qasim in 1763, the Rani was "probably the first" to present arguments directly to the Company. [ 25 ] ^ An Anglo-Indian woman named Mrs Mutlow was the only adult survivor of the massacre: she and at least one son—sources disagree on whether she had given birth to another—managed to escape through their resemblance to native Indians. Her husband was killed. Two others had previously escaped the fort before the massacre. [ 41 ] ^ The full proclamation read " Khalq khoda ki, mulk badshah ki, raj Lakshmi Bai ki " (English: The people are God's, the country is the Emperor's and the rule is Lakshmi Bai's). [ 49 ] ^ Roy calls this statue "the archetypal representation ..., the inveterate fighter, the warrior queen, the Rani whose last living moments were on horseback, fighting to preserve what was dearer than her life". [ 95 ] ^ See also Rani Jhansi Marine National Park . ^ Roy characterises Flashman as "read[ing] like a salacious nineteenth-century novel about the bewildering Oriental beauty with irresistable charm and indomitable strength of character who eventually succumbs to the white man." 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Sources .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} David, Saul (2003). The Indian Mutiny: 1857 . London: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-1410-0554-6 . Deshpande, Prachi (2008). "The Making of an Indian Nationalist Archive: Lakshmibai, Jhansi, and 1857". The Journal of Asian Studies . 67 (3): 855– 879. doi : 10.1017/S0021911808001186 . Jerinic, Maria (1997). "How We Lost the Empire: Retelling the Stories of the Rani of Jhansi and Queen Victoria". In Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne (eds.). Remaking Queen Victoria . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . pp. 123– 139. ISBN 978-0-5215-7379-5 . Lebra, Joyce (1986). The Rani of Jhansi: A Study in Female Heroism in India (PDF) . Honolulu : University of Hawai'i Press . ISBN 978-0-8248-0984-3 . Lebra, Joyce (2008). Women Against the Raj: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment . Singapore: ISEAS Publishing . ISBN 978-9-8123-0810-8 . Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (2021). A Begum and a Rani: Hazrat Mahal and Lakshmibai in 1857 . Gurugram : Penguin Random House India . ISBN 978-0-6700-9066-2 . Narayan, Badri (2006). Women Heroes and Dalit Assertion in North India: Culture, Identity and Politics . New Delhi: SAGE Publications . ISBN 978-8-1321-0280-9 . Pender, Sebastian Raj (2022). The 1857 Indian Uprising and the Politics of Commemoration . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-1-0090-5227-6 . Roy, Tapti (1994). The Politics of a Popular Uprising: Bundelkhand in 1857 . New Delhi: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-1956-3612-3 . Roy, Tapti (2006). Raj of the Rani . New Delhi: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-0-1430-6221-9 . Sharpe, Jenny (1993). Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text . Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press . ISBN 978-0-8166-2059-3 . Singh, Harleen (2014). The Rani of Jhansi: Gender, History, and Fable in India . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-1-1073-3749-7 . Singh, Harleen (2020). "India's Rebel Queen: Rani Lakshmi Bai and the 1857 Uprising". In Shubert, Adrian; Cothran, Boyd; Judge, Joan (eds.). Women Warriors and National Heroes: Global Histories . London: Bloomsbury Academic . pp. 23– 38. ISBN 978-1-3501-2113-3 . External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Rani Lakshmibai at Wikimedia Commons .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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Chaura incident, 1922 Kakori conspiracy Qissa Khwani massacre Flag Satyagraha Bardoli 1928 Protests Nehru Report Fourteen Points of Jinnah Purna Swaraj Salt March Dharasana Satyagraha Vedaranyam March Chittagong armoury raid Gandhi–Irwin Pact Round table conferences Act of 1935 Aundh Experiment Indian Legion Cripps Mission Quit India Bombay Mutiny Royal Air Force strikes Coup d'état of Yanaon Provisional Government of India Independence Day Praja Mandala movement Lucknow Pact Organisations All India Kisan Sabha All-India Muslim League Anushilan Samiti Arya Samaj Azad Hind Berlin Committee Ghadar Movement Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Indian National Congress India House Indian Home Rule movement Indian Independence League Indian National Army Jugantar Khaksar movement Khudai Khidmatgar Swaraj Party more All India Kisan Sabha All-India Muslim League Anushilan Samiti Arya Samaj Azad Hind Berlin Committee Ghadar Movement Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Indian National Congress India House Indian Home Rule movement Indian Independence League Indian National Army Jugantar Khaksar movement Khudai Khidmatgar Swaraj Party more Social reformers Ashfaqulla Khan A. Vaidyanatha Iyer Ayya Vaikundar Ayyankali B. R. Ambedkar Baba Amte Bal Gangadhar Tilak Dayananda Saraswati Dhondo Keshav Karve G. Subramania Iyer Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Gopal Hari Deshmukh Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar J. B. Kripalani Jyotirao Phule Kandukuri Veeresalingam Mahadev Govind Ranade Mahatma Gandhi Muthulakshmi Reddy Narayana Guru Niralamba Swami Pandita Ramabai Periyar Ram Mohan Roy Rettamalai Srinivasan Sahajanand Saraswati Savitribai Phule Shahu Sister Nivedita Sri Aurobindo Syed Ahmad Khan Vakkom Moulavi Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Vinoba Bhave Vitthal Ramji Shinde Vivekananda Ashfaqulla Khan A. Vaidyanatha Iyer Ayya Vaikundar Ayyankali B. R. Ambedkar Baba Amte Bal Gangadhar Tilak Dayananda Saraswati Dhondo Keshav Karve G. Subramania Iyer Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Gopal Hari Deshmukh Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar J. B. Kripalani Jyotirao Phule Kandukuri Veeresalingam Mahadev Govind Ranade Mahatma Gandhi Muthulakshmi Reddy Narayana Guru Niralamba Swami Pandita Ramabai Periyar Ram Mohan Roy Rettamalai Srinivasan Sahajanand Saraswati Savitribai Phule Shahu Sister Nivedita Sri Aurobindo Syed Ahmad Khan Vakkom Moulavi Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Vinoba Bhave Vitthal Ramji Shinde Vivekananda Independence activists Abul Kalam Azad Accamma Cherian Achyut Patwardhan A. K. Fazlul Huq Alluri Sitarama Raju Annapurna Maharana Annie Besant Aruna Asaf Ali Ashfaqulla Khan Babu Kunwar Singh Bagha Jatin Bahadur Shah II Bakht Khan Bal Gangadhar Tilak Basawon Singh Begum Hazrat Mahal Bhagat Singh Bharathidasan Bhavabhushan Mitra Bhikaiji Cama Bhupendra Kumar Datta Bidhan Chandra Roy Bipin Chandra Pal C. Rajagopalachari Chandra Shekhar Azad Chetram Jatav Chittaranjan Das Dadabhai Naoroji Dayananda Saraswati Dhan Singh Dukkipati Nageswara Rao Gopal Krishna Gokhale Govind Ballabh Pant Har Dayal Hemu Kalani Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi Jatindra Mohan Sengupta Jatindra Nath Das Jawaharlal Nehru K. Kamaraj Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Khudiram Bose Shri Krishna Singh Lala Lajpat Rai M. Bhaktavatsalam M. N. Roy Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi Mahadaji Shinde Mahatma Gandhi Mangal Pandey Mir Qasim Mithuben Petit Mohammad Ali Jauhar Muhammad Ali Jinnah Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari Nagnath Naikwadi Nana Fadnavis Nana Saheb P. Kakkan Prafulla Chaki Pritilata Waddedar Purushottam Das Tandon Rafi Ahmed Kidwai R. Venkataraman Rahul Sankrityayan Rajendra Prasad Ram Prasad Bismil Rani Lakshmibai Rash Behari Bose Sahajanand Saraswati Sangolli Rayanna Sarojini Naidu Satyapal Dang Shuja-ud-Daula Shyamji Krishna Varma Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi Siraj ud-Daulah Subhas Chandra Bose Subramania Bharati Subramaniya Siva Surya Sen Syama Prasad Mukherjee Tara Rani Srivastava Tarak Nath Das Tatya Tope Tiruppur Kumaran Ubaidullah Sindhi V. O. Chidamabaram V. K. Krishna Menon Vallabhbhai Patel Vanchinathan Veeran Sundaralingam Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Virendranath Chattopadhyaya Yashwantrao Holkar Yogendra Shukla more Abul Kalam Azad Accamma Cherian Achyut Patwardhan A. K. Fazlul Huq Alluri Sitarama Raju Annapurna Maharana Annie Besant Aruna Asaf Ali Ashfaqulla Khan Babu Kunwar Singh Bagha Jatin Bahadur Shah II Bakht Khan Bal Gangadhar Tilak Basawon Singh Begum Hazrat Mahal Bhagat Singh Bharathidasan Bhavabhushan Mitra Bhikaiji Cama Bhupendra Kumar Datta Bidhan Chandra Roy Bipin Chandra Pal C. Rajagopalachari Chandra Shekhar Azad Chetram Jatav Chittaranjan Das Dadabhai Naoroji Dayananda Saraswati Dhan Singh Dukkipati Nageswara Rao Gopal Krishna Gokhale Govind Ballabh Pant Har Dayal Hemu Kalani Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi Jatindra Mohan Sengupta Jatindra Nath Das Jawaharlal Nehru K. Kamaraj Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Khudiram Bose Shri Krishna Singh Lala Lajpat Rai M. Bhaktavatsalam M. N. Roy Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi Mahadaji Shinde Mahatma Gandhi Mangal Pandey Mir Qasim Mithuben Petit Mohammad Ali Jauhar Muhammad Ali Jinnah Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari Nagnath Naikwadi Nana Fadnavis Nana Saheb P. Kakkan Prafulla Chaki Pritilata Waddedar Purushottam Das Tandon Rafi Ahmed Kidwai R. Venkataraman Rahul Sankrityayan Rajendra Prasad Ram Prasad Bismil Rani Lakshmibai Rash Behari Bose Sahajanand Saraswati Sangolli Rayanna Sarojini Naidu Satyapal Dang Shuja-ud-Daula Shyamji Krishna Varma Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi Siraj ud-Daulah Subhas Chandra Bose Subramania Bharati Subramaniya Siva Surya Sen Syama Prasad Mukherjee Tara Rani Srivastava Tarak Nath Das Tatya Tope Tiruppur Kumaran Ubaidullah Sindhi V. O. Chidamabaram V. K. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Career Toggle Career subsection 2.1 Early work 2.2 1990s: International breakthrough 2.3 2000s: Continued success 2.4 2010s: Directorial debut and expansion 2.5 2020s: Current work 2.1 Early work 2.2 1990s: International breakthrough 2.3 2000s: Continued success 2.4 2010s: Directorial debut and expansion 2.5 2020s: Current work 3 Personal life 4 Filmography Toggle Filmography subsection 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Music videos 4.1 Film 4.2 Television 4.3 Music videos 5 Awards and honors Toggle Awards and honors subsection 5.1 Accolades 5.2 Honors 5.1 Accolades 5.2 Honors 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Courteney Cox Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Беларуская Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Kapampangan ქართული Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Occitan ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Português Română Русский سرائیکی Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Volapük 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Courteney Cox Cox in 2010 Born Courteney Bass Cox ( 1964-06-15 ) June 15, 1964 (age 61) Birmingham, Alabama , U.S. Other names Courteney Cox Arquette Occupations .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Actress producer director Actress producer director Years active 1984–present Organization Coquette Productions Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} David Arquette ( m. 1999; div. 2013) Partner(s) Michael Keaton (1989–1995) [ 1 ] Johnny McDaid (2013–present) [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Children 1 Awards Full list Signature Courteney Bass Cox (born June 15, 1964) [ 5 ] [ 6 ] is an American actress and producer. She rose to international prominence by playing Monica Geller in the NBC sitcom Friends (1994–2004) and Gale Weathers in the horror film franchise Scream (1996–present). [ 7 ] Her accolades include a Screen Actors Guild Award , nominations for two Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award , and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Cox had a recurring role in the NBC sitcom Family Ties (1987–1989), and starred in the FX drama series Dirt (2007–2008), the ABC / TBS sitcom Cougar Town (2009–2015), and the Starz horror comedy series Shining Vale (2022–2023). Her film credits include the action fantasy Masters of the Universe (1987), the comedy Ace Ventura: Pet Detective (1994), the animated comedy Barnyard (2006), the fantasy comedy Bedtime Stories (2008), and the independent drama Mothers and Daughters (2016). Cox owned the production company Coquette Productions , which she founded with her then-husband, David Arquette . She has directed the television drama film TalhotBlond (2012), the black comedy drama film Just Before I Go (2014), and executive produced the game show Celebrity Name Game (2014–2017). Early life Courteney Bass Cox was born June 15, 1964, in Birmingham, Alabama , and raised there. [ 8 ] She is a daughter of businessman Richard Lewis Cox (1931–2001) and Courteney Copeland (née Bass; 1934–2020). [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Cox has two older sisters, Virginia and Dorothy, and an older brother, Richard Jr. Her parents divorced in 1974 and her mother then married businessman Hunter Copeland (uncle to music promoter and business manager Ian Copeland and the Police drummer Stewart Copeland ). [ 11 ] After graduating from Mountain Brook High School , Cox left for Mount Vernon College in Washington, D.C. (later part of George Washington University ), but did not complete her architecture course, opting instead to pursue a career in modeling and acting. [ 12 ] Cox’s father is of British (English and Scottish and Welsh) descent, and her mother had Norman and Irish ancestry; researching her family tree for the series Who Do You Think You Are? , Cox discovered she is a direct descendant of William the Conqueror and Edward I of England . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Career Early work Cox was chosen from a casting call by director Brian De Palma to appear in the 1984 music video for Bruce Springsteen 's " Dancing in the Dark ", as the young woman pulled onstage at the St. Paul Civic Center to dance with Springsteen. [ 16 ] Her early television work includes a starring role as Gloria Dinallo in the short-lived NBC science fiction series Misfits of Science (1985), [ 17 ] and guest-starring roles in the ABC comedy-drama series The Love Boat (1986) and the CBS crime drama series Murder, She Wrote (1986). [ 18 ] She also appeared in a 1985 Tampax ad notable for making her the first person to use the word "period" in an American television commercial. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] She later had a recurring role as Lauren Miller, the girlfriend of Michael J. Fox 's character Alex P. Keaton in the NBC comedy series Family Ties (1987–1989). [ 18 ] Cox's early film roles include Masters of the Universe (1987), Cocoon: The Return (1988), and I'll Be Home for Christmas (1988). [ 21 ] [ 22 ] She also played Jewel Jagger, the tough-as-nails assistant of Larry Burrows ( James Belushi ), in Mr. Destiny (1990). 1990s: International breakthrough In 1993, Cox co-starred in the short-lived CBS sitcom The Trouble with Larry , alongside Bronson Pinchot and Perry King . [ 23 ] The following year, shortly before the debut of the sitcom Friends , Cox starred alongside Jim Carrey in the comedy film Ace Ventura: Pet Detective , [ 24 ] and as Jerry Seinfeld 's girlfriend, Meryl, in the Seinfeld episode " The Wife ". [ 25 ] In 1994, Cox was asked to audition for the starring role of Rachel Green on a new sitcom, Friends ; she was cast as Monica Geller instead. [ 26 ] At first the most famous cast member of the new show, Cox joined Jennifer Aniston ( Rachel Green ), Lisa Kudrow ( Phoebe Buffay ), Matt LeBlanc ( Joey Tribbiani ), Matthew Perry ( Chandler Bing ) and David Schwimmer ( Ross Geller ) for what became her most famous role, lasting for ten seasons until 2004. The series is commonly referred to as one of the greatest of all sitcoms. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] According to the Guinness Book of World Records (2005), Cox (along with her female co-stars) became the highest-paid TV actress of all time, with her US$ 1 million-per-episode fee for the final two seasons of Friends . [ 29 ] Syndication of the series earned Cox and her co-stars an estimated $20 million in annual residuals. [ 30 ] In 1995, she was cast in Toad the Wet Sprocket 's music video "Good Intentions". The song was also featured on the Friends soundtrack . [ 31 ] Between seasons five and six, she married David Arquette and consequently changed her name to Courteney Cox Arquette. A joke reference to this is made in the opening credits of the episode " The One After Vegas ", where the rest of the cast has "Arquette" added to their names. The dedication "For Courteney and David, who did get married" – a reference to Monica and Chandler's decision not to marry in the episode – appears during the fade out to the tag scene. [ 32 ] Cox received further recognition and critical acclaim for her starring role as reporter Gale Weathers in the high-profile slasher horror film Scream (1996), and its sequels Scream 2 (1997) and Scream 3 (2000). The series is one of the highest grossing and critically acclaimed horror franchises of all time. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] Cox's character was well known for her "snappy remarks and being brilliantly bossy". [ 36 ] She met her future ex-husband, David Arquette, who played her on-screen love interest, Dwight "Dewey" Riley, while filming the first Scream film. He also was in an episode of the TV Show Friends [ 37 ] Cox also hosted an episode of the variety sketch series Saturday Night Live in April 1995, [ 38 ] and appeared in the crime thriller film The Runner (1999). 2000s: Continued success Cox's major films during this period include the crime drama 3000 Miles to Graceland (2001) and the comedy The Shrink Is In (2001). [ 39 ] In late 2003, Cox and Arquette produced one season of the reality television series Mix It Up. The lifestyle series, which aired on the WE cable channel, struggled with low ratings and was not renewed for a second season. [ 40 ] After the conclusion of Friends , Cox was producer Marc Cherry 's first choice to be offered a starring role as Susan Mayer on Desperate Housewives , but Cox was unavailable due to her pregnancy and the role later went to Teri Hatcher . [ 41 ] A few years later, Cox signed a deal with ABC Studios (formerly Touchstone Television) to star in her own series. She starred in the independent drama film November (2005), which had a limited theatrical release. [ 42 ] She had a cameo appearance in the big-budget remake The Longest Yard (2005) as Lena, the girlfriend of Paul Crewe ( Adam Sandler ), and co-starred with Tim Allen in the critically derided Zoom (2006). [ 43 ] Cox voiced Daisy the Cow in the animated film Barnyard (2006). [ 44 ] A Friends reunion film was rumored to be in production following the success of Sex and the City (2008), [ 45 ] but this was later denied by Warner Bros. and others. Cox starred as Lucy Spiller, a cynical tabloid editor, in the FX television drama series Dirt , which premiered in 2007. Cox and her then-husband David Arquette were the executive producers of the series. [ 46 ] The series was eventually canceled after the second season in 2008. [ 47 ] In July 2008, Entertainment Weekly announced that Cox signed on to star in a three-episode arc for the television medical comedy series Scrubs . [ 48 ] Also that year, she starred in the fantasy comedy film Bedtime Stories , reuniting with co-star Adam Sandler. [ 49 ] She went to executive produce the short drama film The Butler's in Love , directed by David Arquette. Cox guest-starred in a three-episode story arc on former Friends co-star Lisa Kudrow 's web comedy series Web Therapy (2009). [ 50 ] Also in 2009, she began her role as the star of the single-camera ABC comedy series Cougar Town , playing a newly single 40-year-old mother on the hunt for new experiences. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] It is notably Cox's most successful work since Friends , earning her a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy . The series' third season was set to premiere in November 2011 but moved to February 14, 2012. Cox directed two episodes of the series' fifteen episodes that season. The fourth season premiered on January 8, 2013. The series came to an end on March 31, 2015, after six seasons. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] 2010s: Directorial debut and expansion Cox reprised her role as Gale Weathers from the Scream trilogy for the sequel Scream 4 . The film was released in theaters on April 15, 2011. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] She made her directorial debut and had a cameo appearance in a Lifetime television drama film TalhotBlond , which premiered on the network on June 23, 2012. [ 58 ] In 2014, Cox directed and produced the black comedy film Just Before I Go , starring Seann William Scott and Elisha Cuthbert . [ 59 ] The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 24, 2014, [ 60 ] and it was released in select theaters on April 24, 2015. [ 61 ] From 2014 to 2017, she executive produced the syndicated game show Celebrity Name Game , hosted by Craig Ferguson . It ended after three seasons. The series earned her a nomination for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show . [ 62 ] In 2016, Cox starred in the independent drama film Mothers and Daughters , alongside Susan Sarandon , Mira Sorvino , and Sharon Stone . The film was released to generally negative reviews on May 6, 2016. [ 63 ] In 2019, she created and executive produced the Facebook Watch documentary series 9 Months with Courteney Cox , which focuses on "people from across the country of various race, religion, and class as they self-document their 9-month journey of pregnancy". [ 64 ] It lasted for three seasons until 2021. [ 65 ] In 2019, it was reported she would executive produce and star as Brittany Wagner in the Spectrum Originals adaptation of the documentary series Last Chance U . [ 66 ] 2020s: Current work In 2020, she guest starred in the ABC sitcom Modern Family . [ 67 ] Cox reunited with her Friends co-stars for a reunion special titled Friends: The Reunion , which was released on May 27, 2021, on HBO Max . [ 68 ] [ 69 ] The special earned Cox a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded) . [ 70 ] In the same year she launched her line of home products, named Homecourt. [ 71 ] She also participated in the Celebrity Escape Room special to raise $150,000 for Red Nose Day. [ 72 ] Cox reprised her role as Gale Weathers for the fifth Scream film , which was directed by Matt Bettinelli-Olpin and Tyler Gillett . [ 73 ] The film was released on January 14, 2022, to box office success and positive reviews. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] Also in 2022, she signed on to star alongside Greg Kinnear in the Starz horror comedy series Shining Vale , from creators Sharon Horgan and Jeff Astrof; she plays Patricia "Pat" Phelps, who moves her family "from the 'crazy' of the city to a large, old house in the suburbs where evil and humor collide." [ 76 ] Cox again reprised her role as Gale Weathers for the sixth Scream film , [ 77 ] which she also executive produced. [ 78 ] The film was released on March 9, 2023, to box office success and positive reviews. Also in 2023, she received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Personal life Cox dated actor Michael Keaton from 1989 to 1995. [ 1 ] Cox married her Scream co-star David Arquette on June 12, 1999, at Grace Cathedral in San Francisco . [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] The couple have a daughter, born in June 2004. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Jennifer Aniston is her godmother . [ 86 ] Cox revealed that she suffered from postpartum depression six months after the birth of her child. [ 87 ] On October 11, 2010, Cox and Arquette announced that they had separated, although they still maintain a close friendship and ongoing business relationship in Coquette Productions . [ 88 ] [ 89 ] [ 90 ] In June 2012, Arquette filed for divorce after nearly two years of separation from Cox. [ 91 ] The divorce became final in May 2013. [ 92 ] Cox began dating Snow Patrol band member Johnny McDaid in late 2013. [ 93 ] The couple announced their engagement in June 2014. [ 94 ] Soon afterward they called off the engagement, but they have remained a couple. [ 95 ] In 2017, Cox was the subject of an episode of the television programme Who Do You Think You Are? , during which she learned that she is a direct descendant of William the Conqueror . In 2020, Cox said that she did not remember much about the episode plots of Friends and that she had begun binge-watching the show. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Cox is a practitioner of Budokan karate . [ 98 ] [ 99 ] Filmography Film Year Title Role Notes 1987 Down Twisted Tarah Masters of the Universe Julie Winston 1988 Cocoon: The Return Sara 1990 Shaking the Tree Kathleen Mr. Destiny Jewel Jagger 1991 Blue Desert Lisa Roberts 1992 The Opposite Sex and How to Live with Them Carrie Davenport 1994 Ace Ventura: Pet Detective Melissa Robinson 1996 Scream Gale Weathers 1997 Commandments Rachel Luce Scream 2 Gale Weathers 1999 The Runner Karina 2000 Scream 3 Gale Weathers Credited as "Courteney Cox Arquette" 2001 3000 Miles to Graceland Cybil Waingrow The Shrink Is In Samantha Crumb Also executive producer Get Well Soon Lily Charles 2004 November Sophie Jacobs 2005 The Longest Yard Lena 2006 Barnyard Daisy the Cow (voice) Zoom Marsha Holloway The Tripper Dog Lover Hippie Also executive producer 2008 Alien Love Triangle Alice Short film Bedtime Stories Wendy The Butler's in Love — .mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;white-space:nowrap} N/a Short film; executive producer 2011 Scream 4 Gale Weathers-Riley 2012 Got Rights? Celebrity Short film 2014 Just Before I Go — N/a Director and producer 2016 Mothers and Daughters Beth 2020 You Cannot Kill David Arquette Herself Documentary film [ 100 ] 2022 Scream Gale Weathers 2023 Scream VI Also executive producer [ 78 ] 2026 Scream 7 Post-production [ 101 ] [ 102 ] TBA Evil Genius — N/a Filming; director and producer Television Year Title Role Notes 1984 As the World Turns Bunny Episode: "1.5000" 1985 Code Name: Foxfire Flight Attendant / Amy 2 episodes 1985–1986 Misfits of Science Gloria Dinallo Main role 1986 The Love Boat Carol Episode: "Daredevil / Picture Me a Spy / Sleeper" Sylvan in Paradise Lucy Apple Television film Murder, She Wrote Carol Bannister 2 episodes 1987 If It's Tuesday, It Still Must Be Belgium Hana Wyskocki Television film I'll Be Home for Christmas Nora Bundy 1987–1989 Family Ties Lauren Miller Recurring role 1989 Roxanne: The Prize Pulitzer Jacquie Kimberly Television film Judith Krantz's Till We Meet Again Marie-Frederique 'Freddy' de Lancel 2 episodes 1990 Curiosity Kills Gwen Television film 1991 Morton & Hayes Princess Lucy Episode: "Oafs Overboard" 1992 Battling for Baby Katherine Television film Dream On Alisha Episode: "Come and Knock on Our Door..." 1993 The Trouble with Larry Gabriella Easden Recurring role 1994 Seinfeld Meryl Episode: " The Wife " 1994–2004 Friends [ a ] Monica Geller Main role 1995 Sketch Artist II: Hands That See Emmy O'Conner Television film The Larry Sanders Show Herself Episode: "Larry's Big Idea" Saturday Night Live Herself/Host Episode: " Courteney Cox / Dave Matthews Band " 1999 Happily Every After: Fairy Tales for Every Child Emerald Salt Pork (voice) Episode: "Three Little Pigs" 2000 WCW Monday Nitro Herself Episode: "#5.33" 2003 Mad TV Episode: "#9.3" 2004 Mix It Up — N/a 4 episodes; executive producer 2005 Rehab Taylor Kennedy Unsold pilot; also executive producer Dirt Squirrel — N/a Television film; executive producer Talk Show Diaries — N/a The MidNightly News — N/a 2005–2007 Daisy Does America — N/a Executive producer 2007–2008 Dirt Lucy Spiller Main role; also executive producer 2009 Scrubs Dr. Maddox 3 episodes Web Therapy Serena DuVall Web series; 3 episodes 2009–2015 Cougar Town Jules Cobb Main role; also director and executive producer 2011 Web Therapy Serena DuVall Episode: "Psychic Analysis" Private Practice Woman Uncredited; Episode: "Step One" 2012 TalhotBlond Amanda Television film; also director and producer 2013 Go On Talia Episode: "Matchup Problems" Tripaholics — N/a Television film; executive producer 2014–2016 Drunk History Edith Wilson 2 episodes 2014–2017 Celebrity Name Game Herself Also executive producer 2015 Barely Famous Episode: "Favorite Socks" 2016 Charity Case Hailey Unsold pilot; also executive producer Running Wild with Bear Grylls Herself Episode: "Courteney Cox" 2017 Who Do You Think You Are? Off Camera with Sam Jones The Gong Show Episode: " Will Arnett / Courteney Cox / Isla Fisher " 2018 Shameless Jen Wagner Episode: "Face It, You're Gorgeous" 2019–2021 9 Months with Courteney Cox Herself / Host Also creator and executive producer [ 64 ] 2020 Modern Family Herself Episode: " The Prescott " Celebrity Escape Room Red Nose Day special [ 103 ] 2021 Friends: The Reunion Television special; also executive producer [ 104 ] 2022–2023 Shining Vale Patricia "Pat" Phelps Main role; also producer [ 76 ] Music videos Year Title Artist Role Notes 1984 " Dancing in the Dark " Bruce Springsteen Young Woman 1994 "Ace Is in the House" Tone Loc Melissa Robinson 1995 " I'll Be There for You " The Rembrandts Monica Geller " Good Intentions " Toad the Wet Sprocket Woman 1996 " A Long December " Counting Crows 2014 " Imagine " ( UNICEF : World version) Various Herself [ 105 ] 2021 "Courteney Cox" Connor Price 2021 "Right on Time" Brandi Carlile Director Awards and honors Accolades Year Association Category Work Result Ref. 1995 American Comedy Awards Funniest Supporting Female Performer in a Television Series Friends Nominated People's Choice Awards Favorite Performer in a New Television Program Won 1996 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Won [ 106 ] 1997 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Television Actress Nominated 1998 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards Favorite Actress – Horror Scream 2 Nominated Saturn Awards Best Supporting Actress Nominated 1999 American Comedy Awards Funniest Supporting Female Performer in a Television Series Friends Nominated Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Nominated [ 107 ] 2000 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards Favorite Television Friends (shared with Jennifer Aniston & Lisa Kudrow ) Nominated Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Nominated [ 108 ] Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie – Chemistry (shared with David Arquette ) Scream 3 Won TV Guide Awards Editor's Choice Award Friends Won 2001 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards Favorite Actress – Horror (Internet Only) Scream 3 Nominated Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Friends Nominated [ 109 ] The Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Most Annoying Fake Accent – Female 3000 Miles to Graceland Nominated Worst Supporting Actress Nominated 2002 Golden Raspberry Awards Worst Supporting Actress Nominated Worst Screen Couple (shared with Kurt Russell ) Nominated Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Friends Nominated [ 110 ] Teen Choice Awards Choice TV Actress – Comedy Nominated 2003 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Nominated [ 111 ] Teen Choice Awards Choice TV Actress – Comedy Nominated 2004 Screen Actors Guild Awards Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Nominated [ 112 ] 2005 Teen Choice Awards Choice Movie – Hissy Fit The Longest Yard Nominated 2006 The Stinkers Bad Movie Awards Worst Supporting Actress Zoom Nominated TV Land Awards Most Wonderful Wedding (shared with Matthew Perry ) Friends Nominated 2007 TV Land Awards Break Up That Was So Bad It Was Good (shared with Michael J. Fox ) Family Ties Nominated 2010 Gold Derby Awards Comedy Lead Actress Cougar Town Won Golden Globe Awards Best Actress in a Television Series – Comedy or Musical Nominated [ 113 ] The Streamy Awards Best Guest Star in a Web Series Web Therapy Nominated Women's Image Network Awards Actress Comedy Series Cougar Town Nominated 2011 Critics' Choice Television Awards Best Actress in a Comedy Series Nominated Gold Derby Awards Comedy Lead Actress Nominated People's Choice Awards Favorite Television Comedy Actress Nominated 2012 People's Choice Awards Favorite Television Comedy Actress Nominated 2014 People's Choice Awards Favorite Cable Television Actress Nominated 2015 People's Choice Awards Favorite Cable Television Actress Nominated 2017 Daytime Emmy Awards Outstanding Game Show Celebrity Name Game Nominated [ 62 ] 2021 Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Variety Special (Pre-Recorded) Friends: The Reunion Nominated [ 70 ] 2022 Saturn Awards Best Actress in a Network or Cable Television Series Shining Vale Nominated [ 114 ] 2023 MTV Movie & TV Awards Best Fight (shared with Ghostface ) Scream VI Won [ 115 ] Honors 1995: Honored as the Female Discovery of the Year by the Golden Apple Awards . [ 116 ] 2010: Honored with the Lifetime Achievement Award by the Women's Image Network . [ 117 ] 2010: Honored with the Lucy Award by the Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards . [ 118 ] 2023: Honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . [ 79 ] Notes ^ Cox was credited as Courteney Cox Arquette from season six onwards due to her marriage with David Arquette during that time. 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External links Courteney Cox 1988 Interview with KVUE's Roy Faires about Cocoon: The Return (1988) from Texas Archive of the Moving Image Courteney Cox at IMDb Courteney Cox at People.com Courteney Cox on Twitter Courteney Cox on Instagram .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Fight v t e General (1996–2019, 2023–present) Adam Sandler vs. Bob Barker – Happy Gilmore (1996) Fairuza Balk vs. Robin Tunney – The Craft (1997) Will Smith vs. Cockroach – Men in Black (1998) Ben Stiller vs. Puffy the Dog – There's Something About Mary (1999) Keanu Reeves vs. Laurence Fishburne – The Matrix (2000) Zhang Ziyi vs. Entire bar – Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2001) Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker vs. Hong Kong gang – Rush Hour 2 (2002) Yoda vs. Christopher Lee – Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2003) Uma Thurman vs. Chiaki Kuriyama – Kill Bill: Volume 1 (2004) Uma Thurman vs. Daryl Hannah – Kill Bill: Volume 2 (2005) Angelina Jolie vs. Brad Pitt – Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2006) Gerard Butler vs. Robert Maillet – 300 (2007) Sean Faris vs. Cam Gigandet – Never Back Down (2008) Robert Pattinson vs. Cam Gigandet – Twilight (2009) Beyoncé Knowles vs. Ali Larter – Obsessed (2010) Robert Pattinson vs. Bryce Dallas Howard and Xavier Samuel – The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2011) Jennifer Lawrence and Josh Hutcherson vs. Alexander Ludwig – The Hunger Games (2012) Robert Downey Jr. , Chris Evans , Mark Ruffalo , Chris Hemsworth , Scarlett Johansson and Jeremy Renner vs. Tom Hiddleston – The Avengers (2013) Orlando Bloom and Evangeline Lilly vs. Orcs – The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug (2014) Dylan O'Brien vs. Will Poulter – The Maze Runner (2015) Ryan Reynolds vs. Ed Skrein – Deadpool (2016) Gal Gadot vs. German soldiers – Wonder Woman (2018) Brie Larson vs. Gemma Chan – Captain Marvel (2019) No Award (2020) Courteney Cox vs. Ghostface – Scream VI (2023) Adam Sandler vs. Bob Barker – Happy Gilmore (1996) Fairuza Balk vs. Robin Tunney – The Craft (1997) Will Smith vs. Cockroach – Men in Black (1998) Ben Stiller vs. Puffy the Dog – There's Something About Mary (1999) Keanu Reeves vs. Laurence Fishburne – The Matrix (2000) Zhang Ziyi vs. Entire bar – Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2001) Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker vs. Hong Kong gang – Rush Hour 2 (2002) Yoda vs. Christopher Lee – Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2003) Uma Thurman vs. Chiaki Kuriyama – Kill Bill: Volume 1 (2004) Uma Thurman vs. Daryl Hannah – Kill Bill: Volume 2 (2005) Angelina Jolie vs. Brad Pitt – Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2006) Gerard Butler vs. Robert Maillet – 300 (2007) Sean Faris vs. Cam Gigandet – Never Back Down (2008) Robert Pattinson vs. Cam Gigandet – Twilight (2009) Beyoncé Knowles vs. Ali Larter – Obsessed (2010) Robert Pattinson vs. Bryce Dallas Howard and Xavier Samuel – The Twilight Saga: Eclipse (2011) Jennifer Lawrence and Josh Hutcherson vs. Alexander Ludwig – The Hunger Games (2012) Robert Downey Jr. , Chris Evans , Mark Ruffalo , Chris Hemsworth , Scarlett Johansson and Jeremy Renner vs. Tom Hiddleston – The Avengers (2013) Orlando Bloom and Evangeline Lilly vs. Orcs – The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug (2014) Dylan O'Brien vs. Will Poulter – The Maze Runner (2015) Ryan Reynolds vs. Ed Skrein – Deadpool (2016) Gal Gadot vs. German soldiers – Wonder Woman (2018) Brie Larson vs. Gemma Chan – Captain Marvel (2019) No Award (2020) Courteney Cox vs. Ghostface – Scream VI (2023) Scripted (2021–2022) Elizabeth Olsen vs. Kathryn Hahn – WandaVision (2021) Sydney Sweeney vs. Alexa Demie – Euphoria (2022) Elizabeth Olsen vs. Kathryn Hahn – WandaVision (2021) Sydney Sweeney vs. Alexa Demie – Euphoria (2022) Unscripted (2021–2022) Kourtney Kardashian vs. Kim Kardashian – Keeping Up with the Kardashians (2021) Bosco vs. Lady Camden – RuPaul's Drag Race (2022) Kourtney Kardashian vs. Kim Kardashian – Keeping Up with the Kardashians (2021) Bosco vs. Lady Camden – RuPaul's Drag Race (2022) Biography Film Television United States Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Data from Wikidata Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Latvia Poland Catalonia United States France BnF data Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Latvia Poland Catalonia Artists MusicBrainz Emmy Awards MusicBrainz Emmy Awards Other IdRef SNAC Yale LUX IdRef SNAC Yale LUX 1964 births Living people 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses Actresses from Birmingham, Alabama American film actresses Film producers from Alabama American people of English descent American television actresses American women film directors American women film producers American women television producers Arquette family Female models from Alabama Film directors from Alabama Mount Vernon Seminary and College alumni People from Mountain Brook, Alabama People with mood disorders Television producers from Alabama Actresses from Malibu, California Mass media people from Malibu, California Webarchive template wayback links CS1: unfit URL Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Use American English from January 2026 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use mdy dates from August 2024 Pages using infobox person with multiple partners Biography with signature Articles with hCards Commons category link from Wikidata Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata This page was last edited on 14 January 2026, at 19:12 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . 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( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-640-8 . Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. (2008). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed.). Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978-0-8203-3113-3 . Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-0-691-00273-6 . Tucker, Spencer C. ; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-999-7 . Umbreit, Hans (1991). "The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe". In P. S. Falla (ed.). Germany and the Second World War – Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe . Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press . pp. 227– 326. ISBN 978-0-19-822885-1 . United States Army (1986) [1953]. The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941) . Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army . Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . Waltz, Susan (2002). "Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Third World Quarterly . 23 (3): 437– 448. doi : 10.1080/01436590220138378 . JSTOR 3993535 . S2CID 145398136 . Ward, Thomas A. (2010). Aerospace Propulsion Systems . Singapore: John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978-0-470-82497-9 . Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger . ISBN 978-0-275-97470-1 . Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-0-521-85316-3 . ; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953 . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6 . Wiest, Andrew; Barbier, M. K. (2002). Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare . St Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company . ISBN 978-0-7603-1401-2 . Williams, Andrew (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished . Abingdon & New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-35980-1 . Wilt, Alan F. (1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs . 45 (4): 187– 191. doi : 10.2307/1987464 . JSTOR 1987464 . Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision . Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press . Wolf, Holger C. (1993). "The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951". In Rudiger Dornbusch; Wilhelm Nölling; Richard Layard (eds.). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today . Cambridge: MIT Press . pp. 29– 56. ISBN 978-0-262-04136-2 . Wood, James B. (2007). Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . ISBN 978-0-7425-5339-2 . Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System (3rd ed.). London & Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-56032-546-8 . Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939 . Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN 978-0-87972-462-7 . Zaloga, Steven J. (1996). Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-85532-478-7 . ——— (2002). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg . Oxford: Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1-84176-408-5 . Zeiler, Thomas W. (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II . Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources. ISBN 978-0-8420-2991-9 . Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck : The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship . Drexel Hill, Pennsylvania: Casemate . ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 . Further reading Buchanan, Andrew (7 February 2023). "Globalizing the Second World War". Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia 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Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Achieving consensus Toggle Achieving consensus subsection 1.1 Through editing 1.2 Through discussion 1.3 Consensus-building 1.3.1 In talk pages 1.3.2 By soliciting outside opinions 1.3.3 Administrative or community intervention 1.3.4 Pitfalls and errors 1.1 Through editing 1.2 Through discussion 1.3 Consensus-building 1.3.1 In talk pages 1.3.2 By soliciting outside opinions 1.3.3 Administrative or community intervention 1.3.4 Pitfalls and errors 1.3.1 In talk pages 1.3.2 By soliciting outside opinions 1.3.3 Administrative or community intervention 1.3.4 Pitfalls and errors 2 Determining consensus Toggle Determining consensus subsection 2.1 Levels of consensus 2.2 No consensus after discussion 2.1 Levels of consensus 2.2 No consensus after discussion 3 Consensus can change 4 Decisions not subject to consensus of editors 5 See also Wikipedia : Consensus Anarâškielâ العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano ქართული Қазақша Lietuvių Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Malti مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча پښتو Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русский Саха тыла Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vèneto Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This page documents an English Wikipedia policy . It describes a widely accepted standard that all editors should normally follow. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcut .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:CON WP:CON WP:CON WP:CON This page in a nutshell: This policy describes how consensus is understood on Wikipedia, how to determine whether it has been achieved (and how to proceed if it has not), and describes exceptions to the principle that all decisions are made by consensus. Conduct policies Block evasion Civility Clean start Consensus Dispute resolution Edit warring Editing policy Harassment No personal attacks Ownership of content Sockpuppetry Username policy Vandalism Block evasion Civility Clean start Consensus Dispute resolution Edit warring Editing policy Harassment No personal attacks Ownership of content Sockpuppetry Username policy Vandalism .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Consensus is Wikipedia's fundamental method of decision-making. It involves an effort to address editors' legitimate concerns through a process of compromise while following Wikipedia's policies and guidelines . It is accepted as the best method to achieve the Five Pillars —Wikipedia's goals. Consensus on Wikipedia does not require unanimity (which is ideal but rarely achievable), nor is it the result of a vote . Achieving consensus WP:CONACHIEVE WP:CONACHIEVE Editors usually reach consensus as a natural process. After one editor changes a page, others who read it can choose whether or not to further edit. When editors do not reach agreement by editing, discussion on the associated talk pages continues the process toward consensus. A consensus decision takes into account all of the proper concerns raised. Ideally, it arrives with an absence of objections, but often, we must settle for as wide an agreement as can be reached. When there is no wide agreement, consensus-building involves adapting the proposal to bring in dissenters without losing those who accepted the initial proposal. Through editing WP:EDITCON WP:EDITCON WP:EDITCONSENSUS WP:EDITCONSENSUS WP:IMPLICITCONSENSUS WP:IMPLICITCONSENSUS Wikipedia consensus usually occurs implicitly. An edit has presumed consensus until it is disputed or reverted. Should another editor revise that edit, the new edit will have presumed consensus until it meets with disagreement. In this way, the encyclopedia gradually improves over time . All edits should be explained (unless the reason for them is obvious)—either by clear edit summaries , or by discussion on the associated talk page. Substantive, informative explanations indicate what issues must be addressed in subsequent efforts to reach consensus. Explanations are especially important when reverting another editor's good-faith work. Except in cases affected by content policies or guidelines , most disputes over content may be resolved through small changes rather than taking an all-or-nothing position. If your first edit is reverted, try to think of a compromise edit that addresses the other editor's concerns. If you can't, or if you do and your second edit is reverted, create a new section on the associated talk page to discuss the dispute. Be bold , but not rash. Whether changes come through editing or through discussion, the encyclopedia is best improved through collaboration and consensus , not combat and capitulation. Repeated reversions are contrary to Wikipedia policy under edit warring , except for specific policy-based material (such as BLP exceptions) and reversions of vandalism . This is true even if editors are using edit summaries to "discuss" the dispute every time they revert. Through discussion WP:DISCUSSCONSENSUS WP:DISCUSSCONSENSUS When agreement cannot be reached through editing alone, the consensus-forming process becomes more explicit: editors open a section on the associated talk page and try to work out the dispute through discussion, using reasons based in policy, sources, and common sense; they can also suggest alternative solutions or compromises that may satisfy all concerns. The result might be an agreement that may not satisfy everyone completely, but indicates the overall concurrence of the group. Consensus is an ongoing process on Wikipedia; it is often better to accept a less-than-perfect compromise—with the understanding that the page is gradually improving—than to try to fight to implement a particular preferred version immediately. When editors have a particularly difficult time reaching a consensus, several processes are available for consensus-building ( third opinions , dispute resolution noticeboard , requests for comment ), and even more extreme processes that will take authoritative steps to end the dispute ( administrator intervention , arbitration ). Keep in mind, however, that administrators are primarily concerned with policy and editor behavior (e.g., edit warring ) and will not decide content issues (e.g., which words to use in the first sentence) authoritatively. They may block editors for behaviors that interfere with the consensus process (such as abuse of multiple accounts or a lack of civility ). They may also make decisions about whether edits are or are not allowable under policy, but will not usually go beyond such actions. Consensus-building WP:CONBUILD WP:CONBUILD Editors who maintain a neutral, detached, and civil attitude can usually reach consensus on an article through the process described above. They may still occasionally find themselves at an impasse, either because they cannot find rational grounds to settle a dispute or because one or both sides of the discussion become emotionally or ideologically invested in winning an argument. What follows are suggestions for resolving intractable disputes, along with descriptions of several formal and informal processes that may help. In talk pages WP:TALKDONTREVERT WP:TALKDONTREVERT In determining consensus, consider the quality of the arguments, the history of how they came about, the objections of those who disagree, and existing policies and guidelines. The quality of an argument is more important than whether it represents a minority or a majority view. The arguments "I just don't like it" and "I just like it" usually carry no weight whatsoever. Limit article talk page discussions to discussion of sources, article focus, and policy. If an edit is challenged, or is likely to be challenged, editors should use talk pages to explain why an addition, change, or removal improves the article, and hence the encyclopedia. Consensus can be assumed if no editors object to a change. Editors who ignore talk page discussions yet continue to edit in or revert disputed material, or who stonewall discussions, may be guilty of disruptive editing and incur sanctions. Consensus cannot always be assumed simply because editors stop responding to talk page discussions in which they have already participated. The goal of a consensus-building discussion is to resolve disputes in a way that reflects Wikipedia's goals and policies while angering as few editors as possible. Editors with good social skills and good negotiation skills are more likely to be successful than those who are less than civil to others. By soliciting outside opinions When talk page discussions fail—generally because two editors (or two groups of editors) simply cannot see eye to eye on an issue—Wikipedia has several established processes to attract outside editors to offer opinions. This is often useful to break simple, good-faith deadlocks, because editors uninvolved in the discussion can bring in fresh perspectives, and can help involved editors see middle ground that they cannot see for themselves. The main resources for this are as follows: Many of these discussions will involve polls of one sort or another; but as consensus is determined by the quality of arguments (not by a simple counted majority), polls should be regarded as structured discussions rather than voting . Responses indicating individual explanations of positions using Wikipedia policies and guidelines are given the highest weight. Administrative or community intervention WP:CONADMIN WP:CONADMIN In some cases, disputes are personal or ideological rather than mere disagreements about content, and these may require the intervention of administrators or the community as a whole. Sysops will not rule on content, but may intervene to enforce policy (such as WP:Biographies of living persons ) or to impose sanctions on editors who are disrupting the consensus process. Sometimes merely asking for an administrator's attention on a talk page will suffice; as a rule, sysops have large numbers of pages watchlisted, and there is a likelihood that someone will see it and respond. However, there are established resources for working with intransigent editors, as follows: Pitfalls and errors The following are common mistakes made by editors when trying to build consensus: Off-wiki discussions. Consensus is reached through on-wiki discussion or by editing. Discussions elsewhere are not taken into account. In some cases, such off-wiki communication may generate suspicion and mistrust. Canvassing , sock puppetry , and meat puppetry . Any effort to gather participants to a community discussion that has the effect of biasing that discussion is unacceptable. While it is fine —even encouraged—to invite people into a discussion to obtain new insights and arguments, it is not acceptable to invite only people favorable to a particular point of view, or to invite people in a way that will prejudice their opinions on the matter. Using an alternative persona ("sock puppet", or "sock") to influence consensus is absolutely forbidden. Neutral, informative messages to Wikipedia noticeboards , wikiprojects , or editors are permitted; but actions that could reasonably be interpreted as an attempt to "stuff the ballot box" or otherwise compromise the consensus-building process are considered disruptive. Tendentious editing . The continuous, aggressive pursuit of an editorial goal is considered disruptive, and should be avoided. Editors should listen , respond, and cooperate to build a better article. Editors who refuse to allow any consensus except the one they insist on, and who filibuster indefinitely to attain that goal, risk damaging the consensus process. Shortcut WP:FORUMSHOP WP:FORUMSHOP Forum shopping and admin shopping. Raising essentially the same issue on multiple noticeboards and talk pages, or to multiple administrators or reviewers, or any one of these repetitively, is unhelpful to finding and achieving consensus. It does not help develop consensus to try different forums in the hope of finding one where you get the answer you want . (This is also known as "asking the other parent".) Where multiple issues do exist, then the raising of the individual issues on the correct pages may be reasonable, but in that case, it is normally best to give links to show where else you have raised the question. WP:FORUMSHOP WP:FORUMSHOP Spin-doctoring. Queries placed on noticeboards and talk pages should be phrased as neutrally as possible, in order to get uninvolved and neutral additional opinions. Determining consensus WP:DCON WP:DCON WP:DETCON WP:DETCON Consensus is ascertained by the quality of the arguments given on the various sides of an issue, as viewed through the lens of Wikipedia policy. Levels of consensus WP:CONLEVEL WP:CONLEVEL WP:LOCALCONSENSUS WP:LOCALCONSENSUS Consensus among a limited group of editors, at one place and time, cannot override community consensus on a wider scale. For instance, unless they can convince the broader community that such action is right, participants in a WikiProject cannot decide that some generally accepted policy or guideline does not apply to articles within its scope. WikiProject advice pages , how-to and information pages , template documentation pages , and essays have not gone through the policy and guideline proposal process and may or may not represent a broad community consensus. Y Desired outcome: A small number of editors arrive at an agreement about how to best apply sitewide policies and guidelines to a given Wikipedia article. Y Desired outcome: Editors determine that a particular sitewide policy or guideline is not relevant to a given situation (e.g., that Wikipedia:Biographies of living persons does not apply because the person died years ago, or that Wikipedia:Non-free content criteria are irrelevant because the content is in the public domain ). N Impermissible: A group of editors (whether or not a WikiProject ) decides that relevant sitewide policies and guidelines should not apply to particular articles. Wikipedia has a standard of participation and consensus for changes to policies and guidelines . Their stability and consistency are important to the community. Accordingly, editors often propose substantive changes on the talk page first to permit discussion before implementing the change. Undiscussed bold changes are permitted but rarely welcome on policy pages. Improvements to policy are best made slowly and conservatively, with active efforts to seek out input and agreement from others. No consensus after discussion WP:NOCON WP:NOCON WP:NOCONSENSUS WP:NOCONSENSUS What happens when a good faith discussion concludes with no agreement to take or not take an action? It depends on the context: When discussions of proposals to delete articles, media, or other pages end without consensus, the normal result is the content being kept. However, in Redirects for discussion , no consensus closes may still lead to a retargeting or disambiguation . Similarly, in Files for discussion , if there is significant doubt raised about the copyright status of a file, the closing administrator may choose to delete the file under the precautionary principle . However, in Redirects for discussion , no consensus closes may still lead to a retargeting or disambiguation . Similarly, in Files for discussion , if there is significant doubt raised about the copyright status of a file, the closing administrator may choose to delete the file under the precautionary principle . When discussions of proposals to add, modify, or remove material in articles end without consensus, the common (but not required ) result is to retain the version of the article as it was prior to the proposal or bold edit. However: Living people. In discussions related to living people , a lack of consensus often results in the removal of the contentious matter, regardless of whether the proposal was to add, modify, or remove it. Copyright violation. When the material in question is a suspected copyright violation , it must be removed immediately and not restored when a discussion ends without consensus. External links. In disputes over external links , disputed links are removed unless and until there is a consensus to include them. Living people. In discussions related to living people , a lack of consensus often results in the removal of the contentious matter, regardless of whether the proposal was to add, modify, or remove it. Copyright violation. When the material in question is a suspected copyright violation , it must be removed immediately and not restored when a discussion ends without consensus. External links. In disputes over external links , disputed links are removed unless and until there is a consensus to include them. When article title discussions end without consensus, the applicable policy preserves the most recent stable title. If there is no prior stable title, then the default is the title used by the first major contributor after the article ceased to be a stub . Consensus can change WP:CCC WP:CCC WP:CONSENSUSCANCHANGE WP:CONSENSUSCANCHANGE Editors may propose a change to current consensus, especially to raise previously unconsidered arguments or circumstances. On the other hand, proposing to change a recently established consensus can be disruptive. Editors may propose a consensus change by discussion or editing . That said, in most cases, an editor who knows a proposed change will modify a matter resolved by past discussion should propose that change by discussion. Editors who revert a change proposed by an edit should generally avoid terse explanations (such as "against consensus") which provide little guidance to the proposing editor (or, if you do use such terse explanations, it is helpful to also include a link to the discussion where the consensus was formed). Decisions not subject to consensus of editors WP:CONEXCEPT WP:CONEXCEPT Certain policies and decisions made by the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF), its officers, and the Arbitration Committee of Wikipedia are outside the purview of editor consensus. This does not constitute an exhaustive list as much as a reminder that the decisions taken under this project apply only to the workings of the self-governing community of English Wikipedia. The WMF has legal control over, and liability for, Wikipedia. Decisions, rulings, and acts of the WMF Board and its duly appointed designees take precedence over, and preempt, consensus. A consensus among editors that any such decision, ruling, or act violates Wikimedia Foundation policies may be communicated to the WMF in writing. Office actions are not permitted to be reversed by editors except by prior explicit office permission. The English Wikipedia Arbitration Committee may issue binding decisions, within its scope and responsibilities , that override consensus. The committee has a noticeboard, Wikipedia:Arbitration/Requests/Clarification and Amendment , for requests that such decisions be amended, and may amend such decisions at any time. Some matters that may seem subject to the consensus of the community at the English-language Wikipedia ( en.wikipedia.org ) are in a separate domain. In particular, the community of MediaWiki software developers, including both paid Wikimedia Foundation staff and volunteers, and the sister wikis , are largely separate entities. These independent, co-equal communities operate however they deem necessary or appropriate, such as adding, removing, or changing software features .mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0} (see meta:Limits to configuration changes ) , or accepting or rejecting some contributions, even if their actions are not endorsed by editors here. See also For a listing of ongoing discussions and current requests, see the dashboard . Information pages and Wikipedia essays concerning consensus: Wikipedia:Essay directory § Discussions and consensus Wikipedia:Consensus dos and don'ts Wikipedia:Closing discussions Wikipedia:Don't ignore community consensus Wikipedia:How to contribute to Wikipedia guidance Wikipedia:Silence does not imply consent when drafting new policies Wikipedia:Levels of consensus Articles concerning consensus: Consensus decision-making False-consensus effect Truth by consensus v t e Wikipedia principles v t e Five pillars Statement of our principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles Five pillars Statement of our principles Five pillars Statement of our principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Jimbo's statement Historic principles Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Simplified ruleset Synopsis of our conventions Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Wikimedia principles Common to all projects (in Meta-Wiki) Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles Principles Other essays on Wikipedia's principles v t e Wikipedia key policies and guidelines (?) v t e Five pillars Ignore all rules Five pillars Ignore all rules Ignore all rules Content (?) P Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles G Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs P Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles Verifiability No original research Neutral point of view What Wikipedia is not Biographies of living persons Copyright ( Copyright violations ) Image use Article titles G Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs Notability Autobiography Citing sources Reliable sources Medicine Medicine Do not include copies of lengthy primary sources Plagiarism Do not create hoaxes Fringe theories Patent nonsense External links Writing articles with large language models LLMs LLMs Conduct (?) P Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure G Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures P Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure Civility Consensus Harassment Vandalism Ignore all rules No personal attacks Ownership of content Edit warring Dispute resolution Sockpuppetry No legal threats Child protection Paid-contribution disclosure G Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Do not disrupt Wikipedia to illustrate a point Etiquette Gaming the system Please do not bite the newcomers Courtesy vanishing Responding to threats of harm Talk page guidelines Signatures Signatures Deletion (?) P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion P Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Deletion policy Proposed deletion Biographies Biographies Speedy deletion Attack page Oversight Revision deletion Enforcement (?) P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection P Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Administrators Banning Blocking Page protection Editing (?) P Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace P Editing policy Editing policy G Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Article size Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Article size Summary style Summary style Be bold Disambiguation Hatnotes Broad-concept article Understandability Style Manual of Style Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Manual of Style Contents Contents Accessibility Dates and numbers Images Layout Lead section Linking Lists Classification Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Template namespace Project content (?) G Project namespace WikiProjects User pages User boxes Shortcuts Subpages G Project namespace WikiProjects User pages User boxes Shortcuts Subpages Project namespace WikiProjects WikiProjects User pages User boxes User boxes Shortcuts Subpages WMF (?) P Universal Code of Conduct Terms of Use List of policies Friendly space policy Licensing and copyright Privacy policy P Universal Code of Conduct Terms of Use List of policies Friendly space policy Licensing and copyright Privacy policy Universal Code of Conduct Terms of Use List of policies Friendly space policy Licensing and copyright Privacy policy List of all policies and guidelines P : List of policies G : List of guidelines Summaries of values and principles FAQ List of all policies and guidelines P : List of policies G : List of guidelines P : List of policies G : List of guidelines Summaries of values and principles FAQ v t e Wikipedia accounts and governance v t e Unregistered users Why create an account? Create an account Request an account Unregistered editors are human too IP addresses are not people IP hopper Temporary accounts Why create an account? Create an account Request an account Unregistered editors are human too IP addresses are not people IP hopper Temporary accounts Registered users New account Logging in Reset passwords Username policy Changing username Usernames for administrator attention Unified login or SUL Alternate account New account Logging in Reset passwords Reset passwords Username policy Changing username Usernames for administrator attention Changing username Usernames for administrator attention Unified login or SUL Alternate account Account security Password strength requirements User account security Personal security practices Two-factor authentication 2FA for AWB Committed identity On privacy, confidentiality and discretion Compromised accounts How to not get outed Password strength requirements User account security Personal security practices Two-factor authentication 2FA for AWB 2FA for AWB Committed identity On privacy, confidentiality and discretion Compromised accounts How to not get outed Blocks, bans, sanctions, global actions Blocking policy FAQ Admin's guide Tools Autoblock Appealing a block Guide to appealing blocks UTRS Unblock Ticket Request System Unblock Wizard Blocking IP addresses Range blocks IPv6 Open proxies Banning policy ArbCom appeals Sanctions Personal sanctions General sanctions Contentious topics and Log Essay Indef ≠ infinite Long-term abuse Standard offer Global actions Blocking policy FAQ Admin's guide Tools Autoblock FAQ Admin's guide Tools Autoblock Appealing a block Guide to appealing blocks UTRS Unblock Ticket Request System Unblock Wizard Guide to appealing blocks UTRS Unblock Ticket Request System Unblock Wizard Blocking IP addresses Range blocks IPv6 Open proxies Range blocks IPv6 Open proxies Banning policy ArbCom appeals ArbCom appeals Sanctions Personal sanctions General sanctions Contentious topics and Log Essay Personal sanctions General sanctions Contentious topics and Log Essay Indef ≠ infinite Long-term abuse Standard offer Global actions Related to accounts Sockpuppetry Single-purpose account Sleeper account Spam-only account Vandalism-only account Wikibreak Enforcer Retiring Courtesy vanishing Clean start Quiet return Account deletion Sockpuppetry Single-purpose account Sleeper account Spam-only account Vandalism-only account Wikibreak Enforcer Enforcer Retiring Courtesy vanishing Courtesy vanishing Clean start Quiet return Quiet return Account deletion User groups and global user groups Requests for permissions Admin instructions Admin guide Account creator PERM (Auto) confirmed PERM Autopatrolled PERM AutoWikiBrowser PERM Bot Request Edit filter helper Request Event coordinator PERM Extended confirmed PERM File mover PERM IP block exempt Request Mass message sender PERM New page reviewer PERM Page mover PERM Pending changes reviewer PERM Rollback PERM Template editor PERM Temporary account IP viewer PERM Global rights policy Volunteer Response Team Requests for permissions Admin instructions Admin guide Admin instructions Admin guide Account creator PERM PERM (Auto) confirmed PERM PERM Autopatrolled PERM PERM AutoWikiBrowser PERM PERM Bot Request Request Edit filter helper Request Request Event coordinator PERM PERM Extended confirmed PERM PERM File mover PERM PERM IP block exempt Request Request Mass message sender PERM PERM New page reviewer PERM PERM Page mover PERM PERM Pending changes reviewer PERM PERM Rollback PERM PERM Template editor PERM PERM Temporary account IP viewer PERM PERM Global rights policy Volunteer Response Team Volunteer Response Team Advanced user groups Administrator RfA Bureaucrat RfB CheckUser and Oversight Request Edit filter manager Request Interface administrator Request Founder Importer Researcher Administrator RfA RfA Bureaucrat RfB RfB CheckUser and Oversight Request Request Edit filter manager Request Request Interface administrator Request Request Founder Importer Researcher Committees and related Arbitration Committee Bot approvals group Functionaries Clerks SPI clerks ArbCom clerks Arbitration Committee Bot approvals group Functionaries Clerks SPI clerks ArbCom clerks SPI clerks ArbCom clerks Governance Administration FAQ Formal organization Editorial oversight and control Quality control Wikimedia Foundation Board Founder's seat Meta-Wiki Proposals WikiProjects Elections Policies and guidelines Petitions Noticeboards Consensus Dispute resolution Reforms Administration FAQ FAQ Formal organization Editorial oversight and control Quality control Wikimedia Foundation Board Founder's seat Meta-Wiki Proposals Board Founder's seat Meta-Wiki Proposals WikiProjects Elections Policies and guidelines Petitions Noticeboards Consensus Dispute resolution Reforms Wikipedia policies Wikipedia glossary items Wikipedia conduct policies Wikipedia consensus Wikipedia move-protected project pages Wikipedia semi-protected project pages This page was last edited on 2 January 2026, at 21:04 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Print subscriptions Newsletters Sign in US edition UK edition Australia edition Europe edition International edition News Opinion Sport Culture Lifestyle document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('News-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('News-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) News View all News US news US politics World news Climate crisis Middle East Ukraine US immigration Soccer Business Environment Tech Science Newsletters Wellness View all News US news US politics World news Climate crisis Middle East Ukraine US immigration Soccer Business Environment Tech Science Newsletters Wellness document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Opinion-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Opinion-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Opinion View all Opinion The Guardian view Columnists Letters Opinion videos Cartoons View all Opinion The Guardian view Columnists Letters Opinion videos Cartoons document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Sport-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Sport-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Sport View all Sport Soccer NFL Tennis MLB MLS NBA WNBA NHL F1 Golf View all Sport Soccer NFL Tennis MLB MLS NBA WNBA NHL F1 Golf document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Culture-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Culture-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Culture View all Culture Film Books Music Art & design TV & radio Stage Classical Games View all Culture Film Books Music Art & design TV & radio Stage Classical Games document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function(){ var columnInput = document.getElementById('Lifestyle-button'); if (!columnInput) return; // Sticky nav replaces the nav so element no longer exists for users in test. columnInput.addEventListener('keydown', function(e){ // keyCode: 13 => Enter key | keyCode: 32 => Space key if (e.keyCode === 13 || e.keyCode === 32) { e.preventDefault() document.getElementById('Lifestyle-checkbox-input').click(); } }) }) Lifestyle View all Lifestyle The Filter Wellness Fashion Food Recipes Love & sex Home & garden Health & fitness Family Travel Money View all Lifestyle The Filter Wellness Fashion Food Recipes Love & sex Home & garden Health & fitness Family Travel Money Search input google-search Search Support us Print subscriptions Newsletters Download the app Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us The Guardian app Video Podcasts Pictures Inside the Guardian Guardian Weekly Crosswords Wordiply Corrections Tips Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us The Guardian app Video Podcasts Pictures Inside the Guardian Guardian Weekly Crosswords Wordiply Corrections Tips Search input google-search Search Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us Search jobs Digital Archive Guardian Licensing Live events About Us UK US politics World Climate crisis Middle East Ukraine Football Newsletters Business Environment UK politics Science Tech Global development Obituaries Jess Wade, who has written hundreds of articles to combat Wikipedia’s gender bias. Photograph: Graeme Robertson/The Guardian View image in fullscreen Jess Wade, who has written hundreds of articles to combat Wikipedia’s gender bias. Photograph: Graeme Robertson/The Guardian The five Wikipedia This article is more than 7 years old Wikipedia biases This article is more than 7 years old Research exposes the male-dominated, pro-western worldview of the online encyclopedia Poppy Noor Sun 29 Jul 2018 02.00 EDT Share Gender Over the last year, scientist Jess Wade has taken to the keyboard to rectify gender bias on Wikipedia. She has written more than 270 entries about forgotten but influential women in science – such as Susan Goldberg , the first female editor of National Geographic . Research shows just 16% of Wikipedia editors are female and only 17% of entries dedicated to notable people are for women. View image in fullscreen Young Nigerian woman at a social media conference in Lagos. Most coverage of sub-Saharan Africa on Wikipedia is written by westerners. Photograph: Alamy Stock Photo Western Research by Oxford University in 2016 revealed that the vast bulk of content written about most African countries on Wikipedia was by editors in Europe and North America. Only 16% of content about sub-Saharan Africa is written by people from the region, while most entries on European countries are written in Europe. View image in fullscreen Coverage of the recent Crimean annexation depended on markedly different source material depending on the language of the article. Photograph: Getty Images Language In 2016, researchers at the University of Koblenz-Landau in Germany found that the language of a Wikipedia entry influences the sources used, therefore offering a different version of the truth. In an English-language article about Russia’s annexation of Crimea, for example, 24% of sources were Ukrainian and 20% Russian. In the German version, Russian sources made up 10% of citations and Ukrainian sources only 3%. View image in fullscreen One study suggested that the site shows a slight pro-Democratic party bias. Photograph: Getty Images Political A 2011 research paper that analysed almost 30,000 Wikipedia entries about US politics found the website to be slightly biased towards the Democrats. The study found that entries were more likely to use politically charged Democratic phrases (terms like “civil rights”) than Republican ones (“illegal immigration”). Although later entries are less biased, the paper concludes “the average old political article in Wikipedia leans [sic] Democratic”. View image in fullscreen More recent events get more coverage on Wikipedia, research suggests. Photograph: MicroStockHub/Getty Historical A 2011 paper reviewed thousands of Wikipedia articles and found that, although most articles were accurate, recent events received \the most coverage. Looking at US gubernatorial elections since 1978, the author found that its coverage in the years before 2001 (when Wikipedia was created) was scant. The author concluded that these omissions reflected “the limited expertise and interests of contributors”. This is the archive of The Observer up until 21/04/2025. The Observer is now owned and operated by Tortoise Media. Explore more on these topics Wikipedia The five Internet features Share Reuse this content Wikipedia biases Gender Over the last year, scientist Jess Wade has taken to the keyboard to rectify gender bias on Wikipedia. She has written more than 270 entries about forgotten but influential women in science – such as Susan Goldberg , the first female editor of National Geographic . Research shows just 16% of Wikipedia editors are female and only 17% of entries dedicated to notable people are for women. Western Research by Oxford University in 2016 revealed that the vast bulk of content written about most African countries on Wikipedia was by editors in Europe and North America. Only 16% of content about sub-Saharan Africa is written by people from the region, while most entries on European countries are written in Europe. Language In 2016, researchers at the University of Koblenz-Landau in Germany found that the language of a Wikipedia entry influences the sources used, therefore offering a different version of the truth. In an English-language article about Russia’s annexation of Crimea, for example, 24% of sources were Ukrainian and 20% Russian. In the German version, Russian sources made up 10% of citations and Ukrainian sources only 3%. Political A 2011 research paper that analysed almost 30,000 Wikipedia entries about US politics found the website to be slightly biased towards the Democrats. The study found that entries were more likely to use politically charged Democratic phrases (terms like “civil rights”) than Republican ones (“illegal immigration”). Although later entries are less biased, the paper concludes “the average old political article in Wikipedia leans [sic] Democratic”. Historical A 2011 paper reviewed thousands of Wikipedia articles and found that, although most articles were accurate, recent events received \the most coverage. Looking at US gubernatorial elections since 1978, the author found that its coverage in the years before 2001 (when Wikipedia was created) was scant. The author concluded that these omissions reflected “the limited expertise and interests of contributors”. This is the archive of The Observer up until 21/04/2025. The Observer is now owned and operated by Tortoise Media. This is the archive of The Observer up until 21/04/2025. The Observer is now owned and operated by Tortoise Media. Wikipedia The five Internet features Comments ( … ) Sign in or create your Guardian account to join the discussion Comments ( … ) Sign in or create your Guardian account to join the discussion Comments ( … ) Most viewed Most viewed Most viewed Most viewed UK US politics World Climate crisis Middle East Ukraine Football Newsletters Business Environment UK politics Science Tech Global development Obituaries News Opinion Sport Culture Lifestyle About us Help Complaints & corrections Contact us Tip us off SecureDrop Privacy policy Cookie policy Tax strategy Terms & conditions All topics All writers Newsletters Digital newspaper archive Bluesky Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Threads TikTok YouTube Advertise with us Guardian Labs Search jobs Work with us Accessibility settings
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Portal : Current events/2025 January 17 Portal Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version edit history watch Armed conflicts and attacks Gaza war The Security Cabinet of Israel approves the proposed Gaza ceasefire agreement , which is expected to take effect on Sunday. ( The Guardian ) The Security Cabinet of Israel approves the proposed Gaza ceasefire agreement , which is expected to take effect on Sunday. ( The Guardian ) Naxalite–Maoist insurgency Twelve Naxalites are killed in a police raid in Bijapur , Chhattisgarh , India . (Al Jazeera) Twelve Naxalites are killed in a police raid in Bijapur , Chhattisgarh , India . (Al Jazeera) Colombian conflict Nine people are killed during a shootout between Gulf Cartel gunmen and the National Liberation Army (ELN) in Montelibano , Córdoba Department , Colombia . (Barron's) Nine people are killed during a shootout between Gulf Cartel gunmen and the National Liberation Army (ELN) in Montelibano , Córdoba Department , Colombia . (Barron's) Three people are killed and seven others are injured in clashes with security forces in Juba and Aweil , South Sudan , with three Sudanese -owned houses set on fire in Aweil. This comes after videos emerged allegedly showing Sudanese soldiers killing South Sudanese civilians in Wad Madani , Sudan. (BBC News) Business and economy British oil and gas company BP announces that it will lay off 4,700 employees and 3,000 contractors globally to reduce costs. (AP) Disasters and accidents A minivan rammed into a stationary bus near Narayangaon , India , killing nine. (INDIA TODAY) Health and environment The Zimbabwean Ministry of Health reports that a new cholera outbreak that started in December 2024 has reached eight districts and infected nearly 300 people, causing one death. (DW) International relations 2024 United States telecommunications hack The U.S. Treasury Department sanctions a cybersecurity company and hacker, both with ties to China 's Ministry of State Security , for their alleged roles in hacking American telecommunications companies. (Reuters) The U.S. Treasury Department sanctions a cybersecurity company and hacker, both with ties to China 's Ministry of State Security , for their alleged roles in hacking American telecommunications companies. (Reuters) Iran–Russia relations Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian and Russian president Vladimir Putin sign the Iranian–Russian Treaty on Comprehensive Strategic Partnership . The 20-year deal will see cooperation between the two countries in multiple areas, including nuclear energy , counterterrorism , and environmental issues. (Middle East Eye) Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian and Russian president Vladimir Putin sign the Iranian–Russian Treaty on Comprehensive Strategic Partnership . The 20-year deal will see cooperation between the two countries in multiple areas, including nuclear energy , counterterrorism , and environmental issues. (Middle East Eye) Law and crime TikTok v. Garland The United States Supreme Court upholds a law that could ban TikTok in the United States on January 19 unless the social media platform is sold by its Chinese parent company ByteDance . (AP) The United States Supreme Court upholds a law that could ban TikTok in the United States on January 19 unless the social media platform is sold by its Chinese parent company ByteDance . (AP) A judge in Bolivia orders the arrest of former Bolivian President Evo Morales on statutory rape charges. ( The Guardian ) Brazilian police raid a ranch in Ponta Grossa , South Region, Brazil , in an operation to dismantle a gang planning large-scale bank heists , killing six suspects and seizing weapons, including a .50-caliber machine gun and explosives. (AP) Politics and elections Colombian conflict Colombian President Gustavo Petro suspends dialogue with the National Liberation Army following accusations of war crimes against the group. (Reuters) Colombian President Gustavo Petro suspends dialogue with the National Liberation Army following accusations of war crimes against the group. (Reuters) Second inauguration of Donald Trump U.S. President-elect Donald Trump announces that his upcoming second inauguration will be held indoors at the United States Capitol rotunda due to cold temperatures forecasts. Trump also announces that the inaugural parade will be held indoors at Capital One Arena in Washington D.C. (Reuters) U.S. President-elect Donald Trump announces that his upcoming second inauguration will be held indoors at the United States Capitol rotunda due to cold temperatures forecasts. Trump also announces that the inaugural parade will be held indoors at Capital One Arena in Washington D.C. (Reuters) Didier Guillaume , the head of government of Monaco , dies suddenly at the age of 65. Isabelle Berro-Lefèvre is appointed acting Minister of State by Prince Albert II . (Monaco Tribune) Science and technology Censorship of TikTok TikTok warns that it could "go dark" on Sunday without assistance from outgoing U.S. President Joe Biden and his administration . (Politico) TikTok warns that it could "go dark" on Sunday without assistance from outgoing U.S. President Joe Biden and his administration . (Politico) 2025 by day This page was last edited on 17 October 2025, at 21:28 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events/2025_January_17
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Suoku puslopa Dūmu meits Nasenejis puormejis Navieškys rakstīņs Paleigs Specialuos puslopys Pazīdi Reģistrēties Pieslēgties Pazīdi Reģistrēties Pieslēgties Saturs Sākums 1 Suoku puslopys vierteigī rakstīni: 2 Suoku puslopys vierteigū rakstīņu kaņdidati: Vikipedeja : Vierteigs rakstīņs Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Aragonés Ænglisc العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Авар Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी বাংলা Brezhoneg Bosanski Basa Ugi Català 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano کوردی Qırımtatarca Čeština Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Zazaki Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara فارسی Suomi Français Nordfriisk Frysk 贛語 Galego گیلکی गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî עברית हिन्दी Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois Jawa ქართული Қазақша ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар Ripoarisch Kurdî Коми Кыргызча Latina Ladino Лезги Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Мокшень Олык марий Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Diné bizaad Occitan Livvinkarjala ଓଡ଼ିଆ Polski پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Runa Simi Română Русский संस्कृतम् Саха тыла Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Ślůnski தமிழ் తెలుగు Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ Tagalog Toki pona Türkçe Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça Тыва дыл Удмурт Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük 吴语 Хальмг მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Projekta puslopa Sprīža Vērtīs Labot pirmkodu Viesture Vērtīs Labot pirmkodu Viesture Sasītuos nūruodis Sasītuos puormejis Īsyuteit failu Nūtaleja nūruode Lapas informācija Iegūt saīsinātu URL Lejupielādēt QR kodu Switch to legacy parser Iztaiseit gruomotu Lejupielādēt kā PDF Verseja drukavuošonai Meta-Wiki Wikispecies Wikidata Vikidati vienums Suoku puslopys vierteigī rakstīni: [ labot pirmkodu ] Lubuons - nu 2010 g. jaunagods m. 2 d. Palākais vylks - nu 2010 g. sulu m. 9 d. Igauneja - nu 2011 g. pavasara m. 16 d. Reiga - nu 2011 g. labeibys m. 14 d. Krīvejis Nacionaluo biblioteka - nu 2012 g. svacainis m. 7 d. Leldīne Suoku puslopys vierteigī rakstīni: Lubuons - nu 2010 g. jaunagods m. 2 d. Palākais vylks - nu 2010 g. sulu m. 9 d. Igauneja - nu 2011 g. pavasara m. 16 d. Reiga - nu 2011 g. labeibys m. 14 d. Krīvejis Nacionaluo biblioteka - nu 2012 g. svacainis m. 7 d. Leldīne Suoku puslopys vierteigū rakstīņu kaņdidati: [ labot pirmkodu ] Suoku puslopys vierteigū rakstīņu kaņdidati: Suoku puslopa Itymā lopā pādejuos izmainis izdareitys 22.19, 2019. gada 20. jaunagods mieness. Lapa tika renderēta ar Parsoid . Teksts ir pieejams saskaņā ar Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike licenci ; var pastāvēt papildus ierobežojumi. Plašākai informācijai skatīt lietošanas noteikumus . Privatuma politika Ap Vikipedeja Daīšmu nūstatejumi Uzvedības kodekss Izstrādātāji Statistika Sīkdatņu deklarācija Mobilais skats
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Our ancestors had reason to appreciate open and robust debate. The John Peter Zenger case of 1735 demonstrated the dislike for seditious libel. After Zenger, Americans have been brought into court for criticizing the government but thank goodness that has occurred only rarely. Many states, including Texas, had criminal libel statutes. But in 1964 the United States Supreme Court decision in Garrison v. Louisiana ended criminal libel. Americans never warmed to the concept anyway. Its potential for abuse was great. The Supreme Court was not involved in First Amendment cases until fairly recent times. In Gitlow v. New York in 1925 the court said that the Fourteenth Amendment made the First Amendment applicable to the states. The first time the Supreme Court set aside a state law involving the First Amendment was when it declared red flag statutes unconstitutional in Stromberg v. California in 1931. Also in 1931 the Supreme Court ruled by 5 to 4 in Near v. Minnesota that a state law used to close down a newspaper was unconstitutional. Civil libel grew slowly and unevenly. Civil libel has its origins in the common law. As cases were decided, that established precedent for other cases. For the most part the actual statutory laws related to civil libel are procedural. They differ from state to state. The defamation claimed in civil libel puts one person or legal entity against another person or entity such as a newspaper, radio or television station. The state is in no way a party to the action. The person who believes he or she has been damaged may bring a case in civil court via a petition. That is called a suit. Because libel has grown out of the common law, a most important consideration in a libel action is the decision by appellate courts in previous cases. Before 1964 those decisions varied greatly from state to state. Not that many cases were brought. The United States Supreme Court rarely became involved. Suits such as John Henry Faulk’s against AWARE, Inc. during the McCarthy Era were more what we thought libel ought to be—a protection against unwarranted attacks. New York Times v. Sullivan Libel law changed forever in 1964 with the United States Supreme Court decision in New York Times v. Sullivan . That decision and others by the Warren Court established a clear concept of libel and one that guaranteed press freedom without eliminating libel entirely. The Supreme Court held in the Times case that the Constitution, specifically the First Amendment, prohibits a public official from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood related to his or her official conduct. The court included one qualification: malice, or actual malice. The definition given for actual malice was “with knowledge that it (the material in question) was false or with reckless disregard of whether if was false or not.” The Supreme Court had no other choice in that case. Deciding otherwise would have shackled the press at the very time public debate was needed on important social issues. In the Times case the issue was segregation. Later it was to be the Vietnam War in the Pentagon Papers case, then President Richard Nixon’s right to withhold tapes and so on. Any other decision by the Supreme Court in the Times case would have changed history—and not for the better. After establishing this new standard for public officials, the Supreme Court used other decisions to limit suits brought by public figures and private citizens. Two cases were decided in one opinion in 1967. They were Associated Press v. Walker and Curtis Publishing Company v. Butts . In that decision the Supreme Court brought public figures under the umbrella it had created in Sullivan. The court said that a public figure cannot collect damages unless malice is proved. The court established a guideline, “accepted publishing standards,” by which reckless disregard might be judged. In 1971 in Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, Inc. the Supreme Court held that a private citizen involved in an event of public interest must prove malice to collect in a libel action. A Change in the Court But the era when the court was know as the Warren Court -- named for Chief Justice Earl Warren -- ended. Warren Burger replaced Earl Warren as chief justice and new appointees went on the court. For reasons that remain unclear, the new court chose to undo what the previous court had done regarding libel. Perhaps one reason the Burger court began changing the law was that justices came to agree with many in the public that the press had too much power. Whatever the intent, the court turned its back on a tradition of free inquiry and open debate that had been developing in America. The tradition had begun with the John Peter Zenger trial and had continued in decisions such as Near v. Minnesota, New York Times v. Sullivan, Garrison v. Louisiana, etc. The Gertz Case In 1974 in Gertz v. Robert Welch the court said that a private citizen does not have to meet the actual malice standard of Times v. Sullivan to recover damages. A private citizen may sue for actual injury, which the court said includes impairment of reputation, personal humiliation and mental anguish, as well as financial loss. To collect, the private citizen must only prove negligence. Still, the court said, public figures must prove malice—knowing and reckless falsehood—before they can collect punitive damages. The court ruled that Gertz applies only to issues of public concern, not to libel cases arising from purely private matters. The court left it up to juries to determine when a person who is a public figure acted as a public figure and when he or she acted as a private citizen. The court established a standard for determining whether a person is a public figure. It said: Absent clear evidence of general fame or notoriety in the community, and pervasive involvement in the affairs of society, an individual should not be deemed a public personality for all aspects of his life. The withdrawal from Times v. Sullivan continued in 1976 in Time v. Firestone. The Supreme Court said that Mary Alice Firestone, who was involved in a sensational divorce trial, remained a private citizen because she was drawn into the public forum largely against her will. Therefore, since she was a private citizen, the burden was put on the defendant publisher, Time magazine, to establish that information it had reported about her was true. If the report was false the publisher was not protected. Before this ruling, the public official/public figure/private individual rule established by the Warren court required that malice had to be proved by the plaintiff to win a libel judgment. Gertz and Firestone dismantled the structure of libel that the Supreme Court had so carefully constructed under Chief Justice Warren. Other cases since then have also been decided in a way detrimental to the media. Other Cases In Herbert v. Lando in 1979 the Supreme Court ruled that public figures suing for libel may inquire into a journalist’s state of mind and the editorial process behind the statements at issue. Specifically the court said that former Army officer Anthony Herbert had the right to review outtakes of CBS film footage. In Hutchinson v. Proxmire , also decided in 1979, the Supreme Court established a precedent that was to have far-reaching implications in libel law. The background: Ronald Hutchinson, a research psychologist, had been given a golden fleece award by U.S. Senator William Proxmire. The award was designed to expose wasteful spending in government. Proxmire made fun of the $500,000 grant Hutchinson obtained in federal funds to study why monkeys clench their jaws. Hutchinson responded by suing Proxmire for libel, and the Supreme Court held with Hutchinson. A significant factor in the case was Footnote Nine. In that footnote, Chief Justice Warren Burger questioned the use of summary judgments in libel cases. The summary judgment is a traditional pretrial procedure and one that can be vital in a libel action. The potential of a summary judgment in a libel action make it possible for lawyers representing media defendants to go into court at the start of a trial and ask the judge to throw out cases that fit a pattern already decided by appellate courts. The summary judgment is particularly effective in suits that seem to have little merit. Since the pattern of libel had already been drastically changed by the Supreme Court in Gertz and Firestone , more and more cases were going to trial that previously might have been dismissed by judges as being without merit. The trials were necessary because, in effect, each case presented an opportunity to establish new law. The problem for journalists was that the decisions were now being made by jurors based on definitions of law and libel that, at best, were difficult to sort out. Footnote Nine made the transformation of libel in America almost complete. Put another way, because of the decisions in several Supreme Court cases over the years, we are almost back where we started with libel. The effect is that many situations involving libel don’t have clear-cut precedent to rely on. Milkovich A good example of that is Milkovich v. Lorain Journal , decided in 1990. The Supreme Court in a 7-2 decision in an opinion written by Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist ruled that the First Amendment does not automatically shield expressions of opinion from being found libelous. The suit was brought in 1975 by Michael Milkovich Sr. against the Lake County (Ohio) News-Herald (then owned by the Lorain Journal ) over a column by sportswriter J. Theodore Diadiun. The Supreme Court said that newspaper columns and other forms of commentary may be libelous if they “imply an assertion of objective fact” that the plaintiff can prove is false. Justice Rehnquist wrote: If a speaker says, “In my opinion John Jones is a liar,” he implies a knowledge of facts which lead to the conclusion that Jones told an untruth. Even if the speaker states the facts upon which he bases his opinion, if those facts are either incorrect or incomplete, or if his assessment of them is erroneous, the statement may still imply a false assertion of fact. Simply couching such statements in terms of opinion does not dispel these implications; and the statement, “In my opinion Jones is a liar,” can cause as much damage to reputation as the statement, “Jones is a liar.” Justices William J. Brennan and Thurgood Marshall dissented. Citations Here are citations for the libel cases referred to: New York Times v. Sullivan , 376 U.S. 254, 84 S.Ct. 710, 11 L.Ed.2d 686, March 9, 1964 Garrison v. State of Louisiana , 379 U.S. 64, 85 S.Ct. 209, 3 L.Ed.2d 125, November 23, 1964. Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts and Associated Press v. Walker , 388 U.S. 130, 87 S.Ct. 1975, 18 L.Ed.2d 1094, June 12, 1967. Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, 403 U.S. 29, 91 S.Ct. 1811, 29 L.Ed.2d 296, June 7, 1971. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc ., 418 U.S. 323, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 41 LEd2d 789, June 25, 1974. Time v. Firestone, 424 U.S. 448, 96 S.Ct. 958, 47 L.Ed.2d 154, March 2, 1976. See Time , March 15, 1976. Herbert v. Lando , 441 U.S. 153, 99 S.Ct. 1635, 60 L.Ed.2d 115, April 18, 1979. Hutchinson v. Proxmire , 443 U.S. 111, 99 S.Ct. 2675, 61 L.Ed.2d 411, 1979. Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co ., 497 U.S. 1, 110 S.Ct. 2695, 111 L.Ed2d 1, June 21, 1990. Falwell v. Hustler A most favorable ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court came in a suit brought by Jerry Falwell against Larry Flynt and Hustler magazine. The case was decided by the court in 1988—two years before the Milkovich decision—and at the time seemed to promise good things ahead. Hustler ran a takeoff of a Campari Liqueur advertisement with Jerry Falwell as the subject. The ad ran twice, in November 1983 and in March 1984. Falwell sued in federal court. A federal court jury found the ad was too outrageous to be believed and could not be the basis of a libel action since Falwell’s reputation was not damaged. But the jury awarded Falwell $200,000—$100,000 to compensate for “intentional infliction of emotional distress” and $100,000 in punitive damages. The Supreme Court overturned the verdict. Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist wrote the opinion for the court in a unanimous decision. Rehnquist said that the First Amendment protects even “vehement, caustic and sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks” and that freedom of expression needs what he termed “breathing space.” He said that the jury had decided that the ad parody was not factual. Therefore, no reckless disregard could exist. Hustler Magazine v. Falwell , 485 U.S. 46, 108 S.Ct. 876, 99 L.Ed.2d 41, February 24, 1988. Last Updated ( Tuesday, 06 January 2009 12:45 ) | Print | E-mail Tuesday, 06 January 2009 12:23 Libel Libel Cases Americans didn’t start out suing over what appeared in the press. Our ancestors had reason to appreciate open and robust debate. The John Peter Zenger case of 1735 demonstrated the dislike for seditious libel. After Zenger, Americans have been brought into court for criticizing the government but thank goodness that has occurred only rarely. Many states, including Texas, had criminal libel statutes. But in 1964 the United States Supreme Court decision in Garrison v. Louisiana ended criminal libel. Americans never warmed to the concept anyway. Its potential for abuse was great. The Supreme Court was not involved in First Amendment cases until fairly recent times. In Gitlow v. New York in 1925 the court said that the Fourteenth Amendment made the First Amendment applicable to the states. The first time the Supreme Court set aside a state law involving the First Amendment was when it declared red flag statutes unconstitutional in Stromberg v. California in 1931. Also in 1931 the Supreme Court ruled by 5 to 4 in Near v. Minnesota that a state law used to close down a newspaper was unconstitutional. Civil libel grew slowly and unevenly. Civil libel has its origins in the common law. As cases were decided, that established precedent for other cases. For the most part the actual statutory laws related to civil libel are procedural. They differ from state to state. The defamation claimed in civil libel puts one person or legal entity against another person or entity such as a newspaper, radio or television station. The state is in no way a party to the action. The person who believes he or she has been damaged may bring a case in civil court via a petition. That is called a suit. Because libel has grown out of the common law, a most important consideration in a libel action is the decision by appellate courts in previous cases. Before 1964 those decisions varied greatly from state to state. Not that many cases were brought. The United States Supreme Court rarely became involved. Suits such as John Henry Faulk’s against AWARE, Inc. during the McCarthy Era were more what we thought libel ought to be—a protection against unwarranted attacks. New York Times v. Sullivan Libel law changed forever in 1964 with the United States Supreme Court decision in New York Times v. Sullivan . That decision and others by the Warren Court established a clear concept of libel and one that guaranteed press freedom without eliminating libel entirely. The Supreme Court held in the Times case that the Constitution, specifically the First Amendment, prohibits a public official from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood related to his or her official conduct. The court included one qualification: malice, or actual malice. The definition given for actual malice was “with knowledge that it (the material in question) was false or with reckless disregard of whether if was false or not.” The Supreme Court had no other choice in that case. Deciding otherwise would have shackled the press at the very time public debate was needed on important social issues. In the Times case the issue was segregation. Later it was to be the Vietnam War in the Pentagon Papers case, then President Richard Nixon’s right to withhold tapes and so on. Any other decision by the Supreme Court in the Times case would have changed history—and not for the better. After establishing this new standard for public officials, the Supreme Court used other decisions to limit suits brought by public figures and private citizens. Two cases were decided in one opinion in 1967. They were Associated Press v. Walker and Curtis Publishing Company v. Butts . In that decision the Supreme Court brought public figures under the umbrella it had created in Sullivan. The court said that a public figure cannot collect damages unless malice is proved. The court established a guideline, “accepted publishing standards,” by which reckless disregard might be judged. In 1971 in Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, Inc. the Supreme Court held that a private citizen involved in an event of public interest must prove malice to collect in a libel action. A Change in the Court But the era when the court was know as the Warren Court -- named for Chief Justice Earl Warren -- ended. Warren Burger replaced Earl Warren as chief justice and new appointees went on the court. For reasons that remain unclear, the new court chose to undo what the previous court had done regarding libel. Perhaps one reason the Burger court began changing the law was that justices came to agree with many in the public that the press had too much power. Whatever the intent, the court turned its back on a tradition of free inquiry and open debate that had been developing in America. The tradition had begun with the John Peter Zenger trial and had continued in decisions such as Near v. Minnesota, New York Times v. Sullivan, Garrison v. Louisiana, etc. The Gertz Case In 1974 in Gertz v. Robert Welch the court said that a private citizen does not have to meet the actual malice standard of Times v. Sullivan to recover damages. A private citizen may sue for actual injury, which the court said includes impairment of reputation, personal humiliation and mental anguish, as well as financial loss. To collect, the private citizen must only prove negligence. Still, the court said, public figures must prove malice—knowing and reckless falsehood—before they can collect punitive damages. The court ruled that Gertz applies only to issues of public concern, not to libel cases arising from purely private matters. The court left it up to juries to determine when a person who is a public figure acted as a public figure and when he or she acted as a private citizen. The court established a standard for determining whether a person is a public figure. It said: Absent clear evidence of general fame or notoriety in the community, and pervasive involvement in the affairs of society, an individual should not be deemed a public personality for all aspects of his life. The withdrawal from Times v. Sullivan continued in 1976 in Time v. Firestone. The Supreme Court said that Mary Alice Firestone, who was involved in a sensational divorce trial, remained a private citizen because she was drawn into the public forum largely against her will. Therefore, since she was a private citizen, the burden was put on the defendant publisher, Time magazine, to establish that information it had reported about her was true. If the report was false the publisher was not protected. Before this ruling, the public official/public figure/private individual rule established by the Warren court required that malice had to be proved by the plaintiff to win a libel judgment. Gertz and Firestone dismantled the structure of libel that the Supreme Court had so carefully constructed under Chief Justice Warren. Other cases since then have also been decided in a way detrimental to the media. Other Cases In Herbert v. Lando in 1979 the Supreme Court ruled that public figures suing for libel may inquire into a journalist’s state of mind and the editorial process behind the statements at issue. Specifically the court said that former Army officer Anthony Herbert had the right to review outtakes of CBS film footage. In Hutchinson v. Proxmire , also decided in 1979, the Supreme Court established a precedent that was to have far-reaching implications in libel law. The background: Ronald Hutchinson, a research psychologist, had been given a golden fleece award by U.S. Senator William Proxmire. The award was designed to expose wasteful spending in government. Proxmire made fun of the $500,000 grant Hutchinson obtained in federal funds to study why monkeys clench their jaws. Hutchinson responded by suing Proxmire for libel, and the Supreme Court held with Hutchinson. A significant factor in the case was Footnote Nine. In that footnote, Chief Justice Warren Burger questioned the use of summary judgments in libel cases. The summary judgment is a traditional pretrial procedure and one that can be vital in a libel action. The potential of a summary judgment in a libel action make it possible for lawyers representing media defendants to go into court at the start of a trial and ask the judge to throw out cases that fit a pattern already decided by appellate courts. The summary judgment is particularly effective in suits that seem to have little merit. Since the pattern of libel had already been drastically changed by the Supreme Court in Gertz and Firestone , more and more cases were going to trial that previously might have been dismissed by judges as being without merit. The trials were necessary because, in effect, each case presented an opportunity to establish new law. The problem for journalists was that the decisions were now being made by jurors based on definitions of law and libel that, at best, were difficult to sort out. Footnote Nine made the transformation of libel in America almost complete. Put another way, because of the decisions in several Supreme Court cases over the years, we are almost back where we started with libel. The effect is that many situations involving libel don’t have clear-cut precedent to rely on. Milkovich A good example of that is Milkovich v. Lorain Journal , decided in 1990. The Supreme Court in a 7-2 decision in an opinion written by Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist ruled that the First Amendment does not automatically shield expressions of opinion from being found libelous. The suit was brought in 1975 by Michael Milkovich Sr. against the Lake County (Ohio) News-Herald (then owned by the Lorain Journal ) over a column by sportswriter J. Theodore Diadiun. The Supreme Court said that newspaper columns and other forms of commentary may be libelous if they “imply an assertion of objective fact” that the plaintiff can prove is false. Justice Rehnquist wrote: If a speaker says, “In my opinion John Jones is a liar,” he implies a knowledge of facts which lead to the conclusion that Jones told an untruth. Even if the speaker states the facts upon which he bases his opinion, if those facts are either incorrect or incomplete, or if his assessment of them is erroneous, the statement may still imply a false assertion of fact. Simply couching such statements in terms of opinion does not dispel these implications; and the statement, “In my opinion Jones is a liar,” can cause as much damage to reputation as the statement, “Jones is a liar.” Justices William J. Brennan and Thurgood Marshall dissented. Citations Here are citations for the libel cases referred to: New York Times v. Sullivan , 376 U.S. 254, 84 S.Ct. 710, 11 L.Ed.2d 686, March 9, 1964 Garrison v. State of Louisiana , 379 U.S. 64, 85 S.Ct. 209, 3 L.Ed.2d 125, November 23, 1964. Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts and Associated Press v. Walker , 388 U.S. 130, 87 S.Ct. 1975, 18 L.Ed.2d 1094, June 12, 1967. Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, 403 U.S. 29, 91 S.Ct. 1811, 29 L.Ed.2d 296, June 7, 1971. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc ., 418 U.S. 323, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 41 LEd2d 789, June 25, 1974. Time v. Firestone, 424 U.S. 448, 96 S.Ct. 958, 47 L.Ed.2d 154, March 2, 1976. See Time , March 15, 1976. Herbert v. Lando , 441 U.S. 153, 99 S.Ct. 1635, 60 L.Ed.2d 115, April 18, 1979. Hutchinson v. Proxmire , 443 U.S. 111, 99 S.Ct. 2675, 61 L.Ed.2d 411, 1979. Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co ., 497 U.S. 1, 110 S.Ct. 2695, 111 L.Ed2d 1, June 21, 1990. Falwell v. Hustler A most favorable ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court came in a suit brought by Jerry Falwell against Larry Flynt and Hustler magazine. The case was decided by the court in 1988—two years before the Milkovich decision—and at the time seemed to promise good things ahead. Hustler ran a takeoff of a Campari Liqueur advertisement with Jerry Falwell as the subject. The ad ran twice, in November 1983 and in March 1984. Falwell sued in federal court. A federal court jury found the ad was too outrageous to be believed and could not be the basis of a libel action since Falwell’s reputation was not damaged. But the jury awarded Falwell $200,000—$100,000 to compensate for “intentional infliction of emotional distress” and $100,000 in punitive damages. The Supreme Court overturned the verdict. Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist wrote the opinion for the court in a unanimous decision. Rehnquist said that the First Amendment protects even “vehement, caustic and sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks” and that freedom of expression needs what he termed “breathing space.” He said that the jury had decided that the ad parody was not factual. Therefore, no reckless disregard could exist. Hustler Magazine v. Falwell , 485 U.S. 46, 108 S.Ct. 876, 99 L.Ed.2d 41, February 24, 1988. Libel Libel Cases Americans didn’t start out suing over what appeared in the press. Our ancestors had reason to appreciate open and robust debate. The John Peter Zenger case of 1735 demonstrated the dislike for seditious libel. After Zenger, Americans have been brought into court for criticizing the government but thank goodness that has occurred only rarely. Many states, including Texas, had criminal libel statutes. But in 1964 the United States Supreme Court decision in Garrison v. Louisiana ended criminal libel. Americans never warmed to the concept anyway. Its potential for abuse was great. The Supreme Court was not involved in First Amendment cases until fairly recent times. In Gitlow v. New York in 1925 the court said that the Fourteenth Amendment made the First Amendment applicable to the states. The first time the Supreme Court set aside a state law involving the First Amendment was when it declared red flag statutes unconstitutional in Stromberg v. California in 1931. Also in 1931 the Supreme Court ruled by 5 to 4 in Near v. Minnesota that a state law used to close down a newspaper was unconstitutional. Civil libel grew slowly and unevenly. Civil libel has its origins in the common law. As cases were decided, that established precedent for other cases. For the most part the actual statutory laws related to civil libel are procedural. They differ from state to state. The defamation claimed in civil libel puts one person or legal entity against another person or entity such as a newspaper, radio or television station. The state is in no way a party to the action. The person who believes he or she has been damaged may bring a case in civil court via a petition. That is called a suit. Because libel has grown out of the common law, a most important consideration in a libel action is the decision by appellate courts in previous cases. Before 1964 those decisions varied greatly from state to state. Not that many cases were brought. The United States Supreme Court rarely became involved. Suits such as John Henry Faulk’s against AWARE, Inc. during the McCarthy Era were more what we thought libel ought to be—a protection against unwarranted attacks. New York Times v. Sullivan Libel law changed forever in 1964 with the United States Supreme Court decision in New York Times v. Sullivan . That decision and others by the Warren Court established a clear concept of libel and one that guaranteed press freedom without eliminating libel entirely. The Supreme Court held in the Times case that the Constitution, specifically the First Amendment, prohibits a public official from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood related to his or her official conduct. The court included one qualification: malice, or actual malice. The definition given for actual malice was “with knowledge that it (the material in question) was false or with reckless disregard of whether if was false or not.” The Supreme Court had no other choice in that case. Deciding otherwise would have shackled the press at the very time public debate was needed on important social issues. In the Times case the issue was segregation. Later it was to be the Vietnam War in the Pentagon Papers case, then President Richard Nixon’s right to withhold tapes and so on. Any other decision by the Supreme Court in the Times case would have changed history—and not for the better. After establishing this new standard for public officials, the Supreme Court used other decisions to limit suits brought by public figures and private citizens. Two cases were decided in one opinion in 1967. They were Associated Press v. Walker and Curtis Publishing Company v. Butts . In that decision the Supreme Court brought public figures under the umbrella it had created in Sullivan. The court said that a public figure cannot collect damages unless malice is proved. The court established a guideline, “accepted publishing standards,” by which reckless disregard might be judged. In 1971 in Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, Inc. the Supreme Court held that a private citizen involved in an event of public interest must prove malice to collect in a libel action. A Change in the Court But the era when the court was know as the Warren Court -- named for Chief Justice Earl Warren -- ended. Warren Burger replaced Earl Warren as chief justice and new appointees went on the court. For reasons that remain unclear, the new court chose to undo what the previous court had done regarding libel. Perhaps one reason the Burger court began changing the law was that justices came to agree with many in the public that the press had too much power. Whatever the intent, the court turned its back on a tradition of free inquiry and open debate that had been developing in America. The tradition had begun with the John Peter Zenger trial and had continued in decisions such as Near v. Minnesota, New York Times v. Sullivan, Garrison v. Louisiana, etc. The Gertz Case In 1974 in Gertz v. Robert Welch the court said that a private citizen does not have to meet the actual malice standard of Times v. Sullivan to recover damages. A private citizen may sue for actual injury, which the court said includes impairment of reputation, personal humiliation and mental anguish, as well as financial loss. To collect, the private citizen must only prove negligence. Still, the court said, public figures must prove malice—knowing and reckless falsehood—before they can collect punitive damages. The court ruled that Gertz applies only to issues of public concern, not to libel cases arising from purely private matters. The court left it up to juries to determine when a person who is a public figure acted as a public figure and when he or she acted as a private citizen. The court established a standard for determining whether a person is a public figure. It said: Absent clear evidence of general fame or notoriety in the community, and pervasive involvement in the affairs of society, an individual should not be deemed a public personality for all aspects of his life. The withdrawal from Times v. Sullivan continued in 1976 in Time v. Firestone. The Supreme Court said that Mary Alice Firestone, who was involved in a sensational divorce trial, remained a private citizen because she was drawn into the public forum largely against her will. Therefore, since she was a private citizen, the burden was put on the defendant publisher, Time magazine, to establish that information it had reported about her was true. If the report was false the publisher was not protected. Before this ruling, the public official/public figure/private individual rule established by the Warren court required that malice had to be proved by the plaintiff to win a libel judgment. Gertz and Firestone dismantled the structure of libel that the Supreme Court had so carefully constructed under Chief Justice Warren. Other cases since then have also been decided in a way detrimental to the media. Other Cases In Herbert v. Lando in 1979 the Supreme Court ruled that public figures suing for libel may inquire into a journalist’s state of mind and the editorial process behind the statements at issue. Specifically the court said that former Army officer Anthony Herbert had the right to review outtakes of CBS film footage. In Hutchinson v. Proxmire , also decided in 1979, the Supreme Court established a precedent that was to have far-reaching implications in libel law. The background: Ronald Hutchinson, a research psychologist, had been given a golden fleece award by U.S. Senator William Proxmire. The award was designed to expose wasteful spending in government. Proxmire made fun of the $500,000 grant Hutchinson obtained in federal funds to study why monkeys clench their jaws. Hutchinson responded by suing Proxmire for libel, and the Supreme Court held with Hutchinson. A significant factor in the case was Footnote Nine. In that footnote, Chief Justice Warren Burger questioned the use of summary judgments in libel cases. The summary judgment is a traditional pretrial procedure and one that can be vital in a libel action. The potential of a summary judgment in a libel action make it possible for lawyers representing media defendants to go into court at the start of a trial and ask the judge to throw out cases that fit a pattern already decided by appellate courts. The summary judgment is particularly effective in suits that seem to have little merit. Since the pattern of libel had already been drastically changed by the Supreme Court in Gertz and Firestone , more and more cases were going to trial that previously might have been dismissed by judges as being without merit. The trials were necessary because, in effect, each case presented an opportunity to establish new law. The problem for journalists was that the decisions were now being made by jurors based on definitions of law and libel that, at best, were difficult to sort out. Footnote Nine made the transformation of libel in America almost complete. Put another way, because of the decisions in several Supreme Court cases over the years, we are almost back where we started with libel. The effect is that many situations involving libel don’t have clear-cut precedent to rely on. Milkovich A good example of that is Milkovich v. Lorain Journal , decided in 1990. The Supreme Court in a 7-2 decision in an opinion written by Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist ruled that the First Amendment does not automatically shield expressions of opinion from being found libelous. The suit was brought in 1975 by Michael Milkovich Sr. against the Lake County (Ohio) News-Herald (then owned by the Lorain Journal ) over a column by sportswriter J. Theodore Diadiun. The Supreme Court said that newspaper columns and other forms of commentary may be libelous if they “imply an assertion of objective fact” that the plaintiff can prove is false. Justice Rehnquist wrote: If a speaker says, “In my opinion John Jones is a liar,” he implies a knowledge of facts which lead to the conclusion that Jones told an untruth. Even if the speaker states the facts upon which he bases his opinion, if those facts are either incorrect or incomplete, or if his assessment of them is erroneous, the statement may still imply a false assertion of fact. Simply couching such statements in terms of opinion does not dispel these implications; and the statement, “In my opinion Jones is a liar,” can cause as much damage to reputation as the statement, “Jones is a liar.” Justices William J. Brennan and Thurgood Marshall dissented. Citations Here are citations for the libel cases referred to: New York Times v. Sullivan , 376 U.S. 254, 84 S.Ct. 710, 11 L.Ed.2d 686, March 9, 1964 Garrison v. State of Louisiana , 379 U.S. 64, 85 S.Ct. 209, 3 L.Ed.2d 125, November 23, 1964. Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts and Associated Press v. Walker , 388 U.S. 130, 87 S.Ct. 1975, 18 L.Ed.2d 1094, June 12, 1967. Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, 403 U.S. 29, 91 S.Ct. 1811, 29 L.Ed.2d 296, June 7, 1971. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc ., 418 U.S. 323, 94 S.Ct. 2997, 41 LEd2d 789, June 25, 1974. Time v. Firestone, 424 U.S. 448, 96 S.Ct. 958, 47 L.Ed.2d 154, March 2, 1976. See Time , March 15, 1976. Herbert v. Lando , 441 U.S. 153, 99 S.Ct. 1635, 60 L.Ed.2d 115, April 18, 1979. Hutchinson v. Proxmire , 443 U.S. 111, 99 S.Ct. 2675, 61 L.Ed.2d 411, 1979. Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co ., 497 U.S. 1, 110 S.Ct. 2695, 111 L.Ed2d 1, June 21, 1990. Falwell v. Hustler A most favorable ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court came in a suit brought by Jerry Falwell against Larry Flynt and Hustler magazine. The case was decided by the court in 1988—two years before the Milkovich decision—and at the time seemed to promise good things ahead. Hustler ran a takeoff of a Campari Liqueur advertisement with Jerry Falwell as the subject. The ad ran twice, in November 1983 and in March 1984. Falwell sued in federal court. A federal court jury found the ad was too outrageous to be believed and could not be the basis of a libel action since Falwell’s reputation was not damaged. But the jury awarded Falwell $200,000—$100,000 to compensate for “intentional infliction of emotional distress” and $100,000 in punitive damages. The Supreme Court overturned the verdict. Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist wrote the opinion for the court in a unanimous decision. Rehnquist said that the First Amendment protects even “vehement, caustic and sometimes unpleasantly sharp attacks” and that freedom of expression needs what he termed “breathing space.” He said that the jury had decided that the ad parody was not factual. Therefore, no reckless disregard could exist. Hustler Magazine v. Falwell , 485 U.S. 46, 108 S.Ct. 876, 99 L.Ed.2d 41, February 24, 1988. Last Updated ( Tuesday, 06 January 2009 12:45 ) © 2010 TEXAS PRESS ASSOCIATION 718 W. Fifth St., Ste. 100, Austin, TX 78701-2799 • 512-477-6755 • FAX: 512-477-6759 Contact Us
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Start and end dates 2 Background Toggle Background subsection 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 2.1 Aftermath of World War I 2.2 Germany and Italy 2.3 European treaties 2.4 Asia 3 Pre-war events Toggle Pre-war events subsection 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 3.1 Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) 3.2 Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 3.3 Japanese invasion of China (1937) 3.4 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war Toggle Course of the war subsection 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 4.1 War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) 4.2 Western Europe (1940–1941) 4.3 Mediterranean (1940–1941) 4.4 Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) 4.5 War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) 4.6 Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) 4.7 Pacific (1942–1943) 4.8 Eastern Front (1942–1943) 4.9 Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) 4.10 Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) 4.11 Allies Offensives (1944) 4.12 Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) 5 Aftermath 6 Impact Toggle Impact subsection 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour 6.3 Occupation 6.4 Home fronts and production 6.5 Advances in technology and its application 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References Toggle References subsection 9.1 Sources 9.1 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External links World War II Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona Corsu Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Коми Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. Lombard Magyar Madhurâ मैथिली Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം Malti Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Minangkabau 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Mirandés Мокшень Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Napulitano ߒߞߏ Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Олык марий ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pälzisch پنجابی ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Papiamentu پښتو Patois ភាសាខ្មែរ Picard Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Ripoarisch Română Rumantsch Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya Gagana Samoa संस्कृतम् ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Taclḥit Taqbaylit Tarandíne Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Thuɔŋjäŋ Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Tyap Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vahcuengh Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Võro Walon 文言 West-Vlams Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Zeêuws Žemaitėška 中文 Batak Mandailing Jaku Iban Yerwa Kanuri Tolışi Toki pona Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikinews Wikiquote Wikiversity Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article contains one or more duplicated citations . The reason given is: DuplicateReferences script detected: (refs: 141, 198) It is recommended to use named references to consolidate citations that are used multiple times. ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) (refs: 141, 198) World War II .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front , 1943 British Matilda II tanks during the North African campaign , 1941 US atomic bombing of Nagasaki in Japan, 1945 Soviet troops at the Battle of Stalingrad , 1943 Soviet soldier raising a flag over the Reichstag after the Battle of Berlin , 1945 US warships in Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines , 1945 Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Date 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 [ a ] (6 years, 1 day) Location Global Result .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Allied victory Allied victory Participants Allies Axis Commanders and leaders Main Allied leaders : Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Main Axis leaders : Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler Hirohito Benito Mussolini Casualties and losses 60 million to over 75 million deaths (military and civilian) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Theatres of World War II v t e Europe Poland Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Asia-Pacific China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Mediterranean and Middle East Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Other campaigns Air warfare Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Coups Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Resistance movements Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans Poland Soviet invasion Soviet invasion Phoney War Saar Offensive Saar Offensive Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Winter War Karelia Lapland Weserübung Denmark Norway Denmark Norway Western Front Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Luxembourg Netherlands Belgium France Alps 1944–1945 1944–1945 Britain Eastern Front Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Barbarossa Leningrad Crimea Rzhev Case Blue Stalingrad Kursk Dnieper–Carpaths Bagration Romania Hungary Vistula–Oder Berlin Liberation of France Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany Overlord Dragoon Siegfried Line Market Garden Bulge Western Germany China Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Marco Polo Bridge Shanghai Taiyuan Nanjing Xuzhou and Taierzhuang Wuhan Winter Offensive Hundred Regiments Offensive Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Ichi-Go 1945 Hunan Burma 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 1941–1942 1942–1943 1944 1944–1945 South-East Asia Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore Indochina Franco-Thai War Thailand Hong Kong Malaya and Singapore South West Pacific Philippines 1941–1942 1944–1945 1944–1945 Dutch East Indies Borneo 1945 Borneo 1945 Coral Sea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville Guadalcanal New Georgia Bougainville New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Kokoda Track Salamaua–Lae Markham, Ramu and Finisterre Huon Peninsula New Britain Admiralty Islands Western New Guinea Pacific Ocean Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Mariana and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Soviet-Japanese War(Mainland) Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Japan Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Volcano and Ryukyu South Sakhalin Kurils Balkans Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Albania Yugoslavia Greco-Italian War Greece Crete Crete Albania Yugoslavia Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Dodecanese Adriatic Malta Dodecanese East Africa Guerrilla war Guerrilla war Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran North Africa Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Libya-Egypt Morocco-Algeria Tunisia Italy Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Sicily Mainland Italy Winter Line Gothic Line Spring Offensive Air warfare Strategic bombing Strategic bombing Americas Aleuts Aleuts Antarctica Atlantic Australia Arctic French West Africa Indian Ocean 1940–1945 Madagascar Madagascar Uruguay Norway Baltic Nations Yugoslavia Romania 1941 Iraq Italy Argentina Germany Croatia Romania 1944 Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina Japan Matsue Slovak National Uprising Albanian resistance Baltic states Belgian Resistance Czechoslovak Resistance Danish resistance Dutch resistance Ethiopian resistance French Resistance Greek resistance Italian Resistance Malayan resistance Norwegian resistance Filipino resistance Polish resistance Romanian resistance Slovak partisans Soviet partisans Free Thai Movement Yugoslav Partisans World War II Navigation Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Campaigns Countries Equipment Campaigns Countries Equipment Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Timeline Outline Lists Historiography Category Bibliography Category Bibliography v t e v t e World War II [ b ] or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions : the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all of the world's countries participated, with many nations mobilising their resources in pursuit of total war . Tanks and aircraft played major roles , enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the first and only nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II is the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of over 60 million people. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust , and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were put on trial for war crimes . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I , the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact . In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania , while Germany conquered Norway , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy , and the British Empire / British Commonwealth , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , East Africa , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and the naval Battle of the Atlantic . By mid-1941 Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains along with Axis allies. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway . In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime , and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy , and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Faced with an imminent Allied invasion , the prospect of further atomic bombings, and a Soviet declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 . World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the half-century Cold War . In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia . Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . Start and end dates Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath Events ( in Asia in Europe ) Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Aftermath By topic Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Causes ( Diplomacy ) Causes ( Diplomacy ) Declarations of war Battles Operations Battles Operations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies Battle of Europe air operations Eastern Front Manhattan Project Eastern Front Manhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies v t e v t e Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 18 September 1931. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. [ 7 ] The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. [ 8 ] Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. [ 11 ] A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. [ 12 ] No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, [ 13 ] although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. [ 14 ] Background Aftermath of World War I World War I had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian , Ottoman , and Russian Empires . [ 15 ] [ failed verification ] To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. [ 16 ] Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I , [ 17 ] irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . [ 18 ] Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy , repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire". [ 19 ] Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . [ 20 ] France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. [ 21 ] European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. [ 22 ] The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. [ 23 ] Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . [ 24 ] In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. [ 25 ] Asia The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies [ 26 ] and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China [ 27 ] as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . [ 28 ] China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe , and Hebei , until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . [ 29 ] After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. [ 30 ] Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . [ 31 ] The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . [ 32 ] The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. [ 33 ] Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . [ 34 ] Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. [ 35 ] The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis . [ 36 ] His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . [ 37 ] Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts . [ 38 ] The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . [ 39 ] From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , [ 40 ] fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan [ 41 ] [ 42 ] , and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. [ 43 ] Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. [ 47 ] In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River ; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River. [ 48 ] Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War [ 53 ] and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. [ 56 ] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. [ 57 ] Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. [ 58 ] Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . [ 59 ] Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . [ 60 ] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig , the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . [ 61 ] Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . [ 62 ] Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . [ 63 ] The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, [ 64 ] after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. [ 65 ] This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. [ 66 ] The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I . Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. [ 67 ] In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations. [ 68 ] On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. [ 68 ] The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. [ 69 ] Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. [ 71 ] The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . [ 72 ] The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. [ c ] During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland . [ 73 ] The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. [ 74 ] Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . [ 75 ] On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland [ 76 ] under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. [ 77 ] On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. [ 78 ] A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war. [ 79 ] Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland . Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected [ 69 ] and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, [ 80 ] which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] [ 83 ] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, [ 87 ] and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. [ 88 ] Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . [ 89 ] In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, [ 85 ] as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. [ 90 ] In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova . [ 91 ] The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II , turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. [ 92 ] Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation [ 93 ] [ 94 ] gradually stalled, [ 95 ] [ 96 ] and both states began preparations for war. [ 97 ] Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which the Allies were attempting to cut off . [ 98 ] Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. [ 99 ] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940. [ 100 ] On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . [ 101 ] The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, [ 102 ] which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. [ 105 ] On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. [ 106 ] The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , [ 107 ] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. [ 108 ] The air Battle of Britain [ 109 ] began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . [ 110 ] The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 [ 111 ] after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. [ 110 ] Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . [ 112 ] The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . [ 113 ] In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow " cash and carry " purchases by the Allies. [ 114 ] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . [ 115 ] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. [ 116 ] In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. [ 117 ] The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. [ 118 ] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. [ 119 ] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. [ 120 ] Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . [ 121 ] Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. [ 122 ] To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. [ 123 ] In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . [ 124 ] The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . [ 125 ] Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. [ 126 ] In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk . [ 127 ] By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade ; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. [ 128 ] The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. [ 129 ] Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. [ 130 ] In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . [ 131 ] Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . [ 132 ] Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. [ 133 ] By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. [ 134 ] Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. [ 135 ] On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . [ 136 ] However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. [ 137 ] In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. [ 138 ] On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa , with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them ; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. [ 139 ] The primary targets of this surprise offensive [ 140 ] were the Baltic region , Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line —from the Caspian to the White Seas . Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism , generate Lebensraum ("living space") [ 141 ] by dispossessing the native population , [ 142 ] and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. [ 143 ] Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, [ 144 ] Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence . During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk , Smolensk , and Uman .. Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order , and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death . By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate. [ 145 ] By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre , and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. [ 146 ] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov ). [ 147 ] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front [ 148 ] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy . [ 149 ] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany [ 150 ] and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter , which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. [ 151 ] In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor , Iran's oil fields , and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. [ 152 ] By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad [ 153 ] and Sevastopol continuing. [ 154 ] A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops [ 155 ] were forced to suspend the offensive. [ 156 ] Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. [ 157 ] By early December, freshly mobilised reserves [ 158 ] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. [ 159 ] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army , [ 160 ] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. [ 161 ] War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre , Japanese-American relations deteriorated . In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts —which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. [ 117 ] [ 162 ] [ 163 ] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha , but was repulsed by late September. [ 164 ] Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940. [ 165 ] Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China ; [ 166 ] in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy , a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941 , effectively ending their co-operation. [ 169 ] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao . [ 170 ] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. [ 171 ] German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia . The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies , but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. [ 172 ] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East , intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. [ 175 ] Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. [ 176 ] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. [ 177 ] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries". [ 177 ] Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito , after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, [ 178 ] began to favour Japan's entry into the war. [ 179 ] As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. [ 182 ] On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. [ 183 ] On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. [ 184 ] On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. [ 176 ] The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. [ 185 ] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; [ 186 ] [ 187 ] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. [ 188 ] Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. [ 189 ] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. [ 190 ] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific . [ 191 ] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines , as well as invasions of Guam , Wake Island , Malaya , [ 191 ] Thailand , and Hong Kong . [ 192 ] These attacks led the United States , United Kingdom , China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. [ 193 ] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States [ 194 ] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. [ 139 ] [ 195 ] Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four [ 196 ] —the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations , thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter [ 197 ] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. [ 198 ] During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces ; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. [ 199 ] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. [ 200 ] At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. [ 201 ] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. [ 202 ] Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma , Malaya , the Dutch East Indies , Singapore , and Rabaul , inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore. [ 203 ] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces , the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march , resulting in thousands of deaths. [ 204 ] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. [ 205 ] Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea , Java Sea , and Indian Ocean , [ 206 ] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin , Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha . [ 207 ] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. [ 208 ] In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea . [ 209 ] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid , was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. [ 210 ] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. [ 211 ] [ 212 ] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy . [ 213 ] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua . [ 214 ] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands , primarily Guadalcanal , as a first step towards capturing Rabaul , the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. [ 215 ] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island , where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona . [ 216 ] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. [ 217 ] By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops . [ 218 ] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. [ 219 ] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. [ 220 ] Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia , keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. [ 221 ] In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov . [ 222 ] The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas. [ 223 ] In June 1942 launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe , while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River . The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. [ 224 ] By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting . The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad , [ 225 ] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow , though the latter failed. [ 226 ] By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, [ 227 ] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov , creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk . [ 228 ] Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast . [ 229 ] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader , and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. [ 230 ] The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, [ 231 ] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. [ 232 ] Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. [ 233 ] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein . [ 234 ] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid , [ 235 ] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. [ 236 ] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein [ 237 ] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta . [ 238 ] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. [ 239 ] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa , which resulted in the region joining the Allies. [ 240 ] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France ; [ 240 ] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. [ 240 ] [ 241 ] Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia , which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. [ 240 ] [ 242 ] In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house " the civilian population. [ 243 ] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. [ 244 ] Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians . [ 245 ] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands , and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . [ 246 ] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea . [ 247 ] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia . On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge . Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, [ 248 ] and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. [ 249 ] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. [ 250 ] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives , thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, [ 251 ] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. [ 252 ] [ 253 ] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line , but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive . [ 254 ] On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland , following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. [ 255 ] Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, [ 256 ] and creating a series of defensive lines. [ 257 ] German special forces then rescued Mussolini , who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic , [ 258 ] causing an Italian civil war . The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. [ 259 ] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective , the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. [ 260 ] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran . [ 261 ] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory [ 262 ] and the military planning for the Burma campaign , [ 263 ] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. [ 264 ] From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde , the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] [ 267 ] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio . [ 268 ] On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region , thereby ending the most lethal siege in history . [ 269 ] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence . This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. [ 270 ] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea , largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine , and made incursions into Romania , which were repulsed by the Axis troops. [ 271 ] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. [ 272 ] The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India , [ 273 ] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima . [ 274 ] In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, [ 274 ] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina . [ 275 ] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. [ 276 ] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha . [ 277 ] Allies Offensives (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day ), after three years of Soviet pressure, [ 278 ] the Western Allies invaded northern France . After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France . [ 279 ] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France . Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces , both led by General Charles de Gaulle , [ 280 ] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. [ 281 ] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river . In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line . [ 282 ] On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre . [ 283 ] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance , loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. [ 284 ] [ 285 ] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. [ 286 ] The Soviet Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria , followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. [ 287 ] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece , Albania , and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. [ 288 ] By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito , who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia , the Soviet Red Army , with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. [ 289 ] Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, [ 290 ] although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies . [ 291 ] By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam , pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River [ 292 ] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road . [ 293 ] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. [ 294 ] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi , winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November [ 295 ] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. [ 296 ] In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo , and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte ; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history. [ 297 ] Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border , hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp . By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. [ 298 ] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia . [ 299 ] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference . They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. [ 300 ] In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania , while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr , encircling the German Army Group B . [ 301 ] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton . Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna , and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg , while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg . American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. [ 302 ] In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. [ 303 ] Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman . [ 304 ] Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. [ 305 ] On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters , and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich ) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich ). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk , in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government . Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May , to be effective by the end of 8 May . [ 306 ] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. [ 307 ] On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg . On 5 June all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration . [ 308 ] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines , clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao , and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war . [ 309 ] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. [ 310 ] In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo , overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. [ 311 ] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. [ 312 ] At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. [ 313 ] [ 314 ] On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany . They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, [ 315 ] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that " the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ". [ 316 ] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election , and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. [ 317 ] The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. [ 318 ] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan , invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army , which was the largest Japanese fighting force. [ 319 ] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. [ 320 ] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands . On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration . [ 321 ] On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ( Gyokuon-hōsō , literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). [ 322 ] On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered , with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. [ 323 ] Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany , both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany . [ 324 ] In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. [ 325 ] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia , Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, [ 326 ] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, [ 327 ] [ 328 ] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line , [ 329 ] from which two million Poles were expelled . [ 328 ] [ 330 ] North-east Romania, [ 331 ] [ 332 ] parts of eastern Finland, [ 333 ] and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union . [ 334 ] [ 335 ] Italy lost its monarchy , colonial empire , and some European territories . [ 336 ] In an effort to maintain world peace , [ 337 ] the Allies formed the United Nations , [ 338 ] which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, [ 339 ] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations . [ 340 ] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council . [ 341 ] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state , the Russian Federation , following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. [ 342 ] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence . [ 343 ] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere , which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany , [ 344 ] Poland , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Albania [ 345 ] became Soviet satellite states . Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy , causing tension with the Soviet Union . [ 346 ] A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. [ 347 ] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact . [ 348 ] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War —would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world. [ 349 ] In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands . [ 350 ] Korea , formerly under Japanese colonial rule , was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War . [ 351 ] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. [ 352 ] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict . While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires , their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation . [ 353 ] [ 354 ] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom , and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. [ 355 ] The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. [ 356 ] Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. [ 357 ] [ 358 ] At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group . The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. [ 359 ] Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany , and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. [ 360 ] [ 361 ] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle . [ 362 ] Italy also experienced an economic boom [ 363 ] and the French economy rebounded . [ 364 ] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, [ 365 ] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, [ 366 ] it continued in relative economic decline for decades. [ 367 ] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, [ 368 ] having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. [ d ] [ 369 ] Japan recovered much later. [ 370 ] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. [ 371 ] Impact Casualties and war crimes An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. [ 372 ] [ 373 ] [ 374 ] [ 375 ] The majority of these deaths were on the Eastern Front and the Chinese Theatre . [ 376 ] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people [ 377 ] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. [ 378 ] A quarter of the Soviet population were wounded or killed. [ 379 ] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. [ 380 ] An estimated 11 [ 381 ] to 17 million [ 382 ] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies , including mass killing of around 6 million Jews , along with Roma , homosexuals , at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles [ 383 ] [ 384 ] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups . [ 385 ] [ 382 ] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 1,200,000 Yugoslavians died. [ 386 ] 200,000 were ethnic Serbs , along with Roma and Jews, were persecuted and killed by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia . [ 387 ] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks , [ 388 ] with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians). [ 389 ] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres , between 1943 and 1945. [ 390 ] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other units in reprisal attacks. [ 391 ] The number of deaths resulting from the war in Asia and the Pacific is contested. Estimates of Chinese deaths range from 8 million to over 20 million. [ e ] Arne Westad estimates 14 million Chinese died directly from war, of which 2 million were soldiers and the rest civilians. [ 394 ] Rana Mitter considers Westad's figures conservative. [ 398 ] An estimated 500,000 died as a result of Nationalist forces flooding the Yellow River . [ 399 ] In the Nanking Massacre , between 100,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed by Japanese forces, while another 20,000 were raped. [ 44 ] Another 2.7 million Chinese civilians were killed by Japanese forces during the Three Alls policy . [ 400 ] Japanese forces killed between 5 million and 10 million civilians in Southeast Asia. [ 401 ] [ 402 ] At least a million civilians died in Indochina , while as many as 4 million died in the Dutch East Indies, 3 million of which died on Java from famine. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Filipino civilians died during the Japanese occupation and American liberation. [ 403 ] [ 404 ] Estimates of the number of people killed by Japanese forces in all theatres are as high as 30 million. [ 405 ] Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons . The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731 ) [ 406 ] [ 407 ] and in early conflicts against the Soviets . [ 408 ] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, [ 409 ] and sometimes on prisoners of war . [ 410 ] The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, [ 411 ] and the imprisonment or execution of hundreds of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD secret police, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia , in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. [ 412 ] Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially in Germany . [ 413 ] [ 414 ] The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million, [ 415 ] while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. [ 416 ] [ 417 ] The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. [ 418 ] The USAAF bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities , killing 393,000 civilians, including the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and destroying 65% of built-up areas. [ 419 ] Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany , under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for killing about 6 million Jews in what is now known as the Holocaust . They also killed an additional 4 million others who were deemed " unworthy of life " (including the disabled and mentally ill , Soviet prisoners of war , Romani , homosexuals , Freemasons , and Jehovah's Witnesses ) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a " genocidal state". [ 420 ] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions , and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. [ 421 ] [ 422 ] In addition to concentration camps , death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers ; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. [ 423 ] The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–1943, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, [ 425 ] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–1940 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs . [ 426 ] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. [ 427 ] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps , many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), [ 428 ] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. [ 429 ] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan , the number of Chinese released was only 56. [ 430 ] At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board , or Kōain , for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. [ 431 ] In Java , between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. [ 432 ] Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia ) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. [ 433 ] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. [ 434 ] In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. [ 435 ] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people " of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes . [ 436 ] The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust . [ 437 ] Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, [ 438 ] the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans [ 439 ] and French Resistance [ 440 ] suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere , essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. [ 441 ] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. [ 442 ] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m 3 ) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m 3 ) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. [ 442 ] Home fronts and production In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. [ 443 ] In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. [ 444 ] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. [ 444 ] The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. [ 445 ] Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition . [ 446 ] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force , [ 447 ] Allied strategic bombing , [ 448 ] and Germany's late shift to a war economy [ 449 ] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. [ 450 ] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers ; [ 451 ] Germany enslaved about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, [ 423 ] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. [ 431 ] [ 432 ] Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used for reconnaissance , as fighters , bombers , and ground-support , and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); [ 452 ] and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). [ 453 ] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze . The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. [ 454 ] Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare , most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines . Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto , Pearl Harbor , and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). [ 455 ] [ 456 ] [ 457 ] In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap . [ 458 ] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft [ 459 ] and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. [ 460 ] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War , [ 461 ] were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. [ 462 ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light , Hedgehog , Squid , and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines. [ 463 ] Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry , to increased mobility and combined arms . The tank , which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. [ 464 ] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, [ 465 ] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. [ 466 ] [ 467 ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. [ 468 ] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. [ 464 ] Many means of destroying tanks , including indirect artillery , anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled ), mines , short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. [ 468 ] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, [ 469 ] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. [ 470 ] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34 , and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. [ 470 ] The assault rifle , a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. [ 471 ] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine . [ 472 ] Development of SIGINT ( sig nals int elligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes [ 473 ] and British Ultra , a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau , which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. [ 474 ] Another component of military intelligence was deception , which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard . [ 473 ] [ 475 ] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3 , Colossus , and ENIAC ), guided missiles and modern rockets , the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons , operations research , the development of artificial harbours , and oil pipelines under the English Channel . [ 476 ] [ 477 ] Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development ] of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. [ 478 ] See also Greatest Generation – Cohort born from 1901 to 1927 Opposition to World War II World War III – Hypothetical future global conflict Notes ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited. ^ Often abbreviated as WWII or WW2 ^ The UK declared war on Germany at 11 am. France followed 6 hours later at 5 pm. ^ Reparations were exacted from East Germany , Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The Soviet Union also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan ." ^ Multiple sources: [ 392 ] [ 393 ] [ 394 ] [ 395 ] [ 396 ] [ 397 ] References ^ Weinberg 2005 , p. 6. ^ Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 7. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). 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Past & Present (258): 246– 281. doi : 10.1093/pastj/gtab042 . ISSN 0031-2746 . also see online review Archived 4 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine Gerlach, Christian (2024). Conditions of Violence . Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-1115-6873-7 . External links Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Resources from Wikiversity Travel information from Wikivoyage West Point Maps of the European War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War . Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Atlas of the World Battle Fronts (July 1943 – August 1945) v t e World War II v t e Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences Outline Battles Operations Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences General Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Topics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Air warfare of World War II In Europe In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Weather events during World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes Soviet war crimes Atrocities against prisoners of war Atrocities against prisoners of war British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany / Japan / Poland / Manchuria Rape during the liberation of France / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate Participants Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Allies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria ( from September 1944 ) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland ( from September 1944 ) France Free France Greece India ( Indian Army ) Italy ( from September 1943 ) Liberia Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania ( from August 1944 ) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire British Empire United States Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) State of Burma Republic of China (Wang Jingwei) Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Guangzhouwan French Indochina French Madagascar Syria–Lebanon French North Africa French West Africa Collaboration Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Monaco Portugal San Marino Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Turkey Vatican City Yemen Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Soviet Union Azerbaijan Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet Union German atrocities against Polish POWs Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union Timeline Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Prelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania Remilitarisation of the Rhineland Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Summer War Finland ( Silver Fox ) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Niʻihau incident Niʻihau incident Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Kokoda Track campaign Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 Black May Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva U-Go Imphal Ichi-Go Kohima Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Battle of San Marino Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category World portal Bibliography Category v t e History of World War II by region and country v t e Africa Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda Belgian Congo British Somaliland Egypt Ethiopia French Somaliland French West Africa The Gambia Gold Coast Kenya Liberia Madagascar North Africa Tunisia Morocco Tunisia Morocco Nyasaland Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Uganda North America Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Canada Cuba El Salvador Greenland Mexico Newfoundland United States Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans Arizona California Nevada New Mexico Puerto Rico Native Americans South America Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Argentina Brazil Colombia Latin America Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Asia Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Burma Ceylon China Manchuria Manchuria Dutch East Indies New Guinea West Sumatra New Guinea West Sumatra Hong Kong India Indochina Cambodia Cambodia Iran Iraq Japan Malaya Mongolia Nepal Philippines Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo Singapore Thailand Tibet Turkey Tuva Europe Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia Finland France Military history Basque Country Military history Basque Country Germany Greece Hungary ( Carpathian Ruthenia ) Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Soviet Union Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Azerbaijan Byelorussia Ukraine Spain Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Basque Country Catalonia Galicia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar British Empire Wales Channel Islands Gibraltar Vatican City Yugoslavia ( Slovenia ) Oceania and Antarctica Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands Antarctica Australia Gilbert Islands Nauru New Guinea New Zealand Solomon Islands Pacific Islands v t e Western world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Anglo-American world Eurosphere Christendom Cradle of civilization Old World Greco-Roman world Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Greece Hellenistic Kingdoms Rome Roman Empire Western Eastern Western Eastern Roman legacy Romanization Romano-Germanic culture Gallo-Roman Gallo-Roman 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Revolution Age of Revolution Romanticism Abolitionism Emancipation Capitalism Industrial Revolution Great Divergence Modernism World War I Interwar period Universal suffrage World War II Cold War Post–Cold War era Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Information age War on drugs Post-9/11 Culture Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Classical tradition Studies Clothing History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Folklore Immigration Law Languages Eurolinguistics Standard Average European Literature Canon Media Internet Music Chant Classical Folk Instruments Mythology Painting contemporary Philosophy Science Values Physical culture Sport Religion East–West Schism Western Christianity Decline Secularism Alphabet Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Greek Latin Cyrillic Runes Architecture Art Periods Periods Calendar Cuisine Diet Diet Classical tradition Studies Studies Clothing History History Dance Education Esotericism Astrology Astrology 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Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization ABCANZ Armies AER Anglo-Portuguese Alliance ANZUK ANZUS Arctic Council AUKUS AUSCANNZUKUS Baltic Assembly Benelux British–Irish Council BSEC Bucharest Nine CANZUK CBSS Celtic League CEFTA Council of Europe Craiova Group Eastern European Group Eastern Partnership EEA EFTA EPC ESA EU EU Customs Union Eurozone EU–UK TCA Five Eyes G7 Lancaster House Treaties Latin American and Caribbean Group Latin Union Lublin Triangle NAFTA NATO NORAD Nordic Council OAS OECD Open Balkan OSCE Pacific Islands Forum PROSUR/PROSUL Rio Treaty Schengen Special Relationship Three Seas Initiative UKUSA Agreement USMCA Visegrád Group West Nordic Council Western Bloc Western European and Others Group Westernization v t e Eastern world and culture v t e Foundations Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom Cradle of civilization Old World Sinic world Indic world Iranic world Arab world Silk Road transmission of Buddhism Islamdom History Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror Ancient history Silk Road Post-classical history (Middle Ages) Modern period Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Early modern period Industrial Revolution World War I Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Asian and Pacific Theatre Middle Eastern Theatre Interwar period World War II Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Pacific War Middle Eastern Theatre Cold War Post–Cold War era War on terror War on terror Culture Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Alphabet Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Hanzi Kanji Kana Hangul Hanja Brahmic Arabic Cyrillic Latin Architecture Art History History Calendar Chinese Buddhist Hindu Chinese Buddhist Hindu Cuisine Esotericism Folklore Chinese Japanese Korean Chinese Japanese Korean Languages Literature Music Chant Folk Chant Folk Mythology Philosophy Religion Philosophy Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Chinese philosophy Japanese philosophy Korean philosophy Vietnamese philosophy Indian philosophy Iranian philosophy Buddhist ethics Islamic ethics Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Jain philosophy Islamic philosophy Collectivism Values Japanese Philippine Japanese Philippine Religion Dharmic Buddhism Culture Southern/Eastern/Northern Theravada Mahayana Vajrayana Hinduism Culture Vaishnavism Shaivism Shaktism Smartism Sikhism Jainism Taoic Taoism Confucianism Shenism Shinto Muism Tengrism Iranian Zoroastrianism Yazidism Abrahamic Islam Culture Sunni Shia Christianity Culture Eastern Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture 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Oriental Orthodoxy Catholicism Latin Church Eastern Churches Latin Church Eastern Churches Judaism Culture Culture Bábism Azali Baháʼí Azali Baháʼí Druze Contemporary integration APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS APEC Arab Customs Union Arab League ASEAN Asia and the Pacific Group Asia Cooperation Dialogue Asia Council BIMSTEC CAREC CAU CSTO CPTPP Eastern Bloc Easternization EAEU EAEU Customs Union ECO GCC OTS RCEP SAARC SCO SEATO TCS Authority control databases International GND FAST WorldCat GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Korea Sweden Poland Israel Artists KulturNav KulturNav Other Lexicon Istoric Retic Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA Encyclopedia of 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Introduction and overview 2 Discovery Toggle Discovery subsection 2.1 Arnold Adolph Berthold (1849) 2.2 Charles and Francis Darwin (1880) 2.3 Oliver and Schäfer (1894) 2.4 Bayliss and Starling (1902) 2.1 Arnold Adolph Berthold (1849) 2.2 Charles and Francis Darwin (1880) 2.3 Oliver and Schäfer (1894) 2.4 Bayliss and Starling (1902) 3 Types of signaling 4 Chemical classes Toggle Chemical classes subsection 4.1 Vertebrates 4.2 Invertebrates 4.3 Plants 4.1 Vertebrates 4.2 Invertebrates 4.3 Plants 5 Receptors 6 Effects in humans 7 Regulation 8 Therapeutic use 9 Hormone-behavior interactions 10 Comparison with neurotransmitters 11 Binding proteins 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Hormone Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Bikol Central Български Bosanski Català Чӑвашла Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Gaeilge Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Igbo Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan ქართული کٲشُر Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Lombard Magyar Македонски മലയാളം Malti मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oromoo Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русиньскый Русский ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Toki pona Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiversity Wikidata item (1) follicle-stimulating hormone (2) luteinizing hormone (3) progesterone (4) estradiol A hormone (from Ancient Greek ὁρμῶν ( hormôn ) ' setting in motion ' ) is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs or tissues by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior . [ 1 ] Hormones are required for the normal development of animals , plants and fungi . Due to the broad definition of a hormone (as a signaling molecule that exerts its effects far from its site of production), numerous kinds of molecules can be classified as hormones. Substances that can be considered hormones include eicosanoids (e.g. prostaglandins and thromboxanes ), steroids (e.g. oestrogen and brassinosteroid ), amino acid derivatives (e.g. epinephrine and auxin ), protein or peptides (e.g. insulin and CLE peptides ), and gases (e.g. ethylene and nitric oxide ). Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues . In vertebrates , hormones are responsible for regulating a wide range of processes including both physiological processes and behavioral activities such as digestion , metabolism , respiration , sensory perception , sleep , excretion , lactation , stress induction, growth and development , movement , reproduction , and mood manipulation. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] In plants, hormones modulate almost all aspects of development, from germination to senescence . [ 5 ] Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell, resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway that typically activates gene transcription , resulting in increased expression of target proteins . Hormones can also act in non-genomic pathways that synergize with genomic effects. [ 6 ] Water-soluble hormones (such as peptides and amines) generally act on the surface of target cells via second messengers . Lipid soluble hormones, (such as steroids ) generally pass through the plasma membrane of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear ) to act within their nuclei . Brassinosteroids , a type of polyhydroxysteroids, are a sixth class of plant hormones and may be useful as an anticancer drug for endocrine-responsive tumors to cause apoptosis and limit plant growth. Despite being lipid soluble, they nevertheless attach to their receptor at the cell surface. [ 7 ] In vertebrates, endocrine glands are specialized organs that secrete hormones into the endocrine signaling system . Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals and is often subject to negative feedback regulation . For instance, high blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) promotes insulin synthesis. Insulin then acts to reduce glucose levels and maintain homeostasis , leading to reduced insulin levels. Upon secretion, water-soluble hormones are readily transported through the circulatory system. Lipid-soluble hormones must bind to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand -protein complexes. Some hormones, such as insulin and growth hormones, can be released into the bloodstream already fully active. Other hormones, called prohormones , must be activated in certain cells through a series of steps that are usually tightly controlled. [ 8 ] The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream , typically via fenestrated capillaries , whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts . Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue. Plants lack specialized organs for the secretion of hormones, although there is a spatial distribution of hormone production. For example, the hormone auxin is produced mainly at the tips of young leaves and in the shoot apical meristem . The lack of specialised glands means that the main site of hormone production can change throughout the life of a plant, and the site of production is dependent on the plant's age and environment. [ 9 ] Introduction and overview Hormone producing cells are found in the endocrine glands , such as the thyroid gland , ovaries , and testes . [ 10 ] Hormonal signaling involves the following steps: [ 11 ] Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue. Storage and secretion of the hormone. Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s). Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane or intracellular receptor protein. Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal transduction process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to a downregulation in hormone production. This is an example of a homeostatic negative feedback loop . Breakdown of the hormone. Exocytosis and other methods of membrane transport are used to secrete hormones when the endocrine glands are signaled. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin , which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal. [ 12 ] Discovery Arnold Adolph Berthold (1849) Arnold Adolph Berthold was a German physiologist and zoologist , who, in 1849, had a question about the function of the testes . He noticed in castrated roosters that they did not have the same sexual behaviors as roosters with their testes intact. He decided to run an experiment on male roosters to examine this phenomenon. He kept a group of roosters with their testes intact, and saw that they had normally sized wattles and combs (secondary sexual organs ), a normal crow, and normal sexual and aggressive behaviors. He also had a group with their testes surgically removed, and noticed that their secondary sexual organs were decreased in size, had a weak crow, did not have sexual attraction towards females, and were not aggressive. He realized that this organ was essential for these behaviors, but he did not know how. To test this further, he removed one testis and placed it in the abdominal cavity. The roosters acted and had normal physical anatomy . He was able to see that the location of the testes does not matter. He then wanted to see if it was a genetic factor that was involved in the testes that provided these functions. He transplanted a testis from another rooster to a rooster with one testis removed, and saw that they had normal behavior and physical anatomy as well. Berthold determined that the location or genetic factors of the testes do not matter in relation to sexual organs and behaviors, but that some chemical in the testes is being secreted is causing this phenomenon. It was later identified that this factor was the hormone testosterone . [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Charles and Francis Darwin (1880) Although known primarily for his work on the Theory of Evolution , Charles Darwin was also keenly interested in plants. Through the 1870s, he and his son Francis studied the movement of plants towards light. They were able to show that light is perceived at the tip of a young stem (the coleoptile ), whereas the bending occurs lower down the stem. They proposed that a 'transmissible substance' communicated the direction of light from the tip down to the stem. The idea of a 'transmissible substance' was initially dismissed by other plant biologists, but their work later led to the discovery of the first plant hormone. [ 15 ] In the 1920s Dutch scientist Frits Warmolt Went and Russian scientist Nikolai Cholodny (working independently of each other) conclusively showed that asymmetric accumulation of a growth hormone was responsible for this bending. In 1933 this hormone was finally isolated by Kögl, Haagen-Smit and Erxleben and given the name ' auxin '. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Oliver and Schäfer (1894) British physician George Oliver and physiologist Edward Albert Schäfer , professor at University College London, collaborated on the physiological effects of adrenal extracts. They first published their findings in two reports in 1894, a full publication followed in 1895. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] Though frequently falsely attributed to secretin , found in 1902 by Bayliss and Starling, Oliver and Schäfer's adrenal extract containing adrenaline , the substance causing the physiological changes, was the first hormone to be discovered. The term hormone would later be coined by Starling. [ 20 ] Bayliss and Starling (1902) William Bayliss and Ernest Starling , a physiologist and biologist respectively, wanted to see if the nervous system had an impact on the digestive system . From the work of Martin Heidenhain and Claude Bernard , [ 21 ] they knew that the pancreas was involved in the secretion of digestive fluids after the passage of food from the stomach to the intestines , which they believed to be due to the nervous system. They cut the nerves to the pancreas in an animal model and discovered that it was not nerve impulses that controlled secretion from the pancreas. It was determined that a factor secreted from the intestines into the bloodstream was stimulating the pancreas to secrete digestive fluids. This was named secretin : a hormone. In 1905 Starling coined the word hormone from the Greek to arouse or excite which he defined as “the chemical messengers which speeding from cell to cell along the blood stream, may coordinate the activities and growth of different parts of the body”. [ 22 ] Types of signaling Hormonal effects are dependent on where they are released, as they can be released in different manners. [ 23 ] Not all hormones are released from a cell and into the blood until it binds to a receptor on a target. The major types of hormone signaling are: SN Types Description 1 Endocrine Acts on the target cells after being released into the bloodstream. 2 Paracrine Acts on the nearby cells and does not have to enter general circulation. 3 Autocrine Affects the cell types that secreted it and causes a biological effect. 4 Intracrine Acts intracellularly on the cells that synthesized it. Chemical classes As hormones are defined functionally, not structurally, they may have diverse chemical structures. Hormones occur in multicellular organisms ( plants , animals , fungi , brown algae , and red algae ). These compounds occur also in unicellular organisms , and may act as signaling molecules however there is no agreement that these molecules can be called hormones. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] Vertebrates SN Types Description 1 Proteins/ Peptides Peptides Peptide hormones are made of a chain of amino acids that can range from just 3 to hundreds. Examples include oxytocin and insulin . [ 13 ] Their sequences are encoded in DNA and can be modified by alternative splicing and/or post-translational modification . [ 23 ] They are packed in vesicles and are hydrophilic , meaning that they are soluble in water. Due to their hydrophilicity, they can only bind to receptors on the membrane, as travelling through the membrane is unlikely. However, some hormones can bind to intracellular receptors through an intracrine mechanism. 2 Amino Acid Derivatives Derivatives Amino acid hormones are derived from amino acids, most commonly Tyrosine . They are stored in vesicles. Examples include Melatonin and Thyroxine . 3 Steroids Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol. Examples include the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone as well as the stress hormone cortisol . [ 26 ] Steroids contain four fused rings. They are lipophilic and hence can cross membranes to bind to intracellular nuclear receptors . 4 Eicosanoids Eicosanoids hormones are derived from lipids such as arachidonic acid , lipoxins , thromboxanes and prostaglandins . Examples include prostaglandin and thromboxane . These hormones are produced by cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases . They are hydrophobic and act on membrane receptors. 5 Gases Ethylene and Nitric Oxide Invertebrates Compared with vertebrates, insects and crustaceans possess a number of structurally unusual hormones such as the juvenile hormone , a sesquiterpenoid . [ 27 ] Plants Examples include abscisic acid , auxin , cytokinin , ethylene , and gibberellin . [ 28 ] Receptors Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell surface receptors or intracellular receptors . A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway. [ 29 ] Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the cell membrane as cell surface receptors, and the majority of these belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) class of seven alpha helix transmembrane proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, described as signal transduction , often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP ). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell. These receptors belong to the nuclear receptor family of ligand-activated transcription factors . To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences , regulating the expression of certain genes , and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. [ 32 ] However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the plasma membrane . [ 33 ] Effects in humans Hormones have the following effects on the body: [ 34 ] stimulation or inhibition of growth wake-sleep cycle and other circadian rhythms mood swings induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death) activation or inhibition of the immune system regulation of metabolism preparation of the body for mating , fighting , fleeing , and other activity preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty , parenting , and menopause control of the reproductive cycle hunger cravings A hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis . Regulation The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone. [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by: Other hormones ( stimulating - or releasing -hormones) Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulins Neurons and mental activity Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands . For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid , which increases output of thyroid hormones . [ 37 ] To release active hormones quickly into the circulation , hormone biosynthetic cells may produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones . These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus. [ 37 ] Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones. They are considered to be "local" because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distant sites within the body. [ 38 ] Hormones are also regulated by receptor agonists. Hormones are ligands, which are any kinds of molecules that produce a signal by binding to a receptor site on a protein. Hormone effects can be inhibited, thus regulated, by competing ligands that bind to the same target receptor as the hormone in question. When a competing ligand is bound to the receptor site, the hormone is unable to bind to that site and is unable to elicit a response from the target cell. These competing ligands are called antagonists of the hormone. [ 39 ] Therapeutic use Many hormones and their structural and functional analogs are used as medication . The most commonly prescribed hormones are estrogens and progestogens (as methods of hormonal contraception and as HRT ), [ 40 ] thyroxine (as levothyroxine , for hypothyroidism ) and steroids (for autoimmune diseases and several respiratory disorders ). Insulin is used by many diabetics . Local preparations for use in otolaryngology often contain pharmacologic equivalents of adrenaline , while steroid and vitamin D creams are used extensively in dermatological practice. [ 41 ] A "pharmacologic dose" or "supraphysiological dose" of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful, though not without potentially adverse side effects. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoids to suppress inflammation . Hormone-behavior interactions At the neurological level, behavior can be inferred based on hormone concentration, which in turn are influenced by hormone-release patterns; the numbers and locations of hormone receptors; and the efficiency of hormone receptors for those involved in gene transcription. Hormone concentration does not incite behavior, as that would undermine other external stimuli; however, it influences the system by increasing the probability of a certain event to occur. [ 42 ] Not only can hormones influence behavior, but also behavior and the environment can influence hormone concentration. [ 43 ] Thus, a feedback loop is formed, meaning behavior can affect hormone concentration, which in turn can affect behavior, which in turn can affect hormone concentration, and so on. [ 44 ] For example, hormone-behavior feedback loops are essential in providing constancy to episodic hormone secretion, as the behaviors affected by episodically secreted hormones directly prevent the continuous release of said hormones. [ 45 ] Three broad stages of reasoning may be used to determine if a specific hormone-behavior interaction is present within a system: [ 46 ] The frequency of occurrence of a hormonally dependent behavior should correspond to that of its hormonal source. A hormonally dependent behavior is not expected if the hormonal source (or its types of action) is non-existent. The reintroduction of a missing behaviorally dependent hormonal source (or its types of action) is expected to bring back the absent behavior. Comparison with neurotransmitters Though colloquially oftentimes used interchangeably, there are various clear distinctions between hormones and neurotransmitters : [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 39 ] A hormone can perform functions over a larger spatial and temporal scale than can a neurotransmitter, which often acts in micrometer-scale distances. [ 49 ] Hormonal signals can travel virtually anywhere in the circulatory system, whereas neural signals are restricted to pre-existing nerve tracts . [ 49 ] Assuming the travel distance is equivalent, neural signals can be transmitted much more quickly (in the range of milliseconds) than can hormonal signals (in the range of seconds, minutes, or hours). Neural signals can be sent at speeds up to 100 meters per second. [ 50 ] Neural signalling is an all-or-nothing (digital) action, whereas hormonal signalling is an action that can be continuously variable as it is dependent upon hormone concentration. Neurohormones are a type of hormone that share a commonality with neurotransmitters. [ 51 ] They are produced by endocrine cells that receive input from neurons, or neuroendocrine cells. [ 51 ] Both classic hormones and neurohormones are secreted by endocrine tissue; however, neurohormones are the result of a combination between endocrine reflexes and neural reflexes, creating a neuroendocrine pathway. [ 39 ] While endocrine pathways produce chemical signals in the form of hormones, the neuroendocrine pathway involves the electrical signals of neurons. [ 39 ] In this pathway, the result of the electrical signal produced by a neuron is the release of a chemical, which is the neurohormone . [ 39 ] Finally, like a classic hormone, the neurohormone is released into the bloodstream to reach its target. [ 39 ] Binding proteins Hormone transport and the involvement of binding proteins is an essential aspect when considering the function of hormones. [ 52 ] The formation of a complex with a binding protein has several benefits: the effective half-life of the bound hormone is increased, and a reservoir of bound hormones is created, which evens the variations in concentration of unbound hormones (bound hormones will replace the unbound hormones when these are eliminated). [ 53 ] An example of the usage of hormone-binding proteins is in the thyroxine-binding protein which carries up to 80% of all thyroxine in the body, a crucial element in regulating the metabolic rate. [ 54 ] See also Adipokine Autocrine signaling Cytokine Endocrine disease Endocrine system Endocrinology Environmental hormones Growth factor Hepatokine Intracrine List of human hormones List of investigational sex-hormonal agents Metabolomics Myokine Neohormone Neuroendocrinology Paracrine signaling Plant hormones , a.k.a. plant growth regulators Semiochemical Sex-hormonal agent Sexual motivation and hormones Xenohormone References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shuster M (2014-03-14). 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Retrieved from ^ Nelson RJ (2010), "Hormones and Behavior: Basic Concepts" , Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior , Elsevier, pp. 97– 105, doi : 10.1016/b978-0-08-045337-8.00236-9 , ISBN 978-0-08-045337-8 , S2CID 7479319 , retrieved 2021-11-18 ^ Garland T, Zhao M, Saltzman W (August 2016). "Hormones and the Evolution of Complex Traits: Insights from Artificial Selection on Behavior" . Integrative and Comparative Biology . 56 (2): 207– 24. doi : 10.1093/icb/icw040 . PMC 5964798 . PMID 27252193 . ^ Pfaff DW, Rubin RT, Schneider JE, Head GA (2018). Principles of hormone/behavior relations (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Academic Press . ISBN 978-0-12-802667-0 . OCLC 1022119040 . ^ Nelson, R. J. (2011). An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology (4th ed.). Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-244-6. ^ Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB, Campbell NA (2014). Campbell biology (Tenth ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-321-77565-8 . OCLC 849822337 . ^ Siegel A, Sapru H, Hreday N, Siegel H (2006). Essential neuroscience . Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-5077-6 . OCLC 60650938 . ^ a b Purves D, Williams SM (2001). Neuroscience (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-742-0 . OCLC 44627256 . ^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). Molecular biology of the cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1 . OCLC 48122761 . ^ a b Purves WK, Kirkwood W (2001). Life, the science of biology (6th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-7167-3873-2 . OCLC 45064683 . ^ "Hormones" . OpenStaxCollege . 2013-03-06. ^ Boron WF, Boulpaep EL. Medical physiology: a cellular and molecular approach. Updated 2. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2012. ^ Oppenheimer JH (1968-05-23). "Role of Plasma Proteins in the Binding, Distribution and Metabolism of the Thyroid Hormones" . New England Journal of Medicine . 278 (21): 1153– 1162. doi : 10.1056/NEJM196805232782107 . ISSN 0028-4793 . PMID 4172185 . External links HMRbase: A database of hormones and their receptors Hormones at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) "Hormone" . Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Merriam-Webster. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Hormones v t e Endocrine glands Hypothalamic– pituitary Hypothalamus GnRH TRH Dopamine CRH GHRH Somatostatin (GHIH) MCH Posterior pituitary Oxytocin Vasopressin Anterior pituitary FSH LH TSH Prolactin POMC CLIP ACTH MSH Endorphins Lipotropin GH Adrenal axis Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Cortisol Cortisone DHEA DHEA-S Androstenedione Adrenal medulla Adrenaline Norepinephrine Thyroid Thyroid hormones T 3 T 4 Calcitonin Thyroid axis Parathyroid PTH Gonadal axis Testis Testosterone AMH Inhibin Ovary Estradiol Progesterone Activin Inhibin Relaxin GnSAF Placenta hCG HPL Estrogen Progesterone Pancreas Glucagon Insulin Amylin Somatostatin Pancreatic polypeptide Pineal gland Melatonin N,N-Dimethyltryptamine 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine Hypothalamic– pituitary Hypothalamus GnRH TRH Dopamine CRH GHRH Somatostatin (GHIH) MCH Posterior pituitary Oxytocin Vasopressin Anterior pituitary FSH LH TSH Prolactin POMC CLIP ACTH MSH Endorphins Lipotropin GH Hypothalamus GnRH TRH Dopamine CRH GHRH Somatostatin (GHIH) MCH GnRH TRH Dopamine CRH GHRH Somatostatin (GHIH) MCH Posterior pituitary Oxytocin Vasopressin Oxytocin Vasopressin Anterior pituitary FSH LH TSH Prolactin POMC CLIP ACTH MSH Endorphins Lipotropin GH FSH LH TSH Prolactin POMC CLIP ACTH MSH Endorphins Lipotropin CLIP ACTH MSH Endorphins Lipotropin GH Adrenal axis Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Cortisol Cortisone DHEA DHEA-S Androstenedione Adrenal medulla Adrenaline Norepinephrine Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Cortisol Cortisone DHEA DHEA-S Androstenedione Aldosterone Cortisol Cortisone DHEA DHEA-S Androstenedione Adrenal medulla Adrenaline Norepinephrine Adrenaline Norepinephrine Thyroid Thyroid hormones T 3 T 4 Calcitonin Thyroid axis Thyroid hormones T 3 T 4 T 3 T 4 Calcitonin Thyroid axis Parathyroid PTH PTH Gonadal axis Testis Testosterone AMH Inhibin Ovary Estradiol Progesterone Activin Inhibin Relaxin GnSAF Placenta hCG HPL Estrogen Progesterone Testis Testosterone AMH Inhibin Testosterone AMH Inhibin Ovary Estradiol Progesterone Activin Inhibin Relaxin GnSAF Estradiol Progesterone Activin Inhibin Relaxin GnSAF Placenta hCG HPL Estrogen Progesterone hCG HPL Estrogen Progesterone Pancreas Glucagon Insulin Amylin Somatostatin Pancreatic polypeptide Glucagon Insulin Amylin Somatostatin Pancreatic polypeptide Pineal gland Melatonin N,N-Dimethyltryptamine 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine Melatonin N,N-Dimethyltryptamine 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine Other Thymus Thymosins Thymosin α1 Beta thymosins Thymopoietin Thymulin Digestive system Stomach Gastrin Ghrelin Duodenum CCK GIP Secretin Motilin VIP Ileum Enteroglucagon Peptide YY GLP-1 Liver /other Insulin-like growth factor IGF-1 IGF-2 Adipose tissue Leptin Adiponectin Resistin Skeleton Osteocalcin Kidney Renin EPO Calcitriol Prostaglandin Heart Natriuretic peptide ANP BNP Thymus Thymosins Thymosin α1 Beta thymosins Thymopoietin Thymulin Thymosins Thymosin α1 Beta thymosins Thymosin α1 Beta thymosins Thymopoietin Thymulin Digestive system Stomach Gastrin Ghrelin Duodenum CCK GIP Secretin Motilin VIP Ileum Enteroglucagon Peptide YY GLP-1 Liver /other Insulin-like growth factor IGF-1 IGF-2 Stomach Gastrin Ghrelin Gastrin Ghrelin Duodenum CCK GIP Secretin Motilin VIP CCK GIP Secretin Motilin VIP Ileum Enteroglucagon Peptide YY GLP-1 Enteroglucagon Peptide YY GLP-1 Liver /other Insulin-like growth factor IGF-1 IGF-2 Insulin-like growth factor IGF-1 IGF-2 IGF-1 IGF-2 Adipose tissue Leptin Adiponectin Resistin Leptin Adiponectin Resistin Skeleton Osteocalcin Osteocalcin Kidney Renin EPO Calcitriol Prostaglandin Renin EPO Calcitriol Prostaglandin Heart Natriuretic peptide ANP BNP Natriuretic peptide ANP BNP ANP BNP v t e Cell signaling / Signal transduction v t e Signaling pathways GPCR Wnt RTK TGF beta MAPK/ERK Notch JAK-STAT Akt/PKB Fas apoptosis Hippo PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway Integrin receptors GPCR Wnt RTK TGF beta MAPK/ERK TGF beta MAPK/ERK Notch JAK-STAT Akt/PKB Fas apoptosis Hippo PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway Integrin receptors Agents Receptor ligands Hormones Neurotransmitters / Neuropeptides / Neurohormones Cytokines Growth factors Signaling molecules Receptors Cell surface Intracellular Co-receptor Second messenger cAMP-dependent pathway Ca 2+ signaling Lipid signaling Assistants: Signal transducing adaptor protein Scaffold protein Transcription factors General Transcription preinitiation complex TFIID TFIIH Receptor ligands Hormones Neurotransmitters / Neuropeptides / Neurohormones Cytokines Growth factors Signaling molecules Hormones Neurotransmitters / Neuropeptides / Neurohormones Cytokines Growth factors Signaling molecules Receptors Cell surface Intracellular Co-receptor Cell surface Intracellular Co-receptor Second messenger cAMP-dependent pathway Ca 2+ signaling Lipid signaling Assistants: Signal transducing adaptor protein Scaffold protein cAMP-dependent pathway Ca 2+ signaling Lipid signaling cAMP-dependent pathway Ca 2+ signaling Lipid signaling Assistants: Signal transducing adaptor protein Scaffold protein Signal transducing adaptor protein Scaffold protein Transcription factors General Transcription preinitiation complex TFIID TFIIH General Transcription preinitiation complex TFIID TFIIH By distance Juxtacrine Autocrine / Paracrine Endocrine Juxtacrine Autocrine / Paracrine Endocrine Other concepts Intracrine action Neurocrine signaling Synaptic transmission Chemical synapse Neuroendocrine signaling Exocrine signalling Pheromones Mechanotransduction Phototransduction Ion channel gating Gap junction Intracrine action Neurocrine signaling Synaptic transmission Chemical synapse Synaptic transmission Chemical synapse Neuroendocrine signaling Exocrine signalling Pheromones Pheromones Mechanotransduction Phototransduction Ion channel gating Gap junction Authority control databases International GND GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Latvia Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Latvia Israel Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX Hormones Physiology Endocrinology Cell signaling Signal transduction Human female endocrine system CS1 errors: periodical ignored Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata This page was last edited on 13 January 2026, at 19:40 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. 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Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: Generative AI collective behavior needs an interactionist paradigm Abstract: In this article, we argue that understanding the collective behavior of agents based on large language models (LLMs) is an essential area of inquiry, with important implications in terms of risks and benefits, impacting us as a society at many levels. We claim that the distinctive nature of LLMs--namely, their initialization with extensive pre-trained knowledge and implicit social priors, together with their capability of adaptation through in-context learning--motivates the need for an interactionist paradigm consisting of alternative theoretical foundations, methodologies, and analytical tools, in order to systematically examine how prior knowledge and embedded values interact with social context to shape emergent phenomena in multi-agent generative AI systems. We propose and discuss four directions that we consider crucial for the development and deployment of LLM-based collectives, focusing on theory, methods, and trans-disciplinary dialogue. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Human-Computer Interaction (cs.HC); Machine Learning (cs.LG); Multiagent Systems (cs.MA) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10567 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10567v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. MacMullen, "Christianizing The Roman Empire A.D. 100–400, Yale University Press, 1984, p. 44, ISBN 0-300-03642-6 ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 14–15; The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) 15. ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 15–16. ^ Frend, W. H. C., "The Donatist Church; A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa," (1952 Oxford), pp. 156–162. ^ Norwich, John Julius (1996). Byzantium (First American ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 54– 57. ISBN 0-394-53778-5 . OCLC 18164817 . ^ "Church Fathers: Life of Constantine, Book III (Eusebius), chapter 18" . New Advent . ^ a b c Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 187. ^ Stemberger, Gunter (1999). Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . A&C Black. pp. 37– 38. ISBN 978-0-567-23050-8 . If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . OCLC 61029662 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Julian, Orations 1.18.b. ^ Origo Constantini 35. ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine", 148–149. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76. ^ A. A. Vasiliev (1848). "Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople" (PDF) . Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 4 : 1+3–26. doi : 10.2307/1291047 . JSTOR 1291047 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 December 2019. ^ Majeska, George P (1984). Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries . Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-101-8 . Retrieved 15 April 2017 – via Google Knihy. ^ Edward J. Watts (2020). The Final Pagan Generation: Rome's Unexpected Path to Christianity . University of California Press. p. 83. 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"Viewing Rome in the Latin Literature of the Ventennio Fascista : Francesco Giammaria's Capitolium Novum " . Fascism . 8 (2). Brill: 172. doi : 10.1163/22116257-00802002 . hdl : 10852/76385 . ISSN 2211-6249 . ^ "Niš: Vinik osta pusto brdo" . NOVOSTI . ^ "Edict of Milan celebration to begin in Niš" . 17 January 2013. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 91 ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 92–93. ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Great Vespers" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Holy Great Rulers Constantine and Helen, Equal to the Apostles: Divine Liturgy" (PDF) . Liturgical Texts and Music: Part of the Royal Doors Family . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "530 - Λεἰψανα του Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου" . Η ΛΕΙΨΑΝΟΘΗΚΗ (in Greek) . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ "Commemorations for Baramhat 28" . CopticChurch.Net . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Findikyan, Bishop Daniel. "Liturgical Year of the Armenian Apostolic Church" . Armenian Apostolic Church of Holy Resurrection . Retrieved 9 August 2025 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 272–223. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273. ^ Johannes Leunclavius , Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes ( Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others ) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 273, and Odahl, 282. ^ Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Chapter 18, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. ^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall , 1.256; David P. Jordan, "Gibbon's 'Age of Constantine' and the Fall of Rome", History and Theory 8:1 (1969): 71–96. ^ Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 274. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. ^ Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine", review of Constantine and the Christian Empire , by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. ^ Averil Cameron, "Introduction", in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend , ed. Samuel N. C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. ^ Quand notre monde est devenu chretien , Fabian E. Udoh, review, Theological Studies , June 2008. ^ Peter Heather, Christendom (London: Allen Lane, 2022), pp. 11–20. ^ Canella, Tessa. Gli Actus Silvestri fra Oriente e Occidente: Storia e diffusione di una leggenda Costantiniana . Academia. pp. 243– 244 . Retrieved 10 May 2021 . ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–303. ^ Gregory, A History of Byzantium , 49. ^ Van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge , 30. ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–87. ^ Inferno 19.115; Paradisio 20.55; cf. De Monarchia 3.10. ^ Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. ^ Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum , Book I, ch. 37. ^ a b Greenway, Diana (Ed.); Henry of Huntingdon (1996). Historia Anglorum: The History of the English People . Oxford University Press. p. civ. ISBN 978-0-19-822224-8 . 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ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) first seven books c. 300 , eighth and ninth book c. 313 , tenth book c. 315 , epilogue c. 325 . Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Williamson, G. A., trans. Church History . London: Penguin, 1989. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. Church History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Oratio de Laudibus Constantini ( Oration in Praise of Constantine , sometimes the Tricennial Oration ) 336. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Oration in Praise of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Vita Constantini ( The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine ) c. 336 –339. Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. Life of Constantine . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine . 2009. Reprint of Bagster edition [1845]. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-93-0 . Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. Life of Constantine . 1999. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814924-7 . Eutropius , Breviarium ab Urbe Condita ( Abbreviated History from the City's Founding ) c. 369 . Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Watson, John Henry, trans. Justin, Cornelius Nepos and Eutropius . London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 28 September 2009. Rufus Festus , Breviarium Festi ( The Abbreviated History of Festus ) c. 370 . Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People . Canisius College Translated Texts 2. Buffalo, New York: Canisius College, 2001. Online at De Imperatoribus Romanis . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jerome , Chronicon ( Chronicle ) c. 380 . Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Pearse, Roger, et al. ., trans. The Chronicle of St. Jerome , in Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts . Tertullian, 2005. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Jordanes , De origine actibusque Getarum [ Getica ] ( The Origin and Deeds of the Goths ) c. 551 . Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Mierow, Charles C. , trans. The Origins and Deeds of the Goths . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1915. Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Online at the University of Calgary . Retrieved 28 September 2009. The Gothic History of Jordanes . 2006. Reprint of 1915 edition. Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-77-0 . The Christian Roman Empire series Lactantius , De mortibus persecutorum ( On the Deaths of the Persecutors ) c. 313–315 . Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. 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Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus (w. Diadumenian ) Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–284 Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Maximinus I Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip I (w. Philip II ) Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus ) Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus ) Aemilianus Silbannacus (?) Valerian Gallienus (w. Saloninus ) Claudius II Quintillus Aurelian Tacitus Florianus Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Later Roman Empire 284–641 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus II Constantine I Maxentius Licinius Maximinus II Valerius Valens Martinian Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Nepotianus Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I Valens Procopius Gratian Theodosius I Valentinian II Magnus Maximus (w. Victor ) Eugenius Western Empire 395–476 Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Honorius Constantine III (w. Constans II ) Priscus Attalus Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Severus III Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern Empire 395–641 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus (w. Marcus ) Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice (w. Theodosius ) Phocas Heraclius Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 641–1453 Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Constantine III Heraclonas (w. Tiberius ) Constans II Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius ) Justinian II Leontius Tiberius III Justinian II (w. Tiberius ) Philippicus Anastasius II Theodosius III Leo III Constantine V Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros ) Leo IV Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios ) Leo V (w. Constantine ) Michael II Theophilos (w. Constantine ) Michael III (w. Thekla ) Basil I (w. Constantine ) Leo VI Alexander Constantine VII Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher , Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos ) Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoe Romanos III Argyros Michael IV Michael V Constantine IX Monomachos Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Eudokia Makrembolitissa Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros ) Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos , Konstantios & Constantine Doukas ) Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas ) John II Komnenos (w. Alexios ) Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John ) Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Alexios V Doukas Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas ) John III Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene ) Michael IX Palaiologos Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos (w. Anna ) John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew ) Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#cite_note-206
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: How Group Lives Go Well Abstract: This paper explores the ontological space of group well being, proposing a framework for representing collective welfare, group functions, and long term contributions within an ontology engineering context. Traditional well being theories focus on individual states, often relying on hedonistic, desire satisfaction, or objective list models. Such approaches struggle to account for cases where individual sacrifices contribute to broader social progress, a critical challenge in modeling group flourishing. To address this, the paper refines and extends the Counterfactual Account (CT) of well being, which evaluates goodness of an event by comparing an individual's actual well being with a hypothetical counterpart in a nearby possible world. While useful, this framework is insufficient for group level ontologies, where well being depends on functional persistence, institutional roles, and historical impact rather than immediate individual outcomes. Drawing on Basic Formal Ontology (BFO), the paper introduces a model in which group flourishing is evaluated in terms of group functional, where members bear roles and exhibit persistence conditions akin to biological systems or designed artifacts. This approach enables semantic interoperability for modeling longitudinal social contributions, allowing for structured reasoning about group welfare, social institutions, and group flourishing over time. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) ; Computer Science and Game Theory (cs.GT) Cite as: arXiv:2504.19968 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2504.19968v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.19968
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Kratafa tsitsir Nyimpakuw adzekorabea Nsesa a ɔnnkyɛree Krataafa no mu biara Mboa Nkratafa soronko Yi ma Bue dwumadzidze fofor Kɔ mu Yi ma Bue dwumadzidze fofor Kɔ mu Kratafa Tsitsir Kratafa tsitsir Nkɔmbɔtwetwe Kenkan Hwɛ beebi a ofi Hwɛ abakɔsɛm Kenkan Hwɛ beebi a ofi Hwɛ abakɔsɛm Dza ɔdze ha dzi dwuma Nsesa a ɔsɛ Fa fael to hɔ Lenke a ɔnnsesa Krataafa ho asɛm Da kratafa yi edzi Nya URL a wɔatwa no tsiaba Twe QR kokoamu ahyɛnsewdze Create a book Twe no dɛ PDF Dza yetum hohor Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Outreach Multilingual Wikisource Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wikidata adze Akɔaba ba Fante Wikipedia do! Nyimdzee nwomapɔn a inntua kaw, a obiara tum dze ne nyimdzee ka ho. Wɔwoo Ɔsagyefo Kwame Nkrumah wɔ Fankwa 21, 1909. Ebɔbira 27, 1972 mu na owui. Nna ɔyɛ Ghana amanyɛnyi na ɔsan so yɛ obi a nna n'enyi gye amanyɛnsɛm ho. Ɔno nye Ghana manpanyin a odzi kan ber a odzii nkan no Sika Mbew do, ndɛ Ghana enyim ma wɔgyee fahodzi fii Ngyiresi Aborɔfo nsamu wɔ afe 1957 mu. Pan-African hɔn kasamafo, Nkrumah nna ɔyɛ nyimpa a ɔtseew dɛm Ebibifokuw a ɔdze nkabom na nyimpa odzii nkumnyim wɔ Lenin asomdwee abadobɔdze a ofir Soviet nkabomkuw wɔ 1962 mu. Jane Naana Opoku-Agyemang FGA (née Sam; wɔwoo no 22 Sanda 1951) yɛ Ghananyi nwomasua mu ɔbenfo (academic) na amanyɛnyi a nna ɔyɛ Ɔsoafo a ɔhwɛ nwomasua (Minister for Education) do fitsi Ebɔw 2013 kesi Sanda 2017. Ɔyɛ ɔbenfo a ɔyɛ nwoma (literature) ho ɔbenfo a ɔyɛ pɛ. Nna ɔyɛ ɔbea Vice-Chancellor a odzi kan wɔ ɔman Esuapɔn bi mu wɔ Ghana ber a ogyee edwuma dɛ Vice-Chancellor wɔ Oguaa Esuapɔn (University of Cape Coast) mu no. Seseiara ɔsom dɛ Mbasiafo Esuapɔn a ɔwɔ Afrika no Chancellor. Dɛ wɔ Ghana mbra 1960 mu, a ɔyɛ Ghana mbra nwoma a odzi kan wɔ Ghana no, ɔmanpanyin no besi ahendzi amambu no anan. Mbrahyɛbaguafo yi ɔmanpanyin dɛ ondzi Ghana do mfe enum. Sɛ obiara nnyi hɔ dɛ ɔmanpanyin a, wɔpaw nyimpa ebiasa dɛ wongyina mu dɛ ɔmanpanyin? Dɛ General Ignatius Kutu Acheampong dze coup d'etat tuu ɔmanpanyin Akufo-Addo ne Ɔman Soafo Abrefa Busia na n'aban nyina? Atwerɛsɛm a adikan aba Nkrataafa soronko Kasa kyerɛ edwuma kwankyerɛfo • Sɛ epɛ dɛ enye edwuma kwankyerɛfo kasa a, kɔ edwuma akwankyerɛfo krataafa yi do Nkitahodzi • Di nkitahodzi wɔ ha Mboa • Mboa a no ho hia wɔ ha • Wikipedia mmra num • Mbrɛ yɛkyerɛw Fante Akyerɛwsɛm • TTsew akyerɛwsɛm fofor • Nkrataafa dodow a ɔwɔ ha Nkrataafa soronko Kasa kyerɛ edwuma kwankyerɛfo • Sɛ epɛ dɛ enye edwuma kwankyerɛfo kasa a, kɔ edwuma akwankyerɛfo krataafa yi do Nkitahodzi • Di nkitahodzi wɔ ha Mboa • Mboa a no ho hia wɔ ha • Wikipedia mmra num • Mbrɛ yɛkyerɛw Fante Akyerɛwsɛm • TTsew akyerɛwsɛm fofor • Nkrataafa dodow a ɔwɔ ha Kasa kyerɛ edwuma kwankyerɛfo • Sɛ epɛ dɛ enye edwuma kwankyerɛfo kasa a, kɔ edwuma akwankyerɛfo krataafa yi do • Sɛ epɛ dɛ enye edwuma kwankyerɛfo kasa a, kɔ edwuma akwankyerɛfo krataafa yi do Nkitahodzi • Di nkitahodzi wɔ ha • Di nkitahodzi wɔ ha Mboa • Mboa a no ho hia wɔ ha • Wikipedia mmra num • Mbrɛ yɛkyerɛw Fante • Mboa a no ho hia wɔ ha • Wikipedia mmra num • Mbrɛ yɛkyerɛw Fante Akyerɛwsɛm • TTsew akyerɛwsɛm fofor • Nkrataafa dodow a ɔwɔ ha • TTsew akyerɛwsɛm fofor • Nkrataafa dodow a ɔwɔ ha Commons Free media repository Wiktionary Dictionary and thesaurus Wikidata Free knowledge base Wikiquote Collection of quotations Wikibooks Free textbooks and manuals Wikisource Free-content library Wikispecies Directory of species Wikiversity Free learning materials and activities Meta-Wiki Wikimedia project coordination Аԥсшәа Acèh Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Pangcah Aragonés Ænglisc Obolo अंगिका العربية ܐܪܡܝܐ الدارجة مصرى অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw Авар Kotava अवधी Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Башҡортса Basa Bali Boarisch Žemaitėška Batak Toba Bikol Central Bajau Sama Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Betawi Български भोजपुरी Bislama Banjar ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ Bamanankan বাংলা བོད་ཡིག বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Brezhoneg Bosanski Batak Mandailing Basa Ugi Буряад Català Chavacano de Zamboanga 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Нохчийн Cebuano Chamoru ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese کوردی Corsu Nēhiyawēwin / ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ Qırımtatarca Čeština Kaszëbsczi Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ Чӑвашла Cymraeg Dansk Dagbanli Deutsch Dagaare Thuɔŋjäŋ Zazaki Dolnoserbski Kadazandusun डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް ཇོང་ཁ Eʋegbe Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Esperanto Español Eesti Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Fulfulde Suomi Võro Na Vosa Vakaviti Føroyskt Fɔ̀ngbè Français Arpetan Nordfriisk Furlan Frysk Gaeilge Gagauz 贛語 Kriyòl gwiyannen Gàidhlig Galego گیلکی Avañe'ẽ गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Bahasa Hulontalo 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 Ghanaian Pidgin ગુજરાતી Wayuunaiki Farefare Gungbe Gaelg Hausa 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Hawaiʻi עברית हिन्दी Fiji Hindi Hrvatski Hornjoserbsce Kreyòl ayisyen Magyar Հայերեն Արեւմտահայերէն Interlingua Jaku Iban Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Igbo Igala Iñupiatun Ilokano ГӀалгӀай Ido Íslenska Italiano ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut 日本語 Patois La .lojban. Jawa ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Taqbaylit Адыгэбзэ Kabɩyɛ Tyap Kongo Kumoring Gĩkũyũ Қазақша Kalaallisut ភាសាខ្មែរ ಕನ್ನಡ Yerwa Kanuri 한국어 Перем коми Къарачай-малкъар کٲشُر Ripoarisch Kurdî Kʋsaal Коми Kernowek Кыргызча Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Лакку Лезги Lingua Franca Nova Luganda Limburgs Ligure Ladin Lombard Lingála ລາວ Lietuvių Latgaļu Latviešu Madhurâ मैथिली Basa Banyumasan Мокшень Malagasy Олык марий Māori Minangkabau Македонски മലയാളം Монгол ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ ဘာသာမန် Moore मराठी Кырык мары Bahasa Melayu Malti Mirandés မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano Plattdüütsch Nedersaksies नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Li Niha Nederlands Norsk nynorsk Norsk bokmål Novial ߒߞߏ IsiNdebele seSewula Nouormand Sesotho sa Leboa Nupe Diné bizaad Chi-Chewa Occitan Livvinkarjala Oromoo ଓଡ଼ିଆ Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Pangasinan Kapampangan Papiamentu Picard Naijá Deitsch Pälzisch पालि Polski Piemontèis پنجابی Ποντιακά پښتو Português Pinayuanan Runa Simi ရခိုင် Rumantsch Romani čhib Ikirundi Română Armãneashti Tarandíne Руски Русский Русиньскый Ikinyarwanda संस्कृतम् Саха тыла ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Sardu Sicilianu Scots سنڌي Davvisámegiella Sängö Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Taclḥit တႆး සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina سرائیکی Slovenščina Gagana Samoa Anarâškielâ ChiShona Soomaaliga Shqip Српски / srpski Sranantongo SiSwati Sesotho Seeltersk Sunda Svenska Kiswahili ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ Ślůnski Sakizaya தமிழ் Tayal ತುಳು ᥖᥭᥰ ᥖᥬᥲ ᥑᥨᥒᥰ తెలుగు Tetun Тоҷикӣ ไทย ትግርኛ ትግሬ Türkmençe Tagalog Tolışi Setswana Lea faka-Tonga Toki pona Tok Pisin Türkçe Seediq Xitsonga Татарча / tatarça ChiTumbuka Twi Reo tahiti Тыва дыл Удмурт ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Tshivenda Vèneto Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt West-Vlams Volapük Walon Winaray Wolof 吴语 Хальмг IsiXhosa მარგალური ייִדיש Yorùbá Vahcuengh Zeêuws ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Wɔyɛɛ krataafa yi mu nsesa a odzi ekyir wɔ 6 Esusow Aketseaba 2023, wɔ 00:30. 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https://fat.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kratafa_Tsitsir
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Publication history Toggle Publication history subsection 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 1.1 Creation and early history 1.2 Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages 1.3 Modern Age and reboots 2 Characterization Toggle Characterization subsection 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 2.1 Bruce Wayne 2.1.1 Personality 2.1.1 Personality 2.2 Others 3 Supporting characters Toggle Supporting characters subsection 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 3.1 Enemies 3.2 Allies 3.3 Sidekicks 3.4 Romantic interests 4 Abilities Toggle Abilities subsection 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 4.1 Skills and training 4.2 Technology 5 Fictional character biography Toggle Fictional character biography subsection 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 5.1 20th century 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.1.1 Origin 5.1.2 Golden Age 5.1.3 Silver Age 5.1.4 Bronze Age 5.1.5 Modern Age 5.2 21st century 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.2.1 2000s 5.2.2 2010s 5.3 The New 52 5.4 DC Rebirth 6 Other versions 7 In popular culture Toggle In popular culture subsection 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 7.1 Media appearances 7.1.1 Criticism 7.1.1 Criticism 7.2 Different interpretations 8 Notes 9 References 10 Sources 11 Further reading 12 External links Batman Afrikaans Ænglisc العربية Arpetan Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Chi-Chewa Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी مصرى Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk bokmål Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sardu Scots Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Võro Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Betawi Ghanaian Pidgin Kʋsaal Toki pona ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item This article may incorporate text from a large language model . 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The reason given is: This 2024 "split" that appears to also introduce AI summaries, with usual WP:AISIGNS of promotional tone, vocab distribution, etc. See talk page for more info ( January 2026 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Batman Cover of the DC Comics Absolute Edition of Batman: Hush (2011) Art by Jim Lee Publication information Publisher DC Comics First appearance Detective Comics #27 ( cover-dated May 1939; published March 30, 1939) [ 1 ] Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] Bob Kane Bill Finger [ a ] In-story information Alter ego Bruce Wayne Place of origin Gotham City Team affiliations Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Justice League Bat-Family Outsiders Wayne Enterprises Partnerships Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Robin (various) Batgirl (various) Alfred Pennyworth James Gordon Superman Wonder Woman Catwoman Notable aliases Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Dark Knight Caped Crusader Matches Malone World's Greatest Detective Abilities Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Genius -level intellect Expert detective Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Master tactician, strategist and field commander Proficient in using high-tech equipment and weapons Batman [ b ] is a superhero who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics . Batman was created by writer Bill Finger and artist Bob Kane , and debuted in the 27th issue of the comic book Detective Comics on March 30, 1939. In the DC Universe , Batman is the alias of Bruce Wayne , a wealthy American playboy , philanthropist , and industrialist who resides in the fictional Gotham City . His origin story features him swearing vengeance against criminals after witnessing the murder of his parents, Thomas and Martha , as a child, a vendetta tempered by the ideal of justice . He trains himself physically and intellectually, crafts a bat-inspired persona , and monitors the Gotham streets at night. Kane, Finger, and other creators accompanied Batman with supporting characters , including his sidekicks Robin and Batgirl ; allies Alfred Pennyworth and James Gordon ; love interest and occasional adversary Catwoman ; as well as foes such as the Penguin , the Riddler , Two-Face , and his archenemy , the Joker . Kane conceived Batman in early 1939 to capitalize on the popularity of Superman ; although Kane frequently claimed sole creation credit, Finger substantially developed the concept from a generic superhero into something more bat -like. They drew inspiration from pulp fiction characters like the Shadow , Sherlock Holmes , and the Green Hornet . Batman received a spin-off publication, Batman , in 1940. Kane and Finger introduced Batman as a ruthless vigilante who frequently killed or maimed criminals, but he evolved into a just, tempered superhero with a stringent moral code that prohibits killing during the 1940s. Unlike most superheroes, Batman does not possess any superpowers , instead relying on his intellect, fighting skills, and wealth. The 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic, which continued to be associated with Batman for years after it ended. Various creators worked to return Batman to his darker roots in the 1970s and 1980s, culminating with the 1986 miniseries The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller . DC has featured Batman in many comic books , including comics published under its imprints such as Vertigo and Black Label ; he has been considered DC's flagship character [ 4 ] [ 5 ] since the 1990s. The longest-running Batman comic, Detective Comics , is the longest-running comic book in the United States. Batman is frequently depicted alongside other DC superheroes, such as Superman and Wonder Woman , as a member of organizations such as the Justice League and the Outsiders . In addition to Bruce Wayne, other characters used the Batman persona, such as Jean-Paul Valley / Azrael in the 1993–1994 " Knightfall " story arc; Dick Grayson , the first Robin, from 2009 to 2011; and Jace Fox , the son of Wayne's ally Lucius , since 2021. [ 6 ] DC has also published comics featuring alternate versions of Batman, including the incarnation seen in The Dark Knight Returns and its successors, the incarnation from the Flashpoint (2011) event, and numerous interpretations in comics published under the Elseworlds label. Batman is one of the most iconic characters in popular culture and has been listed among the greatest comic book superheroes and characters ever created. He is one of the most commercially successful superheroes, the second best-selling comic book series in history with 460 million copies sold worldwide, [ 7 ] and his likeness has been licensed and featured in various media and merchandise sold around the world; this includes toy lines such as Lego Batman and video games such as the Batman: Arkham series. Batman has been adapted in many live-action and animated television series and films. Adam West portrayed him in the 1960s Batman television series, and he has been portrayed in films by Michael Keaton , Val Kilmer , George Clooney , Christian Bale , Ben Affleck , and Robert Pattinson . Many actors, most prolifically Kevin Conroy , have provided Batman's voice in animation and video games. In September 2024, Batman was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , being the first superhero to receive the honor. Publication history Creation and early history In early 1939, following the success of Superman , DC Comics ' editors requested more superheroes. [ 8 ] Bob Kane created Batman, initially drawing a character with red tights, bat wings, and a domino mask. Bill Finger , a collaborator, made significant contributions by suggesting a cowl, cape, gloves, and a darker costume. [ 9 ] The character's alter ego, Bruce Wayne, was inspired by historical figures Robert the Bruce and Mad Anthony Wayne . [ 10 ] Batman's early adventures drew inspiration from contemporary pulp fiction and characters like Zorro and the Shadow, establishing Batman as a master detective with a dark, brooding persona driven by the murder of his parents. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Golden, Silver and Bronze Ages Batman debuted in Detective Comics #27 in 1939. Early stories were dark, featuring a Batman who did not shy away from killing. The character quickly became popular, leading to his own solo title in 1940. Robin, Batman's sidekick, was introduced in 1940, lightening the tone and boosting sales. Over the next few years, Batman's rogues' gallery expanded with iconic villains like the Joker and Catwoman. The 1950s saw Batman in lighter, science fiction-influenced stories. However, declining sales led to a 1964 revamp by editor Julius Schwartz, who returned Batman to his detective roots and updated his appearance. The 1966 Batman TV series introduced a campy, humorous tone, which was reflected in the comics until its cancellation in 1968. In the 1970s, writers Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams restored Batman's dark, gritty nature, a trend that continued despite fluctuating sales. Modern Age and reboots In the Modern Age of Comic Books Batman comics have undergone significant transformations, reflecting changing storytelling trends and audience interests. Beginning with seminal works like The Dark Knight Returns in the 1980s, [ 13 ] which reintroduced Batman in a grittier, more mature context, the character's narrative evolved to explore deeper themes and darker tones. [ 14 ] This period also saw the exploration of Batman's origins and psyche through works like Batman: Year One , [ 14 ] [ 15 ] and Batman: The Killing Joke , which delved into the complexities of heroism and villainy. [ 16 ] In the 1990s, storylines such as " Knightfall " introduced new adversaries like Bane, who physically and mentally challenged Batman, leading to a temporary replacement by Jean-Paul Valley. The aftermath of an earthquake in "No Man's Land" depicted Gotham City in chaos, further pushing Batman to new limits of heroism and survival. [ 17 ] Entering the 21st century, Grant Morrison 's influential run introduced Damian Wayne as Batman's son and heir, bringing familial dynamics and a new generation of challenges to the forefront. Morrison's storytelling also delved into surreal and existential themes, such as in Batman R.I.P. and Final Crisis , which tested Batman's resolve and sanity against cosmic threats and personal demons. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] The New 52 reboot in 2011 refreshed Batman's continuity while preserving core elements of his character. This era introduced modern interpretations of classic storylines, like Night of the Owls , where Batman confronts the Court of Owls, a clandestine society controlling Gotham for centuries. The chilling return of the Joker in "Death of the Family" explored the intricate relationships within Batman's extended family of allies and adversaries. More recent developments under DC Rebirth and Infinite Frontier have continued to evolve Batman's universe, exploring new characters like Gotham and Gotham Girl , and tackling contemporary issues within the context of Gotham City's ever-evolving landscape of crime and heroism. [ 20 ] Characterization Bruce Wayne Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy American industrialist. As a child, Bruce witnessed the murder of his parents, Dr. Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne , which ultimately led him to craft the Batman persona and seek justice against criminals. He resides on the outskirts of Gotham City in his personal residence, Wayne Manor . Wayne averts suspicion by acting the part of a superficial playboy idly living off his family's fortune and the profits of Wayne Enterprises , his inherited conglomerate. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] He supports philanthropic causes through his nonprofit Wayne Foundation, which in part addresses social issues encouraging crime as well as assisting victims of it, but is more widely known as a celebrity socialite. [ 23 ] In public, he frequently appears in the company of high-status women, which encourages tabloid gossip. He feigns near-drunkenness by consuming large quantities of disguised ginger ale , though he is a teetotalor to maintain his physical and mental prowess. [ 24 ] Although Bruce Wayne leads an active romantic life, his vigilante activities as Batman account for most of his time. [ 25 ] While Bruce Wayne is never depicted as being especially religious, he is ethnically Jewish on his mother's side; [ 26 ] [ 27 ] his maternal cousin Batwoman (Kate Kane) is practising. His father, Thomas , raised Bruce as a Christian, but as an adult he doesn't follow any religion. [ 26 ] [ 28 ] Various modern stories have portrayed the extravagant, playboy image of Bruce Wayne as a facade. [ 29 ] This is in contrast to the Post- Crisis Superman, whose Clark Kent persona is the true identity, while the Superman persona is the facade. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In Batman Unmasked , a television documentary about the psychology of the character, behavioral scientist Benjamin Karney notes that Batman's personality is driven by Bruce Wayne's inherent humanity; that "Batman, for all its benefits and for all of the time Bruce Wayne devotes to it, is ultimately a tool for Bruce Wayne's efforts to make the world better". Bruce Wayne's principles include the desire to prevent future harm and a vow not to kill. Bruce Wayne believes that our actions define us, we fail for a reason, and anything is possible. [ 32 ] Writers of Batman and Superman stories have often compared and contrasted the two. Interpretations vary depending on the writer, the story, and the timing. Grant Morrison [ 33 ] notes that both heroes "believe in the same kind of things" despite the day/night contrast their heroic roles display. Morrison notes an equally stark contrast in their real identities. Bruce Wayne and Clark Kent belong to different social classes: "Bruce has a butler, Clark has a boss." T. James Musler's book Unleashing the Superhero in Us All explores the extent to which Bruce Wayne's vast personal wealth is important in his life story, and the crucial role it plays in his efforts as Batman. [ 34 ] Will Brooker notes in his book Batman Unmasked that "the confirmation of the Batman's identity lies with the young audience ...he doesn't have to be Bruce Wayne; he just needs the suit and gadgets, the abilities, and most importantly the morality, the humanity. There's just a sense about him: 'they trust him ...and they're never wrong." [ 35 ] Personality Batman's primary character traits can be summarized as "wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession" . [ 36 ] The details and tone of Batman comic books have varied over the years with different creative teams. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: " Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not want to coordinate their efforts, nor were they asked to do so. Continuity was not important in those days." [ 37 ] The driving force behind Bruce Wayne's character is his parents' murder and their absence. Bob Kane and Bill Finger discussed Batman's background and decided that "there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes". [ 38 ] Despite his trauma, he sets his mind on studying to become a scientist [ 39 ] [ 40 ] and to train his body into physical perfection [ 39 ] [ 40 ] to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman, an inspired idea from Wayne's insight into the criminal mind. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] He also speaks over 40 languages. [ 41 ] Another of Batman's characterizations is that of a vigilante; in order to stop evil that started with the death of his parents, he must sometimes break the law himself. Although manifested differently by being re-told by different artists, it is nevertheless that the details and the prime components of Batman's origin have never varied at all in the comic books, the "reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions". [ 42 ] The origin is the source of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures. [ 36 ] Batman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as "a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order". [ 43 ] Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime-fighting, [ 44 ] a fear that originates from the criminals' own guilty conscience . [ 45 ] Miller is often credited with reintroducing anti-heroic traits into Batman's characterization, [ 46 ] such as his brooding personality, willingness to use violence and torture, and increasingly alienated behavior. Batman, shortly a year after his debut and the introduction of Robin, was changed in 1940 after DC editor Whitney Ellsworth felt the character would be tainted by his lethal methods and DC established their own ethical code, subsequently he was retconned to have a stringent moral code, [ 47 ] [ 48 ] which has stayed with the character of Batman ever since. Miller's Batman was closer to the original pre-Robin version, who was willing to kill criminals if necessary. [ 49 ] Others On several occasions former Robin Dick Grayson has served as Batman; most notably in 2009 while Wayne was believed dead, and served as a second Batman even after Wayne returned in 2010. [ 50 ] As part of DC's 2011 continuity relaunch , Grayson returned to being Nightwing following the Flashpoint crossover event. In an interview with IGN , Morrison detailed that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin represented a "reverse" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, "a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, badass Robin". Morrison explained their intentions for the new characterization of Batman: "Dick Grayson is kind of this consummate superhero. The guy has been Batman's partner since he was a kid, he's led the Teen Titans , and he's trained with everybody in the DC Universe. So he's a very different kind of Batman. He's a lot easier; He's a lot looser and more relaxed." [ 51 ] Over the years, there have been numerous others to assume the name of Batman, or to officially take over for Bruce during his leaves of absence. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael , assumed the cowl after the events of the Knightfall saga. [ 50 ] Jim Gordon donned a mecha-suit after the events of Batman: Endgame , and served as Batman in 2015 and 2016. In 2021, as part of the Fear State crossover event, Lucius Fox 's son Jace Fox succeeds Bruce as Batman in a 2021 storyline, depicted in the series I Am Batman , after Batman was declared dead. Additionally, members of the group Batman Incorporated , Bruce Wayne's experiment at franchising his brand of vigilantism, have at times stood in as the official Batman in cities around the world. [ 50 ] Various others have also taken up the role of Batman in stories set in alternative universes and possible futures, including, among them, various former proteges of Bruce Wayne. Supporting characters Batman's interactions with both villains and cohorts have, over time, developed a strong supporting cast of characters. [ 36 ] Enemies Batman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish supervillains. Many of them mirror aspects of the Batman's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. [ 52 ] These foes are commonly referred to as Batman's rogues gallery . Batman's "most implacable foe" is the Joker , a homicidal maniac with a clown-like appearance. The Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary, since he is the antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance; the Joker has a maniacal demeanor with a colorful appearance, while Batman has a serious and resolute demeanor with a dark appearance. As a "personification of the irrational", the Joker represents "everything Batman [opposes]". [ 53 ] Other long-time recurring foes that are part of Batman's rogues gallery include Catwoman (a cat burglar anti-heroine who is variously an ally and romantic interest), the Penguin , Ra's al Ghul , Two-Face (Harvey Dent), the Riddler , the Scarecrow , Mr. Freeze , Poison Ivy , Harley Quinn , Bane , Clayface , and Killer Croc , among others. Many of Batman's adversaries are often psychiatric patients at Arkham Asylum . Allies Alfred Pennyworth , Batman's loyal butler and father figure, first appeared in Batman #16 (1943). After Bruce Wayne's parents were killed, Alfred raised Bruce and became one of the few people to know his secret identity. He is often portrayed as a steadying presence in Bruce's life, offering both emotional support and practical assistance in Batman's crime-fighting endeavors. More than just a caretaker, Alfred is a trusted ally and sometimes sidekick, sharing Wayne Manor with Bruce and contributing to Batman's mission. [ 52 ] One of Batman's most crucial allies is Commissioner James Gordon . Their relationship is built on mutual respect and a shared commitment to justice in Gotham City. In Batman: Year One , Gordon and Batman learn to trust each other, which transforms their efforts against crime into a more effective partnership. Gordon's perspective as a police officer complements Batman's vigilantism, allowing them to tackle Gotham's challenges together. Another important ally is the Justice League , which further emphasizes the importance of collaboration. Batman's relationship with Superman showcases how their contrasting ideologies can complement each other. In stories like World's Finest , their friendship highlights how Batman's methods benefit from Superman's optimism and strength. [ 54 ] Sidekicks Robin, Batman's vigilante partner, has been a widely recognized supporting character for many years; each iteration of the Robin character, of which there have been five in the mainstream continuity, function as members of the Batman family, but additionally, as Batman's "central" sidekick in various media. [ 55 ] Bill Finger stated that he wanted to include Robin because "Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking." [ 56 ] The first Robin, Dick Grayson , was introduced in 1940. In the 1970s he finally grew up, went off to college and became the hero Nightwing . A second Robin, Jason Todd was introduced in the 1980s, following Dick Grayson's departure from the role. Initially impulsive and rebellious, Jason's tenure as Robin was controversial among fans. In 1988, DC held a fan vote to determine his fate in the iconic A Death in the Family storyline, where the Joker brutally beat Jason with a crowbar and left him to die in an explosion. The fans voted for his death. However, Jason was later resurrected and returned as the antihero Red Hood . [ 57 ] The third Robin in the mainstream comics is Tim Drake , who first appeared in 1989. He went on to star in his own comic series, and goes by the name Red Robin , a variation on the traditional Robin persona. In the first decade of the new millennium, Stephanie Brown served as the fourth in-universe Robin between stints as her self-made vigilante identity the Spoiler, and later as Batgirl . [ 58 ] After Brown's apparent death, Drake resumed the role of Robin for a time. The role eventually passed to Damian Wayne , the 10-year-old son of Bruce Wayne and Talia al Ghul , in the late 2000s. [ 59 ] Damian's tenure as du jour Robin ended when the character was killed off in the pages of Batman Incorporated in 2013. [ 60 ] Batman's next young sidekick is Harper Row , a streetwise young woman who avoids the name Robin but followed the ornithological theme nonetheless; she debuted the codename and identity of the Bluebird in 2014. Unlike the Robins, the Bluebird is willing and permitted to use a gun, albeit non-lethal ; her weapon of choice is a modified rifle that fires taser rounds. [ 61 ] In 2015, a new series began titled We Are...Robin , focused on a group of teenagers using the Robin persona to fight crime in Gotham City. The most prominent of these, Duke Thomas , later becomes Batman's crimefighting partner as The Signal. [ 62 ] Romantic interests Batman's first love interest was Julie Madison , an actress introduced in Detective Comics #31 (1939), they ultimately got engaged, and later she left him due to his playboy persona. [ 63 ] Following The New 52 DC relaunch, the character was reintroduced as an artist whose father was a gunrunner involved in the death of Bruce's parents. [ 63 ] Catwoman/Selina Kyle debuting in Batman #1 (1940), during the Golden Age of Comics . [ 63 ] She was created in the pre– Comics Code era and portrayed as a "flirtatious and sensual" character to add a layer of sex appeal to Batman. [ 64 ] The two ultimately got engaged during the DC Rebirth relaunch. [ 63 ] Another love interest is intrepid reporter Vicki Vale , who debuted in Batman #49 (1948), and was inspired by Superman ’s love interest, reporter Lois Lane . Vicki frequently tried to prove that Bruce Wayne was Batman, but never succeeded. [ 63 ] This was followed by Linda Page , who debuted in Batman #5 (1941) as a rich socialite turned nurse. [ 63 ] Kathy Kane/Batwoman debuted in Detective Comics #233 (1956) alongside her sister Bette Kane . Kathy was introduced as a love interest for Batman, following allegations of homosexuality between Batman and Robin. [ 63 ] The character was written out in the 1960s and returned in the 1970s to be killed by the League of Assassins . Writer Grant Morrison later brought Kathy back into DC's continuity in Batman, Inc. , as part of his attempts to canonize every Batman story, but she was ultimately killed off again. [ 63 ] Talia al Ghul , introduced in Detective Comics #411 (1971) as the daughter of Batman's enemy Ra's al Ghul . Their love story resulted in the birth of Damian Wayne , who would later become Robin . [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Natalia Knight/Nocturna , debuted in Detective Comics #529 (1983) as the leader of a criminal organization. She became Batman's love interest and later the adopted mother of Jason Todd . Nocturna was later killed by her former lover, Night-Slayer , but returned in subsequent continuity. [ 63 ] Abilities Skills and training Batman has no inherent superhuman powers; he relies on "his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess". [ 66 ] Batman's inexhaustible wealth gives him access to advanced technologies, and as a proficient scientist , he is able to use and modify these technologies to his advantage. In the stories, Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives, if not the world's greatest crime solver. [ 67 ] Batman has been repeatedly described as having a genius-level intellect, being one of the greatest martial artists in the DC Universe, and having peak human physical and mental conditioning. [ 68 ] As a polymath , his knowledge and expertise in countless disciplines is nearly unparalleled by any other character in the DC Universe. He has shown prowess in assorted fields such as mathematics, biology, physics, chemistry, and several levels of engineering. [ 69 ] He has traveled the world acquiring the skills needed to aid him in his endeavors as Batman. In the Superman: Doomed story arc, Superman considers Batman to be one of the most brilliant minds on the planet. [ 70 ] Batman has trained extensively in various fighting styles, making him one of the best hand-to-hand fighters in the DC Universe. He possesses a photographic memory , [ 71 ] and has fully utilized his photographic memory to master a total of 127 forms of martial arts. [ 72 ] In terms of his physical condition, Batman is described as peak human and far beyond an Olympic-athlete-level condition, able to perform feats such as easily running across rooftops in a Parkour -esque fashion, pressing thousands of pounds regularly, and even bench pressing six hundred pounds of soil and coffin in a poisoned and starved state. Superman describes Batman as "the most dangerous man on Earth", able to defeat an entire team of superpowered extraterrestrials by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates in Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA . Batman is strongly disciplined, and he has the ability to function under great physical pain and resist most forms of telepathy and mind control . He is a master of disguise , multilingual, and an expert in espionage , often gathering information under the identity of a notorious gangster named Matches Malone. Batman is highly skilled in stealth movement and escapology , which allows him to appear and disappear at will and to break free of nearly inescapable deathtraps with little to no harm. He is also a master strategist, considered DC's greatest tactician, with numerous plans in preparation for almost any eventuality. Batman is an expert in interrogation techniques and his intimidating and frightening appearance alone is often all that is needed in getting information from suspects. Despite having the potential to harm his enemies, Batman's most defining characteristic is his strong commitment to justice and his reluctance to take a life. This unyielding moral rectitude has earned him the respect of several heroes in the DC Universe, most notably that of Superman and Wonder Woman . Among physical and other crime fighting related training, he is also proficient at other types of skills. Some of these include being a licensed pilot (in order to operate the Batplane ), as well as being able to operate other types of machinery. In some publications, he even underwent some magician training. Technology Batman utilizes a vast arsenal of specialized, high-tech vehicles and gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the "Batgyro" in Detective Comics #31 and 32 (Sept. and October 1939). [ 73 ] Batman's batsuit aids in his combat against enemies, having the properties of both Kevlar and Nomex . It protects him from gunfire and other significant impacts, and incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. [ 74 ] The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various decades, stories, media and artists' interpretations, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face; a pair of bat-like ears; a stylized bat emblem on the chest; and the ever-present utility belt. His gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. [ 75 ] The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, "We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same ...Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it." [ 76 ] Finger and Kane originally conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. [ 74 ] Hence, the costume's colors have appeared in the comics as dark blue and grey; [ 74 ] as well as black and grey. In the Tim Burton 's Batman and Batman Returns films, Batman has been depicted as completely black with a bat in the middle surrounded by a yellow background. Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight Trilogy depicted Batman wearing high-tech gear painted completely black with a black bat in the middle. Ben Affleck 's Batman in the DC Extended Universe films wears a suit grey in color with a black cowl, cape, and bat symbol. Seemingly following the suit of the DC Extended Universe outfit, Robert Pattinson 's uniform in The Batman restores the more traditional gray bodysuit and black appendage design, notably different from prior iterations by mostly utilizing real world armor and apparel pieces from modern military and motorcycle gear. Batman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile , which is usually depicted as an imposing black car, often with tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman also has an aircraft called the Batplane (originally a relatively traditionally, but bat-motifed plane, later seen as the much more unique "Batwing" starting in the 1989 film ), along with various other means of transportation. In proper practice, the "bat" prefix (as in Batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. For example, the 1960s television show depicted a Batboat, Bat-Sub , and Batcycle, among other bat-themed vehicles. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such "bat-" names as the Bat-computer, Bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat- shark repellent bat-spray, and Bat-rope. The storyline "A Death in the Family" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the "bat" prefix on his own. In The Dark Knight Returns , Batman tells Carrie Kelley that the original Robin came up with the name "Batmobile" when he was young, since that is what a kid would call Batman's vehicle. The Batmobile, which was before frequently depicted to resemble a sports car , was redesigned in 2011 when DC Comics relaunched its entire line of comic books, with the Batmobile being given heavier armor and new aesthetics. Batman keeps most of his field equipment in his utility belt . Over the years it has shown to contain an assortment of crime-fighting tools, weapons, and investigative and technological instruments. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in compartments, often as pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Since the 1989 film , Batman is often depicted as carrying a projectile which shoots a retractable grappling hook attached to a cable (before this, a he employed a traditionally thrown grappling hook.) This allows him to attach to distant objects, be propelled into the air, and thus swing from the rooftops of Gotham City. An exception to the range of Batman's equipment are hand guns , which he refuses to use on principle, since a gun was used in his parents' murder. In modern stories in terms of his vehicles, Batman compromises on that principle to install weapon systems on them for the purpose of non-lethally disabling other vehicles, forcing entry into locations and attacking dangerous targets too large to defeat by other means. When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-Signal, which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium. In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series , Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor , specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave. The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor . As his command center, the Batcave serves multiple purposes; supercomputer, surveillance, redundant power-generators, forensics lab, medical infirmary, private study, training dojo, fabrication workshop, arsenal, hangar and garage. It houses the vehicles and equipment Batman uses in his campaign to fight crime. It is also a trophy room and storage facility for Batman's unique memorabilia collected over the years from various cases he has worked on. In both the comic book Batman: Shadow of the Bat #45 and the 2005 film Batman Begins , the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad . Fictional character biography Batman's history has undergone many retroactive continuity revisions, both minor and major. Elements of the character's history have varied greatly. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, "Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades." [ 77 ] 20th century Origin The central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story . [ 36 ] As a young boy, Bruce Wayne was horrified and traumatized when he watched his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha , murdered with a gun by a mugger named Joe Chill . Batman refuses to utilize any sort of gun on the principle that a gun was used to murder his parents. This event drove him to train his body to its peak condition and fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, "Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number", [ 36 ] a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. [ 78 ] Golden Age In Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime-fighter. [ 79 ] Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 (November 1939) and is later expanded upon in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor , and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of 8, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. That night, Bruce Wayne swears an oath to spend his life fighting crime. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. "Criminals are a superstitious cowardly lot", Wayne remarks, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible ..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to craft the Batman persona. [ 80 ] In early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period, Bruce Wayne has a fiancé named Julie Madison . [ 81 ] In Detective Comics #38, Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson , who becomes his vigilante partner, Robin . Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America , [ 82 ] although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, [ 83 ] and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department . [ 84 ] During this time, Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities, joins their service as their butler. [ 85 ] Silver Age The Silver Age of Comic Books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of the Flash . Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One . The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature many science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series. After the introduction of DC Comics' Multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman , a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman (Selina Kyle). The two have a daughter, Helena Wayne , who becomes the Huntress. She assumes the position as Gotham's protector along with Dick Grayson, the Earth-Two Robin , once Bruce Wayne retires to become police commissioner. Wayne holds the position of police commissioner until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles, however, often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike the Flash or Green Lantern , Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would occasionally make reference to stories from the Golden Age. [ 86 ] Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208 (February 1969)) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] In 1980, then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman miniseries to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history. Batman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics , starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. As a founding member of the Justice League of America, Batman appears in its first story, in 1960's The Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, The Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month. Bronze Age In 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. In 1974's "Night of the Stalker" storyline, a diploma on the wall reveals Bruce Wayne as a graduate of Yale Law School . [ 89 ] Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath , and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul , a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing . [ 90 ] In the final issue of The Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders . He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title. Modern Age After the 12-issue miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths , DC Comics retconned the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline " Year One " from Batman #404–407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. [ 91 ] Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post- Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. The guardian Phillip Wayne is removed, leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred Pennyworth. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis , DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the "Year One" period. [ 92 ] Subsequently, Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crimefighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd . Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. [ 93 ] Many of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been intertitle crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published " Knightfall ". During the storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of "Knightfall", the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in "KnightsEnd", as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains for a return to the role. [ 94 ] The 1994 company-wide crossover storyline Zero Hour: Crisis in Time! changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now consider Batman an urban legend rather than a known force. Batman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA . During this time, Gotham City faces catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's " Cataclysm " storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's " No Man's Land ". Meanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of "Batman: Officer Down" and "Batman: War Games/War Crimes"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in "Officer Down", while "War Games" and "War Crimes" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contingency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting in a massive gang war that ends with Black Mask becoming the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Lex Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper Fairchild (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the "Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" and " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new bodyguard Sasha Bordeaux , who is recruited into the organization Checkmate while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn state's evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia al Ghul in Superman/Batman #1–6. 21st century 2000s DC Comics' 2005 miniseries Identity Crisis reveals that JLA member Zatanna had edited Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the Justice League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he raped Sue Dibny . Batman later creates the satellite surveillance system Brother Eye to watch over and, if necessary, kill the other heroes after he remembered. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle 's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs , though, at the very end, Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. seriously wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger. Following Infinite Crisis , Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to "rebuild Batman". [ 95 ] In the Face the Face storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. [ 96 ] Later on in 52 , Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat . This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman is reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having "hunted down and ate" the last traces of fear in his mind. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] At the end of the "Face the Face" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. [ 99 ] The follow-up story arc in Batman , Batman and Son , introduces Damian Wayne , who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul . Although originally, in Batman: Son of the Demon , Bruce's coupling with Talia was implied to be consensual, this arc retconned it into Talia forcing herself on Bruce. [ 100 ] Batman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, [ 101 ] and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders . [ 102 ] Grant Morrison 's 2008 storyline, " Batman R.I.P. " featured Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic villain Doctor Hurt and attracted news coverage in advance of its highly promoted conclusion, which would speculated to feature the death of Bruce Wayne. [ 103 ] However, though Batman is shown to possibly perish at the end of the arc, the two-issue arc "Last Rites", which leads into the crossover storyline " Final Crisis ", shows that Batman survives his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and returns to the Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate the New God Orion 's death. The story ends with Batman retrieving the god-killing bullet used to kill Orion, setting up its use in "Final Crisis". [ 104 ] In the pages of Final Crisis Batman is reduced to a charred skeleton. [ 105 ] In Final Crisis #7, Wayne is shown witnessing the death of the first man, Anthro . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] Wayne's "death" sets up the three-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries in which Wayne's ex-proteges compete for the "right" to assume the role of Batman, which concludes with Grayson becoming Batman, [ 108 ] while Tim Drake takes on the identity of the Red Robin . [ 109 ] Dick and Damian continue as Batman and Robin, and in the crossover storyline " Blackest Night ", what appears to be Wayne's corpse is reanimated as a Black Lantern zombie , [ 110 ] but is later shown that the corpse is one of Darkseid's failed Batman clones. Dick and Batman's other friends conclude that Bruce is alive. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] 2010s Bruce subsequently returned in Morrison's miniseries Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne , which depicted his travels through time from prehistory to present-day Gotham. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] Bruce's return set up Batman Incorporated , an ongoing series which focused on Wayne franchising the Batman identity across the globe, allowing Dick and Damian to continue as Gotham's Dynamic Duo. Bruce publicly announced that Wayne Enterprises will aid Batman on his mission, known as "Batman, Incorporated". However, due to rebooted continuity that occurred as part of DC Comics' 2011 relaunch of all of its comic books, The New 52 , Dick Grayson was restored as Nightwing with Wayne serving as the sole Batman once again. The relaunch also interrupted the publication of Batman, Incorporated , which resumed its story in 2012–2013 with changes to suit the new status quo. The New 52 During The New 52 , all of DC's continuity was reset and the timeline was changed, making Batman the first superhero to emerge. This emergence took place during Zero Year , where Bruce Wayne returns to Gotham and becomes Batman, fighting the original Red Hood [ 116 ] and the Riddler. [ 117 ] In the present day, Batman discovers the Court of Owls , a secret organization operating in Gotham for decades. [ 118 ] Batman somewhat defeats the Court by defeating Owlman, [ 119 ] although the Court continues to operate on a smaller scale. [ 120 ] The Joker returns after losing the skin on his face (as shown in the opening issue of the second volume of Detective Comics ) and attempts to kill the Batman's allies, though he is stopped by Batman. [ 121 ] After some time, Joker returns again, and both he and Batman die while fighting each other. Jim Gordon temporarily becomes Batman, using a high-tech suit, while it is revealed that an amnesiac Bruce Wayne is still alive. [ citation needed ] Gordon attempts to fight a new villain called Mr. Bloom , while Wayne, regains his memories with the help of Alfred Pennyworth and Julie Madison . Once with his memories, Wayne becomes Batman again and defeats Bloom with the help of Gordon. [ citation needed ] DC Rebirth The timeline was reset again during Rebirth , although no significant changes were made to the Batman mythos. [ citation needed ] Batman meets two new superheroes operating in Gotham named Gotham and Gotham Girl. Psycho-Pirate gets into Gotham's head and turns against Batman, and is finally defeated when he is killed. This event is very traumatic for Gotham Girl and she begins to lose her sanity. [ 122 ] Batman forms his own Suicide Squad , including Catwoman, and attempts to take down Bane . The mission is successful, and Batman breaks Bane's back. [ 123 ] Batman proposes to Catwoman. After healing from his wounds, an angry Bane travels to Gotham, where he fights Batman and loses. [ 124 ] Batman then tells Catwoman about the War of Jokes and Riddles, and she agrees to marry him. [ 125 ] Bane takes control of Arkham Asylum and manipulates Catwoman into leaving Wayne before the wedding. [ 126 ] This causes Wayne to become very angry, and, as Batman, lashes out against criminals, nearly killing Mr. Freeze. [ 127 ] Batman learns of Bane's control over Arkham and teams up with the Penguin to stop him. [ 128 ] Bane captures Batman, and Scarecrow causes him to hallucinate, although he eventually breaks free. [ 129 ] Batman escapes and reunites with Catwoman, while Bane captures and kills Alfred Pennyworth. Batman returns and defeats Bane, although too late to save Alfred. Gotham Girl prompts him to marry Catwoman. [ 130 ] It is revealed that the Joker who was working for Bane was Clayface in disguise. The real Joker has been plotting a master plan to take over Gotham. This plan comes to fruition during The Joker War , in which Joker takes over the city. Batman defeats the Joker who vanishes after an explosion. [ 131 ] Ghost-Maker , an enemy from Batman's past, appears in Gotham, and, after a battle, becomes a sort of ally to Batman. [ 132 ] A new group called the Magistrate rises up in Gotham, led by Simon Saint, whose goal is to outlaw vigilantes such as Batman. At the same time, Scarecrow returns, [ 133 ] fighting Batman. During Fear State , Batman battles and defeats both Scarecrow and the Magistrate's Peacekeepers. Other versions The character of Batman has been portrayed in numerous alternative versions across various media since his debut in 1939. These adaptations explore different facets and interpretations of the character. In Smallville , Bruce Wayne adopts the Batman persona in 2001, later teaming up with Superman and other superheroes. [ 134 ] Frank Miller 's influential series, " The Dark Knight Returns ", reimagines Batman as an older, more hardened vigilante, coming out of retirement to fight crime in a dystopian future. [ 135 ] In the Injustice: Gods Among Us universe, Batman leads a resistance against a tyrannical Superman who has taken control of Earth. The DC Bombshells series sets Batman in a World War II -era context, with Bruce Wayne taking inspiration from Batwoman to become the masked hero. The "Dark Multiverse" introduces various twisted versions of Batman, such as The Batman Who Laughs , a hybrid of Batman and the Joker, and Red Death, a fusion of Batman and the Flash. Other notable reimaginings include JLA/Avengers , where Batman appears in a crossover with Marvel's Avengers ; Stan Lee 's Just Imagine , which offers a completely different origin for Batman; and "Kingdom Come", where an older Batman operates in a dystopian future alongside other aged superheroes. In "Superman: American Alien", Bruce Wayne's journey is retold with significant differences, and "Batman: White Knight" explores a reality where the Joker is cured of his insanity and seeks to expose Batman as the true villain of Gotham. These various adaptations and reinterpretations highlight the versatility and enduring appeal of Batman as a character, allowing for a rich exploration of his mythology across different narratives and settings. In popular culture Batman has ascended to the status of a global pop culture phenomenon, transcending his origins in comic books. His influence expanded notably with the release of the 1989 film, which propelled him to the forefront of public consciousness through widespread merchandising. The Guardian describes Batman as emblematic of the constant reinvention characteristic of modern mass culture, embodying both iconic status and commercial appeal, making him a quintessential cultural artifact of the 21st century. [ 136 ] Media appearances Apart from comics, Batman's presence spans various mediums, including newspapers, radio dramas, television, stage, and film. From the 1940s serials to contemporary TV shows like Gotham and Titans , Batman's legacy endures. Celebrating the character's 75th anniversary, Warner Bros released Batman: Strange Days , showcasing his timeless appeal. [ 137 ] In September 2024, Batman become the first superhero to be given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It was the 2,790th star. [ 138 ] Criticism Batman has been criticized by fans for the extreme changes in tone and style between different iterations of the character in the franchise. [ 139 ] Different interpretations Gay interpretations of Batman have been studied academically since psychologist Fredric Wertham 's claims in 1954. [ 140 ] Andy Medhurst and Will Brooker have explored Batman's appeal to gay audiences and the validity of a queer reading. [ 141 ] Meanwhile, in psychological interpretations, Dr. Travis Langley sees Batman as representing the "shadow archetype", confronting inner darkness to fight evil, according to Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell's theories. Langley's analysis adds depth to Batman's psychological complexity. [ 142 ] Notes ^ Finger was not credited in official materials until 2015. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] ^ Sometimes referred to as "the Batman" and originally stylized as The Bat-Man References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Zalben, Alex (March 28, 2014). 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"Notes from the Batcave: An Interview with Dennis O'Neil" p. 23. ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 31 ^ a b c Detective Comics #33 (November 1939), Bill Finger, Bob Kane ^ a b c Batman #1 (spring 1940), Bill Finger, Bob Kane ^ Lewis, Andrew (January 3, 2017). "Batman: 15 Things You Didn't Know About Bruce Wayne" . ScreenRant . Archived from the original on May 13, 2019 . Retrieved May 13, 2019 . ^ Pearson & Uricchio (1991) , p. 194 ^ Sharrett, Christopher. "Batman and the Twilight of the Idols: An Interview with Frank Miller". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 44. ^ Pearson, p. 208. ^ Dennis O'Neil, Wizard Batman Special 1998 ^ Terrence R. Wandtke. The Amazing Transforming Superhero!: Essays on the Revision of Characters on the Revision of Characters in Comic Books, Film and Television . p. 91. ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 42 ^ Kane, Bob (1989). Batman & Me: An Autobiography . Andrae, Tom. Forestville, CA: Eclipse Books. p. 45. ISBN 1-56060-017-9 . OCLC 21114759 . ^ Alex S. Romagnoli; Gian S. Pagnucci. Enter the Superheroes: American Values, Culture, and the Canon of Superhero Literature . p. 27. ^ a b c "2000s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle . Dorling Kindersley . 2010. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9 . ^ Phillips, Dan (August 8, 2009). "Grant Morrison's New Batman and Robin" . IGN . Archived from the original on June 9, 2012 . Retrieved August 8, 2009 . ^ a b Boichel (1991) , p. 8. ^ Boichel (1991) , p. 9. ^ Kurten, Guillermo (January 14, 2024). "Does Batman Work Better Alongside His Allies Or Alone?" . CBR . Retrieved October 21, 2024 . ^ Boichel (1991) , p. 7. ^ Langley, Travis (2012). Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons. p. 179. ^ Mills, Taylor (July 16, 2024). "After 36 Years, DC Squeezes the Last Drop of Trauma from Jason Todd's Iconic Death" . ScreenRant . Retrieved October 21, 2024 . ^ Langley, 180–210 ^ Esposito, Joey (March 5, 2013). "Why Damian Wayne is the Best Robin" . IGN . Archived from the original on March 1, 2014 . Retrieved February 17, 2014 . ^ Saul, Josh (February 25, 2013). "DC killing off Batman's 'Boy Wonder' Damian Wayne in new comic book" . The New York Post . Archived from the original on April 29, 2014 . Retrieved February 17, 2014 . ^ Franich, Darren (February 12, 2014). "Batman has a new female sidekick: Meet Bluebird" . Entertainment Weekly Popwatch. Archived from the original on February 22, 2014 . Retrieved February 17, 2014 . ^ Truitt, Brian. " 'We Are Robin' stars a movement of kid heroes" . USA TODAY . Retrieved October 21, 2024 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Allan, Scoot; Harth, David (December 1, 2020). "Batman: All of Bruce Wayne's major love interests (in chronological order)" . CBR . Retrieved June 10, 2024 . ^ Downey, Meg (June 7, 2017). "Batman Loves Catwoman: The Complicated Romance Of The Bat & The Cat" . CBR . Retrieved January 6, 2026 . ^ Stone, Sam (January 28, 2021). "Damian Wayne's Mother is a Major Player in Robin's New Series" . CBR . Retrieved January 6, 2026 . ^ Wright, p. 17. ^ Mike Conray, 500 Great Comicbook Action Heroes . 2002, Collins & Brown. ISBN 978-1-84411-004-9 ^ Greenberger, Robert (2008). The Essential Batman Encyclopedia . Del Rey Books. ISBN 978-0-345-50106-6 . ^ Grant Morrison ( w ), Howard Porter ( p ). "War of the Worlds" JLA , no. 3 (March 1997). DC Comics. ^ Scott Lobdell ( w ), Ed Benes and Jack Herbert ( p ). "Superman: Doomed" Superman , no. 31 (July 2014). DC Comics. ^ Collins, Hannah (July 12, 2017). "Case Closed: 15 Detectives Who Could Out-Sleuth Batman" . CBR . Archived from the original on July 15, 2017 . Retrieved April 11, 2024 . ^ Wood, Robert (October 30, 2017). "What Skills Does Batman Have?" . Building the Bat . Archived from the original on March 16, 2019 . Retrieved September 10, 2019 . ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 29 ^ a b c Daniels (1999) [ page needed ] ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 98 ^ Daniels (1999) , pp. 159–60 ^ Batman vol. 3 Annual #2 (January 2018) ^ Pearson, p. 191. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Bob Kane ( p ). "The Case of the Chemical Syndicate" Detective Comics , no. 27 (May 1939). DC Comics. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Bob Kane ( p ). "The Batman Wars Against the Dirigible of Doom" Detective Comics , no. 33 (November 1939). DC Comics. ^ She first appears in Detective Comics #31 (September 1939) ^ Paul Levitz ( w ), Joe Staton ( p ). "The Untold Origin of the Justice Society" DC Special , no. 29 (September 1977). DC Comics. ^ Gardner Fox ( w ). All Star Comics , no. 3 (Winter 1940/1941). DC Comics. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Bob Kane ( p ). "The People vs. the Batman" Batman , vol. 1, no. 7 (November 1941). DC Comics. ^ Batman #16 (May 1943); his original last name, Beagle, is revealed in Detective Comics #96 (February 1945) ^ One example is the Englehart/Rogers run of the late 1970s, which has editorial notes directing readers to issues such as Detective Comics #46 and Batman #1 and 59. ^ Bill Finger ( w ), Sheldon Moldoff ( p ). "The First Batman" Detective Comics , no. 235 (September 1956). DC Comics. ^ Edmond Hamilton ( w ), Dick Sprang ( p ). "When Batman Was Robin" Detective Comics , no. 226 (December 1955). DC Comics. ^ "Why Batman went to Yale" . yalealumnimagazine.com . Archived from the original on February 13, 2022 . Retrieved August 15, 2020 . ^ Beatty, Scott (2008). "Batman". In Dougall, Alastair (ed.). The DC Comics Encyclopedia . London: Dorling Kindersley . pp. 40– 44. ISBN 978-0-7566-4119-1 . ^ Miller, Frank ; David Mazzucchelli ; Richmond Lewis (1987). Batman: Year One . DC Comics. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-85286-077-6 . ^ Matchett, Glenn (September 4, 2015). "Frank Miller's Batman Part One: YEAR ONE, or How Legends are Made" . ComicsVerse . Archived from the original on October 8, 2019 . Retrieved May 30, 2018 . ^ Alan Grant ( w ), Norm Breyfogle ( p ). "Master of Fear" Batman , no. 457 (December 1990). DC Comics. ^ Dixon, Chuck. et al. "Batman: Prodigal". Batman #512–514, Batman: Shadow of the Bat #32–34, Detective Comics #679–681, Robin vol. 4 #11–13. New York: DC Comics, 1995. ^ Infinite Crisis #7, p. 32 ^ 52 #30 ^ Batman #673 ^ Batman #681 ^ James Robinson ( w ), Don Kramer ( p ). "Face the Face – Conclusion" Batman , no. 654 (August 2006). DC Comics. ^ Batman #656 (October 2006): Bruce: "I remember being drugged senseless and refusing to co-operate in some depraved eugenics experiment." Talia: "Believe me, you cooperated ...magnificently." ^ Brad Meltzer ( w ), Ed Benes ( p ). "The Tornado's Path" Justice League of America vol. 2 , no. 1 (August 2006). DC Comics. ^ Chuck Dixon ( w ), Julian Lopex ( p ). Batman and the Outsiders vol. 2 , no. 1 (November 2007). DC Comics. ^ Adams, Guy (November 28, 2008). "Holy smoke, Batman! Are you dead?" . The Independent . Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. ^ Newsarama: "Batman R.I.P. – Finally?" January 15, 2009 ^ Grant Morrison ( w ), J. G. Jones ( p ). "How to Murder the Earth" Final Crisis , no. 6 (January 2009). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Final Crisis , no. 7 (January 2009). DC Comics. ^ "Grant Morrison: Final Crisis Exit Interview, Part 2" . Archived from the original on February 7, 2009 . Retrieved June 7, 2009 . ^ Tony Daniel ( w ). Battle for the Cowl , no. 3 (May 2009). DC Comics. ^ Chris Yost ( w ). Red Robin , no. 1 (August 2009). DC Comics. ^ Geoff Johns ( w ). Blackest Night , no. 0 (June 2009). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Batman and Robin , no. 7 (January 2010). DC Comics. ^ Grant Morrison ( w ). Batman and Robin , no. 8 (February 2010). DC Comics. ^ Geddes, John (December 9, 2009). "Grant Morrison on return of original Batman" . USA Today . Archived from the original on December 12, 2009 . Retrieved December 10, 2009 . ^ Segura, Alex (December 9, 2009). "DCU in 2010: The Return of Bruce Wayne hits in April" . DC Comics. Archived from the original on December 13, 2009 . Retrieved December 10, 2009 . ^ "Batman solicitations for May 2010 at DC's The Source" . DC Comics. February 11, 2010. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012 . Retrieved June 17, 2010 . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 4: Zero Year- Secret City . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol 5: Zero Year- Dark City . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 1: The Court of Owls . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 2: The City of Owls . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 10: Epilogue . DC Comics . ^ Snyder, Scott. Batman Vol. 3: Death of the Family . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 1: I Am Gotham . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 2: I Am Suicide . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 3: I Am Bane . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 4: The War of Jokes and Riddles . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 7: The Wedding . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 8: Cold Days . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 9: The Tyrant Wing . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 10: Knightmares . DC Comics . ^ King, Tom. Batman Vol. 13: The City of Bane Part 2 . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 2: The Joker War . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 3: Ghost Stories . DC Comics . ^ Tynion IV, James. Batman Vol. 4: The Cowardly Lot . DC Comics . ^ Smallville: Season 11 #6-9 ^ "Comics Reviews, News, Heroes, Villains, Superheroes & Toys" . IGN . Retrieved June 6, 2024 . ^ Finkelstein, David; Macfarlane, Ross (March 15, 1999). "Batman's big birthday" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on January 14, 2008 . Retrieved June 19, 2007 . ^ Daniels (1999) , p. 50 ^ nrueda (September 26, 2024). "Batman becomes first superhero with star on Hollywood Walk of Fame" . INQUIRER.net USA . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ Glazebrook, Lewis (October 10, 2023). "Why Batman's Most Consistent Movie Complaint Is Actually Great For The DCU's Reboot" . ScreenRant . Retrieved March 25, 2025 . ^ Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent . Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pp. 189–90. For discussion of Wertham's impact see Brooker (2001). ^ Medhurst, Andy. "Batman, Deviance, and Camp." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 , p. 150. ^ Langley, Travis. Batman and Psychology: A Dark and Stormy Knight . John Wiley & Sons; 1st edition, 2012, ISBN 1-118-16765-1 Sources Beatty, Scott (2005). The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual . Quirk Books. ISBN 978-1-59474-023-7 . Boichel, Bill (1991). "Batman: Commodity as Myth". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Daniels, Les (1999). Batman: The Complete History . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-2470-5 . Daniels, Les (1995). DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Bulfinch. ISBN 978-0-8212-2076-4 . Daniels, Les (2003). DC Comics: A Celebration of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes . Billboard Books/Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 978-0-8230-7919-3 . Daniels, Les (April 2004). Batman: The Complete History: The Life and Times of the Dark Knight . Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-4232-7 . Retrieved November 8, 2020 . Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William, eds. (1991). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-85170-276-6 . Wright, Bradford W. (2001). Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America . The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5 . Further reading Jones, Gerard (1995). Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book . Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03657-8 . 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Morrow Ultra-Humanite Vandal Savage Other supervillains Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Amos Fortune Black Hand Blockbuster Brain Storm Circe Count Vertigo David Graves Deadshot Doctor Polaris Doctor Sivana Epoch Funky Flashman Gamemnae General Wade Eiling Gentleman Ghost Gog Hyathis Imperiex Key King Kull Ma'alefa'ak Magog Manchester Black Manga Khan Manhunter Matter Master Maxwell Lord Merlyn Morgaine le Fey Nebula Man OMAC Paragon Per Degaton Ra's al Ghul Rainbow Raider Rama Khan Red King Shaggy Man Siren Solaris Solomon Grundy Sonar Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Aryan Brigade Axis Amerika Black Lantern Corps Brotherhood of Evil Cadre Court of Owls Crime Syndicate of America Darkseid's Elite Demolition Team Dominators Fearsome Five Female Furies H.I.V.E. Injustice League Injustice Society Intergang Kobra League of Assassins Legion of Doom Manhunters Parademons Phantom Zone Villains Rogues Royal Flush Gang Secret Six Secret Society of Super Villains Sinestro Corps White Martians Alternative versions Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Alternate versions of the Justice League Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Extreme Justice Just'a Lotta Animals Justice Guild of America Justice League 3000 Justice League Dark Justice League Elite Justice League Europe Justice League International Justice League Queer Justice League Task Force Justice League United Justice Legion Alpha Justice Lords Super Buddies Super Jrs. Young Justice Others Superman Wonder Woman Superman Wonder Woman In other media DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman DC Extended Universe Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Superman Batman Wonder Woman Flash Aquaman Category Category Articles and topics related to Batman v t e Batman characters Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Category v t e Batman publications and storylines Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category v t e Batman in amusement parks Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category v t e Batgirl Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category v t e Robin Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category v t e The Joker Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category v t e Harley Quinn Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category v t e The Outsiders Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack Category v t e Superman characters Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category v t e Wonder Woman William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Nedor Comics American Crusader American Eagle Black Terror Captain Future Doc Strange Fighting Yank The Ghost Grim Reaper Judy of the Jungle Kara the Jungle Princess Lance Lewis, Space Detective Liberator The Magnet Miss Masque Princess Pantha Pyroman The Scarab The Woman in Red Novelty Press Blue Bolt Dick Cole The Target The Targeteers The Twister Prize Publications Atomic-Man Black Owl Fighting American Green Lama Yank & Doodle Quality Comics Archie O'Toole #711 Black Condor Blackhawk Blue Tracer Bozo the Iron Man Captain Triumph Doll Girl Doll Man Firebrand Human Bomb Invisible Hood The Jester Kid Eternity Lady Luck Madame Fatal Magno Manhunter Merlin the Magician Midnight Miss America Miss Fear Mouthpiece Neon the Unknown Phantom Lady Plastic Man Quicksilver The Ray Red Bee Red Torpedo The Spider Spider Widow Uncle Sam Wildfire Wonder Boy Woozy Winks Timely Comics All-Winners Squad American Ace The Angel Black Marvel Black Widow Claire Voyant Blazing Skull Blonde Phantom Blue Blade Blue Diamond Breeze Barton Bucky Bucky Barnes Captain America Captain Wonder The Challenger Citizen V The Destroyer Dynamic Man Father Time Ferret Fiery Mask The Fin Golden Girl Human Torch Jack Frost Laughing Mask Marvel Boy Mercury Miss America Miss Fury Mister E Namor Namora The Patriot Phantom Reporter Red Raven Rockman Silver Scorpion Sun Girl Super Rabbit Thin Man Thunderer Tim Mulrooney Toro Venus Vision Whizzer Robert Frank Witness Young Allies Misc. American Comics Group Superkatt Anglo-American Publishing Commander Steel Atlas Publications Captain Atom Bell Features The Brain Johnny Canuck Nelvana of the Northern Lights Cardal Publishing Streamline Columbia Comics The Face Skyman David McKay Publications Mandrake the Magician The Phantom DC Thomson The Amazing Mr X Jack Flash Dynamic Publications Dynamic Man Yankee Girl Eastern Color Printing Buck Rogers Hydroman Phantom Magician EC Comics Moon Girl Superduperman Elliot Publishing Company Kismet, Man of Fate Fiction House Fantomah Hillman Periodicals Airboy The Heap Holyoke Publishing Cat-Man Kitten Miss Victory L. Miller & Son, Ltd. Kid Marvelman Marvelman Young Marvelman Magazine Enterprises Funnyman Maple Leaf Publishing Brok Windsor Iron Man Rural Home Publications Green Turtle Street & Smith The Avenger Doc Savage The Shadow Supersnipe v t e Batman characters v t e Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Batman family By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound By codename Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath Batman Batwoman Batgirl Robin Catman Catwoman Owlman Huntress Nightwing Flamebird Red Robin Red Hood Batwing Azrael Phantasm Wrath By public identity Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Dick Grayson Kathy Kane Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Jason Todd Helena Wayne Helena Bertinelli Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Cassandra Cain Kate Kane Damian Wayne Harper Row Duke Thomas Jace Fox Luke Fox Michael Washington Lane Jean-Paul Valley Andrea Beaumont Pets Ace the Bat-Hound Ace the Bat-Hound Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Supporting characters Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Main supporting Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Alfred Pennyworth Jim Gordon Julie Madison Holly Robinson Lucius Fox Martha Wayne Thomas Wayne Vicki Vale Gotham City Police Department contacts Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Jim Gordon Harvey Bullock Sarah Essen Maggie Sawyer Renee Montoya Crispus Allen Jason Bard Slam Bradley Superhero allies Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superman Wonder Woman The Flash Barry Allen Wally West Barry Allen Wally West Green Lantern Hal Jordan John Stewart Hal Jordan John Stewart Aquaman Black Canary Cyborg Deadman Etrigan Green Arrow Hawkgirl Hawkman John Constantine Martian Manhunter Metamorpho Nightrunner Plastic Man Question Shazam Spectre Vixen Zatanna Superhero groups Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Batman Incorporated Batmen of All Nations Birds of Prey Justice League Justice Society of America Outsiders World's Finest Team Other characters Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Bat-Mite Bronze Tiger Creeper Duela Dent Gilda Dent Knight Legs Leslie Thompkins Misfit Mother Panic Nora Fries Orpheus Ragman Sasha Bordeaux Silver St. Cloud Simon Dark Squire Victoria October Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Antagonists Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Central rogues gallery Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Bane Black Mask Catwoman Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Joker Killer Croc Killer Moth Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Ventriloquist Victor Zsasz Joker's gang Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou Joker Harley Quinn Punchline Bud and Lou League of Assassins Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Ra's al Ghul Talia al Ghul Nyssa Raatko Sensei Lady Shiva David Cain Merlyn Mobsters Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Joe Chill Lew Moxon Falcone family Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Carmine Falcone Alberto Falcone Mario Falcone Sofia Falcone Sal Maroni Squid Rupert Thorne Tobias Whale Johnny Witts Tony Zucco Hamilton Hill Gillian B. Loeb Other enemies Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Amygdala Anarky Black Spider Blockbuster Calculator Calendar Man Catman Cavalier Clock King Cluemaster Copperhead Cornelius Stirk Crazy Quilt Crime Doctor Deacon Blackfire Doctor Death Doctor Double X Doctor Phosphorus Dollmaker Electrocutioner Enigma Firebug Flamingo Gearhead Great White Shark Humpty Dumpty Jane Doe Key KGBeast King Snake Kite Man Lex Luthor Maxie Zeus Magpie Mirror Man Mr. Bloom Music Meister Nightslayer Nocturna Orca Outsider Owlman Phantasm Phosphorus Rex Planet Master Polka-Dot Man Professor Milo Professor Pyg Rag Doll Ratcatcher Reaper Signalman Simon Hurt Snowman Solomon Grundy Spellbinder Swagman Tally Man Ten-Eyed Man The Batman Who Laughs Tiger Shark Tweedledum and Tweedledee Wrath Zebra-Man Supervillain groups Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Circus of Strange Court of Owls Kobra Leviathan LexCorp Mutants Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Terrible Trio Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Alternative versions Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Batman Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Earth-Two Batman of Zur-En-Arrh Owlman The Batman Who Laughs Thomas Wayne ( Flashpoint version) Robin Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Earth-Two Carrie Kelley Helena Wayne Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Other media 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane 1966 Batman TV series Bookworm Egghead King Tut Bookworm Egghead King Tut 1989–1997 film series Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman DC Animated Universe Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) Renee Montoya Harley Quinn Bud and Lou Andrea Beaumont Batman (Terry McGinnis) The Dark Knight Trilogy Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker Bruce Wayne Rachel Dawes Joker DC Extended Universe Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Joker Gotham Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Bruce Wayne James Gordon Selina Kyle Fish Mooney Oswald Cobblepot Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Titans Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Arrowverse Kate Kane Kate Kane Category Category v t e Batman publications and storylines v t e Current series Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Absolute Batman Batgirl Batman Batman/Superman: World's Finest Batman and Robin Birds of Prey Detective Comics ( #27 ) Catwoman Harley Quinn Nightwing Poison Ivy Completed ongoing series Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Azrael Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batman (comic strip) Batman '66 Batman '89 Batman and the Outsiders Batman: Arkham Unhinged Batman: The Brave and the Bold Batman: The Dark Knight Batman: Gotham Knights Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Batman: Shadow of the Bat Batman: Streets of Gotham The Batman Adventures The Batman Chronicles Batman Beyond Batman Confidential Batman Family Batman Incorporated The Batman Strikes! Batman/Superman Batwing Batwoman The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Midnight Gotham Central Gotham City Sirens Gotham Girls Grayson The Huntress The Joker Man-Bat Mother Panic The Penguin Red Hood/Arsenal Red Hood and the Outlaws Red Robin Robin Robin: Son of Batman Superman/Batman Tim Drake: Robin We Are Robin World's Finest Comics Completed miniseries Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman: Anarky Batman & Dracula trilogy Batman: Arkham City Batman: Battle for the Cowl Batman Black and White Batman: Cacophony Batman: Creature of the Night Batman: The Cult Batman: Damned Batman: The Dark Prince Charming Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham Batman: Earth One Batman: Gates of Gotham Batman: GCPD Batman: Gotham County Line Batman: Gotham Knights – Gilded City Batman: The Imposter Batman: The Knight Batman: Orpheus Rising Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Batman: Three Jokers Batman: Thrillkiller Batman: Turning Points The Batman Who Laughs Batman: Year 100 Bat-Mite Dark Knights of Steel First Wave Flashpoint Beyond Flashpoint: Deadman and the Flying Graysons Gotham Underground Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy Man-Bat Penguin: Pain and Prejudice Poison Ivy: Cycle of Life and Death Red Hood: The Lost Days Section 8 Superman & Batman: Generations Trinity The Untold Legend of the Batman Batman Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Batman Eternal Batman and Robin Eternal Dark Moon Rising Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk Batman and the Monster Men Batman and the Mad Monk The Long Halloween Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Batman: The Long Halloween Batman: Dark Victory Catwoman: When in Rome Millerverse The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race The Dark Knight Returns The Dark Knight Strikes Again The Dark Knight III: The Master Race Murphyverse Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Batman: White Knight Curse of the White Knight White Knight Presents: Red Hood Beyond the White Knight Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One Batgirl: Year One The Riddler: Year One Two-Face: Year One Robin: Year One One-shots Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth Castle of the Bat Dark Knight Dynasty Dark Night: A True Batman Story Death of Innocents Digital Justice Gotham Noir Holy Terror Batman/Houdini: The Devil's Workshop In Darkest Knight The Killing Joke KnightGallery Leatherwing The Man Who Laughs Nine Lives Noël Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl The Joker: Devil's Advocate Batman/Poison Ivy: Cast Shadows Son of the Demon The 12 Cent Adventure Two Faces War on Crime The Batman Adventures: Mad Love The Berlin Batman Gotham by Gaslight Joker Poison Ivy: Thorns Red Hood vs. Anarky Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Storylines 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " 1930-40s " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" " The Case of the Chemical Syndicate " "Robin the Boy Wonder" "The Murders of Clayface" "The Crimes of Two-Face" "The Man Who Led a Double Life" "The End of Two-Face" "The Riddler" 1950s " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Joker's Millions " "The Rainbow Batman" "The Superman of Planet X" "... Meets Bat-Mite" 1960s "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" "Robin Dies at Dawn" "Beware of -- Poison Ivy" "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl" "One Bullet Too Many" 1970s "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" "Challenge of the Man-Bat" "Tales of the Demon" "The Joker's Five-Way Revenge" "There is No Hope in Crime Alley" "The Deadshot Ricochet" "The Laughing Fish" 1980s " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " " Batman: Year One " " Year Two " " Batman: A Death in the Family " " Year Three " " The Man Who Falls " " Anarky in Gotham City " 1990s " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " " Gothic " "The Eye of the Beholder" " The Return of the Joker " " Prey " " The Last Arkham " " Knightfall " " Contagion " " Legacy " " Cataclysm " " No Man's Land " 2000s " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " " Joker: Last Laugh " " Bruce Wayne: Fugitive " " Hush " " Broken City " " War Games " " City of Crime " " Under the Hood " " War Crimes " " Face the Face " " Batman and Son " " The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul " " Batman R.I.P. " " Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? " " Batwoman: Elegy " 2010s " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " " Bruce Wayne: The Road Home " " The Black Mirror " " Night of the Owls " " Death of the Family " " Zero Year " " Endgame " " Robin War " " The Button " " Dark Nights: Metal " 2020s " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " " The Joker War " " Dark Nights: Death Metal " " Fear State " " Shadows of the Bat " " Shadow War " " Gotham War " Intercompany crossovers Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Batman/Aliens Batman/Hellboy/Starman Batman/Judge Dredd: Judgment on Gotham Batman/Spawn: War Devil Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Batman/Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Adventures Batman/The Spirit Batman Versus Predator Batman vs. Bigby! A Wolf in Gotham Daredevil/Batman: Eye for an Eye Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Harley & Ivy Meet Betty & Veronica Spawn/Batman Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Deadpool/Batman and Batman/Deadpool Incomplete All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman: The Widening Gyre Related topics Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Batman: Child of Dreams Batman: Haunted Knight Batman Legends DC Comics – The Legend of Batman Elseworlds The Further Adventures of The Joker Category Publications are listed alphabetically by published titles. Storylines are listed in publication order. Compiled without respect for canon or "current" continuity. v t e Batman franchise media v t e Live-action television Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman (1966) Batman episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Batman episodes episodes Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and Burt Gotham (franchise) Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Gotham episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 characters episodes season 1 2 3 4 5 season 1 2 3 4 5 characters Pennyworth Arrowverse Batwoman episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " Batwoman episodes characters episodes characters " Crisis on Infinite Earths " The Penguin The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " The Penguin " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " " After Hours " " Inside Man " " Bliss " " Cent'Anni " " Homecoming " " Gold Summit " " Top Hat " " A Great or Little Thing " Other Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Batman OnStar commercials Birds of Prey Gotham Knights Live-action films Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production Early films Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) Batman (1943) Batman and Robin Batman (1966) 1989–1997 film series Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin Batman (1989) Batman Returns ( special effects ) Batman Forever Batman & Robin The Dark Knight Trilogy Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Batgirl (unreleased) The Batman Epic Crime Saga The Batman production The Batman production production Animated television The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes The Batman characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam The Batman/Superman Hour The Adventures of Batman The New Adventures of Batman The Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour The Animated Series episodes episodes The New Batman Adventures Batman Beyond characters episodes characters episodes The Batman characters episodes characters episodes The Brave and the Bold episodes episodes Beware the Batman Batwheels Caped Crusader Bat-Fam Animated films Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Mask of the Phantasm SubZero Return of the Joker Mystery of the Batwoman The Batman vs. Dracula Gotham Knight Public Enemies Under the Red Hood Apocalypse Year One The Dark Knight Returns DC Super Heroes Unite Son of Batman Assault on Arkham Animal Instincts Batman vs. Robin Monster Mayhem Bad Blood The Killing Joke Mechs vs. Mutants Return of the Caped Crusaders The Lego Batman Movie Batman and Harley Quinn Batman vs. Two-Face Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold Gotham by Gaslight Batman Ninja Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Hush Family Matters Soul of the Dragon The Long Halloween Battle of the Super Sons The Doom That Came to Gotham Merry Little Batman Batman Ninja vs. Yakuza League Aztec Batman: Clash of Empires Animated shorts Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Chase Me Strange Days Death in the Family Novels The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution The Ultimate Evil Enemies & Allies Wayne of Gotham Batman: Resurrection Batman: Revolution Podcasts Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Batman: The Audio Adventures Batman Unburied DC High Volume: Batman Enemies in other media Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Bane Joker Mr. Freeze Penguin Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Supporting characters in other media Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Barbara Gordon Catwoman Robin Related topics Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One Batman & Bill Bruce Wayne (unproduced series) Batkid Begins Batman action figures Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Lego Batman Batman Total Justice Batman Unlimited Bat phone Bat-Manga!: The Secret History of Batman in Japan List of Batman films cast members List of Batman television series cast members List of Batman video games List of Batman children's books Batman music Batman Live Holy Musical B@man! Batman '89 (comic book) The Riddler: Year One v t e Batman music v t e Soundtracks Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Films Batman score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Returns Batman Forever soundtrack score soundtrack score Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight The Dark Knight Rises Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice The Lego Batman Movie Joker The Batman Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Video games Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Batman: Arkham City Batman: Arkham Origins Batman: Arkham Knight Songs Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " Batman (1960s TV series) " Batman Theme " " Batusi " " Batman Theme " " Batusi " Batman (1989 film) " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " " Batdance " " Partyman " " The Arms of Orion " " Scandalous! " " The Future " Batman Returns " Face to Face " " Face to Face " Batman Forever " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " " Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me " " Kiss from a Rose " " The Riddler " Batman & Robin " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " " The End Is the Beginning Is the End " " Look into My Eyes " " Gotham City " " Foolish Games " " Moaner " " Lazy Eye " v t e Batman video games v t e Lego series Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Lego Batman: The Videogame Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham Lego Batman: Legacy of the Dark Knight Arkham series Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Arkham Asylum Arkham City Lockdown Lockdown Arkham Origins Mobile Blackgate Mobile Blackgate Arkham Knight Arkham VR Suicide Squad: Kill the Justice League Arkham Shadow Telltale series The Telltale Series The Enemy Within The Telltale Series The Enemy Within Film -based Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Batman (Ocean, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (NES, 1989) Batman: The Video Game (Game Boy, 1990) Batman (Mega Drive/Genesis, 1990) Batman (PC Engine, 1990) Batman (arcade, 1991) Batman Returns (Sega systems, 1992) Batman Returns (Atari Lynx, 1992) Batman Returns (NES, 1993) Batman Returns (SNES, 1993) Batman Forever Batman Forever: The Arcade Game Batman & Robin Batman Begins The Dark Knight (canceled) Animation-based The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame The Animated Series The Adventures of Batman & Robin Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker Chaos in Gotham Gotham City Racer Vengeance Rise of Sin Tzu The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame Other games Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Batman (1986) The Caped Crusader Return of the Joker Dark Tomorrow DC Universe Online Gotham City Impostors Batman (2013) Gotham Knights MultiVersus Category Category v t e Batman in amusement parks v t e Of Batman Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Batman Adventure – The Ride Batman: The Dark Knight Batman The Escape Batman: Knight Flight Batman: The Ride Batman: The Ride (S&S Free Spin) Batman & Robin: The Chiller The Dark Knight Coaster Of derivative characters Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Harley Quinn Crazy Train The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker's Jinx The Riddler Mindbender Mr Freeze: Reverse Blast The Penguin The Riddler Revenge (Six Flags New England) The Riddler's Revenge Of derivative elements Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham Arkham Asylum – Shock Therapy Batwing Spaceshot Batwing Gotham City Gotham City Gauntlet: Escape from Arkham Asylum Shadows of Arkham v t e Batman in film v t e Serials Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Batman (1943 serial) Batman and Robin (1949 serial) Adam West films Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) Batman (1966) Return of the Caped Crusaders (2016) Batman vs. Two-Face (2017) 1989–1997 series Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Films Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game Batman (1989) score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game score soundtrack home computer game NES game Game Boy game Sega Genesis game PC Engine game arcade game Batman Returns (1992) soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game soundtrack special effects Sega games Atari Lynx game NES game SNES game Batman Forever (1995) score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game score soundtrack video game arcade game pinball game Batman & Robin (1997) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman Bruce Wayne Joker Catwoman The Dark Knight trilogy Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Films Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack Batman Begins (2005) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game The Dark Knight (2008) soundtrack canceled video game soundtrack canceled video game The Dark Knight Rises (2012) soundtrack soundtrack Characters Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes Bruce Wayne Joker Rachel Dawes DC Extended Universe Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Suicide Squad (2016) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021) soundtrack soundtrack The Flash (2023) soundtrack soundtrack Batgirl (unreleased) Characters Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn Bruce Wayne Harley Quinn The Batman series The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack The Batman (2022) production accolades soundtrack production accolades soundtrack Theatrical animated films Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack Mask of the Phantasm (1993) soundtrack soundtrack The Killing Joke (2016) The Lego Batman Movie (2017) soundtrack soundtrack Spin-off films Catwoman (2004) video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack Catwoman (2004) video game video game Joker (2019) accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Birds of Prey (2020) soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux (2024) score soundtrack score soundtrack Unofficial and fan films Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Features Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Batman Dracula Alyas Batman at Robin James Batman Batman Fights Dracula Fight Batman Fight! Alyas Batman en Robin Batman XXX Shorts Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild Dead End Grayson World's Finest City of Scars Dying Is Easy Batman Beyond: Year One Jokers Wild See also Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials Batman franchise List of Batman films cast members Batman OnStar commercials v t e Batman and Superman v t e Comic books Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Ongoing series World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman World's Finest Comics Superman/Batman Limited series Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Superman & Batman: Generations Superman and Batman: World's Funnest Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Superman and Batman versus Aliens and Predator Television The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The Batman/Superman Hour The Superman/Batman Adventures DC Animated Universe The New Batman/Superman Adventures The New Batman/Superman Adventures Books Enemies & Allies Enemies & Allies Film Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Live action films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice soundtrack soundtrack Animated films Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Superman/Batman: Public Enemies Superman/Batman: Apocalypse Batman: The Dark Knight Returns Superman: Red Son Injustice Batman and Superman: Battle of the Super Sons Justice League: Warworld Fan works How It Should Have Ended How It Should Have Ended Related Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Composite Superman Toyman World's Finest Team Categories: Batman Superman Categories: Batman Superman v t e Justice League International v t e Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Keith Giffen J. M. DeMatteis Initial members Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Pre-Flashpoint Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle/Ted Kord Booster Gold Captain Marvel Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Kent Nelson Linda Strauss Doctor Light/Kimiyo Hoshi Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Martian Manhunter Mister Miracle The New 52 August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen August General in Iron Booster Gold Fire Godiva Green Lantern/Guy Gardner Ice Rocket Red/Gavril Ivanovich Vixen Supporting characters L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman L-Ron Catherine Cobert Maxwell Lord Oberon Superman Enemies Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Antagonists Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Anti-Monitor Black Hand Darkseid Despero Doomsday Kite Man Lobo Magog Major Disaster Manga Khan Maxwell Lord Neron Queen Bee Signal Men Sinestro Starbreaker Weapons Master Weather Wizard Wizard Organizations Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Cadre Extremists Injustice League Royal Flush Gang Suicide Squad Publications and storylines Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Legends Formerly Known as the Justice League Justice League: Generation Lost Spinoff teams Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force Extreme Justice Justice League America Justice League Europe Justice League Task Force v t e Catwoman v t e Bob Kane Bill Finger Bob Kane Bill Finger Incarnations Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Selina Kyle Holly Robinson Eiko Hasigawa Supporting characters Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Batgirl Batman Slam Bradley Gotham City Sirens Dick Grayson Huntress Justice League Outsiders Alfred Pennyworth Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Leslie Thompkins Wildcat Antagonists Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Angle Man Bane Black Mask Clayface Film Freak Hush Joker Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Riddler Scarecrow Snowflame Hugo Strange Two-Face Zeiss Publications Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives Catwoman Catwoman: When in Rome Gotham City Sirens Nine Lives In other media Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Catwoman (film) Chase Me DC Showcase: Catwoman Catwoman (video game) Selina Kyle ( Gotham character) "Selina Kyle" ( Gotham episode) Selina Kyle ( Batman Returns ) " The Cat and the Fiddle " " The Cat and the Claw " Catwoman: Soulstealer Catwoman: Hunted Category Category v t e Batgirl v t e Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Bill Finger Sheldon Moldoff Gardner Fox Carmine Infantino Incarnations Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Bette Kane Barbara Gordon Helena Bertinelli Cassandra Cain Stephanie Brown Supporting characters Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Batman Birds of Prey Black Canary Catwoman James Gordon Dick Grayson Lucius Fox Justice League Misfit Alfred Pennyworth Proxy Harley Quinn Robin Supergirl Leslie Thompkins Alysia Yeoh Antagonists Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Black Mask Brutale Calculator David Cain Doctor Death Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Moth Knightfall Lady Shiva Livewire Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Harley Quinn Madame Zodiac Riddler Ravager Scarecrow Trigger Twins Related identities Flamebird Oracle Huntress Flamebird Oracle Huntress Publications Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Batgirl Batgirl: Year One Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Elseworld's Finest: Supergirl & Batgirl Ghost/Batgirl: The Resurrection Machine Related articles " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman " Enter Batgirl, Exit Penguin " Barbara Gordon in other media Big Game Batgirl (unreleased) Batwoman Category Category v t e Robin v t e Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Bill Finger Jerry Robinson Bob Kane Robins Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Dick Grayson Jason Todd Tim Drake Stephanie Brown Damian Wayne Supporting characters Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Catwoman Jack Drake Flying Graysons Lucius Fox Tamara Fox James Gordon Justice League Alfred Pennyworth Nightstar Nocturna Outsiders Starfire Talia al Ghul Teen Titans Leslie Thompkins Warlock's Daughter Antagonists Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Anarky Bane Blockbuster Brutale Clock King Cluemaster Deathstroke Firefly The General Joker Joker's Daughter Killer Croc Killer Moth King Snake Lady Shiva Lady Vic Lynx Mad Hatter Mr. Freeze Nite-Wing Penguin Prankster Harley Quinn Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Shrike Tarantula Torque Trigger Twins Two-Face Tony Zucco Related identities Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X Nightwing Red Robin Red Hood Squire Red X In other media Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Batman and Robin (serial) " Robin's Reckoning " Dick Grayson (film character) Batman & Robin (film) soundtrack video game soundtrack video game Son of Batman Batman vs. Robin Publications Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Robin: Year One Robin War All Star Batman & Robin, the Boy Wonder Batman and Robin We Are... Robin Red Robin Batman and Robin Eternal Batman and Son Alternative versions Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Carrie Kelley Earth-Two Helena Wayne Related Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Robin Hood Redbird Alyas Batman en Robin Alyas Batman at Robin Batman & Robin: The Chiller Batman and Robin Have an Altercation "Holy..." Batman and Robin (disambiguation) Category Category v t e The Joker v t e Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Bill Finger Bob Kane Jerry Robinson Supporting characters Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Bane Cheetah Clayface Deadshot Deathstroke Duela Dent Firefly Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Hush Killer Croc Legion of Doom Lex Luthor Mad Hatter Man-Bat Mr. Freeze Penguin Poison Ivy Punchline Ra's al Ghul Riddler Scarecrow Two-Face Victor Zsasz Antagonists Batgirl Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Batgirl Barbara Gordon Barbara Gordon Batman Batwoman Kate Kane Kate Kane Catwoman Commissioner Gordon Gotham City Police Department Harley Quinn Hugo Strange Huntress Helena Bertinelli) Helena Bertinelli) Justice League Nightwing Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Penguin Red Hood Jason Todd Jason Todd Red Robin Tim Drake Tim Drake Riddler Robin Damian Wayne Damian Wayne Superman The Batman Who Laughs Two-Face Publications and stories The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War The Joker " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " " The Joker's Double Jeopardy " Batman: The Killing Joke Devil's Advocate Batman: The Man Who Laughs The Further Adventures of The Joker Joker (graphic novel) " The Joker's Millions " Last Laugh " The Man Behind the Red Hood! " " The Return of the Joker " Batman: Three Jokers Joker War Alternative versions Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs Red Hood The Batman Who Laughs In other media Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Incarnations Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Jack Napier Joker (DC Animated Universe) Joker ( The Dark Knight ) Jerome and Jeremiah Valeska Joker (DC Extended Universe) Arthur Fleck Other media Joker accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Joker accolades soundtrack accolades soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker video game video game Batman: The Killing Joke " The Joker's Hard Times " " The Joker Is Wild " " The Joker Goes to School " Batman: Return of the Joker " Joker's Favor " " Christmas with the Joker " Mortal Kombat 11 Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Jokers Wild Rides The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) The Joker's Jinx The Joker (S&S Worldwide) The Joker (Six Flags Discovery Kingdom) The Joker Funhouse Coaster The Joker (Six Flags México) Related Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Ace Chemicals Arkham Asylum Barack Obama "Joker" poster Blackgate Penitentiary Georgia Joker Jokermobile Joker Stairs Jokerz The People's Joker Category Category v t e Harley Quinn v t e Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Paul Dini Bruce Timm Karl Kesel Terry Dodson Amanda Conner Jimmy Palmiotti Supporting characters Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Birds of Prey Bud and Lou Selina Kyle/Catwoman Joker Justice League Dick Grayson/Nightwing Pamela Isley/Poison Ivy Karen Starr/Power Girl Robin Cyrus Gold/Solomon Grundy Teams Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Gotham City Sirens Justice League of Anarchy Secret Six The Society Suicide Squad Antagonists Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Amanda Waller Bruce Wayne / Batman Barbara Gordon / Batgirl Roman Sionis/Black Mask Jason Woodrue/Floronic Man Hugo Strange Joker Joker's Daughter/Duela Dent Mercy Graves Oswald Cobblepot/Penguin Alexis Kaye/Punchline Edward Nygma/Riddler Dick Grayson / Robin Jonathan Crane/Scarecrow Harvey Dent/Two-Face Publications The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy The Batman Adventures: Mad Love Harley Quinn Batman: White Knight Presents: Harley Quinn Harley and Ivy Meet Betty and Veronica Harley Quinn and Poison Ivy In other media " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind " Joker's Favor " Harley Quinn (TV series) episodes episodes Batman and Harley Quinn Harley Quinn (DCEU character) Birds of Prey soundtrack soundtrack Joker: Folie à Deux score soundtrack score soundtrack Harley Quinn and The Joker: Sound Mind Related articles Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Harley Quinn Crazy Train Homosexuality in the Batman franchise Harlequin (album) Category Category v t e The Outsiders v t e Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Mike W. Barr Jim Aparo Members Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Founders Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Batman Black Lightning Geo-Force Halo Katana Metamorpho Others Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Arsenal Atomic Knight Batgirl Batwing Batwoman Captain Boomerang Captain Marvel Jr. Creeper Duke Thomas Eradicator Francine Langstrom Grace Choi Green Arrow Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Indigo Jade Lady Shiva Looker Nightwing Olympian Owlman (Roy Raymond Jr.) Red Robin ReMAC Sebastian Faust Starfire Technocrat Thunder Supporting characters Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Alfred Pennyworth Checkmate Helga Jace Roy Raymond Sapphire Stagg Simon Stagg Enemies Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Baron Bedlam Brother Blood Doctor Sivana Fearsome Five Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Doctor Light Gizmo Mammoth Psimon Shimmer Felix Faust Gorilla Grodd Joker Kobra Masters of Disaster Mr. Freeze Nuclear Family Sabbac Tobias Whale Locations Batcave Batcave Other media Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice Batman: The Brave and the Bold Young Justice v t e Birds of Prey v t e Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Creators : Chuck Dixon Jordan B. Gorfinkel Gail Simone Titles Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Batgirl and the Birds of Prey Main characters Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Barbara Gordon Black Canary Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) Notable members Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Big Barda Black Alice Cassandra Cain Gypsy Harley Quinn Hawk and Dove Hawkgirl (Kendra Saunders) Jade Canary Judomaster (Sonia Sato) Katana Lady Blackhawk Manhunter (Kate Spencer) Misfit Poison Ivy Power Girl Vixen Zealot Supporting characters Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Batman Blue Beetle (Ted Kord) Booster Gold James Gordon Creote Catwoman Cyborg Green Arrow Kurt Lance Lois Lane Metamorpho Nightwing Richard Dragon Robin Savant Sin Superman Wildcat Antagonists Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz Atomic Skull Bane Black Mask Blockbuster Brainiac Brutale Calculator Captain Nazi Catwoman Chemo Cheshire Clayface Copperhead Crime Doctor Deathstroke Electrocutioner Gorilla Grodd Harley Quinn Hector Hammond Hellgrammite H.I.V.E. Joker Killer Moth Kobra Lady Shiva Lady Spellbinder Lady Vic Lashina Mad Hatter Mammoth Penguin Poison Ivy Prometheus Psimon Secret Six Secret Society Shadow Thief Shrapnel Spy Smasher Talia al Ghul Victor Zsasz In other media TV series Film soundtrack TV series Film soundtrack soundtrack Category Category v t e Superman characters v t e Superman family By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse By codename Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl Superman Superboy Supergirl Superwoman Nightwing Flamebird Steel Power Girl By public identity Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Clark Kent Conner Kent Jon Kent Sodam Yat Mon-El Kara Zor-El Matrix Linda Danvers Laurel Gand Lois Lane Lucy Lane Lana Lang Luma Lynai Donna Troy Kristin Wells Chris Kent/Lor-Zod Thara Ak-Var David Connor John Henry Irons Natasha Irons Kong Kenan Kara Zor-L Pets Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Krypto the Superdog Streaky the Supercat Beppo the Super-Monkey Comet the Super-Horse Supporting characters Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Lois Lane Jimmy Olsen Jor-El Lara Jonathan and Martha Kent Perry White Lana Lang Batman Lucy Lane Lori Lemaris Gangbuster Zor-El Alura Dubbilex Sam Lane Lyla Lerrol Pete Ross Professor Potter Lena Luthor Maxima Morgan Edge Dan Turpin Steve Lombard Cat Grant Professor Hamilton Maggie Sawyer Bibbo Bibbowski Ron Troupe Strange Visitor Rampage Vartox Atlas Manchester Black Alexander Luthor Jr. Associated characters Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Auron The Authority Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Apollo Enchantress Lightray Manchester Black Midnighter OMAC Steel Guardian Justice League Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Atom Aquaman Batman Black Canary Blue Beetle Cyborg Flash Green Arrow Green Lantern John Stewart Martian Manhunter Robin/Nightwing Orion Captain Marvel Wonder Woman Justice Society of America Legion of Substitute Heroes Legion of Super-Heroes Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Cosmic Boy Saturn Girl Lightning Lad Chameleon Boy Colossal Boy Invisible Kid Star Boy Phantom Girl Triplicate Girl Shrinking Violet Bouncing Boy Sun Boy Brainiac 5 Ultra Boy Element Lad Matter-Eater Lad Lightning Lass Dream Girl Timber Wolf Princess Projectra Ferro Lad Karate Kid White Witch Shadow Lass Chemical King Wildfire Tyroc Dawnstar Laurel Gand Legion of Super-Pets Legion of Super-Villains Lobo Maxima Newsboy Legion Project Cadmus Silent Knight Super-Chief Supermen of America World's Finest Team Enemies Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Central rogues Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Atomic Skull Bizarro Bloodsport Brainiac Bruno Mannheim Cyborg Superman Hank Henshaw Hank Henshaw Darkseid Doomsday General Zod Lex Luthor Livewire Mercy Graves Metallo Mister Mxyzptlk Mongul Parasite Silver Banshee Toyman Ultra-Humanite Recurring adversaries Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Anti-Monitor Atlas Blaze and Satanus Brainiac 2 Chemo Composite Superman Conduit Dev-Em Equus Faora Funky Flashman Gog Hellgramite Imperiex Jax-Ur Joker Kobra Lord Satanis Magpie Mala Mammoth Manchester Black Morgan Edge Neutron Nick O'Teen Non Ol-Vir Prankster Quarmer Quex-Ul Rampage Riot Ruin Scorch Solaris Solomon Grundy Terra-Man Titano Ultraman Ursa Volcana Organizations Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Black Zero Fearsome Five Intergang Masters of Disaster Royal Flush Gang Secret Society of Super Villains Suicide Squad Superman Revenge Squad Alternative versions Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Superman Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Earth-One Earth-Two Ultraman Superboy-Prime Kingdom Come Supergirl Power Girl Power Girl In other media 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane 1978–1987 film series Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Eve Teschmacher General Zod DC Extended Universe Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Clark Kent / Superman Lois Lane Lex Luthor Zod Smallville Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Clark Kent Lois Lane Lana Lang Justice League Lex Luthor Lionel Luthor Chloe Sullivan Arrowverse Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Kara Danvers Alex Danvers Lex Luthor Nia Nal Superman & Lois Clark Kent Lois Lane Clark Kent Lois Lane Related Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Superman and Lois Lane Daily Planet Alien races Kryptonians Category Category v t e Wonder Woman v t e William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors William Moulton Marston Elizabeth Holloway Marston Olive Byrne H. G. Peter Other contributors Characters Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Wonder Women Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Diana Prince Orana Artemis of Bana-Mighdall Hippolyta Nubia Wonder Girls Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Cassie Sandsmark Donna Troy Yara Flor Supporting characters Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Antiope Etta Candy Fury Hephaestus Heracles/Hercules Hermes I Ching Julia and Vanessa Kapatelis Justice League Mala Nemesis (Thomas Tresser) The Olympian Paula von Gunther Philippus Poseidon Queen Desira Helena Sandsmark Sarge Steel Steve Trevor Wonder Man Zeus Zola Enemies Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Ares Baron Blitzkrieg Baroness Paula von Gunther Blue Snowman Veronica Cale Cheetah Circe Dark Angel Decay Doctor Cyber Doctor Poison Doctor Psycho Duke of Deception Egg Fu Eviless First Born Genocide Giganta Hades Hypnota Kung Mask Maxwell Lord Medusa Minister Blizzard Osira Queen Clea Silver Swan Superwoman Tezcatlipoca Zara Factions Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Amazons of Themyscira Amazons of Bana-Mighdall Children of Ares Godwatch Olympian Gods Titans of Myth Villainy Inc. Locations Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Aeaea Themyscira (The Paradise Islands) Publications Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Absolute Wonder Woman All Star Comics Wonder Woman Amazonia Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity Comic Cavalcade Crossover The Legend of Wonder Woman Sensation Comics Superman and Wonder Woman: The Hidden Killer Superman/Wonder Woman Wonder Woman '77 The Wonder Woman Chronicles Wonder Woman: Earth One Wonder Woman Historia: The Amazons The World's Greatest Superheroes Storylines " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) " Introducing Wonder Woman " (1941) Gods and Mortals (1987) Challenge of the Gods (1987–88) War of the Gods (1991) The Contest (1994) The Challenge of Artemis (1995) Paradise Island Lost (2001) Our Worlds at War (2001) The Hiketeia (2002) Down to Earth (2003–04) Who Is Wonder Woman? (2006–07) Amazons Attack! (2007) The Circle (2008) Ends of the Earth (2008) Rise of the Olympian (2009) Flashpoint (2011) The Lies (2016) Year One (2016) The Truth (2017) Godwatch (2017) Trial of the Amazons (2022) Technology Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets Golden Girdle of Gaea Lasso of Truth Wonder Woman's bracelets In other media Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Film Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Wonder Woman (1974 film) Wonder Woman (2009 film) Wonder Woman: Bloodlines DC Extended Universe Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice Wonder Woman (2017 film) soundtrack soundtrack Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Zack Snyder's Justice League Wonder Woman 1984 soundtrack soundtrack Peacemaker: It's Cow or Never Shazam! Fury of the Gods The Flash Television Wonder Woman episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Wonder Woman episodes episodes Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot) Miscellaneous Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Alternative versions Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Earth-Two Bizarra Superwoman Cultural impact Professor Marston and the Wonder Women Literature Wonder Women! The Untold Story of American Superheroines Category v t e Golden Age of Comic Books v t e Ace Comics Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan Captain Courageous Doctor Nemesis The Flag Lash Lightning The Raven Unknown Soldier Vulcan All-American Publications The Atom Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Wonder Woman The Atom Al Pratt Al Pratt Black Canary Doctor Mid-Nite Charles McNider Charles McNider Doiby Dickles The Flash Jay Garrick Jay Garrick Gay Ghost Green Lantern Alan Scott Alan Scott Hawkgirl Shiera Sanders Hall Shiera Sanders Hall Hawkman Carter Hall Carter Hall Hop Harrigan Johnny Thunder Justice Society of America The King Mister Terrific Terry Sloane Terry Sloane Neptune Perkins Red Tornado Sargon the Sorcerer Terrific Whatzit Thunderbolt Ultra-Man The Whip Wildcat Ted Grant Ted Grant Wonder Woman Centaur Comics Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Airman Amazing-Man The Arrow The Clock The Eye Fantom of the Fair Magician from Mars The Masked Marvel Minimidget Charlton Comics Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Atomic Mouse Captain Atom Nightshade Mr. Muscles Nature Boy Space Adventures Yellowjacket Dell Comics Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Doctor Hormone Flash Gordon The Owl Phantasmo Supermind's Son Zorro Fawcett Comics Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Bulletgirl Bulletman Captain Marvel Captain Marvel Jr. Captain Midnight Dan Dare Golden Arrow Hoppy the Marvel Bunny Ibis the Invincible Lieutenant Marvels Marvel Family Mary Marvel Master Man Minute-Man Mr. Scarlet Nyoka the Jungle Girl Phantom Eagle Pinky the Whiz Kid Scoop Smith Spy Smasher Squadron of Justice Uncle Marvel Fox Comics Blue Beetle Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Blue Beetle Dan Garret Dan Garret The Bouncer Bronze Man Dynamo The Flame Green Mask The Moth Samson Stardust the Super Wizard U.S. Jones Wonder Man Harvey Comics Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Black Cat Captain 3-D Captain Freedom Green Hornet Invisible Scarlet O'Neil Kato Shock Gibson Spirit of '76 Lev Gleason Publications Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak Captain Battle Claw Crimebuster Daredevil Little Wise Guys Silver Streak MLJ Comics The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard The Black Hood Bob Phantom Captain Flag The Comet The Firefly The Fox The Hangman Rang-a-Tang the Wonder Dog The Shield Super Duck The Web The Wizard National Allied Publications Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Sandy the Golden Boy Seven Soldiers of Victory Shining Knight Sir Justin Slam Bradley The Spectre Jim Corrigan Speedy Roy Harper Squire Star-Spangled Kid Sylvester Pemberton Starman Ted Knight Stripesy Stuff the Chinatown Kid Superboy Kal-El Superman Superwoman Lois Lane Tarantula TNT Tommy Tomorrow Vigilante Greg Saunders Wonder Woman Zatara Ace the Bat-Hound Air Wave Aquaman Batman Batwoman Black Pirate Boy Commandos Captain Comet Chris KL-99 Congo Bill Crimson Avenger Lee Travis Lee Travis Dan the Dyna-Mite Dark Ranger Detective Chimp Doctor Fate Kent Nelson Kent Nelson Doctor Occult Genius Jones Gimmick Girl Green Arrow Guardian Hourman Rex Tyler Rex Tyler Johnny Chambers King Faraday The Knight Krypto Liberty Belle Manhunter Paul Kirk Paul Kirk Martian Manhunter Miss X Mr. America Newsboy Legion Phantom Stranger Rex the Wonder Dog Robin Dick Grayson Dick Grayson Robotman Rose Psychic Sandman Wesley Dodds Wesley Dodds Sandy the 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Sources 2 Early life Toggle Early life subsection 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 2.1 In the East 2.2 In the West 3 Reign Toggle Reign subsection 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.1 Maxentius's rebellion 3.2 Maximian's rebellion 3.3 Civil wars 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.3.1 War against Maxentius 3.3.2 Milvian Bridge 3.3.3 In Rome 3.3.4 Wars against Licinius 3.4 Later rule 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 3.4.1 Foundation of Constantinople 3.4.2 Religion and religious policy 3.4.3 Administrative reforms 3.4.4 Monetary reforms 3.4.5 Executions of Crispus and Fausta 3.4.6 Later campaigns 3.4.7 Illness and death 4 Assessment and legacy Toggle Assessment and legacy subsection 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 4.1 Veneration as a saint 4.2 Historiography 4.3 Donation of Constantine 4.4 Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia 5 Family tree 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Citations Toggle Citations subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1 Bibliography 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 8.1.1 Ancient sources 8.1.2 Modern sources 9 Further reading 10 External links Constantine the Great Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés Արեւմտահայերէն অসমীয়া Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Français Frysk Gaeilge Gàidhlig Galego 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ქართული Қазақша Kernowek Kiswahili Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Lombard Magyar Madhurâ Македонски Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى Bahasa Melayu Mirandés Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла Sakizaya संस्कृतम् Sardu Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki Žemaitėška 中文 Betawi Batak Mandailing Yerwa Kanuri ရခိုင် Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item Constantine I Head of the Colossus of Constantine , Capitoline Museums Roman emperor Reign 25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (alone from 19 September 324) Predecessor Constantius I (in the West) Successor .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Co-rulers .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} See list Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Galerius (306–311) [ a ] Severus II (306–307) [ b ] Maxentius (306–312) [ c ] Maximian (306–308, 310) [ c ] Licinius (308–324) [ d ] Maximinus II (310–313) [ a ] Valens (316–317) [ e ] Martinian (324) [ e ] Born Flavius Constantinus 27 February 272 Naissus , Moesia Superior , Roman Empire Died 22 May 337 (aged 65) Achyron, Nicomedia , Bithynia , Roman Empire Burial Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople (remains now lost) Spouses Minervina [ f ] Fausta Minervina [ f ] Fausta Issue Detail Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Crispus Constantine II Constantius II Constantina Constans I Helena Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Names Flavius Valerius Constantinus Regnal name Imperator Caesar Flavius Valerius Constantinus Augustus Dynasty Constantinian Father Constantius Chlorus Mother Helena Religion Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Ancient Roman religion (until 312) Christianity (from 312) Constantine I [ g ] (27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great , or known mononymously as Constantine , was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 and the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity . [ h ] He played a pivotal role in elevating the status of Christianity in Rome, the Edict of Milan decriminalising Christian practice and ceasing Christian persecution . This was a turning point in the Christianisation of the Roman Empire . He founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and made it the capital of the Empire, which it remained for over a millennium. Born in Naissus , a city located in the province of Moesia Superior (now Niš , Serbia), Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius , a Roman army officer from Moesia Superior, who would become one of the four emperors of the Tetrarchy . His mother, Helena , was a woman of low birth, probably from Bithynia . Later canonised as a saint , she is credited for the conversion of her son in some traditions, though others believe that Constantine converted her. He served with distinction under emperors Diocletian and Galerius . He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces against the Persians , before being recalled to the west in AD 305 to fight with his father in the province of Britannia . After his father's death in 306, Constantine was proclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at Eboracum ( York , England). He eventually emerged victorious in Civil wars of the Tetrarchy against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324. Upon his accession, Constantine enacted many reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation, he introduced the solidus , a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile units ( comitatenses ), often around the emperor, to serve on campaigns against external enemies or Roman rebels, and frontier-garrison troops ( limitanei ) which were capable of countering barbarian raids, but less and less capable of countering full-scale barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers —such as the Franks , the Alemanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians —and resettled territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century with citizens of Roman society. Although Constantine lived much of his life as a pagan , he later became a catechumen , as he began to favour Christianity in 312, finally being baptised by Eusebius of Nicomedia , an Arian bishop. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. He convoked the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which produced the Christian statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed . On his orders, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built at the site claimed to be the tomb of Jesus in Jerusalem and was deemed the holiest place in Christendom . He has historically been referred to as the "First Christian Emperor" but while he did favour the Christian Church, some modern scholars debate his beliefs and even his comprehension of Christianity. [ i ] He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity , and he did much to push Christianity towards the mainstream of Roman culture. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire and a pivotal moment in the evolution from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages . He built a new imperial residence in the city of Byzantium , which was officially renamed New Rome , while also taking on the name Constantinople in his honour. It subsequently served as the capital of the empire for more than a thousand years—with the Eastern Roman Empire for most of that period commonly referred to retrospectively as the Byzantine Empire in English. In leaving the empire to his sons and other members of the Constantinian dynasty , Constantine's immediate political legacy was the replacement of Diocletian's Tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His memory was held in high regard during the lifetime of his children and for centuries after his reign. The medieval church held him up as a paragon of virtue, while secular rulers invoked him as a symbol of imperial legitimacy. The rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources in the early Renaissance engendered more critical appraisals of his reign, with modern and contemporary scholarship often seeking to balance the extremes of earlier accounts. Sources Constantine was a ruler of major importance and has always been a controversial figure. [ 4 ] The fluctuations in his reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, but they have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period and are often one-sided. [ 5 ] No contemporaneous histories or biographies dealing with his life and rule have survived; the nearest alternative is Eusebius 's Vita Constantini , which offers a mixture of eulogy and hagiography [ 6 ] written between 335 and 339 [ 7 ] to extol Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [ 8 ] The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, [ 9 ] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [ 10 ] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini , a work of uncertain date which focuses on military and political events to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [ 11 ] Lactantius ' De mortibus persecutorum , a political Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy , provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates , Sozomen , and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (r. 402–450), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastical historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation, and deliberate obscurity. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The contemporary writings of the orthodox Christian Athanasius of Alexandria and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. [ 15 ] The epitomes of Aurelius Victor ( De Caesaribus ), Eutropius ( Breviarium ), Festus ( Breviarium ), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although not Christian, the epitomes paint a favourable image of Constantine but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [ 12 ] [ 16 ] The Panegyrici Latini , a collection of panegyrics from the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, provides valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] In addition, contemporary architecture—such as the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba [ 18 ] — epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. [ 12 ] [ 17 ] Early life Constantine was born on 27 February 272. [ 19 ] While his official birthday is recorded in sources, his year of birth is not, and scholars have given several estimates between 271 and 280, with most leaning for 272 or 273. However, the evidence points to 272 being the correct year. [ 19 ] [ j ] He was born inside the city of Naissus, during a time when the unity of the Empire was threatened by the breakaway wars of the Palmyrene Empire . The city (modern Niš , Serbia) was located in Dardania within the province of Moesia Superior . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] His father was Flavius Constantius , [ k ] an Illyrian [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 23 ] [ l ] or, according to his nephew, Julian The Apostate , a Thracian . [ 29 ] His original full name, as well as that of his father, is not known. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] His praenomen is variously given as Lucius , Marcus and Gaius . [ 31 ] [ m ] Whatever the case, praenomina had already disappeared from most public records by this time. [ 33 ] He also adopted the name "Valerius", the nomen of emperor Diocletian , following his father's ascension as caesar . [ 31 ] [ 30 ] Constantine probably spent little time with his father [ 34 ] who was an officer in the Roman army, part of Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard. Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man, [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285. [ 37 ] Constantine's mother was Helena , a woman of low social standing, possibly from Drepanum (later renamed Helenopolis ) of Bithynia , which would likely have made her a Greek -speaker. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . [ 41 ] Constantine's own language was Latin , and during his public speeches in the church councils, which were held in Greek, he needed Greek translators. [ 42 ] In April 286 Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. [ 43 ] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, and both emperors could move freely throughout the empire. [ 44 ] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. [ 45 ] Diocletian divided the empire again in 293, appointing two caesars to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to his respective augustus but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [ 46 ] On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine went to the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive . [ 47 ] In the East Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [ 48 ] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid, and socially mobile; in it, Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [ 49 ] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria in 297, as well as under Galerius in Mesopotamia in 298–299. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] By late 305, according to some, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi . [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's " Great Persecution ", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. [ 53 ] [ 54 ] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned and Diocletian accepted the imperial court's demands for universal persecution. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia s new church, condemned its scriptures to the flames, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [ 59 ] It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [ 60 ] In his later writings, he attempted to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "Worshippers of God", [ 61 ] [ 62 ] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [ 63 ] On 1 May 305 Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–305, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same. [ 64 ] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to augusti , while Severus and Maximinus , Galerius' nephew, were appointed their caesars respectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. [ 67 ] Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [ 70 ] In the West Constantine recognised the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the West. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, hamstringing every horse in his wake. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305. [ 71 ] From Bononia they crossed the English Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. [ 72 ] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. [ 73 ] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine as emperor. The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; [ 74 ] Hispania , which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [ 75 ] Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [ 74 ] The portrait was wreathed in bay . [ 76 ] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [ 77 ] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait and messenger on fire. [ 78 ] His advisers calmed him and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [ 79 ] Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "caesar" rather than "augustus" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [ 80 ] Reign Constantine's share of the empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, and he commanded one of the largest Roman armies which was stationed along the important Rhine frontier. [ 81 ] He remained in Britain after his promotion to emperor, driving back the tribes of the Picts and securing his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and he ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [ 82 ] He then left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. [ 83 ] The Franks learned of Constantine's acclamation and invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–307. [ 84 ] He drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured kings Ascaric and Merogais ; the kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier Amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations which followed. [ 85 ] Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and he began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall and a massive imperial bathhouse. He sponsored many building projects throughout Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ). [ 88 ] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed a tolerant policy towards Christianity, although he was not yet a Christian. He probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution [ 89 ] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" Galerius. [ 90 ] He decreed a formal end to persecution and returned to Christians all that they had lost under the first of the persecuting edicts. [ 91 ] Constantine was largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him; he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda, which gave as much coverage to his father's deeds as to his. [ 92 ] His military skill and building projects, however, soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favourably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [ 93 ] Constantinian coinage, sculpture, and oratory also show a tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. He minted a coin issue after his victory over the Alemanni which depicts weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen, "the Alemanni conquered" beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". [ 94 ] There was little sympathy for these enemies; as his panegyrist declared, "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." [ 95 ] Maxentius's rebellion Following Galerius's recognition of Constantine as caesar, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot and lamented his own powerlessness. [ 96 ] Maxentius, envious of Constantine's authority, [ 97 ] seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognise him but failed to unseat him. Severus was sent against Maxentius in April 307, [ 98 ] but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius' father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. [ 99 ] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine and elevate him to augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted and married Fausta in Trier in summer 307. [ n ] Constantine gave Maxentius his meagre support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [ 103 ] Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307 he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; [ 104 ] now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people and strengthened his power base in the West. [ 105 ] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–308 but soon fell out with his son. In early 308, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [ 106 ] On 11 November 308 Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell-Carnuntum , Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to caesar. Licinius , one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed augustus in the western regions. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion and continued to style himself as augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of augustus and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the augusti", [ 107 ] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as augusti. [ 108 ] Maximian's rebellion In 310 a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. When Constantine heard of the rebellion, he abandoned his campaign against the Franks and marched his army up the Rhine. [ 110 ] At Cabillunum ( Chalon-sur-Saône ), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ). [ 111 ] Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself . [ 110 ] In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [ 112 ] He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [ 113 ] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [ 114 ] Along with using propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. [ 115 ] The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder Emperor Maximian and needed a new source of legitimacy. [ 116 ] In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasises Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [ 117 ] Indeed, the orator emphasises ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favour, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [ 118 ] The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo, Constantine recognised himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", [ 119 ] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [ 120 ] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo. [ 121 ] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [ 122 ] Civil wars War against Maxentius .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Battles of Constantine I v t e Civil wars of the Tetrarchy Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis German and Sarmatian campaigns Segusio Turin Brescia Verona Milvian Bridge Cibalae Mardia Adrianople Hellespont Byzantium Chrysopolis By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [ 123 ] His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration. [ 124 ] Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise: "Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight." [ 125 ] Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation, [ 126 ] destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy. [ 127 ] Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . [ 128 ] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [ 129 ] He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect Eusebius as bishop of Rome . [ 130 ] Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; [ 132 ] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. [ 133 ] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, [ 134 ] even among Christian Italians. [ 135 ] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [ 136 ] To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, [ 137 ] Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted. [ 138 ] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [ 139 ] Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; [ 140 ] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens. [ 141 ] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, [ 142 ] ignored all these cautions. [ 143 ] Early in the spring of 312, [ 144 ] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. [ 145 ] The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy. [ 144 ] At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [ 146 ] In the ensuing Battle of Turin Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [ 147 ] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [ 148 ] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ). [ 149 ] Brescia's army was easily dispersed, [ 150 ] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona where a large Maxentian force was camped. [ 151 ] Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, [ 152 ] was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [ 153 ] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. [ 154 ] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia , [ 155 ] Mutina ( Modena ), [ 156 ] and Ravenna . [ 157 ] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [ 158 ] Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege. [ 159 ] He still controlled Rome's Praetorian Guard , was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, [ 160 ] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. [ 161 ] Constantine progressed slowly [ 162 ] along the Via Flaminia , [ 163 ] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. [ 162 ] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. [ 164 ] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [ 165 ] On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [ 166 ] Milvian Bridge Maxentius' forces were still twice the size of Constantine's, and he organised them in long lines facing the battle plain with their backs to the river. [ 167 ] Constantine's army arrived on the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on their standards and their shields. [ 168 ] According to Lactantius "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ. Having this sign (☧), his troops stood to arms." [ 169 ] Eusebius describes a vision that Constantine had while marching at midday in which "he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, In Hoc Signo Vinces " ("In this sign thou shalt conquer"). [ 170 ] In Eusebius' account, Constantine had a dream the following night in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign and told him to make an army standard in the form of the labarum . [ 171 ] Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, [ 172 ] but it enters his narrative before the war begins against Maxentius. [ 173 ] He describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ) to form ☧, representing the first two letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos). [ 174 ] [ 175 ] A medallion was issued at Ticinum in 315 which shows Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , [ 176 ] and coins issued at Siscia in 317/318 repeat the image. [ 177 ] The figure was otherwise rare and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s. [ 178 ] It was not completely unknown, however, being an abbreviation of the Greek word chrēston (good), having previously appeared on the coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes in the 3rd century BC. Following Constantine, centuries of Christians invoked the miraculous or the supernatural when justifying or describing their warfare. [ 179 ] Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [ 167 ] The battle was brief, [ 180 ] and Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [ 181 ] His horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but they broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them and attempted to cross the bridge of boats ( Ponte Milvio ), but he was pushed into the Tiber and drowned by the mass of his fleeing soldiers. [ 182 ] In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 [ 184 ] [ 185 ] and staged a grand adventus in the city which was met with jubilation. [ 186 ] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated, and his head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [ 187 ] After the ceremonies, the disembodied head was sent to Carthage, and Carthage offered no further resistance. [ 188 ] Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . [ 189 ] However, he did visit the Senatorial Curia Julia , [ 190 ] and he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government; there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. [ 191 ] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant that his name would be listed first in all official documents, [ 192 ] and they acclaimed him as "the greatest augustus". [ 193 ] He issued decrees returning property that was lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [ 194 ] An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was purged from all public places. He was written up as a "tyrant" and set against an idealised image of Constantine the "liberator". Eusebius is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [ 195 ] Maxentius' rescripts were declared invalid, and the honours that he had granted to leaders of the Senate were also invalidated. [ 196 ] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by him were rededicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . [ 197 ] At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue was erected of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand. Its inscription bore the message which the statue illustrated: "By this sign, Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant." [ 198 ] Constantine also sought to upstage Maxentius' achievements. For example, the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its seating capacity was 25 times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia . [ 199 ] Maxentius' strongest military supporters were neutralised when Constantine disbanded the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard . [ 200 ] The tombstones of the Imperial Horse Guard were ground up and used in a basilica on the Via Labicana , [ 201 ] and their former base was redeveloped into the Lateran Basilica on 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. [ 202 ] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Albano Laziale , [ 196 ] and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [ 203 ] Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan , [ 204 ] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the empire. [ 205 ] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalising their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas . [ 206 ] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar; [ 207 ] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed. [ 208 ] In either 314 or 316 the two augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius' son Licinius Junior were made caesars . [ 209 ] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323, defeating and killing their leader Rausimod . [ 207 ] In 320 Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan and began to oppress Christians anew, [ 210 ] generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office-holders. [ 211 ] Although this characterisation of Licinius as anti-Christian is somewhat doubtful, the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine. Therefore, Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general, [ 212 ] as the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen . [ 213 ] This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Constantine's Christian eulogists present the war as a battle between Christianity and paganism; Licinius, aided by Gothic mercenaries, represented the past and ancient paganism, while Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum . [ citation needed ] Outnumbered but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martinian , his magister officiorum , as nominal augustus in the West, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. [ 214 ] Licinius and Martinian surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius' son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was killed in 326. [ 215 ] Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [ 216 ] Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Diocletian had chosen Nicomedia in the East as his capital during the Tetrarchy [ 218 ] —not far from Byzantium, well situated to defend Thrace, Asia, and Egypt, all of which had required his military attention. [ 219 ] Constantine had recognised the shift of the empire from the remote and depopulated [ why? ] West to the richer cities of the East, and the military strategic importance of protecting the Danube from barbarian excursions and Asia from a hostile Persia in choosing his new capital [ 220 ] as well as being able to monitor shipping traffic between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. [ 221 ] Licinius' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival centre of pagan and Greek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian and Latin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as a centre of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 222 ] Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica (present-day Sofia ), as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome ". [ 223 ] Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered. [ 224 ] Eventually, however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism during the preceding century by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance. [ 225 ] The city was thus founded in 324, [ 226 ] dedicated on 11 May 330 [ 226 ] and renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English). Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honour the event. The new city was later protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. [ 227 ] The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see led him on a circuit of the new walls. [ 228 ] The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the "New Rome of Constantinople". [ 216 ] [ 229 ] Religion and religious policy Saint Constantine the Great Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia , section: Maria as patroness of Constantinople, detail: donor portrait of Emperor Constantine I with a model of the city Emperor and Equal to the Apostles Resting place Constantinople Venerated in Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Catholicism Oriental Orthodoxy Anglican Communion Lutheran Church Major shrine Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantinople Feast 21 May Constantine was the first emperor to stop the persecution of Christians and to legalise Christianity, along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire. In February 313, he met with Licinius in Milan and developed the Edict of Milan, which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow their faith without oppression. [ 230 ] This removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many had been martyred previously , and it returned confiscated Church property. The edict protected all religions from persecution, not only Christianity, allowing anyone to worship any deity that they chose. A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, which granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them. [ 231 ] The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned, as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians. Some scholars think that Helena adopted Christianity as an adult, and according to Eusebius she was converted by Constantine, [ 232 ] but other historians debate whether Constantine adopted his mother Helena's Christianity in his youth or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. [ 233 ] Constantine possibly retained the title of pontifex maximus which emperors bore as heads of the ancient Roman religion until Gratian renounced the title. [ 234 ] [ 235 ] According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 years old when he finally declared himself a Christian, making it clear that he owed his successes only to the protection of the Christian God. [ 236 ] Despite these declarations of being a Christian, he waited to be baptised until on his deathbed, believing that the baptism would release him of any sins he committed in the course of carrying out his policies while emperor. [ 237 ] He supported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy (such as exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, and returned property confiscated during the long period of persecution. [ 238 ] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old St. Peter's Basilica . In constructing the Old St. Peter's Basilica, Constantine went to great lengths to erect the basilica on top of St. Peter 's resting place, so much so that it even affected the design of the basilica, including the challenge of erecting it on the hill where St. Peter rested, making its complete construction time over 30 years from the date Constantine ordered it to be built. Constantine might not have patronised Christianity alone. A triumphal arch was built in 315 to celebrate his victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge which was decorated with images of the goddess Victoria , and sacrifices were made to pagan gods at its dedication, including Apollo , Diana , and Hercules . Absent from the arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism. However, the arch was commissioned by the Senate, so the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt. [ 239 ] In 321, he legislated that the venerable Sunday should be a day of rest for all citizens. [ 240 ] In 323, he issued a decree banning Christians from participating in state sacrifices. [ 241 ] After the pagan gods had disappeared from his coinage, Christian symbols appeared as Constantine's attributes, the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, [ 242 ] as well on the coinage. [ 243 ] The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the emperor to have great influence and authority in the early Christian councils, most notably the dispute over Arianism. Constantine disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring to establish an orthodoxy. [ 244 ] His influence over the Church councils was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity; the Church's role was to determine proper worship, doctrines, and dogma. [ 245 ] North African bishops struggled with Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian from 313 to 316. The African bishops could not come to terms, and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute. Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa. In 317, Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile. [ 246 ] More significantly, in 325 he summoned the First Council of Nicaea, most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed . [ 247 ] He enforced the council's prohibition against celebrating the Lord's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover , which marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition. From then on, the solar Julian calendar was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire. [ 248 ] Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews; some of them were unfavourable towards Jews, although they were not harsher than those of his predecessors. [ 249 ] It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity. [ 249 ] They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. [ 250 ] [ 251 ] On the other hand, Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. [ 249 ] [ 252 ] Administrative reforms Beginning in the mid-3rd century, the emperors began to favour members of the equestrian order over senators, who had a monopoly on the most important offices of the state. Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships, as it was felt that they lacked the specialised military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs; [ 253 ] such posts were given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues, following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. The emperors, however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement. In 326 Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy; at the same time, he elevated the rank of existing equestrian office-holders to senator, degrading the equestrian order in the process (at least as a bureaucratic rank). [ 254 ] The title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid- or low-level officials by the end of the 4th century. By the new Constantinian arrangement, one could become a senator by being elected praetor or by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank. [ 255 ] From then on, holding actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. Constantine gained the support of the old nobility with this, [ 256 ] as the Senate was allowed to elect praetors and quaestors in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating magistrates ( adlectio ). An inscription in honour of city prefect Ceionius Rufus Albinus states that Constantine had restored the Senate "the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar's time". [ 257 ] The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless, the senators had been marginalised as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century but could dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats. [ 258 ] Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianised imperial rule; [ 259 ] however, such an interpretation remains conjectural, given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre-Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu. Some historians suggest that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed. [ 260 ] Constantine's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration. The military chiefs had risen from the ranks since the Crisis of the Third Century [ 261 ] but remained outside the Senate, in which they were included only by Constantine's children. [ 262 ] Monetary reforms In the 3rd century the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses resulted in runaway inflation , and Diocletian tried unsuccessfully to re-establish trustworthy minting of silver coins, as well as silver-bronze " billon " coins (the term "billon" meaning an alloy of precious and base metals that is mostly base metal). Silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Constantine stopped minting the Diocletianic "pure" silver argenteus soon after 305, while the "billon" currency continued to be used until the 360s. From the early 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of the gold solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold. New and highly debased silver pieces continued to be issued during his later reign and after his death, in a continuous process of retariffing, until this "billon" minting ceased in 367, and the silver piece was continued by various denominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis . [ 263 ] These bronze pieces continued to be devalued, assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard. The author of De Rebus Bellicis held that the rift widened between classes because of this monetary policy; the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece, while the poor had to cope with ever-degrading bronze pieces. [ 264 ] Later emperors such as Julian the Apostate insisted on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency. [ 265 ] Constantine's monetary policies were closely associated with his religious policies; increased minting was associated with the confiscation of all gold, silver, and bronze statues from pagan temples between 331 and 336 which were declared to be imperial property. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting the statues and melting them for immediate minting, with the exception of a number of bronze statues that were used as public monuments in Constantinople. [ 266 ] Executions of Crispus and Fausta Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola ( Pula , Croatia) sometime between 15 May and 17 June 326. [ 267 ] In July, he had his wife Empress Fausta (stepmother of Crispus) killed in an overheated bath. [ 268 ] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives were eradicated from the literary record, and their memory was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited out any praise of Crispus from later copies of Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus. [ 269 ] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events, and the few that do are of later provenance and are generally unreliable. [ 270 ] At the time of the executions it was commonly believed that Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus or was spreading rumours to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to the Hippolytus – Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities; [ 271 ] the largely fictional Passion of Artemius explicitly makes this connection. [ 272 ] The myth rests on slim evidence as an interpretation of the executions; only late and unreliable sources allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta, and there is no evidence for the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected. [ 271 ] Although Constantine created his apparent heirs "caesars", following a pattern established by Diocletian, he gave his creations a hereditary character, alien to the tetrarchic system: Constantine's caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to empire and entirely subordinated to their augustus, as long as he was alive. [ 273 ] Adrian Goldsworthy speculates an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was Constantine's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs, this—and Fausta's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half-brother—being reason enough for killing Crispus; the subsequent execution of Fausta, however, was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in "killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary". [ 274 ] Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. In 328, construction was completed on Constantine's Bridge at Sucidava , (today Celei in Romania ) [ 275 ] in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food reportedly cost the Goths dearly before they submitted to Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. [ 276 ] Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine reconquered the South of Dacia and the new frontier in Dacia was along the wall and ditch called Brazda lui Novac line supported by new castra . [ 277 ] Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336. [ 278 ] In the last years of his life, Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. [ 279 ] The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, Prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 301) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptised in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–337, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off, however, when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337. [ 280 ] Illness and death From his recent illness, Constantine knew death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , which he had built in Constantinople, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. [ 281 ] It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. [ 282 ] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis ( Altınova ), on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia (present-day Gulf of İzmit ). Once in Helenopolis, in a church he had built in honour of Lucian the Martyr , he began to pray and offer supplications for God. He soon felt that his life was ending and desired to seek purification of the sins he had committed through baptism. Making his way to the suburbs of Nicomedia, where he summoned the local bishops. [ 283 ] He then told them of his hope to be baptised in the Jordan River , where Christ was baptised, yet praises God, knowing that it is fitting for him to receive the blessing here instead. He then professed the desire to live the rest of his life united with the people of God and His Church. The bishops, Eusebius records, "the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual manner". [ 284 ] He chose the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptiser. [ 285 ] It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [ 286 ] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha (or Easter ), on 22 May 337. [ 287 ] Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian (a nephew of Constantine), writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". [ 288 ] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; [ 289 ] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; [ 290 ] and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . [ 291 ] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [ 292 ] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, [ 293 ] in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . [ 294 ] His body survived the plundering of the city during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 but was destroyed at some point afterwards. [ 295 ] A fragment of a sarcophagus that is believed to be Constantine's is currently on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums . Constantine was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans . His sons, along with his nephew Dalmatius , had already received one division of the empire each to administer as caesars; Constantine may have intended his successors to resume a structure akin to Diocletian's Tetrarchy. [ 296 ] A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of caesar) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian. [ 297 ] Assessment and legacy Constantine reunited the empire under one emperor, and he won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–308, the Franks again in 313–314, the Goths in 332, and the Sarmatians in 334. By 336, he had reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. [ 298 ] In the cultural sphere, Constantine revived the clean-shaven face fashion of earlier emperors, originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus (236–183 BC) and changed into the wearing of the beard by Hadrian (r. 117–138). With some departures, such as Julian the Apostate (r. 360–363), this new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas (r. 602–610) in the 7th century. [ 299 ] [ 300 ] [ better source needed ] The Holy Roman Empire reckoned Constantine among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it became a great honour for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine"; ten emperors carried the name, including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. [ 301 ] Charlemagne used monumental Constantinian forms in his court to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne, Henry VIII , Philip II of Spain , Godfrey of Bouillon , the House of Capet , the House of Habsburg , the House of Stuart , the Macedonian dynasty and the Phokas family claimed descent from Constantine. [ 302 ] [ 303 ] [ 304 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth embroidered a tale that the legendary king of Britain, King Arthur , was also a descendant of Constantine. [ 305 ] Constantine acquired a mythic role as a hero and warrior against heathens. His reception as a saint seems to have spread within the Byzantine empire during wars against the Sasanian Persians and the Muslims in the late 6th and 7th century. [ 306 ] The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the 11th and 12th centuries. [ 307 ] During the Fascist period in Italy in the 20th century , parallels between Constantine and Mussolini became especially popular after the signing of the Lateran Pacts by the Italian State and the Catholic Church in 1929. Mussolini's perceived role in bringing about the historic agreement was sometimes even explicitly compared to Constantine's Edict of Milan. For example, the archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Ildefonso Schuster , claimed that, after sixteen centuries, a second March on Rome had occurred and a second 'religious pact' had been established, linking Mussolini to the spiriti magni of both Constantine and Augustus . [ 308 ] The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is named in honour of him. A large cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš, but the project was cancelled. [ 309 ] In 2012, a memorial was erected in Niš in his honour. The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013. [ 310 ] Constantine is sometimes associated with the religiopolitical ideology known as Caesaropapism , which epitomises the unity of church and state. However, his association with this ideology has been debated. [ 311 ] Veneration as a saint Constantine is commemorated annually as a saint by most, if not all, Eastern Christian Churches . The Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Greek Catholic Churches venerate Saint Constantine (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος) as isapostolos (ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles . [ 312 ] He and his mother, Saint Helena, are commemorated on 21 May, [ 313 ] with liturgical propers composed for the Horologion (e.g., Great Vespers ) [ 314 ] and Divine Liturgy . [ 315 ] Several Orthodox monasteries, shrines and churches claim to have first-class relics of Constantine. [ 316 ] The Coptic Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Constantine on 28 Parmouti . [ 317 ] The Armenian Apostolic Church commemorates Saint Constantine and Saint Helena on the Tuesday of the fourth week after Pentecost. [ 318 ] The Armenian Catholic Church commemorates both on 1 July. Constantine is not recognized officially as a saint in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church , although he had been referred to as piissimi Imperatoris (most pious Emperor) in editions of the Martyrologium Romanum up until the 1956 edition. Historiography During Constantine's lifetime, Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius , pagan authors, showered Constantine with praise, presenting him as a paragon of virtue. His nephew and son-in-law Julian the Apostate, however, wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia in 361, after the last of his sons died; it denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. [ 319 ] Following Julian, Eunapius began – and Zosimus continued – a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the empire through his indulgence to the Christians. [ 320 ] During the Middle Ages , European and Near-East Byzantine writers presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. [ 320 ] The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of his career. German humanist Johannes Leunclavius discovered Zosimus' writings and published a Latin translation in 1576. In its preface, he argues that Zosimus' picture of Constantine offered a more balanced view than that of Eusebius and the Church historians. [ 321 ] Cardinal Caesar Baronius criticised Zosimus, favouring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. [ 322 ] Edward Gibbon aimed to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship in his work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) by contrasting the portraits presented by Eusebius and Zosimus. [ 323 ] He presents a noble war hero who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age, "degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch". [ 324 ] Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853, rev. 1880). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. [ 325 ] Henri Grégoire followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine in the 1930s, suggesting that Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius's Vita , and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. [ 326 ] Otto Seeck 's Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–1923) and André Piganiol 's L'empereur Constantin (1932) go against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presents Constantine as a sincere war hero whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. [ 327 ] Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. [ 328 ] Related histories by Arnold Hugh Martin Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969) give portraits of a less visionary and more impulsive Constantine. [ 329 ] These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Norman H. Baynes began a historiographic tradition with Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) which presents Constantine as a committed Christian, reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), and Timothy Barnes 's Constantine and Eusebius (1981) is the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. [ 330 ] Charles Matson Odahl's Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. [ 331 ] In spite of Barnes' work, arguments continue over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion. [ 332 ] Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T. G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. [ 333 ] Paul Veyne 's 2007 work Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien holds a similar view which does not speculate on the origin of Constantine's Christian motivation, but presents him as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed that he was meant "to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity". [ 334 ] Peter Heather argues that it is most plausible that Constantine had been a Christian considerably before 312 – possibly even for his entire life – with the public timeline of events instead reflecting his "coming out" as Christian in stages as doing so became politically viable. As a parallel illustrating the cogency of this interpretation, Heather gestures to the later conversion of Constantine's nephew Julian from Christianity to Hellenism, after which he practiced in secret for a decade. [ 335 ] Donation of Constantine Latin Christians considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptised only on his death bed by an unorthodox bishop, and a legend emerged by the early 4th century that Pope Sylvester I had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptised and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Basilica . [ 336 ] [ 337 ] The Donation of Constantine appeared in the 8th century, most likely during the pontificate of Pope Stephen II , in which the freshly converted Constantine gives "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Sylvester and his successors. [ 338 ] In the High Middle Ages , [ 339 ] [ 340 ] this document was used and accepted as the basis for the pope's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III [ 341 ] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by Dante Alighieri . [ 342 ] Philologist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the document was indeed a forgery. [ 343 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia During the medieval period, Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people, particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Elen and her son, another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the Emperor Constantine's mother was a Briton, making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . [ 344 ] Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalised Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo-Saxon invasion . [ 345 ] According to Geoffrey, Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius, here a senator, came to Britain. Afraid of the Romans, Cole submits to Roman law so long as he retains his kingship. However, he dies only a month later, and Constantius takes the throne himself, marrying Cole's daughter Helena. They have their son Constantine, who succeeds his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman emperor. Historically, this series of events is extremely improbable. Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain. [ 45 ] Additionally, no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain, let alone that she was a princess. Henry's source for the story is unknown, though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena. [ 345 ] Family tree v t e CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY detailed family tree v t e Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Afranius Hannibalianus Eutropia Maximian Western emperor Theodora Constantius I Chlorus Western emperor 250-305-306 Helena 250–330 Maxentius Western emperor Constantia 293–330 ∞ Licinius 250-308-324-325 Flavius Dalmatius censor 1. Galla Julius Constantius d. 337 ∞ 2.Basilina Anastasia Eutropia Fausta 289–326 Constantine I the Great 272-306-337 Minervina Dalmatius caesar Hannibalianus (1) Constantius Gallus (2) Julian 331-360-363 Helena d. 360 Constantina ∞ 1. Hannibalianus 2. Constantius Gallus Constantius II 317-337-361 ∞ Faustina Constantine II Western emperor 316-337-340 Constans I Western emperor 320-337-350 (daughter) ∞ Justus Crispus d. 326 Jovian 331-363-364 Marina Severa Valentinian I Western emperor VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY Justina Constantia 361–383 Gratian Western emperor 359-367-383 Galla Theodosius I Eastern emperor THEODOSIAN DYNASTY Family of Constantine the Great Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Constantia Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as Augusti , names with a thicker border appear in both sections 1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Claudius Gothicus 268–270 fabricated ancestry Julia Helena Constantius I 305–306 Constantius I 305–306 Maximiana Theodora Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Flavius Dalmatius Hannibalianus Flavia Julia Constantia Licinius 308–324 Licinius 308–324 Anastasia Bassianus Galla Julius Constantius Basilina Licinius II Eutropia Virius Nepotianus Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Helena Nepotianus 2: Constantine's children Minervina Constantine I 306–337 Constantine I 306–337 Fausta Crispus Constantine II 337–340 Constantine II 337–340 Constans 337–350 Constans 337–350 Hannibalianus Constantina Constantius Gallus Faustina Constantius II 337–361 Constantius II 337–361 Helena Julian 360–363 Julian 360–363 Gratian 367–383 Gratian 367–383 Constantia See also Byzantine Empire portal Saints portal Bronze colossus of Constantine Colossus of Constantine Fifty Bibles of Constantine German and Sarmatian campaigns of Constantine Life of Constantine List of Byzantine emperors List of people known as the great Notes ^ a b Emperor of the East ^ Emperor of the West ^ a b In the West; unrecognised outside Italy ^ Originally emperor of the West; became emperor of the East after 313. ^ a b In the East; nominal emperor of the West. ^ Minervina may have been his concubine . ^ / ˈ k ɒ n s t ən t aɪ n , - t iː n / KON -stən-tyne, -teen ; Latin : Flāvius Valerius Cōnstantīnus , .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} Classical Latin : [konstanˈtiːnus] ; Koine Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος , romanized: Kōnstantînos ^ With the possible exception of Philip the Arab ( r. 244–249 ). See Philip the Arab and Christianity . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] ^ Constantine was not baptised until just before his death. [ 3 ] ^ Constantine's age at the time of his death was 65 years and 3 months, as recorded by Eustathius . Socrates , Sozomen , Zonaras , Skoutariotes , Theophanes , Symeon and Kedrenos all record 65 years. Eutropius and Jerome ( c. 380) give 66 years, as Latin writers often used inclusive counting . Aurelius Victor gives 62, likely a corruption of .mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%} lxvi into lxii , and his epitomer further corrupts the number into 63 ( lxiii ), while also computing his regnal years wrong. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] ^ The claim that Constantius descended from Claudius Gothicus , and thus also from the Flavian dynasty , is most certainly a fabrication. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] His family probably adopted the name "Flavius" after being granted citizenship by one of the Flavian emperors, as it was common for "new Romans" to adopt the names of their benefactors. [ 25 ] ^ On the other hand, Timothy Barnes argues that when ancient writers used the words Illyricum and Thrace / Thracians to describe where Constantius came from, they were speaking of broad geographic terms rather than precise origins. [ 28 ] ^ Constantius' regnal name is attested as both "Gaius Flavius Constantius" and "Marcus Flavius Constantius". However, the latter is almost certainly the correct form, as it was also the praenomen of his adopted father Maximian. [ 32 ] ^ The event is the focus of the Panegyrici Latini VI. The exact chronology of events is uncertain. Constantine and Fausta's wedding is sometimes dated to 31 March, but this is probably a mistake. It probably took place in September 307. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] [ 102 ] Citations ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "The First Christian Roman Emperor: Philip or Constantine?" . Rome and the Arabs . Dumbarton Oaks . pp. 65– 93. ^ Pohlsander, Hans A. (1980). "Philip the Arab and Christianity" . Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte . 29 (4): 463– 473. ISSN 0018-2311 . JSTOR 4435734 . ^ Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4742-5467-0 . ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 272. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001 , p. 169; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–91. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–268. ^ Drake 1988 . ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001 , p. 3 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 5; Storch 1971 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005 , pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996 , pp. 162–171. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , p. 26. ^ a b c d e Lenski et al. , pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001 , pp. 6–14. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999 , p. 207. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 225. ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 6, 10. ^ Lieu & Montserrat 1996 , pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999 , pp. 166–167. ^ a b Wienand 2012 , pp. 26–86. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001 , pp. 8–11. ^ a b c Doležal 2022 , pp. 221–237. ^ Bernard 2019 , p. 543. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Odahl 2001 , pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b ; Southern 2001 , p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982 , pp. 39–42; Jones 1978 , pp. 13–14; Lenski et al. , p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14; Rodgers 1989 ; Wright 1987 . ^ Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani" . In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8 . ^ a b Kazhdan 1991 , pp. 524–525. ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris , p. 223. ^ Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF) . Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 124– 145. doi : 10.2307/300873 . ISSN 0075-4358 . JSTOR 300873 . S2CID 162435434 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020. ^ Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the " Illyrian Emperors ", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them." ^ Odahl 2001 , pp. 36-41 . ^ Barnes 2011 , p. 30 . ^ Tougher, Shaun (2007). Julian the Apostate . Edinburgh University Press. doi : 10.1515/9781474473286 . ISBN 9780748618873 . ^ a b Otto Seeck : " Constantius 1 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ a b c Conrad Benjamin: " Constantinus 2 " (in German) . In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart, 1900, col. 1013–1026. ^ Barnes 1982 , p. 5. ^ Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History . Routledge . p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4 . ^ MacMullen 1969 , p. 21. ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 16–17. ^ Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire . Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9 . ^ Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta . BRILL. pp. 9– 17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8 . ^ Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia . SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7 . Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982 , p. 39–40; Elliott 1996 , p. 17; Lenski et al. , pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001 , p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East . New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 8–14; Lenski et al. , pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997 , pp. 14–15. ^ Bowman 2005 , p. 70; Potter 2004 , p. 283. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , p. 3; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Lenski et al. , pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 14. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981 , pp. 13, 290 ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al. , pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996 , p. 20; Odahl 2001 , pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997 , p. 17. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Lenski et al. , pp. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72, 301. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 73–74; Fowden 1988 , pp. 175–176. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum , 16.2 ^ a b Elliott 1996 , pp. 29–30; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74. ^ Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Elliott 1996 , p. 30; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Elliott 1996 , pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969 , p. 24; Odahl 2001 , p. 67; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 21; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004 , p. 338. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001 , pp. 67–69; Potter 2004 , p. 337. ^ MacMullen 1969 , pp. 24–25. ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25 ^ Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Elliott 1987 , pp. 425–426; Lenski et al. , p. 126. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 25–27; Lenski et al. , p. 60; Odahl 2001 , pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15; Potter 2004 , pp. 341–342. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6 ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 26; Potter 2004 , p. 342. ^ Lenski et al. , pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001 , pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a , p. 15. ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21 ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32; Odahl 2001 , p. 73. ^ Lenski et al. , p. 61. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 27; Elliott 1987 , pp. 39–40; Lenski et al. , p. 61; Odahl 2001 , p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16; Potter 2004 , pp. 344–345; Southern 2001 , pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969 , p. 32. ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a , pp. 15–16. ^ Alföldi 1948 , pp. 233–234; Southern 2001 , pp. 170, 341. ^ a b Barnes 1981 , pp. 27–29; Jones 1978 , p. 59; Lenski et al. , pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59. ^ Jones 1978 , p. 59; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39. ^ Treadgold 1997 , p. 28. ^ Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire . [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1 . OCLC 1059411020 . ^ Barnes 1981 , pp. 28–29; Rees 2002 , p. 160; Lenski et al. , p. 62; Odahl 2001 , pp. 78–80. ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 29; Elliott 1996 , p. 41; Jones 1978 , p. 41; MacMullen 1969 , p. 39; Odahl 2001 , pp. 79–80. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 16–17. ^ Odahl, 80–81. ^ Odahl, 81. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 39; Odahl, 81–82. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine , 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. ^ Odahl, 82–83. ^ "Detail :: Last Statues of Antiquity" . laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk . ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier ." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311. ^ Odahl, 86. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 28. ^ Rodgers, 236. ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine , 40. ^ Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine , 39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. ^ Barnes, New Empire , 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349. ^ Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini . University of California Press. pp. 180– 185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8 . The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii . ^ Rees 2002 , p. 165 . ^ Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary . University of Cape Town. pp. 6– 14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 15–16. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 33; Jones, 61. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 17; Potter, 352. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 34. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 20. ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40–41, 305. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. ^ Potter, 352. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–315; Potter, 352–353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 304; Jones, 66. ^ Eusebius (1965). The History of the Church . Penguin Classics. p. 278. ISBN 0-14-044535-8 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44; Odahl, 96. ^ Odahl, 96. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38; Odahl, 96. ^ Hillner, Julia (2017). "Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius". Constantia . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 . ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 37–39. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine , 62. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 40; Curran, 66. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine , 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine , 65. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. ^ Curran, 67. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 70–71. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Odahl, 101. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 101–102. ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 102, 317–318. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 41–42; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–104. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine , 71; Odahl, 104. ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. ^ Jones, 71. ^ Odahl, 104. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 72; Odahl, 107. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. ^ a b Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43, 306; Odahl, 105–106, 319–320. ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. ^ Cameron and Hall, 208. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 306; MacMullen, Constantine , 73; Odahl, 319. ^ Cameron and Hall, 206–207; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71, citing Roman Imperial Coinage 7 Ticinum 36. ^ R. Ross Holloway, Constantine and Rome (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 3, citing Kraft, "Das Silbermedaillon Constantins des Grosses mit dem Christusmonogram auf dem Helm", Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte 5–6 (1954/55): 151–178. ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. ^ Rowley, Matthew; Hodgson, Natasha R., eds. (2022). Miracles, political authority and violence in medieval and early modern history . Themes in medieval and early modern history. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-367-76728-0 . ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68. ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 78. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Head of the bronze colossus , Capitoline Museums ^ Barnes 1981 , p. 44 . ^ MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 108. ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine , 78; Odahl, 108. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44–45. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine , 81; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46; Odahl, 109. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 46. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 44. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45. ^ Curran, 80–83. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 47. ^ Curran, 83–85. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. ^ Curran, 101. ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum , 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. ^ Odahl, 109. ^ The term is a misnomer as the act of Milan was not an edict, while the subsequent edicts by Licinius—of which the edicts to the provinces of Bythinia and Palestine are recorded by Lactantius and Eusebius, respectively—were not issued in Milan. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 25. ^ Drake, "Impact", 121–123. ^ a b Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 229. ^ Byfield, Ted, ed. The Christians: Their First Two Thousand Years . vol. III. p. 148. "The sign in the sky that changed history" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2016 . Retrieved 5 February 2016 . ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 38–39. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , pp. 41–42. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , pp. 229–230. ^ Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium . Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2010, ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7 , p. 54. ^ Philip Schaff, ed., Nicene and Post-nicene Fathers: Second Series . New York: Cosimo, 2007, ISBN 978-1-60206-508-6 , p. 418, footnote 6. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 42–43. ^ Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors , 215. ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine . ^ The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter (60-800 CE): The Anchors of the Fisherman . BRILL. 17 March 2020. p. 36. ISBN 978-90-04-42568-2 . ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 15. ^ Sinnigen & Boak, A History of Rome to A.D. 565 , 6th ed., Macmillan, New York, 1977 pp. 409–310. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries , Penguin Books, Middlesex, 1988, p. 40. ^ Sherrard, ed. Krieger, Byzantium , Silver Burdett Company, Morristown, New Jersey, 1966 p. 18. ^ Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 24. ^ Petrus Patricius excerpta Vaticana , 190: Κωνσταντίνος εβουλεύσατο πρώτον εν Σαρδική μεταγαγείν τά δημόσια· φιλών τε τήν πόλιν εκείνην συνεχώς έλεγεν "η εμή Ρώμη Σαρδική εστι." ^ Ramsey MacMullen, Constantine , Routledge ed., 1987, 149. ^ Dagron, Naissance d'une Capitale , 15/19. ^ a b "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , Oxford University Press , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8 ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD Archived 16 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006). ^ Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica 2.9. ^ According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma or Nea Rhome ). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" ( Deutera Rhome ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. ^ Bowder, Diana (1987). The Age of Constantine and Julian . Barnes & Noble Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-06-490601-2 . ^ See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. ^ Young 2006 , p. 6 and n. 24. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55. ^ " Gratian " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2008. ^ Pontifex Maximus Archived 3 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Livius article by Jona Lendering retrieved 21 August 2011. ^ Peter Brown , The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60. ^ Drake 2000 , p. 395. ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55–56. ^ Robin Lane Fox, apud Jonathan Bardill, Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age . Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76423-0 , p. 307, note 27. ^ Codex Justinianeus 3.12.2. ^ Codex Theodosianus 16.2.5. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , 163. ^ R. 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If a Jew has bought and circumcised a Christian slave or one belonging to any other religious community, he may under no circumstances keep the circumcised person in slavery; rather, whoever suffers such a thing shall obtain the privilege of freedom. ^ Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World . Routledge. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-134-40317-2 . Constantine forbade the circumcision of Christian slaves, and declared any slave circumcised despite this prohibition a free man ^ Cameron, 107. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 241. ^ As equestrian order refers to people of equestrian census that had an actual position in the state bureaucracy, thousands of whom had no state function; cf. Claude Lepelley , "Fine delle' ordine equestre: le tappe delle'unificazione dela classe dirigente romana nel IV secolo", IN Giardina, ed., Società romana e impero tardoantico , Bari: Laterza, 1986, V. 1, quoted by Carrié & Rouselle, p. 660. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247; Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658. ^ Carrié & Rousselle L'Empire Romain , 658–659. ^ Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae , archived from the original on 20 July 2012 , retrieved 5 February 2016 ; Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , p. 659 ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 660. ^ Cf. Arnhein, The Senatorial Aristocracy in the Later Roman Empire , quoted by Perry Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism , 101. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, p.657 citing T. D. Barnes, "Statistics and the Conversion of the Roman Aristocracy", Journal of Roman Studies , 85, 1995. ^ Cf. Paul Veyne, L'Empire Gréco-Romain , 49. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 247. ^ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", 174/175. ^ De Rebus Bellicis , 2. ^ Sandro Mazzarino, according to Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 246. ^ Carrié & Rousselle, L'Empire Romain , 245–246. ^ Guthrie, 325–326. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 70–72. ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 72. ^ Encyclopedia of Roman Empire . MobileReference.com. 2008. ISBN 978-1-60501-314-5 . Retrieved 5 October 2014 . ^ a b Guthrie, 326–327. ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress", 71–72. ^ Christol & Nony, Rome et son Empire , 237/238. ^ Cf. Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell , 189 & 191. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 250. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. ISBN 978-973-8966-70-3 , pp. 64–126. ^ Odahl, 261. ^ Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 258–259. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–148, and Wiemer, 515. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius , 259. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine , 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. ^ Amerise, Marilena (2005). Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande: storia di una scomoda eredità [ The baptism of Constantine the Great: The story of an uncomfortable legacy ]. Hermes: Bulletin for Classical Philology , supplements (in Italian). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08721-6 . ISSN 0341-0064 . 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Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Fletcher, William, trans. Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died . From Ante-Nicene Fathers , Vol. 7. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Libanius , Orationes ( Orations ) c. 362 –365. Optatus , Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum ( Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists ) first edition c. 365 –367, second edition c. 385 . Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Vassall-Phillips, O. R., trans. The Work of St. Optatus Against the Donatists . London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1917. Transcribed at The Tertullian Project by Roger Pearse, 2006. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 9 June 2009. Optatus (1997). Edwards, Mark (ed.). Optatus: Against the Donatists . Translated by Edwards, Mark. doi : 10.3828/978-0-85323-752-5 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-85323-752-5 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) Origo Constantini Imperiatoris ( The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine ) c. 340 –390. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Rolfe, J. C., trans. Excerpta Valesiana , in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' History . Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online at LacusCurtius . Retrieved 16 August 2009. Orosius , Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII ( Seven Books of History Against the Pagans ) c. 417 . XII Panegyrici Latini ( Twelve Latin Panegyircs ) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 433 . Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Walford, Edward, trans. Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople . London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Praxagoras of Athens , Historia ( History of Constantine the Great ) c. 337 . [Fragmentary] Socrates of Constantinople (Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 443 . Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Zenos, A. C., trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 14 August 2009. Sozomen , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 445 . Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Hartranft, Chester D. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Theodoret , Historia Ecclesiastica ( Church History ) c. 448 . Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Jackson, Blomfield, trans. Ecclesiastical History . From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Zosimus , Historia Nova ( New History ) c. 500 . Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Unknown, trans. The History of Count Zosimus . London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online at Tertullian . Retrieved 15 August 2009. Modern sources Alföldi, Andreas (1948) [1948]. The conversion of Constantine and pagan Rome . Translated by Harold Mattingly. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814356-7 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Anderson, Perry (2013) [1974]. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism . Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78168-008-7 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1964). "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine". Journal of the American Academy of Religion . XXXII : 1– 7. doi : 10.1093/jaarel/XXXII.1.1 . Armstrong, Gregory T. (1974). "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians . 33 (1): 5– 16. doi : 10.2307/988835 . JSTOR 988835 . Barnes, T. D. (1973). "Lactantius and Constantine". Journal of Roman Studies . 63 : 29– 46. doi : 10.2307/299163 . JSTOR 299163 . S2CID 163051414 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-16531-1 . Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674280670 . ISBN 978-0-674-28067-0 . S2CID 162343436 . Barnes, T. D. (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia". Journal of Roman Studies . 75 : 126– 136. doi : 10.2307/300656 . JSTOR 300656 . S2CID 162744718 . Barnes, Timothy (2011). Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire . Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1727-2 . Bernard, Outtier; et al. (2019). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient . BRILL. pp. 230– 580. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3 . Bowman, Alan K. (2005). "Diocletian and the first tetrarchy, a.d. 284–305". The Cambridge Ancient History . pp. 67– 89. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.004 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Cameron, Averil (2005). "The Reign of Constantine, a.d. 306–337" . The Cambridge Ancient History . Vol. 12. pp. 90– 109. doi : 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992.005 . ISBN 978-1-139-05392-1 . Carrié, Jean-Michel; Rouselle, Aline (1999). L'Empire Romain en mutation- des Sévères à Constantin, 192–337 . Paris: Seuil. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Christol, Michel ; Nony, D. (2003). Rome et son Empire . Paris: Hachette. ISBN 2-02-025819-6 . Corcoran, Simon (1996). The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324 . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815304-X . Curran, John (2000). Pagan City and Christian Capital (Hardcover ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815278-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Dagron, Gilbert (1984). Naissance d'une Capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 a 451 . Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. ISBN 2-13-038902-3 . Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome . London: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3594-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire . Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 . Downey, Glanville (1957). "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors". Speculum . 32 (1): 48– 61. doi : 10.2307/2849245 . JSTOR 2849245 . S2CID 161904593 . Drake, H. A. (1988). "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini" ". Classical Philology . 83 : 20– 38. doi : 10.1086/367077 . S2CID 162370910 . Drake, H. A. (1995). "Constantine and Consensus". Church History . 64 (1): 1– 15. doi : 10.2307/3168653 . JSTOR 3168653 . S2CID 163129848 . Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3– 36. doi : 10.1093/past/153.1.3 . Drake, H. A. (2000). Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 . Elliott, T. G. (1987). "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?". Phoenix . 41 (4): 420– 438. doi : 10.2307/1088714 . JSTOR 1088714 . Elliott, T. G. (1991). "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini" ". Phoenix . 45 (2): 162– 171. doi : 10.2307/1088553 . JSTOR 1088553 . Elliott, T. G. (1996). The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, Pennsylvania: University of Scranton Press. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 . Fowden, Garth (1988). "Between Pagans and Christians". Journal of Roman Studies . 78 : 173– 182. doi : 10.2307/301456 . JSTOR 301456 . S2CID 163374397 . Fowden, Garth (1994). "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and their Influence". Journal of Roman Studies . 84 : 146– 170. doi : 10.2307/300874 . JSTOR 300874 . S2CID 161959828 . Fubini, Riccardo (1996). "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes Against the Donation of Constantine". Journal of the History of Ideas . 57 : 79– 86. doi : 10.1353/jhi.1996.0004 . S2CID 170927536 . Gibbon, Edward (1952) [1789]. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. in 2 volumes. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009). How Rome Fell . Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . Grant, Robert M. (1975). "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea". The Journal of Religion . 55 : 1– 12. doi : 10.1086/486406 . S2CID 170410226 . Guthrie, Patrick (1966). "The Execution of Crispus". Phoenix . 20 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.2307/1087057 . JSTOR 1087057 . Helgeland, John (1974). "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337". Church History . 43 (2): 149– 163. doi : 10.2307/3163949 . JSTOR 3163949 . S2CID 162376477 . Jones, A. H. M. ; J. R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire . Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6 . Jordan, David P. (1969). "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome". History and Theory . 8 (1): 71– 96. doi : 10.2307/2504190 . JSTOR 2504190 . Kazhdan, Alexander P. , ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6 . Jones, A. H. M. (1978) [1948]. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe . Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6369-4 . Lenski, Noel; et al. (2006). The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine . New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52157-4 . Lieu, Samuel N. C. ; Montserrat, Dominic (1996). From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History . New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09335-4 . MacKay, Christopher S. (1999). "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian". Classical Philology . 94 (2): 198– 209. doi : 10.1086/449431 . S2CID 161141658 . MacMullen, Ramsay (1969). Constantine . New York: Dial Press. ISBN 0-7099-4685-6 . Mattingly, David . An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire . London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0 McLay, Denis (2015), "An Examination of the Role of Ossius, Bishop of Córdoba, in the Arian Controversy" , Dissertation – Durham University Nicholson, Oliver (2000). "Constantine's Vision of the Ecross". Vigiliae Christianae . 54 (3): 309– 323. doi : 10.1163/157007200X00189 . Odahl, Charles M. (2001). Constantine and the Christian Empire . London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17485-5 . Pears, Edwin (1909). "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 824". The English Historical Review . XXIV (XCIII): 1– 17. doi : 10.1093/ehr/XXIV.XCIII.1 . Vaudour, Catherine (1984). "La céramique normande". Études Normandes . 33 (2): 79– 106. doi : 10.3406/etnor.1984.2597 . Pohlsander, Hans (2004a). The Emperor Constantine . London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31937-4 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans (2004b). "Constantine I (306–337)" . De Imperatoribus Romanis . Archived from the original on 2 April 2022. Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395 (Hardcover ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7 . Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric . doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249183.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3 . Rodgers, Barbara Saylor (1989). "The Metamorphosis of Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 39 : 233– 246. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800040611 . S2CID 170720156 . Scheidel, Walter. "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires". In Scheidel, ed., Rome and China: Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-975835-7 Seidel, Linda (1976). "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne". Gesta . 15 (1/2): 237– 239. doi : 10.2307/766771 . JSTOR 766771 . S2CID 193434433 . Southern, Pat. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 . Storch, Rudolph H. (1971). "The 'Eusebian Constantine' ". Church History . 40 (2): 145– 155. doi : 10.2307/3162367 . JSTOR 3162367 . S2CID 162937055 . Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society . Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6 . Udoh, Fabian E. "Quand notre monde est devenu chretien", review, Theological Studies , June 2008 Veyne, Paul . L'Empire Gréco-Romain , Paris: Seuil, 2005. ISBN 2-02-057798-4 Veyne, Paul . Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 Warmington, Brian (1999). "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus" . In Drijvers, J.W. (ed.). The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Routledge. pp. 166– 167. ISBN 0-415-20271-X . Weiss, Peter (2003). "The vision of Constantine". Journal of Roman Archaeology . 16 : 237– 259. doi : 10.1017/S1047759400013088 . S2CID 162396067 . Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich (1994). "Libanius on Constantine". The Classical Quarterly . 44 (2): 511– 524. doi : 10.1017/S0009838800043962 . S2CID 170876695 . Wienand, Johannes (2012). Der Kaiser als Sieger . doi : 10.1524/9783050059044 . ISBN 978-3-05-005904-4 . Wienand, Johannes (ed.). Contested Monarchy. Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD . Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015. Williams, Stephen (1997). Diocletian and the Roman Recovery . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 . Woods, David (1998). "On the Death of the Empress Fausta" . Greece and Rome . 45 : 70– 86. doi : 10.1093/gr/45.1.70 . Woods, D. (1997). "Where Did Constantine I Die?". The Journal of Theological Studies . 48 (2): 531– 535. doi : 10.1093/jts/48.2.531 . Wright, David H. (1987). "The True Face of Constantine the Great". Dumbarton Oaks Papers . 41 : 493– 507. doi : 10.2307/1291584 . JSTOR 1291584 . Young, Frances M. (2006). "Prelude: Jesus Christ, Foundation of Christianity". In Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (eds.). Origins to Constantine . The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1– 34. ISBN 978-1-107-42361-9 . Further reading Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Barbero, Alessandro (2016). Costantino il vincitore [Constantine the victor]. Rome: Salerno, ISBN 978-88-6973-138-9 . Baynes, Norman H. (1930). Constantine the Great and the Christian Church . London: Milford. Burckhardt, Jacob (1949). The Age of Constantine the Great . London: Routledge. Cameron, Averil (1993). The later Roman empire: AD 284–430 . London: Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686172-0 . Cowan, Ross (2016). Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Demandt, Alexander ; Engemann, Josef (eds) (2006). Konstantin der Große. Geschichte – Archäologie – Rezeption [Constantine the Great. History – Archaeology – Reception]. Trier: Rheinisches Landesmuseum, ISBN 3-923319-67-3 . Doležal, Stanislav (2022). The Reign of Constantine, 306–337: Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Eadie, John W., ed. (1971). The conversion of Constantine . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083645-9 . Fourlas, Benjamin (2020). "St Constantine and the Army of Heroic Men Raised by Tiberius II Constantine in 574/575. Some Thoughts on the Historical Significance of the Early Byzantine Silver Hoard at Karlsruhe". Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums 62, 2015 [published 2020], 341–375. doi : 10.11588/jrgzm.2015.1.77142 Girardet, Klaus Martin (2010). Der Kaiser und sein Gott. Das Christentum im Denken und in der Religionspolitik Konstantins des Großen [The Emperor and his God. Christianity in the Thought and Religious Policy of Constantine the Great]. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-022788-8 . Goltz, Andreas; Schlange-Schöningen, Heinrich (eds) (2008). Konstantin der Große. Das Bild des Kaisers im Wandel der Zeiten [Constantine the Great. The image of the emperor through the ages]. Köln: Böhlau, ISBN 978-3-412-20192-0 . Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor . York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0-85331-928-3 . Heather, Peter J. " Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms , edited by Thomas F. X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Leithart, Peter J. Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom. Downers Grove: IL, InterVarsity Press 2010 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 . New Haven, Connecticut; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-300-03642-8 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Pelikán, Jaroslav (1987). The excellent empire: the fall of Rome and the triumph of the church . San Francisco: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-254636-4 . Velikov, Yuliyan (2013). Imperator et Sacerdos . Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-932-7 (in Bulgarian) External links Online books Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Complete chronological list of Constantine's extant writings (archived 19 February 2013) Firth, John B. "Constantine the Great, the Reorganisation of the Empire and the Triumph of the Church" . Archived from the original on 15 March 2012 . Retrieved 19 February 2016 . Letters of Constantine: Book 1 , Book 2 , & Book 3 Encyclopædia Britannica, Constantine I Henry Stuart Jones (1911). " Constantine (emperors) ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . 6. (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 988–992. Charles George Herbermann and Georg Grupp (1908). " Constantine the Great ". In Catholic Encyclopedia . 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Constantine the Great Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' Commemorations Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine the Great Milvian Bridge AD 312: Constantine's Battle for Empire and Faith Constantine the Great Constantinian dynasty Born: 27 February 272 Died: 22 May 337 Regnal titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Roman emperor 306–337 With: Galerius , Severus II , Maxentius , Maximian , Licinius , Maximinus II , Valerius Valens & Martinian Succeeded by Constantine II Constantius II Constans Political offices Preceded by Constantius Chlorus Galerius Roman consul 307 with Maximian Succeeded by Diocletian Galerius Preceded by Galerius Maximinus Roman consul II–III 312–313 with Licinius Maximinus Succeeded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Preceded by C. Ceionius Rufius Volusianus Petronius Annianus Roman consul IV 315 with Licinius Succeeded by Antonius Caecina Sabinus Vettius Rufinus Preceded by Licinius Crispus Roman consul V–VI 319–320 with Licinius II Constantine II Succeeded by Crispus Constantine II Preceded by Sex. Anicius Paulinus Julius Julianus Roman consul VII 326 with Constantius II Succeeded by Flavius Constantius Valerius Maximus Preceded by Januarinus Vettius Iustus Roman consul VIII 329 with Constantine II Succeeded by Gallicanus Aurelius Valerius Symmachus Tullianus Legendary titles Preceded by Constantius Chlorus King of Britain Succeeded by Octavius v t e History of the Catholic Church v t e General History of the Catholic Church By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven Catholic Bible Biblical canon Vulgate Crusading movement History of the Roman Curia Religious institutes Christian monasticism Catholic culture Art Role in civilization Vatican City Papal States Latin Church Eastern Catholic Churches History of Catholic theology History of the Catholic Church By country or region By country or region Ecclesiastical history Timeline Papacy Papal primacy Papal primacy Catholic ecumenical councils First seven First 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Andronikos V ) Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos See also Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Gallic emperors (260–274) Palmyrene emperors (271–273) Britannic emperors (286–296) Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461) Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242) Empresses Augustae Usurpers Classical Eastern Classical Eastern Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium United States France BnF data Japan Italy Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Croatia Greece Korea Sweden Poland Vatican Israel Finland Catalonia Belgium Artists ULAN ULAN People Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Trove Deutsche Biographie DDB Other IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX IdRef Open Library SNAC Te Papa (New Zealand) RISM Yale LUX Constantine the Great 272 births 337 deaths 3rd-century births 4th-century Christian saints 4th-century Roman consuls 4th-century Roman emperors Ancient Romans in Britain Angelic visionaries Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles Byzantine royal saints City founders Constantinian dynasty Converts to Christianity from ancient Roman religions Deified Roman emperors Eastern Orthodox saints Filicides Flavii Gothicus Maximus Illyrian emperors Illyrian people Participants in the First Council of Nicaea People from Niš Sons of Roman emperors Tetrarchy Valerii Articles containing Latin-language text Pages with Classical Latin IPA Articles containing Koine Greek-language text Articles with German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Italian-language sources (it) CS1 Greek-language sources (el) Articles containing German-language text Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Use British English from July 2022 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2021 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2024 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images All articles lacking reliable references Articles lacking reliable references from May 2025 Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Welsh-language text CS1 Latin-language sources (la) CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 CS1 errors: ISBN date CS1 maint: ref duplicates default Commons link is locally defined CS1: unfit URL This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 08:54 (UTC) . 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great#cite_note-ReferenceA-221
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Social and Information Networks Title: Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities Abstract: We use the directed networks between articles of 24 Wikipedia language editions for producing the Wikipedia Ranking of World Universities (WRWU) using PageRank, 2DRank and CheiRank algorithms. This approach allows to incorporate various cultural views on world universities using the mathematical statistical analysis independent of cultural preferences. The Wikipedia ranking of top 100 universities provides about 60 percent overlap with the Shanghai university ranking demonstrating the reliable features of this approach. At the same time WRWU incorporates all knowledge accumulated at 24 Wikipedia editions giving stronger highlights for historically important universities leading to a different estimation of efficiency of world countries in university education. The historical development of university ranking is analyzed during ten centuries of their history. Comments: 13 pages, 17 figures, 7 tables. Accepted for publication in Eur. Phys. J. B. Supporting information is available at this http URL Subjects: Social and Information Networks (cs.SI) ; Computers and Society (cs.CY); Physics and Society (physics.soc-ph) Cite as: arXiv:1511.09021 [cs.SI] (or arXiv:1511.09021v2 [cs.SI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Journal reference: Eur. Phys. J. B (2016) 89: 69 Related DOI : Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources Submission history Access Paper: View PDF TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar 1 blog link DBLP - CS Bibliography BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.09021
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Forsíða Úrvalsefni Efnisyfirlit Handahófsvalin síða Hjálp Nýlegar breytingar Nýjustu greinar Samfélagsgátt Potturinn Kerfissíður Fjárframlög Búa til aðgang Skrá inn Fjárframlög Búa til aðgang Skrá inn Wikipedia : Í fréttum... Ænglisc العربية مصرى অসমীয়া Авар अवधी تۆرکجه Башҡортса Bikol Central Беларуская भोजपुरी Banjar Català Нохчийн Cebuano ᏣᎳᎩ کوردی Čeština Чӑвашла Dansk Dagbanli Deutsch डोटेली ދިވެހިބަސް Eʋegbe Ελληνικά English Esperanto Español Euskara Estremeñu فارسی Suomi Føroyskt Français Gaeilge 贛語 گیلکی ગુજરાતી Gaelg 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî हिन्दी Hrvatski Magyar Հայերեն Interlingua Bahasa Indonesia 日本語 ქართული Qaraqalpaqsha Tyap Қазақша 한국어 کٲشُر Kurdî Latina Ladino Lëtzebuergesch Limburgs Lietuvių मैथिली Minangkabau മലയാളം Монгол मराठी Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Эрзянь مازِرونی Nāhuatl Napulitano नेपाली नेपाल भाषा Li Niha Nederlands Occitan Ирон ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Kapampangan Polski Piemontèis پنجابی پښتو Português Română Русский Русиньскый Sicilianu Scots سنڌي සිංහල Slovenščina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Sunda Svenska தமிழ் ತುಳು Тоҷикӣ ไทย Tagalog Татарча / tatarça ChiTumbuka Українська اردو Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча Vepsän kel’ Tiếng Việt Volapük Walon 吴语 ייִדיש Yorùbá Zeêuws 中文 文言 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí 粵語 IsiZulu Síða verkefnis Spjall Lesa Skoða frumkóða Breytingaskrá Lesa Skoða frumkóða Breytingaskrá Hvað tengist hingað Skyldar breytingar Hlaða inn skrá Varanlegur tengill Síðuupplýsingar Fá styttan tengil Sækja QR-kóða Skipta yfir í eldri túlkara Búa til bók Sækja sem PDF Prentvæn útgáfa Wikidata hlutur 3. janúar : Bandaríkin gera loftárásir á Venesúela . Forseti landsins, Nicolás Maduro ( sjá mynd ), er handsamaður og fluttur til New York. 26. desember : Ísrael viðurkennir sjálfstæði Sómalílands , fyrst ríkja. Yfirstandandi: Borgarastyrjöldin í Jemen • Borgarastyrjöldin í Súdan • Innrás Rússa í Úkraínu / Stríð Rússlands og Úkraínu • Stríð Ísraels og Hamas Nýleg andlát : Sturla Böðvarsson (10. janúar) • Magnús Eiríksson (9. janúar) • Guðmundur Oddur Magnússon (3. janúar) • Khaleda Zia (30. desember) • Brigitte Bardot (28. desember) 3. janúar : Bandaríkin gera loftárásir á Venesúela . Forseti landsins, Nicolás Maduro ( sjá mynd ), er handsamaður og fluttur til New York. 26. desember : Ísrael viðurkennir sjálfstæði Sómalílands , fyrst ríkja. Yfirstandandi: Borgarastyrjöldin í Jemen • Borgarastyrjöldin í Súdan • Innrás Rússa í Úkraínu / Stríð Rússlands og Úkraínu • Stríð Ísraels og Hamas Nýleg andlát : Sturla Böðvarsson (10. janúar) • Magnús Eiríksson (9. janúar) • Guðmundur Oddur Magnússon (3. janúar) • Khaleda Zia (30. desember) • Brigitte Bardot (28. desember) Þessari síðu var síðast breytt 15. janúar 2026, klukkan 10:59. Síðan var gerð með Parsoid . Textinn er gefinn út samkvæmt Creative Commons Tilvísun-DeilaEins leyfi . Sjá nánar í notkunarskilmálum . Meðferð persónuupplýsinga Um Wikipediu Fyrirvarar Siðareglur Forritarar Tölfræði Yfirlýsing vegna vefkakna Farsímaútgáfa
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https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:%C3%8D_fr%C3%A9ttum...
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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Astrophysics > High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena Title: Gravitational Waves and Gamma-rays from a Binary Neutron Star Merger: GW170817 and GRB 170817A Abstract: On 2017 August 17, the gravitational-wave event GW170817 was observed by the Advanced LIGO and Virgo detectors, and the gamma-ray burst (GRB) GRB 170817A was observed independently by the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor, and the Anticoincidence Shield for the Spectrometer for the International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory. The probability of the near-simultaneous temporal and spatial observation of GRB 170817A and GW170817 occurring by chance is $5.0\times 10^{-8}$. We therefore confirm binary neutron star mergers as a progenitor of short GRBs. The association of GW170817 and GRB 170817A provides new insight into fundamental physics and the origin of short gamma-ray bursts. We use the observed time delay of $(+1.74 \pm 0.05)\,$s between GRB 170817A and GW170817 to: (i) constrain the difference between the speed of gravity and the speed of light to be between $-3\times 10^{-15}$ and $+7\times 10^{-16}$ times the speed of light, (ii) place new bounds on the violation of Lorentz invariance, (iii) present a new test of the equivalence principle by constraining the Shapiro delay between gravitational and electromagnetic radiation. We also use the time delay to constrain the size and bulk Lorentz factor of the region emitting the gamma rays. GRB 170817A is the closest short GRB with a known distance, but is between 2 and 6 orders of magnitude less energetic than other bursts with measured redshift. A new generation of gamma-ray detectors, and subthreshold searches in existing detectors, will be essential to detect similar short bursts at greater distances. Finally, we predict a joint detection rate for the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor and the Advanced LIGO and Virgo detectors of 0.1--1.4 per year during the 2018-2019 observing run and 0.3--1.7 per year at design sensitivity. Comments: 27 pages, 6 figures, 2 tables Subjects: High Energy Astrophysical Phenomena (astro-ph.HE) ; General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology (gr-qc) Report number: LIGO-P1700308 Cite as: arXiv:1710.05834 [astro-ph.HE] (or arXiv:1710.05834v2 [astro-ph.HE] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite Journal reference: The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 848:L13 (27pp), 2017 October 20 Related DOI : Focus to learn more DOI(s) linking to related resources Submission history Access Paper: View PDF References & Citations INSPIRE HEP NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar 2 blog links BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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https://arxiv.org/abs/1710.05834
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Books 3 Magazines, partworks 4 Directories 5 References 6 External links Marshall Cavendish العربية Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Русский Українська Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Parent company Times Publishing Group Founded 1968 ; 58 years ago ( 1968 ) Founder Norman Marshall and Patrick Cavendish Country of origin Singapore Headquarters location Singapore Official website marshallcavendish .com Marshall Cavendish is a subsidiary company of Times Publishing Group , the printing and publishing subsidiary of Singapore -based conglomerate Fraser and Neave (which in turn currently owned by ThaiBev , a Thai beverage company), and at present is a publisher of books , business directories and magazines . History Marshall Cavendish was established in the United Kingdom in 1968 by Norman Marshall and Patrick Cavendish. [ 1 ] Times Publishing Group acquired it in 1980. In 2011, Amazon Publishing acquired over 450 titles of Marshall Cavendish's US Children's trade books business, Marshall Cavendish Children's Books (MCCB). [ 2 ] In 2013, Roger Rosen of Rosen Publishing acquired the Marshall Cavendish's US Children's library books business. [ 3 ] Books How It Works (later reprinted and updated by H. S. Stuttman Co., Inc.for the US , titled The Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia ) “Malaysian Murders & Mysteries” by Martin Vengadesan and Andrew Sagayam. Magazines, partworks Science Spy Young Generation (YG) Story of Life - published in 105 weekly parts - 1970 - 75 cents per magazine History of the Second World War - published in 96 weekly parts - 1973 - 95 cents a magazine Man and Woman - 1970 - 1976 Story Teller - very popular series of children’s stories with read along magazine narrated on to audio cassettes - first published - January 1983 • Story Teller 2 - sequel to the immensely popular first series -first published in 1984 Discovery: Travel back in time and bring the past to life - (UK) Fortnightly history magazine for older children - first published October 1987 Great Artists - 96 parts - first published 1985 [ 4 ] Great Composers and Their Music - 63 parts - first published 1985 DIY Pro-File - first published 1986 Times Past - 102 parts - published 1987 [ 5 ] Murder Casebook - published in 153 weekly parts - 1989 Quest - (UK) 1989-1990s science partwork The Ancestral Trail - (UK) 1992-1994 Fortnightly fantasy/science fiction magazine for children Tree of Knowledge - (UK) 1994 encyclopedia part-work The Magical Music Box - (UK and other territories) 1994-1996 fortnightly magazine and CD/cassette featuring classical music Insight - (UK) 1979-81 - magazine of science and technology - 97 parts Directories Singapore Banking & Financial Services Directory Singapore Convention & Exhibition Directory Singapore Agri-Food Business Directory Directory of Certified Companies in Singapore Singapore Biotech Guide Singapore MedTech Directory Singapore Builders Directory Singapore Source Book for Architects, Designers & Building Contractors Directory of Singapore Process & Chemicals Industries Singapore Specialty Chemicals Guide Singapore Electronics Industry Directory Singapore Environmental Industry Directory Times Business Directory of Singapore Singapore Halal Industry Directory Singapore Airfreight Directory Singapore Maritime Directory Singapore Shiprepairing, Shipbuilding & Offshore Industries Directory Singapore Sports Guide References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Patrick Cavendish" . telegraph.co.uk . 27 November 2000 . Retrieved 21 July 2022 . ^ "Amazon Publishing to Acquire Marshall Cavendish US Children's Books Titles" . Business Wire. 6 December 2011. ^ "Cavendish Square Buys Library Titles from Marshall Cavendish" . PublishersWeekly.com . Retrieved 5 December 2017 . ^ Great Artists , partworks.co.uk. Retrieved 27 September 2018. ^ Partworks , publishinghistory.com. Retrieved 27 September 2018. External links Official website Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF ISNI VIAF National United States Czech Republic Israel United States Czech Republic Israel Other MusicBrainz label Yale LUX MusicBrainz label Yale LUX Book publishing companies of Singapore Publishing companies established in 1968 1968 establishments in the United Kingdom Singaporean brands Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use dmy dates from October 2022 Official website different in Wikidata and Wikipedia This page was last edited on 28 August 2025, at 00:06 (UTC) . 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ChartComplete: A Taxonomy-based Inclusive Chart Dataset Ahmad Mustapha Charbel Toumieh Mariette Awad Abstract With advancements in deep learning (DL) and computer vision techniques, the field of chart understanding is evolving rapidly. In particular, multi-modal large language models (MLLMs) are proving to be efficient and accurate in understanding charts. To accurately measure the performance of MLLMs, the research community has developed multiple datasets to serve as benchmarks. By examining these datasets, we found that they are all limited to a small set of chart types. To bridge this gap, we propose the ChartComplete dataset. The dataset is based on a chart taxonomy borrowed from the visualisation community, and it covers thirty different chart types. The dataset is a collection of classified chart images and doesn’t include a learning signal. We present the ChartComplete dataset as is to the community to build upon it. Keywords: Chart, Dataset, Chart Taxonomy, Chart Classification Background Artificial intelligence systems are rapidly becoming smarter and capable of handling more complex tasks. One of these complex tasks is understanding charts. In particular, ChartQA is a research domain where machines are designed to have a visual understanding of chart elements. In ChartQA, a machine is handed a question and a chart, and the machine is supposed to answer the question about this image. To be successful in answering the question, the machine is required to perform a complex task that is composed of computer vision, natural language processing, and domain knowledge, all in one shot. A handful of benchmarks have been proposed to test machine learning models’ capabilities in handling ChartQA questions. However, the majority of these benchmarks are limited to a few types of charts, such as bar, pie, line, and scatter charts. To truly test a model’s capabilities in ChartQA, the benchmarks should be more inclusive and include more types of chart. Ideally, models should support common chart types. To bridge this gap, we present the ChartComplete dataset. ChartComplete includes 30 different types of chart, ranging from the common bar charts to the less common charts, such as parallel coordinates charts, including special charts such as box and whisker charts and choropleth map charts. Unlike existing benchmarks, ChartComplete was based on a chart taxonomy that was borrowed from the visualization taxonomy. Figure 1: The visual feature space of ChartComplete images. The features are extracted using Google VIT. The space is projected using T-SNE. One of the first works on the topic was published under the name FigureSeer [ 4 ] . Following the trace of FigureSeer but with scalability in mind, FigureQA [ 6 ] was proposed. FigureQA is the first large-scale dataset that addresses the ChartQA question. Both the data for the charts and the charts themselves were generated by the authors. To solve the problem of unnatural data labels, PlotQA [ 2 ] was proposed. Unlike FigureQA, the chart data were collected from different sources. The charts themselves were generated. As a sequel in this line of research, ChartQA [ 10 ] was proposed. ChartQA collected charts and their data from online resources, making it the first dataset to have real-life-looking charts with real-life data. Other data sets include Chart-to-text [ 8 ] , OpenCQA [ 7 ] , and ChartFC [ 1 ] . All of these data sets and benchmarks presented above addressed only a handful of types of charts. Those charts were mainly bar charts, horizontal and vertical, grouped and stacked, line charts, and pie charts. Table 1 summarizes the chart types used by different benchmarks. Table 1: Summary of the chart types covered by existing datasets Dataset Supported Charts FigureSeer Graph Plot, Flow Chart, Scatter Plot, Bar Plot FigureQA Line Plot, Dot-Line Plot, Vertical Bar Plot, Horizontal Bar Plot, Pie Plot PlotQA Bar Plot, Scatter Plot, Line Plot ChartQA Horizontal Bar Plot, Vertical Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Pie Chart, Line Plot Chart-to-Text Bar Plot, Grouped Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Line Plot, Area Plot, Scatter Plot, Pie Plot OpenCQA Bar Plot, Grouped Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Line Plot, Area Plot, Scatter Plot, Pie Plot ChartFC Bar Plot Figure 2: The Centered Kernel Alignment (CKA) values between different chart types features. The features are extracted using Google ViT. The higher the CKA value the more the features are similar. A current limitation of ChartComplete is that it serves solely as a dataset of classified chart images. It presently lacks a direct training signal, such as those used for summarization or question answering tasks. We plan to address this in future work and actively encourage the community to contribute to its development in these areas. Collection Methods and Design The collection process of the ChartComplete dataset was based on a modified version of Borkin’s taxonomy of chart types [ 3 ] . The taxonomy has categories of charts and terms, or chart types in each category. We have thirty different chart types. For each chart type, we collected fifty images. The collection process was partially manual and partially automated, utilising scraping. Table 2 shows the counts and the percentage of manually collected images vs scraped ones. Table 2: Summary of collected and scraped charts images in the ChartComplete dataset Type Count Percentage (%) Collected 951 63.4 Scraped 549 36.6 Table 3 presents the taxonomy on which we based our work. It is a modified version of Borkin’s taxonomy [ 3 ] . As aforementioned, we introduced some changes to the original Borkin taxonomy. First, we introduced the ”stacked” variant of different charts. We define the ”stacked” chart as a chart that represents several data columns in the same plot. Several lines in a line chart, for example. They usually have several legends. The naming convention was inspired by the common ”stacked bar chart”. In the literature, such charts are differentiated from simpler charts by using the simple/complex prefixes [ 7 ] . For clarity, we decided to use the vanilla/stacked prefixes. We introduced the stacked class to four chart types: area, line, scatter, and bubble charts. The charts that represent only one data column are referred to as ”vanilla” charts. Second, we removed from the taxonomy the less common chart types like the Venn diagram, the circular bar chart, or the contour line chart. Third, we added combination charts, like the bar and line charts. Table 3 represents the entire taxonomy. Table 3: The modified Borkin taxonomy used to build ChartComplete Category Terms Area Vanilla, Overlapped, Stacked, Proportional Bar Vanilla, Grouped, Waterfall Circle Donut, Pie Diagram Flow, Sankey, Timeline Distribution Curve, Histogram, Box and Whisker Matrix Heat Map Line Vanilla, Stacked, Radar, Surface, Parallel Coordinates Map Choropleth, Contour Point Scatter, Stacked Scatter, Bubble, Stacked Bubble Text Word Cloud Tree Tree Map Combination Bar and Line Chart To collect the ChartComplete dataset we utilized the following sources: • Source 1: Statista 1 1 1 www.statista.com/chartoftheday/ website, which is a global data and business intelligence platform with an extensive collection of statistics, reports, and insights on over 80,000 topics from 22,500 sources in 170 industries. We scraped all the charts listed on the chart of the day webpage on the 27th of January 2025. • Source 2: Our World in Data 2 2 2 www.ourworldindata.org website, which is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a non-profit organisation based in the United Kingdom. We scraped all the charts in the ”Browse By Topic” menu item under the ”Charts” menu item for each topic if available. • Source 3: Different online sources. A sizable part of the dataset was not scraped but was collected. This is due to the lack of a large collection of charts provided in one place for some chart types. The number of scraped charts was large, 12,635 and 4,113 from Statista and OurWorldInData, respectively, and the type of charts was not provided. Our goal was to collect 50 chart images for each chart type in the taxonomy. To extract the required charts from the entire collection of scraped charts, we followed algorithm 15 . We first extracted the image features of all the scraped images using a Google ViT 3 3 3 huggingface.co/google/vit-base-patch16-224 . Then we build an index of images using FAISS [ 5 ] . For each chart type, we sampled a random image until we got an image of the required type. We then get the 100 nearest neighbours of the selected image. We manually filter the correct images out of the 100 images. We repeat the process until we get 50 images for each type. Note that the scraped images covered only a handful of chart types. The other charts are completed to 50 through manual collection. Algorithm 1 Chart Images Selection 0: Scraped images dataset D 0 D_{0} 0: Google vision transformer G V i T G_{ViT} 0: Number of nearest neighbors K = 100 K=100 0: Number of images per chart type C = 50 C=50 1: Apply G V i T G_{ViT} on D 0 D_{0} to get D V i T D_{ViT} 2: Build a FAISS index I I from D V i T D_{ViT} 3: for each chart type T T do 4: Let D T D_{T}\leftarrow Selected images of chart type T T 5: Initialize D T D_{T}\leftarrow\emptyset 6: Randomly sample image i i from D 0 D_{0} 7: while ⋃ D T ⋃ < C |D_{T}|<C do 8: if i i is of type T T then 9: Let f i f_{i} be the feature vector of i i 10: Use I I to find K K nearest neighbors of f i f_{i} 11: Manually inspect the k k nearest images 12: Add correct images to D T D_{T} 13: end if 14: end while 15: end for Figure 3: The distribution of the image sizes in the ChartComplete dataset Validation and Quality The scraped images only covered a handful of chart types. For the other not-covered chart types, we launched a collection campaign. The first round of collection resulted in low-quality images that didn’t meet quality requirements. For this, we developed a collection guideline. The subsequent collection iteration led to images of higher quality. The guidelines are as following: • Image Quality . The images collected for the charts should be of high quality. The size/content ratio should be suitable so that if we zoom into the image, it doesn’t get blurry. The font should be readable, and the image should not contain any glitches. The minimum allowed dimension of an image is 300 pixels. Ensure readability by avoiding text that is too small or light-colored. • Content Quality . The image content should also be of high quality, corresponding to a real-life scenario that serves the objective of providing real information. If the image content is illustrative or serves a visual aspect, it shouldn’t pass the selection process. • Complete Information . The images of the charts should provide complete information. In other words, it has a clear title and clear labels for the axis, if any. Axes must be labeled with clear units, for example, “Revenue ($M)” or “Years”. Legends should be available if required by the chart type. • No Prior Knowledge . The images should not require prior visual knowledge. For example, using companies’ logos as legends or labels. • Complexity . The images should not be overly complex or fancy. The images should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity. • Image Type . The image should be in one of the following image formats: JPEG or PNG. The guidelines emphasized collecting high-quality, informative chart images suitable for real-life scenarios. Images must be clear, with readable fonts, proper resolution, and free of glitches. Charts should present complete information, including titles, labeled axes with units and ranges, and legends when needed. Only textual labels are allowed; logos or symbols requiring prior knowledge are not permitted. The visuals should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity, avoiding overly fancy or illustrative styles. Acceptable formats for submission are JPEG and PNG. The collection process was iterative and used version control. The guidelines were explained to the campaign participants. The collection tasks were iteratively distributed. After the collection is finished, the collected images are pushed to the version control repository. Before merging to the main branch, a quality check was performed by the authors to make sure the collected images meet the guidelines requirements. Images that didn’t meet the requirements were removed. The process is repeated until the target of 50 high quality images per chart type is met. After collecting the entire dataset, another quality check routine was performed to check the entire dataset for alignment with the guidelines. Also, duplicated images were removed. And images that have ”No” as an answer to the following question, ”Can we ask meaningful questions about the chart?” were also removed. Records and Storage ChartComplete is stored as a directory. The main directory contains 12 root directories representing the category of chart types. In each directory, we have several directories, each representing the chart types. In each type directory, we have 50 chart images. The keywords ”collected” and ”scraped” are written as part of the images’ names, representing the method used for collecting each image. Insights and Notes Figure 4 shows the distribution of collection methods per chart type. We have 18 chart types that were purely collected manually, 8 chart types were purely scraped, and 4 chart types were both scraped and manually collected. Figure 3 shows the distribution of ChartComplete image sizes. The distribution is not uniform as we didn’t included the image size or shape in our collection guidelines. The only guideline was that the image should be of size greater than 300 pixels on both dimensions. The figure shows that in general the image resolution of ChartComplete dataset is large. Figure 1 shows the visual features of ChartComplete chart images distributed in a two-dimensional space using T-SNE [ 11 ] . The visual features were extracted using Google VIT 4 4 4 huggingface.co/google/vit-base-patch16-224 . The space is segmented, which points out to both the diversity and the clusterization of the visual features and the model ability to capture relevant discriminative features. The space still has notable imperfections. For instance, some area charts appear clustered near circle charts, while other area chart groups are located close to diagram charts. This suggests that the dataset would benefit from a more specialized feature extraction model. To further study the similarity between the charts from the visual perspective we computed the Centered Kernel Alignment (CKA) metric [ 9 ] between all chart types. CKA is a similarity metric used to compare the representations (i.e., features or embeddings) learned by deep learning models. Figure 2 shows the heatmap that represents the similarity between different chart types from visual perspective. The figure shows that all chart types are different from each other feature wise. Figure 4: The distribution of collection methods per chart type. Source Code The self-contained source code that includes the charts collection is available on Github 5 5 5 . The dataset is distributed under the CC BY license. Acknoledgments Special thanks to the Maroun Semaan Faculty of Engineering and Architecture (MSFEA) at the American University of Beirut (AUB) for providing the essential infrastructure needed to conduct this study. A.M developed the research idea and carried out implementation. C.T contributed to the manual data collection campaign. M.A reviewed the manuscript and gave feedback. This work was funded by the AI, Data Science, and Computing Hub (AI-DSC) at the American University of Beirut (AUB). The article authors have declared no conflicts of interest. References [1] Cited by: Background . [2] Cited by: Background . [3] M. A. Borkin, A. A. Vo, Z. Bylinskii, P. Isola, S. Sunkavalli, A. Oliva, and H. Pfister (2013) What makes a visualization memorable? . IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 19 ( 12 ), pp. 2306–2315 . External Links: Document Cited by: Collection Methods and Design , Collection Methods and Design . [4] Figureseer: parsing result-figures in research papers . Cited by: Background . [5] J. Johnson, M. Douze, and H. Jégou (2019) Billion-scale similarity search with GPUs . IEEE Transactions on Big Data 7 ( 3 ), pp. 535–547 . Cited by: Collection Methods and Design . [6] S. E. Kahou, V. Michalski, A. Atkinson, A. Kadar, A. Trischler, and Y. Bengio (2017-10) FigureQA: an annotated figure dataset for visual reasoning . External Links: Link Cited by: Background . [7] S. Kantharaj, X. L. Do, R. T. K. Leong, J. Q. Tan, E. Hoque, and S. Joty (2022-10) OpenCQA: open-ended question answering with charts . External Links: Link Cited by: Background , Collection Methods and Design . [8] S. Kantharaj, R. T. K. Leong, X. Lin, A. Masry, M. Thakkar, E. Hoque, and S. Joty (2022-04) Chart-to-text: a large-scale benchmark for chart summarization . External Links: Link Cited by: Background . [9] S. Kornblith, M. Norouzi, H. Lee, and G. Hinton (2019) Similarity of neural network representations revisited . External Links: 1905.00414 , Link Cited by: Insights and Notes . [10] A. Masry, D. X. Long, J. Q. Tan, S. Joty, and E. Hoque (2022) ChartQA: a benchmark for question answering about charts with visual and logical reasoning . External Links: 2203.10244 , Link Cited by: Background . [11] L. van der Maaten and G. Hinton (2008) Visualizing data using t-sne . Journal of Machine Learning Research 9 ( 86 ), pp. 2579–2605 . External Links: Link Cited by: Insights and Notes . ChartComplete: A Taxonomy-based Inclusive Chart Dataset Abstract With advancements in deep learning (DL) and computer vision techniques, the field of chart understanding is evolving rapidly. In particular, multi-modal large language models (MLLMs) are proving to be efficient and accurate in understanding charts. To accurately measure the performance of MLLMs, the research community has developed multiple datasets to serve as benchmarks. By examining these datasets, we found that they are all limited to a small set of chart types. To bridge this gap, we propose the ChartComplete dataset. The dataset is based on a chart taxonomy borrowed from the visualisation community, and it covers thirty different chart types. The dataset is a collection of classified chart images and doesn’t include a learning signal. We present the ChartComplete dataset as is to the community to build upon it. Keywords: Chart, Dataset, Chart Taxonomy, Chart Classification Background Artificial intelligence systems are rapidly becoming smarter and capable of handling more complex tasks. One of these complex tasks is understanding charts. In particular, ChartQA is a research domain where machines are designed to have a visual understanding of chart elements. In ChartQA, a machine is handed a question and a chart, and the machine is supposed to answer the question about this image. To be successful in answering the question, the machine is required to perform a complex task that is composed of computer vision, natural language processing, and domain knowledge, all in one shot. A handful of benchmarks have been proposed to test machine learning models’ capabilities in handling ChartQA questions. However, the majority of these benchmarks are limited to a few types of charts, such as bar, pie, line, and scatter charts. To truly test a model’s capabilities in ChartQA, the benchmarks should be more inclusive and include more types of chart. Ideally, models should support common chart types. To bridge this gap, we present the ChartComplete dataset. ChartComplete includes 30 different types of chart, ranging from the common bar charts to the less common charts, such as parallel coordinates charts, including special charts such as box and whisker charts and choropleth map charts. Unlike existing benchmarks, ChartComplete was based on a chart taxonomy that was borrowed from the visualization taxonomy. Figure 1: The visual feature space of ChartComplete images. The features are extracted using Google VIT. The space is projected using T-SNE. One of the first works on the topic was published under the name FigureSeer [ 4 ] . Following the trace of FigureSeer but with scalability in mind, FigureQA [ 6 ] was proposed. FigureQA is the first large-scale dataset that addresses the ChartQA question. Both the data for the charts and the charts themselves were generated by the authors. To solve the problem of unnatural data labels, PlotQA [ 2 ] was proposed. Unlike FigureQA, the chart data were collected from different sources. The charts themselves were generated. As a sequel in this line of research, ChartQA [ 10 ] was proposed. ChartQA collected charts and their data from online resources, making it the first dataset to have real-life-looking charts with real-life data. Other data sets include Chart-to-text [ 8 ] , OpenCQA [ 7 ] , and ChartFC [ 1 ] . All of these data sets and benchmarks presented above addressed only a handful of types of charts. Those charts were mainly bar charts, horizontal and vertical, grouped and stacked, line charts, and pie charts. Table 1 summarizes the chart types used by different benchmarks. Table 1: Summary of the chart types covered by existing datasets Dataset Supported Charts FigureSeer Graph Plot, Flow Chart, Scatter Plot, Bar Plot FigureQA Line Plot, Dot-Line Plot, Vertical Bar Plot, Horizontal Bar Plot, Pie Plot PlotQA Bar Plot, Scatter Plot, Line Plot ChartQA Horizontal Bar Plot, Vertical Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Pie Chart, Line Plot Chart-to-Text Bar Plot, Grouped Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Line Plot, Area Plot, Scatter Plot, Pie Plot OpenCQA Bar Plot, Grouped Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Line Plot, Area Plot, Scatter Plot, Pie Plot ChartFC Bar Plot Figure 2: The Centered Kernel Alignment (CKA) values between different chart types features. The features are extracted using Google ViT. The higher the CKA value the more the features are similar. A current limitation of ChartComplete is that it serves solely as a dataset of classified chart images. It presently lacks a direct training signal, such as those used for summarization or question answering tasks. We plan to address this in future work and actively encourage the community to contribute to its development in these areas. Background Artificial intelligence systems are rapidly becoming smarter and capable of handling more complex tasks. One of these complex tasks is understanding charts. In particular, ChartQA is a research domain where machines are designed to have a visual understanding of chart elements. In ChartQA, a machine is handed a question and a chart, and the machine is supposed to answer the question about this image. To be successful in answering the question, the machine is required to perform a complex task that is composed of computer vision, natural language processing, and domain knowledge, all in one shot. A handful of benchmarks have been proposed to test machine learning models’ capabilities in handling ChartQA questions. However, the majority of these benchmarks are limited to a few types of charts, such as bar, pie, line, and scatter charts. To truly test a model’s capabilities in ChartQA, the benchmarks should be more inclusive and include more types of chart. Ideally, models should support common chart types. To bridge this gap, we present the ChartComplete dataset. ChartComplete includes 30 different types of chart, ranging from the common bar charts to the less common charts, such as parallel coordinates charts, including special charts such as box and whisker charts and choropleth map charts. Unlike existing benchmarks, ChartComplete was based on a chart taxonomy that was borrowed from the visualization taxonomy. One of the first works on the topic was published under the name FigureSeer [ 4 ] . Following the trace of FigureSeer but with scalability in mind, FigureQA [ 6 ] was proposed. FigureQA is the first large-scale dataset that addresses the ChartQA question. Both the data for the charts and the charts themselves were generated by the authors. To solve the problem of unnatural data labels, PlotQA [ 2 ] was proposed. Unlike FigureQA, the chart data were collected from different sources. The charts themselves were generated. As a sequel in this line of research, ChartQA [ 10 ] was proposed. ChartQA collected charts and their data from online resources, making it the first dataset to have real-life-looking charts with real-life data. Other data sets include Chart-to-text [ 8 ] , OpenCQA [ 7 ] , and ChartFC [ 1 ] . All of these data sets and benchmarks presented above addressed only a handful of types of charts. Those charts were mainly bar charts, horizontal and vertical, grouped and stacked, line charts, and pie charts. Table 1 summarizes the chart types used by different benchmarks. Dataset Supported Charts FigureSeer Graph Plot, Flow Chart, Scatter Plot, Bar Plot FigureQA Line Plot, Dot-Line Plot, Vertical Bar Plot, Horizontal Bar Plot, Pie Plot PlotQA Bar Plot, Scatter Plot, Line Plot ChartQA Horizontal Bar Plot, Vertical Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Pie Chart, Line Plot Chart-to-Text Bar Plot, Grouped Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Line Plot, Area Plot, Scatter Plot, Pie Plot OpenCQA Bar Plot, Grouped Bar Plot, Stacked Bar Plot, Line Plot, Area Plot, Scatter Plot, Pie Plot ChartFC Bar Plot A current limitation of ChartComplete is that it serves solely as a dataset of classified chart images. It presently lacks a direct training signal, such as those used for summarization or question answering tasks. We plan to address this in future work and actively encourage the community to contribute to its development in these areas. Collection Methods and Design The collection process of the ChartComplete dataset was based on a modified version of Borkin’s taxonomy of chart types [ 3 ] . The taxonomy has categories of charts and terms, or chart types in each category. We have thirty different chart types. For each chart type, we collected fifty images. The collection process was partially manual and partially automated, utilising scraping. Table 2 shows the counts and the percentage of manually collected images vs scraped ones. Table 2: Summary of collected and scraped charts images in the ChartComplete dataset Type Count Percentage (%) Collected 951 63.4 Scraped 549 36.6 Table 3 presents the taxonomy on which we based our work. It is a modified version of Borkin’s taxonomy [ 3 ] . As aforementioned, we introduced some changes to the original Borkin taxonomy. First, we introduced the ”stacked” variant of different charts. We define the ”stacked” chart as a chart that represents several data columns in the same plot. Several lines in a line chart, for example. They usually have several legends. The naming convention was inspired by the common ”stacked bar chart”. In the literature, such charts are differentiated from simpler charts by using the simple/complex prefixes [ 7 ] . For clarity, we decided to use the vanilla/stacked prefixes. We introduced the stacked class to four chart types: area, line, scatter, and bubble charts. The charts that represent only one data column are referred to as ”vanilla” charts. Second, we removed from the taxonomy the less common chart types like the Venn diagram, the circular bar chart, or the contour line chart. Third, we added combination charts, like the bar and line charts. Table 3 represents the entire taxonomy. Table 3: The modified Borkin taxonomy used to build ChartComplete Category Terms Area Vanilla, Overlapped, Stacked, Proportional Bar Vanilla, Grouped, Waterfall Circle Donut, Pie Diagram Flow, Sankey, Timeline Distribution Curve, Histogram, Box and Whisker Matrix Heat Map Line Vanilla, Stacked, Radar, Surface, Parallel Coordinates Map Choropleth, Contour Point Scatter, Stacked Scatter, Bubble, Stacked Bubble Text Word Cloud Tree Tree Map Combination Bar and Line Chart To collect the ChartComplete dataset we utilized the following sources: • Source 1: Statista 1 1 1 www.statista.com/chartoftheday/ website, which is a global data and business intelligence platform with an extensive collection of statistics, reports, and insights on over 80,000 topics from 22,500 sources in 170 industries. We scraped all the charts listed on the chart of the day webpage on the 27th of January 2025. • Source 2: Our World in Data 2 2 2 www.ourworldindata.org website, which is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a non-profit organisation based in the United Kingdom. We scraped all the charts in the ”Browse By Topic” menu item under the ”Charts” menu item for each topic if available. • Source 3: Different online sources. A sizable part of the dataset was not scraped but was collected. This is due to the lack of a large collection of charts provided in one place for some chart types. The number of scraped charts was large, 12,635 and 4,113 from Statista and OurWorldInData, respectively, and the type of charts was not provided. Our goal was to collect 50 chart images for each chart type in the taxonomy. To extract the required charts from the entire collection of scraped charts, we followed algorithm 15 . We first extracted the image features of all the scraped images using a Google ViT 3 3 3 huggingface.co/google/vit-base-patch16-224 . Then we build an index of images using FAISS [ 5 ] . For each chart type, we sampled a random image until we got an image of the required type. We then get the 100 nearest neighbours of the selected image. We manually filter the correct images out of the 100 images. We repeat the process until we get 50 images for each type. Note that the scraped images covered only a handful of chart types. The other charts are completed to 50 through manual collection. Algorithm 1 Chart Images Selection 0: Scraped images dataset D 0 D_{0} 0: Google vision transformer G V i T G_{ViT} 0: Number of nearest neighbors K = 100 K=100 0: Number of images per chart type C = 50 C=50 1: Apply G V i T G_{ViT} on D 0 D_{0} to get D V i T D_{ViT} 2: Build a FAISS index I I from D V i T D_{ViT} 3: for each chart type T T do 4: Let D T D_{T}\leftarrow Selected images of chart type T T 5: Initialize D T D_{T}\leftarrow\emptyset 6: Randomly sample image i i from D 0 D_{0} 7: while ⋃ D T ⋃ < C |D_{T}|<C do 8: if i i is of type T T then 9: Let f i f_{i} be the feature vector of i i 10: Use I I to find K K nearest neighbors of f i f_{i} 11: Manually inspect the k k nearest images 12: Add correct images to D T D_{T} 13: end if 14: end while 15: end for Figure 3: The distribution of the image sizes in the ChartComplete dataset Collection Methods and Design The collection process of the ChartComplete dataset was based on a modified version of Borkin’s taxonomy of chart types [ 3 ] . The taxonomy has categories of charts and terms, or chart types in each category. We have thirty different chart types. For each chart type, we collected fifty images. The collection process was partially manual and partially automated, utilising scraping. Table 2 shows the counts and the percentage of manually collected images vs scraped ones. Type Count Percentage (%) Collected 951 63.4 Scraped 549 36.6 Table 3 presents the taxonomy on which we based our work. It is a modified version of Borkin’s taxonomy [ 3 ] . As aforementioned, we introduced some changes to the original Borkin taxonomy. First, we introduced the ”stacked” variant of different charts. We define the ”stacked” chart as a chart that represents several data columns in the same plot. Several lines in a line chart, for example. They usually have several legends. The naming convention was inspired by the common ”stacked bar chart”. In the literature, such charts are differentiated from simpler charts by using the simple/complex prefixes [ 7 ] . For clarity, we decided to use the vanilla/stacked prefixes. We introduced the stacked class to four chart types: area, line, scatter, and bubble charts. The charts that represent only one data column are referred to as ”vanilla” charts. Second, we removed from the taxonomy the less common chart types like the Venn diagram, the circular bar chart, or the contour line chart. Third, we added combination charts, like the bar and line charts. Table 3 represents the entire taxonomy. Category Terms Area Vanilla, Overlapped, Stacked, Proportional Bar Vanilla, Grouped, Waterfall Circle Donut, Pie Diagram Flow, Sankey, Timeline Distribution Curve, Histogram, Box and Whisker Matrix Heat Map Line Vanilla, Stacked, Radar, Surface, Parallel Coordinates Map Choropleth, Contour Point Scatter, Stacked Scatter, Bubble, Stacked Bubble Text Word Cloud Tree Tree Map Combination Bar and Line Chart To collect the ChartComplete dataset we utilized the following sources: • Source 1: Statista 1 1 1 www.statista.com/chartoftheday/ website, which is a global data and business intelligence platform with an extensive collection of statistics, reports, and insights on over 80,000 topics from 22,500 sources in 170 industries. We scraped all the charts listed on the chart of the day webpage on the 27th of January 2025. Source 1: Statista 1 1 1 www.statista.com/chartoftheday/ website, which is a global data and business intelligence platform with an extensive collection of statistics, reports, and insights on over 80,000 topics from 22,500 sources in 170 industries. We scraped all the charts listed on the chart of the day webpage on the 27th of January 2025. • Source 2: Our World in Data 2 2 2 www.ourworldindata.org website, which is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a non-profit organisation based in the United Kingdom. We scraped all the charts in the ”Browse By Topic” menu item under the ”Charts” menu item for each topic if available. Source 2: Our World in Data 2 2 2 www.ourworldindata.org website, which is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a non-profit organisation based in the United Kingdom. We scraped all the charts in the ”Browse By Topic” menu item under the ”Charts” menu item for each topic if available. • Source 3: Different online sources. A sizable part of the dataset was not scraped but was collected. This is due to the lack of a large collection of charts provided in one place for some chart types. Source 3: Different online sources. A sizable part of the dataset was not scraped but was collected. This is due to the lack of a large collection of charts provided in one place for some chart types. The number of scraped charts was large, 12,635 and 4,113 from Statista and OurWorldInData, respectively, and the type of charts was not provided. Our goal was to collect 50 chart images for each chart type in the taxonomy. To extract the required charts from the entire collection of scraped charts, we followed algorithm 15 . We first extracted the image features of all the scraped images using a Google ViT 3 3 3 huggingface.co/google/vit-base-patch16-224 . Then we build an index of images using FAISS [ 5 ] . For each chart type, we sampled a random image until we got an image of the required type. We then get the 100 nearest neighbours of the selected image. We manually filter the correct images out of the 100 images. We repeat the process until we get 50 images for each type. Note that the scraped images covered only a handful of chart types. The other charts are completed to 50 through manual collection. Validation and Quality The scraped images only covered a handful of chart types. For the other not-covered chart types, we launched a collection campaign. The first round of collection resulted in low-quality images that didn’t meet quality requirements. For this, we developed a collection guideline. The subsequent collection iteration led to images of higher quality. The guidelines are as following: • Image Quality . The images collected for the charts should be of high quality. The size/content ratio should be suitable so that if we zoom into the image, it doesn’t get blurry. The font should be readable, and the image should not contain any glitches. The minimum allowed dimension of an image is 300 pixels. Ensure readability by avoiding text that is too small or light-colored. • Content Quality . The image content should also be of high quality, corresponding to a real-life scenario that serves the objective of providing real information. If the image content is illustrative or serves a visual aspect, it shouldn’t pass the selection process. • Complete Information . The images of the charts should provide complete information. In other words, it has a clear title and clear labels for the axis, if any. Axes must be labeled with clear units, for example, “Revenue ($M)” or “Years”. Legends should be available if required by the chart type. • No Prior Knowledge . The images should not require prior visual knowledge. For example, using companies’ logos as legends or labels. • Complexity . The images should not be overly complex or fancy. The images should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity. • Image Type . The image should be in one of the following image formats: JPEG or PNG. The guidelines emphasized collecting high-quality, informative chart images suitable for real-life scenarios. Images must be clear, with readable fonts, proper resolution, and free of glitches. Charts should present complete information, including titles, labeled axes with units and ranges, and legends when needed. Only textual labels are allowed; logos or symbols requiring prior knowledge are not permitted. The visuals should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity, avoiding overly fancy or illustrative styles. Acceptable formats for submission are JPEG and PNG. The collection process was iterative and used version control. The guidelines were explained to the campaign participants. The collection tasks were iteratively distributed. After the collection is finished, the collected images are pushed to the version control repository. Before merging to the main branch, a quality check was performed by the authors to make sure the collected images meet the guidelines requirements. Images that didn’t meet the requirements were removed. The process is repeated until the target of 50 high quality images per chart type is met. After collecting the entire dataset, another quality check routine was performed to check the entire dataset for alignment with the guidelines. Also, duplicated images were removed. And images that have ”No” as an answer to the following question, ”Can we ask meaningful questions about the chart?” were also removed. Validation and Quality The scraped images only covered a handful of chart types. For the other not-covered chart types, we launched a collection campaign. The first round of collection resulted in low-quality images that didn’t meet quality requirements. For this, we developed a collection guideline. The subsequent collection iteration led to images of higher quality. The guidelines are as following: • Image Quality . The images collected for the charts should be of high quality. The size/content ratio should be suitable so that if we zoom into the image, it doesn’t get blurry. The font should be readable, and the image should not contain any glitches. The minimum allowed dimension of an image is 300 pixels. Ensure readability by avoiding text that is too small or light-colored. Image Quality . The images collected for the charts should be of high quality. The size/content ratio should be suitable so that if we zoom into the image, it doesn’t get blurry. The font should be readable, and the image should not contain any glitches. The minimum allowed dimension of an image is 300 pixels. Ensure readability by avoiding text that is too small or light-colored. • Content Quality . The image content should also be of high quality, corresponding to a real-life scenario that serves the objective of providing real information. If the image content is illustrative or serves a visual aspect, it shouldn’t pass the selection process. Content Quality . The image content should also be of high quality, corresponding to a real-life scenario that serves the objective of providing real information. If the image content is illustrative or serves a visual aspect, it shouldn’t pass the selection process. • Complete Information . The images of the charts should provide complete information. In other words, it has a clear title and clear labels for the axis, if any. Axes must be labeled with clear units, for example, “Revenue ($M)” or “Years”. Legends should be available if required by the chart type. Complete Information . The images of the charts should provide complete information. In other words, it has a clear title and clear labels for the axis, if any. Axes must be labeled with clear units, for example, “Revenue ($M)” or “Years”. Legends should be available if required by the chart type. • No Prior Knowledge . The images should not require prior visual knowledge. For example, using companies’ logos as legends or labels. No Prior Knowledge . The images should not require prior visual knowledge. For example, using companies’ logos as legends or labels. • Complexity . The images should not be overly complex or fancy. The images should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity. Complexity . The images should not be overly complex or fancy. The images should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity. • Image Type . The image should be in one of the following image formats: JPEG or PNG. Image Type . The image should be in one of the following image formats: JPEG or PNG. The guidelines emphasized collecting high-quality, informative chart images suitable for real-life scenarios. Images must be clear, with readable fonts, proper resolution, and free of glitches. Charts should present complete information, including titles, labeled axes with units and ranges, and legends when needed. Only textual labels are allowed; logos or symbols requiring prior knowledge are not permitted. The visuals should strike a balance between simplicity and complexity, avoiding overly fancy or illustrative styles. Acceptable formats for submission are JPEG and PNG. The collection process was iterative and used version control. The guidelines were explained to the campaign participants. The collection tasks were iteratively distributed. After the collection is finished, the collected images are pushed to the version control repository. Before merging to the main branch, a quality check was performed by the authors to make sure the collected images meet the guidelines requirements. Images that didn’t meet the requirements were removed. The process is repeated until the target of 50 high quality images per chart type is met. After collecting the entire dataset, another quality check routine was performed to check the entire dataset for alignment with the guidelines. Also, duplicated images were removed. And images that have ”No” as an answer to the following question, ”Can we ask meaningful questions about the chart?” were also removed. Records and Storage ChartComplete is stored as a directory. The main directory contains 12 root directories representing the category of chart types. In each directory, we have several directories, each representing the chart types. In each type directory, we have 50 chart images. The keywords ”collected” and ”scraped” are written as part of the images’ names, representing the method used for collecting each image. Records and Storage ChartComplete is stored as a directory. The main directory contains 12 root directories representing the category of chart types. In each directory, we have several directories, each representing the chart types. In each type directory, we have 50 chart images. The keywords ”collected” and ”scraped” are written as part of the images’ names, representing the method used for collecting each image. Insights and Notes Figure 4 shows the distribution of collection methods per chart type. We have 18 chart types that were purely collected manually, 8 chart types were purely scraped, and 4 chart types were both scraped and manually collected. Figure 3 shows the distribution of ChartComplete image sizes. The distribution is not uniform as we didn’t included the image size or shape in our collection guidelines. The only guideline was that the image should be of size greater than 300 pixels on both dimensions. The figure shows that in general the image resolution of ChartComplete dataset is large. Figure 1 shows the visual features of ChartComplete chart images distributed in a two-dimensional space using T-SNE [ 11 ] . The visual features were extracted using Google VIT 4 4 4 huggingface.co/google/vit-base-patch16-224 . The space is segmented, which points out to both the diversity and the clusterization of the visual features and the model ability to capture relevant discriminative features. The space still has notable imperfections. For instance, some area charts appear clustered near circle charts, while other area chart groups are located close to diagram charts. This suggests that the dataset would benefit from a more specialized feature extraction model. To further study the similarity between the charts from the visual perspective we computed the Centered Kernel Alignment (CKA) metric [ 9 ] between all chart types. CKA is a similarity metric used to compare the representations (i.e., features or embeddings) learned by deep learning models. Figure 2 shows the heatmap that represents the similarity between different chart types from visual perspective. The figure shows that all chart types are different from each other feature wise. Figure 4: The distribution of collection methods per chart type. Insights and Notes Figure 4 shows the distribution of collection methods per chart type. We have 18 chart types that were purely collected manually, 8 chart types were purely scraped, and 4 chart types were both scraped and manually collected. Figure 3 shows the distribution of ChartComplete image sizes. The distribution is not uniform as we didn’t included the image size or shape in our collection guidelines. The only guideline was that the image should be of size greater than 300 pixels on both dimensions. The figure shows that in general the image resolution of ChartComplete dataset is large. Figure 1 shows the visual features of ChartComplete chart images distributed in a two-dimensional space using T-SNE [ 11 ] . The visual features were extracted using Google VIT 4 4 4 huggingface.co/google/vit-base-patch16-224 . The space is segmented, which points out to both the diversity and the clusterization of the visual features and the model ability to capture relevant discriminative features. The space still has notable imperfections. For instance, some area charts appear clustered near circle charts, while other area chart groups are located close to diagram charts. This suggests that the dataset would benefit from a more specialized feature extraction model. To further study the similarity between the charts from the visual perspective we computed the Centered Kernel Alignment (CKA) metric [ 9 ] between all chart types. CKA is a similarity metric used to compare the representations (i.e., features or embeddings) learned by deep learning models. Figure 2 shows the heatmap that represents the similarity between different chart types from visual perspective. The figure shows that all chart types are different from each other feature wise. Source Code The self-contained source code that includes the charts collection is available on Github 5 5 5 . The dataset is distributed under the CC BY license. Source Code The self-contained source code that includes the charts collection is available on Github 5 5 5 . The dataset is distributed under the CC BY license. Acknoledgments Special thanks to the Maroun Semaan Faculty of Engineering and Architecture (MSFEA) at the American University of Beirut (AUB) for providing the essential infrastructure needed to conduct this study. A.M developed the research idea and carried out implementation. C.T contributed to the manual data collection campaign. M.A reviewed the manuscript and gave feedback. This work was funded by the AI, Data Science, and Computing Hub (AI-DSC) at the American University of Beirut (AUB). The article authors have declared no conflicts of interest. Acknoledgments Special thanks to the Maroun Semaan Faculty of Engineering and Architecture (MSFEA) at the American University of Beirut (AUB) for providing the essential infrastructure needed to conduct this study. A.M developed the research idea and carried out implementation. C.T contributed to the manual data collection campaign. M.A reviewed the manuscript and gave feedback. This work was funded by the AI, Data Science, and Computing Hub (AI-DSC) at the American University of Beirut (AUB). The article authors have declared no conflicts of interest. References [1] Cited by: Background . [2] Cited by: Background . [3] M. A. Borkin, A. A. Vo, Z. Bylinskii, P. Isola, S. Sunkavalli, A. Oliva, and H. Pfister (2013) What makes a visualization memorable? . IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 19 ( 12 ), pp. 2306–2315 . External Links: Document Cited by: Collection Methods and Design , Collection Methods and Design . [4] Figureseer: parsing result-figures in research papers . Cited by: Background . [5] J. Johnson, M. Douze, and H. Jégou (2019) Billion-scale similarity search with GPUs . IEEE Transactions on Big Data 7 ( 3 ), pp. 535–547 . Cited by: Collection Methods and Design . [6] S. E. Kahou, V. Michalski, A. Atkinson, A. Kadar, A. Trischler, and Y. Bengio (2017-10) FigureQA: an annotated figure dataset for visual reasoning . External Links: Link Cited by: Background . [7] S. Kantharaj, X. L. Do, R. T. K. Leong, J. Q. Tan, E. Hoque, and S. Joty (2022-10) OpenCQA: open-ended question answering with charts . External Links: Link Cited by: Background , Collection Methods and Design . [8] S. Kantharaj, R. T. K. Leong, X. Lin, A. Masry, M. Thakkar, E. Hoque, and S. Joty (2022-04) Chart-to-text: a large-scale benchmark for chart summarization . External Links: Link Cited by: Background . [9] S. Kornblith, M. Norouzi, H. Lee, and G. Hinton (2019) Similarity of neural network representations revisited . External Links: 1905.00414 , Link Cited by: Insights and Notes . [10] A. Masry, D. X. Long, J. Q. Tan, S. Joty, and E. Hoque (2022) ChartQA: a benchmark for question answering about charts with visual and logical reasoning . External Links: 2203.10244 , Link Cited by: Background . [11] L. van der Maaten and G. Hinton (2008) Visualizing data using t-sne . Journal of Machine Learning Research 9 ( 86 ), pp. 2579–2605 . External Links: Link Cited by: Insights and Notes . References [1] Cited by: Background . [2] Cited by: Background . [3] M. A. Borkin, A. A. Vo, Z. Bylinskii, P. Isola, S. Sunkavalli, A. Oliva, and H. Pfister (2013) What makes a visualization memorable? . IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 19 ( 12 ), pp. 2306–2315 . External Links: Document Cited by: Collection Methods and Design , Collection Methods and Design . [4] Figureseer: parsing result-figures in research papers . Cited by: Background . [5] J. Johnson, M. Douze, and H. Jégou (2019) Billion-scale similarity search with GPUs . IEEE Transactions on Big Data 7 ( 3 ), pp. 535–547 . Cited by: Collection Methods and Design . [6] S. E. Kahou, V. Michalski, A. Atkinson, A. Kadar, A. Trischler, and Y. Bengio (2017-10) FigureQA: an annotated figure dataset for visual reasoning . External Links: Link Cited by: Background . [7] S. Kantharaj, X. L. Do, R. T. K. Leong, J. Q. Tan, E. Hoque, and S. Joty (2022-10) OpenCQA: open-ended question answering with charts . External Links: Link Cited by: Background , Collection Methods and Design . [8] S. Kantharaj, R. T. K. Leong, X. Lin, A. Masry, M. Thakkar, E. Hoque, and S. Joty (2022-04) Chart-to-text: a large-scale benchmark for chart summarization . External Links: Link Cited by: Background . [9] S. Kornblith, M. Norouzi, H. Lee, and G. Hinton (2019) Similarity of neural network representations revisited . External Links: 1905.00414 , Link Cited by: Insights and Notes . [10] A. Masry, D. X. Long, J. Q. Tan, S. Joty, and E. Hoque (2022) ChartQA: a benchmark for question answering about charts with visual and logical reasoning . External Links: 2203.10244 , Link Cited by: Background . [11] L. van der Maaten and G. Hinton (2008) Visualizing data using t-sne . Journal of Machine Learning Research 9 ( 86 ), pp. 2579–2605 . External Links: Link Cited by: Insights and Notes .
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https://arxiv.org/html/2601.10462v1
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Types of roads Toggle Types of roads subsection 1.1 King's Highways 1.2 City roads 1.1 King's Highways 1.2 City roads 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Secondary Highways 2.1 Secondary Highways 3 King's Highways 4 City roads 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links List of numbered roads in Kawartha Lakes Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item The numbered roads in Kawartha Lakes account for 650 kilometres (403.9 mi) of roads in the Canadian province of Ontario . [ note 1 ] [ 1 ] These roads [ note 2 ] include King's Highways that are signed and maintained by the province, as well as the county roads under the jurisdiction of the County of Bruce. The third type of existing roadway in the single-tier municipality of Kawartha Lakes is locally maintained roads also called concession roads and sidelines , which are beyond the scope of this article. A fourth category of roads, secondary highways, have not existed within the region since 1998. The 49 numbered routes provide year-round access to the mostly rural municipality. The longest of these roads is Highway 35 , which stretches 88.9 kilometres (55.2 mi) across the Bruce Peninsula from Hepworth, Ontario to Tobermory . The shortest numbered road is Kawartha Lakes Road 3, Hartley Road, a causeway just less than a kilometre long crossing Mitchell Lake . Before 1998, several additional King's Highways and secondary highways were located in what was then known as Victoria County. These were transferred to the county in 1998. All county roads, including the former provincial highways, were renamed when Victoria County was abolished in 2001 and replaced with the City of Kawartha Lakes. Types of roads King's Highways There are 168.0 kilometres (104.4 mi) of provincially maintained highways , [ note 3 ] termed "provincial highways" or " King's Highways " (a term adopted in 1930). [ 1 ] [ 3 ] As in the rest of Ontario, the provincially maintained highways in Kawartha Lakes are designated with a shield-shaped sign topped with a crown. The highway number is in the centre, with the word ONTARIO below. These signs are known as shields , but may be referred to as reassurance markers . [ 4 ] Highway 7 , which is part of the Trans-Canada Highway , [ 5 ] is also marked with a green maple leaf shield. Highways 7 and 35 together measure 140.0 km (87.0 mi) and account for 82.3% of the length of highways. The remaining 30.2 km (18.8 mi) comprises Highway 115, a controlled-access freeway in the southern corner of the city; Highway 7A, an alternate route to Highway 7 around the Lindsay area; and Highway 7B, a business route through Lindsay. [ 1 ] Provincially maintained highways generally have greater construction standards than municipally or locally maintained roads. [ 6 ] Although they are usually one lane in either direction, several short sections with two lanes in one direction as a passing lane exist along the highways. The municipality's lone freeway , Highway 115 , is two lanes in either direction for its entire length. There are two off ramps with Highway 115 in the region: One with Road 20 (Boundary Road) at the southern boundary with Durham Region ; and the other one with Road 32 (Porter Road) at Road 12 (Pontypool Road) at the eastern boundary with Peterborough County . [ 7 ] City roads There are 44 numbered city roads in Kawartha Lakes. [ 8 ] Kawartha Lakes city roads are signed with a flowerpot-shaped sign, as are most regional and county roads in Ontario . The road number appears in the centre of the sign, with the word KAWARTHA above and the word LAKES below. Like King's Highways, these signs are known as shields . [ 4 ] The total length of city roads is 739.3 kilometres (459.4 mi). [ note 4 ] History The City of Kawartha Lakes was formed on January 1, 2001, and was known as Victoria County before that. [ 9 ] Alongside this change, all Victoria County Roads received Kawartha Lakes Road designations, with unchanged numbers, [ 1 ] and many new routes were established. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Prior to 1998, Victoria County contained twelve King's Highways. As part of a province-wide transfer of highways to municipal governments, known as downloading , seven were given new Victoria County designations following the prior provincial designations. The exceptions are Highway 35A which was renumbered to fill a gap in the route of Victoria County Road 8, and Highway 36B which was given the new designation of Victoria County Road 17. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] The downloaded highways comprises Highway 35A, which was designated Victoria County Road 8; Highway 35B, incorporated into Highway 7B and Victoria County Road 15; Highway 36, designated as Victoria County Road 36; Highway 36B, designated as Victoria County Road 17; Highway 46, designated as Victoria County Road 46; Highway 48, designated as Victoria County Road 48; and Highway 121, designated as Victoria County Road 121. [ 10 ] Highway 7B was also shortened by several kilometres, and now only consists of the portion along Kent Street in Lindsay. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Secondary Highways Three secondary highways, which existed in Victoria County prior to 1998, were also downloaded from the province to the county, and given new designations in addition to the downloading of King's Highways: [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Highway 503 , which ran from Kirkfield to Kinmount , was renumbered as an extension of Victoria County Road 6 (Kirkfield to Sebright ) and Victoria County Road 45 (Sebright to Kinmount). Highway 505 , which ran from Highway 48 near Victoria Road to Highway 503 in Uphill , was renumbered as an extension of Victoria County Road 35. Highway 649 , which ran from Bobcaygeon north to Highway 121, was renumbered as Victoria County Road 49. King's Highways The following is a list of provincially maintained highways in Kawartha Lakes. Communities are ordered by where the route encounters them (either from south to north or from west to east). Route [ 8 ] Length [ 1 ] Western/Southern Terminus Eastern/Northern Terminus Communities Comments km mi Highway 7 53.3 33.1 Kawartha Lakes Road 2 Hayes Line Manilla, Oakwood, Lindsay, Reaboro, Omemee Part of the Trans-Canada Highway [ 5 ] Highway 7A 18.4 11.4 Kawartha Lakes–Durham Region Boundary Dranoel Road Bethany Highway 7B 3.4 2.1 Highway 7 Kawartha Lakes Road 15 Lindsay Highway 7B and Highway 35B followed the same course, prior to the former being shortened to its current length, and the latter downloaded, in 1998; also known as Kent Street West [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Highway 35 Highway 35 86.7 53.9 Boundary Road Laxton–Lutterworth Boundary Road Lindsay, Cameron, Rosedale, Coboconk, Norland Highway 115 Highway 115 8.4 5.2 Boundary Road Glamorgan Road Only freeway in the region [ 1 ] Note: All King's Highways, with the exception of 7B, continue in both directions into neighbouring counties and regions. City roads The following is a list of the numbered city roads maintained by the City of Kawartha Lakes. Communities are ordered by where the route encounters them (either from south to north or from west to east). Route [ 8 ] Name(s) [ 1 ] Length [ 1 ] [ 12 ] Western/Southern Terminus [ 1 ] Eastern/Northern Terminus [ 1 ] Communities Comments km mi Kawartha Lakes Road 2 Kawartha Lakes Road 2 Simcoe Street 20.7 12.9 High Park Road Road 9 (Woodville Road) Seagrave , Sonya , Manilla Signed and maintained by both the City of Kawartha Lakes [ 8 ] [ 13 ] and the Regional Municipality of Durham [ 14 ] north of Seagrave Kawartha Lakes Road 3 Kawartha Lakes Road 3 Hartley Road 0.9 0.56 Road 48 (Portage Road) Robinson Avenue Victoria Road Shortest city road in Kawartha Lakes Kawartha Lakes Road 4 Kawartha Lakes Road 4 Little Britain Road, Angeline Street, Thunder Bridge Road 32.1 19.9 Road 2 (Simcoe Street) Road 18 (Elm Tree Road) Little Britain , Lindsay Kawartha Lakes Road 5 Kawartha Lakes Road 5 Janetville Road 7.3 4.5 Highway 7A Road 57 (Golf Course Road) Janetville Kawartha Lakes Road 6 Kawartha Lakes Road 6 Eldon Road, Kirkfield Road, Sadowa Road, Chisholm Trail, Black River Road 78.8 49.0 Road 28 (Ramsey Road) County Road 52 (Coopers Falls Road) Little Britain, Oakwood, Kirkfield, Sebright, Sadowa Prior to 1998, a segment was designated as Highway 503 ; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] concurrent with City Road 9 for 0.5 km (0.31 mi) [ note 4 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 7 Kawartha Lakes Road 7 Sturgeon Road, Thurstonia Road 22.4 13.9 Highway 7 (King Street) Hazel Street (Sturgeon Lake) Omemee, Downeyville , Dunsford Ends at Sturgeon Lake , turning west and becoming Hazel Street Kawartha Lakes Road 8 Kawartha Lakes Road 8 Glenarm Road, Victoria Road, Helen Street, Colborne Street, North Street, Duke Street 46.0 28.6 Road 2 (Simcoe Street) Road 36 (East Street North) Argyle , Glenarm , Fenelon Falls, Bobcaygeon Previously numbered as Highway 35A between Highway 35 and former Highway 121, prior to 1998; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] continues westward as Regional Road 15; [ 1 ] concurrent with Highway 35 for 1.9 km (1.2 mi) [ note 4 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 9 Kawartha Lakes Road 9 Woodville Road, King Street, Cambray Road 22.1 13.7 Road 2 (Simcoe Street) Highway 35 Woodville , Cambray Concurrent with City Road 6 for 0.5 km (0.31 mi); [ note 4 ] concurrent with City Road 46 for 0.3 km (0.19 mi) [ note 4 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 10 Kawartha Lakes Road 10 Emily Park Road, Centreline Road 15.5 9.6 Hayes Line Road 17 (Pigeon Lake Road) Emily Continues southward as County Road 10; concurrent with City Road 17 for 1.1 km (0.68 mi) [ note 4 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 11 Kawartha Lakes Road 11 Pleasant Point Road 2.8 1.7 Road 36 Sturgeon Lake Pleasant Point Ends at a dead end at the shores of Sturgeon Lake Kawartha Lakes Road 12 Kawartha Lakes Road 12 Pontypool Road 9.3 5.8 Highway 35 Glamorgan Road Pontypool Continues eastward as County Road 21 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 14 Kawartha Lakes Road 14 Peace Road, Yankee Line 11.3 7.0 Road 7 (Sturgeon Road) Boundary Road Emily Continues eastward as County Road 14 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 15 Kawartha Lakes Road 15 Lindsay Street 3.3 2.1 Highway 7 / Highway 35 Road 17 (Wellington Street, Queen Street) Lindsay Lindsay Street is the east–west divider for Lindsay, so many streets (including its terminus) are named differently on either side [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 16 Kawartha Lakes Road 16 Ogemah Road, Cottage Road 4.3 2.7 Washburn Island Road Road 28 (Ramsey Road) Kawartha Lakes Road 17 Kawartha Lakes Road 17 Colborne Street, William Street, Wellington Street, Lindsay Street, Verulam Street, Pigeon Lake Road 36.1 22.4 Highway 35 Road 36 Lindsay Concurrent with City Road 10 for 1.1 km (0.68 mi); [ note 4 ] formerly Highway 36B within Lindsay [ 11 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 18 Kawartha Lakes Road 18 Elm Tree Road 20.9 13.0 Road 28 (Valentia Road) Road 9 (Cambray Road) Valentia , Cambray Shares its southern/western terminus with the southern/eastern terminus of City Road 28 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 19 Kawartha Lakes Road 19 Mary Street 1.4 0.87 Road 4 (Angeline Street South) Road 15 (Lindsay Street South) Lindsay Kawartha Lakes Road 20 Kawartha Lakes Road 20 Boundary Road 7.6 4.7 Darlington–Manvers Townline Road Highway 115 Follows the southern boundary of Kawartha Lakes; continues westward as Regional Road 20 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 21 Kawartha Lakes Road 21 Killarney Bay Road 11.0 6.8 Highway 35 Road 8 (Glenarm Road) Kawartha Lakes Road 22 Kawartha Lakes Road 22 Francis Street East 2.3 1.4 River Drive Road 8 Road 121 (Colborne Street) Fenelon Falls Kawartha Lakes Road 24 Kawartha Lakes Road 24 Park Street, King Street 13.0 8.1 Road 36 Road 36 (East Street South) Dunsford, Bobcaygeon Kawartha Lakes Road 25 Kawartha Lakes Road 25 Sturgeon Point Road 7.8 4.8 Irene Avenue Road 8 Sturgeon Point Kawartha Lakes Road 26 Kawartha Lakes Road 26 Frank Hill Road 6.3 3.9 Highway 7 Road 14 (Yankee Line) Fowlers Corners Kawartha Lakes Road 28 Kawartha Lakes Road 28 Ramsey Road, Valentia Road 13.6 8.5 Road 2 (Simcoe Street) Road 18 (Elm Tree Road) Valentia City Road 28 shares its southern/eastern terminus with the southern/western terminus of City Road 18 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 30 Kawartha Lakes Road 30 Blythe Shore Road 6.0 3.7 Road 25 (Sturgeon Point Road) Road 8 Kawartha Lakes Road 31 Kawartha Lakes Road 31 Mount Horeb Road 11.4 7.1 Highway 35 Highway 7 Omemee Kawartha Lakes Road 32 Kawartha Lakes Road 32 Porter Road 7.7 4.8 Highway 115 Highway 7A Manvers Kawartha Lakes Road 33 Kawartha Lakes Road 33 Centennial Park Road 6.7 4.2 Road 48 (Portage Road) Road 6 (Kirkfield Road) Rohallion Kawartha Lakes Road 34 Kawartha Lakes Road 34 Long Beach Road, Cameron Road 12.3 7.6 Manor Road (Sturgeon Lake) Road 8 (Glenarm Road) Long Beach, Cameron Kawartha Lakes Road 35 Kawartha Lakes Road 35 Fennel Road, Victoria Road 30.5 19.0 Road 8 (Glenarm Road) Road 45 (Monck Road) Glenarm, Victoria Road , Uphill The northern 19.1 km (11.9 mi) were designated as Highway 505 , prior to 1997 [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 36 Kawartha Lakes Road 36 Verulam Road, East Street 36.2 22.5 Highway 7 Road 49 (Main Street) Lindsay, Dunsford, Bobcaygeon Formerly Highway 36 , prior to 1997; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] continues eastward as County Road 36 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 37 Kawartha Lakes Road 37 Bury's Green Road 11.2 7.0 Road 121 Road 49 Fell Station, Bury's Green Formerly Victoria County Road 36, prior to 1998; [ 11 ] renumbered Victoria County Road 37 by 1999 [ 10 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 38 Kawartha Lakes Road 38 Ski Hill Road 13.6 8.5 Highway 7A Highway 7 (King Street West) Bethany, Franklin , Omemee Kawartha Lakes Road 41 Kawartha Lakes Road 41 Bexley–Laxton Township Line 12.1 7.5 Road 48 (Portage Road) Road 45 (Monck Road) Corsons , Bexley Kawartha Lakes Road 42 Kawartha Lakes Road 42 Base Line Road 11.4 7.1 Highway 35 (Main Street) Road 45 (Monck Road) Coboconk, Dongola Kawartha Lakes Road 43 Kawartha Lakes Road 43 6th Concession Road, Northline Road, 7th Concession Road 9.6 6.0 Highway 35 Road 44 (Burnt River Road) Coboconk, Burnt River Kawartha Lakes Road 44 Kawartha Lakes Road 44 Burnt River Road, Hillside Drive 3.9 2.4 Road 121 Road 121 Burnt River A short bypass of City Road 121 through the village of Burnt River [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 45 Kawartha Lakes Road 45 Monck Road 50.0 31.1 Road 6 (Kirkfield Road) Bobcaygeon Road Sebright, Ragged Rapids , Uphill, Norland, Dongola, Kinmount Formerly Highway 503 , prior to 1997; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] continues westward as County Road 45, eastward as County Road 503 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 46 Kawartha Lakes Road 46 Agnes Street, King Street, Nappadale Street 25.7 16.0 Highway 7 Road 48 (Portage Road) Woodville, Argyle, Bolsover Formerly Highway 46 , prior to 1997; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] concurrent with City Road 9 for 0.3 km (0.19 mi) [ note 4 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 47 Kawartha Lakes Road 47 Mara–Carden Boundary Road, Brechin Road 8.2 5.1 Concession Road Road 6 (Kirkfield Road) Continues westward as County Road 47 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 48 Kawartha Lakes Road 48 Portage Road 29.2 18.1 Eldon–Thorah Townline Road Highway 35 (Main Street) Bolsover, Kirkfield, Victoria Road, Corsons, Coboconk Formerly Highway 48 , prior to 1997; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] continues westward as Regional Road 48 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 49 Kawartha Lakes Road 49 East Street North 18.0 11.2 Road 36 (Main Street) Road 121 Bobcaygeon Formerly Highway 649 , prior to 1997 [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 57 Kawartha Lakes Road 57 Golf Course Road 10.2 6.3 Durham–Kawartha Lakes boundary Highway 35 Janetville Continues westward as Regional Road 57 [ 1 ] Kawartha Lakes Road 121 Kawartha Lakes Road 121 Lindsay Street, Colborne Street, Short Street, Snowdon Road 42.0 26.1 Highway 35 Boundary Road Fenelon Falls, Burnt River, Kinmount Formerly Highway 121 , prior to 1998; [ 10 ] [ 11 ] continues northward as County Road 121; [ 1 ] concurrent with City Road 8 for 1.9 km (1.2 mi) [ note 4 ] See also Roads portal Canada portal Notes ^ The total length only counts concurrent sections of roadways once. ^ In Ontario, all roads are legally known as highways . However, road is the more prevalent term for common use. The Ontario Municipal Act defines a highway as any road, street or bridge that is not a Provincial Highway. [ 2 ] ^ There are 2.2 km (1.4 mi) of concurrent King's Highway, comprising Highway 35 and Highway 7A for 1.5 km (0.93 mi) and Highway 35 and Highway 7B for 0.7 km (0.43 mi). This means that the total of all the King's Highways is 170.2 kilometres (105.8 mi). ^ a b c d e f g h i There are 4.0 km (2.5 mi) of concurrent roadway. Routes 6 and 9 share 0.5 km (0.31 mi), 8 and 121 share 1.9 km (1.2 mi), 9 and 46 share 0.3 km (0.19 mi), 10 and 14 share 1.1 km (0.68 mi), and 45 and 121 share 0.2 km (0.12 mi). This means that the total of all the route lengths is 743.3 kilometres (461.9 mi). References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Ontario Back Road Atlas [map] . MapArt . 2010. pp. 31– 32, 43– 44. ISBN 978-1-55198-226-7 . ^ "Ontario Municipal Act, ss. 1 (1)" . Government of Ontario. Part III, Section 26 . Retrieved October 6, 2009 . ^ Thompson, Don W. (1969). Men and Meridians: The History of Surveying and Mapping in Canada . Vol. 3: 1917 to 1947. Canadian Government Publishing Centre. p. 141. ISBN 0-660-00359-7 . ^ a b "Illustrated Sign and Signal Display Index" . Ontario Traffic Manual . Vol. 1A. Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. July 2001. p. 82. ISBN 0-7794-1857-3 . Retrieved January 14, 2010 . ^ a b "Navigating the Trans-Canada Highway" . Transport Canada. April 1, 2007. Archived from the original on September 19, 2010 . Retrieved January 13, 2010 . ^ Ontario Provincial Standards for Roads and Public Works (Report). Vol. General & Construction Specifications. Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. November 30, 2009. ^ "List of numbered roads in Kawartha Lakes" (Map). Google Maps . Retrieved January 11, 2010 . {{ cite map }} : Check |url= value ( help ) ^ a b c d "Overall city map" (PDF) . City of Kawartha Lakes. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 10, 2006 . Retrieved August 27, 2009 . ^ Kitchen, Harry (April 19, 2000). Municipal Government for Victoria County: A New Beginning—Final Report and Order (PDF) (Report). Government of Ontario. pp. 35– 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011 . Retrieved January 16, 2010 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kawartha / Haliburton Highlands (Map). MapArt. 1999. ISBN 1-55368-335-8 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kawartha / Haliburton Highlands (Map). MapArt. 1997. ISBN 1-55368-335-8 . ^ Geomatics Office (2003). Official Ontario road map (PDF) (Map). Ministry of Transportation. § O26–P28 . Retrieved April 7, 2010 . ^ Public Works department (November 29, 2005). "Kawartha Lakes Maintenance Priority Classification System, Policy 123-EPW-009" (PDF) . City of Kawartha Lakes. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 26, 2011 . Retrieved January 15, 2010 . ^ Works Department. "Regional Roads" . Regional Municipality of Durham. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011 . Retrieved January 15, 2010 . External links Official current MTO road map of Ontario, sheet 5 (south-central Ontario) .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Numbered roads in Ontario v t e County roads Brant Bruce Dufferin Elgin Essex Frontenac Grey Haliburton Hastings Huron Lambton Lanark Leeds and Grenville Lennox and Addington Middlesex Norfolk Northumberland Oxford Perth Peterborough Prescott and Russell Prince Edward Renfrew Simcoe Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Wellington Brant Bruce Dufferin Elgin Essex Frontenac Grey Haliburton Hastings Huron Lambton Lanark Leeds and Grenville Lennox and Addington Middlesex Norfolk Northumberland Oxford Perth Peterborough Prescott and Russell Prince Edward Renfrew Simcoe Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Wellington Regional roads Durham Halton Niagara Peel Waterloo York Durham Halton Niagara Peel Waterloo York Municipal roads Chatham-Kent Greater Sudbury Haldimand Hamilton Kawartha Lakes Kingston Muskoka Ottawa Chatham-Kent Greater Sudbury Haldimand Hamilton Kawartha Lakes Kingston Muskoka Ottawa See also List of county roads in Ontario Provincial highways Roads in Ontario List of county roads in Ontario Provincial highways Roads in Ontario List of County roads v t e City of Kawartha Lakes v t e City seat : Lindsay Towns Lindsay Lindsay Villages and unincorporated communities Ancona Point Argyle Avery Point Baddow Baker Trail Ballyduff Barclay Bellevue Bethany Bethel Bobcaygeon 1 Bolsover Burnt River Burton Cambray Cameron Coboconk Dalrymple Dartmoor Daytonia Beach Dongola Downeyville Dunsford Emily Eldon Station Feir Mill Fenelon Falls Fowlers Corners Fleetwood Glenarm Greenhurst-Thurstonia Hartley Head Lake Janetville Kinmount 1 Kirkfield Little Britain Long Beach Long Point Lorneville Manilla 1 Manvers Station Mariposa Station Mariposa Norland Oakwood Omemee Pontypool Ragged Rapids Rokeby Rosedale Sadowa St. Mary's Sebright Sturgeon Point Uphill Valentia Verulam Park Victoria Road View Lake Woodville Ancona Point Argyle Avery Point Baddow Baker Trail Ballyduff Barclay Bellevue Bethany Bethel Bobcaygeon 1 Bolsover Burnt River Burton Cambray Cameron Coboconk Dalrymple Dartmoor Daytonia Beach Dongola Downeyville Dunsford Emily Eldon Station Feir Mill Fenelon Falls Fowlers Corners Fleetwood Glenarm Greenhurst-Thurstonia Hartley Head Lake Janetville Kinmount 1 Kirkfield Little Britain Long Beach Long Point Lorneville Manilla 1 Manvers Station Mariposa Station Mariposa Norland Oakwood Omemee Pontypool Ragged Rapids Rokeby Rosedale Sadowa St. Mary's Sebright Sturgeon Point Uphill Valentia Verulam Park Victoria Road View Lake Woodville Former townships Bexley Carden Dalton Laxton, Digby and Longford Eldon Emily Fenelon Manvers Mariposa Ops Somerville Verulam Bexley Carden Dalton Laxton, Digby and Longford Eldon Emily Fenelon Manvers Mariposa Ops Somerville Verulam Major lakes Trent River Shadow Lake Silver Lake Four Mile Lake Balsam Lake Cameron Lake Sturgeon Lake Lake Scugog Pigeon Lake Talbot River Canal Lake Mitchell Lake Talbot Lake Severn River Lake Dalrymple Cranberry Lake Head Lake Fishog Lake Trent River Shadow Lake Silver Lake Four Mile Lake Balsam Lake Cameron Lake Sturgeon Lake Lake Scugog Pigeon Lake Shadow Lake Silver Lake Four Mile Lake Balsam Lake Cameron Lake Sturgeon Lake Lake Scugog Pigeon Lake Talbot River Canal Lake Mitchell Lake Talbot Lake Canal Lake Mitchell Lake Talbot Lake Severn River Lake Dalrymple Cranberry Lake Head Lake Fishog Lake Lake Dalrymple Cranberry Lake Head Lake Fishog Lake Topics List of roads Victoria County List of roads Victoria County 1) This area lies on the border of an adjacent region, but is part of the Kawartha Lakes census. Ontario county roads Transport in Kawartha Lakes Lists of roads in Ontario CS1: long volume value CS1 errors: URL Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Featured lists This page was last edited on 26 February 2024, at 18:52 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Wikipedia Mobile on the App Store on iTunes" . App Store (iOS/iPadOS) . Apple Inc. August 4, 2014 . Retrieved August 21, 2014 . ^ a b "Building for the future of Wikimedia with a new approach to partnerships" . Diff . Wikimedia Foundation . February 16, 2018 . Retrieved May 12, 2019 . ^ Wikipedia: Modelling Wikipedia's growth ^ West, Stuart (2010). "Wikipedia's Evolving Impact: slideshow presentation at TED2010" (PDF) . Wikimedia Foundation . Retrieved February 3, 2023 . ^ "Research: Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011/Results – Meta" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . February 6, 2012. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013 . Retrieved April 16, 2014 . ^ Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media ^ "Trophy shelf" . Wikimedia Meta-Wiki . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "The Free Encyclopedia Project" . GNU Operating System . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . Sources McDowell, Zachary; Vetter, Matthew (2022). Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality . New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . PMID 39972088 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia v t e Overview (outline) Biases gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Biases gender geographical ideological racial gender geographical ideological racial Censorship Conflict-of-interest editing political editing incidents political editing incidents Criticism Deletion of articles deletionism and inclusionism notability deletionism and inclusionism notability Disputes " Ignore all rules " MediaWiki Plagiarism Predictions of the project's end Reliability Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Fact-checking Citation needed Perennial sources list Vandalism Community (Wikipedians) Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Administrators AfroCrowd Arbitration Committee Art+Feminism Bots Lsjbot Lsjbot Edit count List of Wikipedias The Signpost Wikimedian of the Year Wikipedian in residence WikiProject Women in Red Women in Red Events Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Edit-a-thon WikiConference India Wiki Indaba WikiConference North America Wikimania Wiki Loves Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science Earth Folklore Monuments Pride Science People ( list ) Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White Esra'a Al Shafei Lee Daniel Crocker Florence Devouard Sue Gardner David Gerard James Heilman Maryana Iskander Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Katherine Maher Magnus Manske Bernadette Meehan Erik Möller Jason Moore Raju Narisetti Steven Pruitt Annie Rauwerda Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Lila Tretikov Jimmy Wales Molly White History Bomis Nupedia First edit Logo Internet Watch Foundation Scientology Hillsborough disaster Wikipedia posts VisualEditor #1Lib1Ref Wikimedia Foundation actions on the Chinese Wikipedia (2021) against MENA Wikipedians (2022) Timeline of Wikipedia–U.S. government conflicts Controversies Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. 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Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Alan MacMasters hoax Antisemitism on Wikipedia Asian News International v. Wikimedia Foundation Brazilian aardvark Carlos Bandeirense Mirandópolis hoax Edit wars Essjay controversy Henryk Batuta hoax Jar'Edo Wens hoax Operation Orangemoody Seigenthaler biography incident Star Trek Into Darkness debate United States congressional staff edits Weintraub controversy Zhemao hoaxes Coverage American politics Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war American politics Donald Trump Donald Trump COVID-19 pandemic Death Israeli–Palestinian conflict Russo-Ukrainian war Honors Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia Wikipedia Monument 274301 Wikipedia Viola angustifolia References and analysis Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Academic studies Bibliography Cultural Films Listen to Wikipedia Wikipediocracy Wikipedia philosophy phenomenon Mobile Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero WikiReader Wikiwand Apps QRpedia Wapedia Wikipedia Zero 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List Category List Category v t e Wikipedia language editions by article count v t e 7,000,000+ English English 6,000,000+ Cebuano Cebuano 3,000,000+ German German 2,000,000+ French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish French Swedish Dutch Russian Spanish 1,000,000+ Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray Arabic Chinese Egyptian Arabic Italian Japanese Persian Polish Portuguese Ukrainian Vietnamese Waray 100,000+ Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali Bulgarian Burmese Cantonese Catalan Croatian Czech Danish Esperanto Estonian Finnish Galician Georgian Greek Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Indonesian Kazakh Korean Ladin Latin Latvian Macedonian Marathi Norwegian (Bokmål/Riksmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk) Romanian Serbian Serbo-Croatian Simple English Slovak Slovene Southern Min Swahili Tamil Tatar Telugu Thai Turkish Urdu Uzbek Welsh Afrikaans Albanian Armenian Asturian Azerbaijani Basque Belarusian Bengali 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Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource 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NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Summary 2 Examples of disruptive editing Toggle Examples of disruptive editing subsection 2.1 Point-illustrating 2.2 Failure or refusal to "get the point" 2.1 Point-illustrating 2.2 Failure or refusal to "get the point" 3 Distinguished from productive editing 4 Attempts to evade detection 5 Dealing with disruptive editors Toggle Dealing with disruptive editors subsection 5.1 Blocking and sanctions 5.1 Blocking and sanctions 6 April Fools' Day 7 See also Wikipedia : Disruptive editing العربية تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса भोजपुरी Ελληνικά Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 हिन्दी Bahasa Indonesia مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Português Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 中文 Project page Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item This page documents an English Wikipedia behavioral guideline . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:DE WP:DE WP:DIS WP:DIS WP:DISRUPT WP:DISRUPT WP:DISRUPTIVE WP:DISRUPTIVE WP:DE WP:DE WP:DIS WP:DIS WP:DISRUPT WP:DISRUPT WP:DISRUPTIVE WP:DISRUPTIVE This page in a nutshell: Editors who persistently disrupt Wikipedia, knowingly or unknowingly, may be blocked or banned indefinitely. Wikipedia guidelines Guidelines list Policies list Guidelines list Policies list Behavioral Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Don't bite the newcomers Don't disrupt to make a point Etiquette Gaming the system Other behavioral guidelines Discussions Talk page guidelines Signatures Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Don't bite the newcomers Don't disrupt to make a point Etiquette Gaming the system Other behavioral guidelines Assume good faith Conflict of interest Disruptive editing Don't bite the newcomers Don't disrupt to make a point Etiquette Gaming the system Other behavioral guidelines Discussions Talk page guidelines Signatures Talk page guidelines Signatures Content Citing sources External links Reliable sources medicine Fringe theories Naming conventions Non-free content Offensive material Other content guidelines Citing sources External links Reliable sources medicine medicine Fringe theories Naming conventions Non-free content Offensive material Other content guidelines Editing Article size Be bold Understandability Other editing guidelines Categorization Categories, lists, templates Categorization Disambiguation Article size Be bold Understandability Other editing guidelines Article size Be bold Understandability Other editing guidelines Categorization Categories, lists, templates Categorization Disambiguation Categories, lists, templates Categorization Disambiguation Style Manual of Style contents lists tables Manual of Style contents lists tables contents lists tables Notability and Deletion Notability Deletion process Deletion guidelines for administrators Notability Deletion process Deletion guidelines for administrators Project content Project pages WikiProjects Templates User pages User boxes Shortcuts Project pages WikiProjects WikiProjects Templates User pages User boxes User boxes Shortcuts Search .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Disruptive editing is a pattern of editing that disrupts progress toward improving an article or building the encyclopedia. This may extend over a long time on many articles. Disruptive editing is not always vandalism , though vandalism is always disruptive. Each case should be treated independently, taking into consideration whether or not the actions violate policies and guidelines . Editors should take care to not wrongly label disruptive situations as vandalism as it drives away others, especially newcomers . Editors may be accidentally disruptive because they were not aware of policies and guidelines. If so, a friendly reminder is helpful. If the disruptive editing continues after many warnings, it may be because they lack the social skills or competence necessary to work collaboratively . Summary Wikipedia's openness sometimes attracts people who seek to exploit the site as a platform for pushing a single point of view , original research , advocacy , or self-promotion . While notable minority opinions are welcomed when verifiable through reliable sources , and constructive editors occasionally make mistakes, sometimes an editor creates long-term problems by persistently editing a page or set of pages with information which is not verifiable through reliable sources or insisting on giving undue weight to a minority view. Collectively, disruptive editors harm by degrading Wikipedia's reliability and/or by exhausting the patience of other editors, who may quit the project in frustration. An edit which, in isolation, is not disruptive may still be part of a pattern of editing that is. A group of disruptive edits may be close together in time, or spread out; they may all occur on a single page, or on many pages; they may be all very similar, or superficially quite different. Disruptive editors may seek to disguise their behavior as productive editing, yet distinctive traits separate them from productive editors. When discussion fails to resolve the problem and when an impartial consensus of uninvolved editors agree (through requests for comment or similar means), further disruption is grounds for blocking , and may lead to more serious disciplinary action through the dispute resolution process. In extreme cases, this could include a site ban, either through the Arbitration Committee or by a consensus. The three-revert rule , if observed by disruptive editors, is not to be construed as a defense against action taken to enforce this policy against disruptive editors. As stated in that policy, "The rule is not an entitlement to revert a page a specific number of times." The three-revert rule should not be broken, even by editors attempting to revert disruptive edits. While vandalism is always disruptive, disruptive editing is not always vandalism ; it is better for editors to follow the process suggested below than to break the rule. Examples of disruptive editing WP:DISRUPTSIGNS WP:DISRUPTSIGNS This guideline concerns gross, obvious and repeated violations of policies, not subtle questions about which reasonable people may disagree. A disruptive editor often exhibits these tendencies: Is tendentious : continues editing an article or group of articles in pursuit of a certain point for an extended time despite opposition from other editors. Tendentious editors not only add material; some engage in disruptive deletions as well, e.g. repeatedly removing reliable sources posted by other editors. Is unwilling or unable to satisfy Wikipedia:Verifiability ; fails to cite sources, cites unencyclopedic sources, misrepresents reliable sources, or performs original research . Engages in "disruptive cite-tagging " ; adds unjustified {{ citation needed }} or {{ more citations needed }} tags to an article when the content tagged is already sourced, uses such tags to suggest that properly sourced article content is problematic. Fails to engage in consensus building : repeatedly disregards other editors' questions or requests for explanations concerning edits or objections to edits; repeatedly disregards other editors' explanations for their edits. repeatedly disregards other editors' questions or requests for explanations concerning edits or objections to edits; repeatedly disregards other editors' explanations for their edits. Fails to recognize, rejects, or ignores community input : resists moderation and/or requests for comment, continuing to edit in pursuit of a certain point despite an opposing consensus from impartial editors. In addition, such editors might: WP:DAPE WP:DAPE WP:CTDAPE WP:CTDAPE Campaign to drive away productive contributors : act counter to policies and guidelines such as Wikipedia:Civility , Wikipedia:No personal attacks , or Wikipedia:Ownership of articles —or sockpuppetry / meatpuppetry that might not exhaust the general community's patience but still operates toward an end of exhausting the patience of productive, rule-abiding editors on certain articles. Point-illustrating When one becomes frustrated with the way a policy or guideline is being applied, it may be tempting to try to discredit the rule or interpretation thereof by, in one's view, applying it consistently. Sometimes, this is done simply to prove a point in a local dispute. In other cases, one might try to enforce a rule in a generally unpopular way, with the aim of getting it changed. Such behavior, wherever it occurs, is highly disruptive and can lead to a block or ban . If you feel that a policy is problematic , the policy's talk page is the proper place to raise your concerns. If you simply disagree with someone's actions in an article, discuss it on the article talk page or related pages. If mere discussion fails to resolve a problem, look into dispute resolution . Practically speaking, it is impossible for Wikipedia to be 100 percent consistent, and its rules will therefore never be perfect . If consensus strongly disagrees with you even after you have made proper efforts, then respect the consensus, rather than trying to sway it with disruptive tactics . Note that it is possible to make a point , without disrupting Wikipedia to illustrate your point. Failure or refusal to "get the point" WP:IDIDNTHEARTHAT WP:IDIDNTHEARTHAT WP:IDHT WP:IDHT WP:ICANTHEARYOU WP:ICANTHEARYOU WP:HEAR WP:HEAR Sometimes, editors perpetuate disputes by sticking to a viewpoint long after community consensus has decided that moving on would be more productive. This is disruptive. Genuine belief that you have a valid point does not mean that point must be accepted by the community when you have been told otherwise. The community's rejection of your idea is not because they didn't hear you. Stop writing, listen, and consider what others are telling you. Make an effort to see their side of the debate, and work on finding points of agreement. Do not confuse "hearing" with " agreeing with ". Sometimes, even when editors act in good faith , their contributions may be time-wasting, especially if they can't understand what the problem is. Although editors should be encouraged to be bold and just do things if they think they're right, sometimes a lack of competence can get in the way. If the community spends more time cleaning up editors' mistakes and educating them about policies and guidelines than it considers necessary, sanctions may be imposed. Distinguished from productive editing Editors often post minority views to articles. This fits within Wikipedia's mission so long as the contributions are verifiable , do not give undue weight , and where appropriate, comply with WP:FRINGE . The burden of evidence rests with the editor who initially provides the information or wishes the information to remain. From Wikipedia:Neutral point of view : Neutrality requires that each article or other page in the mainspace fairly represents all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources, in proportion to the prominence of each viewpoint. Giving due weight and avoiding giving undue weight means that articles should not give minority views as much of or as detailed a description as more widely held views. Neutrality requires that each article or other page in the mainspace fairly represents all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources, in proportion to the prominence of each viewpoint. Giving due weight and avoiding giving undue weight means that articles should not give minority views as much of or as detailed a description as more widely held views. Editors may present active public disputes or controversies documented by reliable sources; citing a viewpoint stated in a mainstream scholarly journal, textbook, or monograph is not per se disruptive editing. This exemption does not apply to settled disputes, e.g. that the Sun revolves around the Earth . ( The dispute itself is notable.) Sometimes well-meaning editors may be misled by fringe publications or make mistakes. Such people may defend their positions for a short time, then concede the issue when they encounter better evidence or impartial feedback. Attempts to evade detection WP:RUNAWAY WP:RUNAWAY Bad-faith disruptive editors attempt to evade disciplinary action in several ways: Their edits occur over a long period of time, in which case no single edit is disruptive but the overall pattern clearly is. Their edits are largely confined to talk pages; such disruption may not directly harm an article, but it often prevents other editors from reaching consensus on how to improve it. Their comments may avoid breaches of civility by refraining from personal attacks but still interfering with civil and collaborative editing and discussion. Their edits are limited to a small number of pages that very few people watch. Conversely, their edits may be distributed over a wide range of articles to make it less likely that any given user watches a sufficient number of affected articles to notice the disruptions. Nonetheless, such disruptive editing violates Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Dealing with disruptive editors WP:DDE WP:DDE The following is a model for remedies, though these steps do not necessarily have to be done in this sequence. In some extreme circumstances, a rapid report to the Administrators' noticeboard of incidents may be the best first step; in others, a fast track to a community ban may be in order. But in general, most situations can benefit from a gradual escalation: Review Wikipedia:Dispute resolution . File a report at the Reliable Sources noticeboard , if appropriate. Continue attempts to engage the editor in dialogue. Refer to policies and guidelines as appropriate. If only two editors are involved, seek a Third Opinion . If more editors are involved, try a Request for comment . If only two editors are involved, seek a Third Opinion . If more editors are involved, try a Request for comment . Blocking and sanctions Disruptive editing may result in warnings and then escalating blocks, typically starting with 24 hours. Accounts used primarily for disruption will most likely be blocked indefinitely . April Fools' Day All edits on April Fools' Day must continue to adhere to all applicable policies and guidelines, including (but not limited to) edit warring , no personal attacks and the biographies of living persons policy . With the exception of the Main Page, all edits that are intended to be humorous should be kept out of the article and help namespaces , as well as their respective talk pages; and be tagged with {{ Humor }} (or equivalent template, such as the inline {{ April fools }} or {{ 4-1 }} ) to avoid misleading users. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Character biography Toggle Character biography subsection 1.1 Prior to the crash 1.2 After the crash 1.2.1 Season 1 1.2.2 Season 2 1.2.3 Season 3 1.2.4 Season 4 1.3 After the Island 1.3.1 Season 5 1.3.2 Season 6 1.1 Prior to the crash 1.2 After the crash 1.2.1 Season 1 1.2.2 Season 2 1.2.3 Season 3 1.2.4 Season 4 1.2.1 Season 1 1.2.2 Season 2 1.2.3 Season 3 1.2.4 Season 4 1.3 After the Island 1.3.1 Season 5 1.3.2 Season 6 1.3.1 Season 5 1.3.2 Season 6 2 Development 3 Reception 4 References Kate Austen العربية Български Čeština Dansk Español فارسی Français 한국어 Hrvatski Italiano Magyar Македонски Nederlands Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Suomi Svenska Türkçe Українська 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item Kate Austen Lost character Evangeline Lilly as Kate Austen in 2008. First appearance " Pilot (Part 1) " Last appearance " The End " Created by .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Jeffrey Lieber J. J. Abrams Damon Lindelof Jeffrey Lieber J. J. Abrams Damon Lindelof Portrayed by Evangeline Lilly (Original) Emily Evan Rae (Age 11) Voiced by Skye McCole Bartusiak (Young) Centric episode(s) Individual : " Tabula Rasa " " Whatever The Case May Be " " Born to Run " " What Kate Did " " I Do " " Left Behind " " Eggtown " " The Little Prince " " Whatever Happened, Happened " " What Kate Does " Shared : " Pilot, Part 2 " " Exodus, Part 1 " " There's No Place Like Home (Parts 1 & 3) " " The Incident, Part 1 " " LA X, Part 1 & 2 " " The End " In-universe information Full name Katherine Anne Austen Alias Annie, Joan Hart, Monica Callis, Katherine Dodd, Monica Ryan , Lucy Species Human Gender Female Occupation Fugitive and fake mother of Aaron Littleton Nationality American Former residence Ames, Iowa , USA Katherine Anne Austen is a fictional character on the ABC television series Lost , played by Canadian actress Evangeline Lilly . Character biography Prior to the crash Born in 1977 and raised in Iowa , Kate is the daughter of diner worker Diane ( Beth Broderick ), and Sam ( Lindsey Ginter ), a U.S. Army Ranger and Gulf War Veteran. At an early age Kate's parents divorced, and Diane married an abusive alcoholic named Wayne Janssen ( James Horan ). As an adult, Kate killed Wayne, which she confessed to her mother before disappearing. Wayne had always been abusive to her mother, but Kate decided to kill him upon learning that he was her biological father. Diane called the authorities; thereafter Kate was pursued and ultimately arrested by Edward Mars ( Fredric Lehne ). Kate fled to Miami under the alias "Monica", where she dated and soon married a police officer named Kevin Callis ( Nathan Fillion ). After a pregnancy scare and Kevin's purchase of two Oceanic tickets to Costa Rica for their honeymoon, Kate confessed her fugitive past and laced his drink with a sedative before disappearing. [ 1 ] After months of traveling around the country under numerous aliases, Kate learned that Diane was dying of cancer, and decided to visit her. She reunited with her high-school sweetheart, Dr. Tom Brennan ( Mackenzie Astin ), who arranged a meeting between Kate and Diane. As Kate tried to apologize to her, Diane started screaming for help, prompting Kate to flee the hospital with Tom. A policeman opened fire on their getaway car, killing Tom and forcing Kate to flee the scene of the accident. [ 2 ] Months later Kate staged a robbery in New Mexico with several criminals to infiltrate a bank's safe deposit box . Tom's toy airplane was being stored in box 815, the same number as the crashed flight number. She fled to Australia where, while sleeping in a barn, she was discovered by a farmer, Ray Mullens ( Nick Tate ). Posing as a Canadian hiker, Kate worked on the farm for three months. When the farmer caught her attempting to sneak away, he offered her a ride into town the next morning. During the journey however, Kate discovered that the farmer had found out her true identity and notified Edward Mars of her whereabouts. Kate grabbed the wheel and crashed the truck into a field but instead of running, she helped the unconscious farmer from his vehicle, giving Mars time to pursue and arrest her. Escorting her to the airport in handcuffs, Mars briefed local security officers on Kate's fugitive past and revealed his locked carry-on case containing four firearms (and a fifth in an ankle holster). As the plane was bombarded with escalating turbulence, Mars was knocked unconscious by luggage from the overhead compartment. Kate stole the keys to the handcuffs and attached an oxygen mask to Mars and for herself, as the plane splintered and crashed onto the island. [ 3 ] After the crash Season 1 Having survived the crash, Jack Shephard noticed Kate walking out of the jungle and asked her to stitch his wound, to which she agreed reluctantly. During their second day on the Island, Jack, Kate, and Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) went to retrieve the cockpit's transceiver from the plane debris. They tried to rescue the injured pilot, but the Smoke Monster attacked them. When they returned, Kate, Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ), and several other survivors hiked to higher ground of the Island to transmit a distress signal on the transceiver. Back at the camp, Kate visited the injured marshal, who attempted to strangle her. Kate told Jack that he should euthanize the dying man, but Jack questioned her true motives when he learned about her criminal record. She went on a mission to triangulate the distress signal, and helped an injured Michael Dawson back to the camp. Jack suggested that the survivors move to the caves that he had discovered, but Kate refused because she was afraid of "digging in" and settling down. When Kate discovered the marshal's case, she and Sawyer had several fights to possess it. Eventually Kate asked Jack for his help; he retrieved the case and decided that he should open it with Kate. Inside the case was Tom's toy plane. Jack questioned her about the toy, and she admitted the plane belonged to a man that she loved who was killed. Kate, along with Jack, attempted to track down Claire and Charlie when they were kidnapped by Ethan. They were able to find and revive a hanging Charlie. Later she helped to capture Ethan. Kate was forced to deliver Claire's baby by herself while Jack was trying to save Boone's life. Kate tried to gain a place on Michael's raft by stealing Sawyer's and Jin's places. She convinced Jin's wife, Sun, to poison his water to ensure that he would not be able to travel on the raft. In preparation for the trip, Kate stole a dead woman's passport to assume her identity. However, Michael accused Sawyer of Michael's poisoning, which led to Sawyer revealing her fugitive status to the other survivors. After Rousseau arrived on the beach to warn the camp of the Others' imminent arrival, she directed Kate, Jack, Locke, and Hurley to the Black Rock, where they attempted to carry dynamite to the hatch that was discovered in the jungle. Season 2 Kate and Locke descend into the hatch, Kate entering first. [ 4 ] Once inside, she is locked up by Desmond . [ 5 ] Kate arrives in a room with a computer, where she overpowers Desmond after Jack arrives. She accidentally damages the computer in the crossfire, causing Desmond to panic and flee. [ 6 ] Kate is placed on a rotation to enter a certain set of numbers every 108 minutes into the computer, supposedly saving the world. While picking fruit Kate sees a black horse from her past. When she returns to the hatch she hallucinates that Wayne is channeled through unconscious injured Sawyer and Kate freaks out. Jack finds her alone in the jungle and tries to comfort her. Kate kisses Jack on impulse, then runs away once she realizes what she's done. She eventually returns to the Hatch to tend Sawyer. They venture outside and both witness the black horse lingering nearby. [ 7 ] When Michael runs off in search of his son, Kate follows him, but is kidnapped. After Jack refuses Tom's demands to hand over the guns, Kate is brought out and held at gunpoint to force the men to give up their guns. [ 8 ] When Claire's baby falls ill, Kate joins her on a trek into the jungle to seek Rousseau's help. The three head inland, where they discover the Staff station. [ 9 ] Later, Kate and Jack discover a mysterious and unnoticed food drop in the jungle. They return to the hatch, where hostage "Henry Gale" is exposed as an impostor. [ 10 ] Later, Kate joins Jack on a trek back to where they encountered the Others. The two make camp and Kate apologizes for kissing him in the jungle. Jack tells her that he is not sorry that she kissed him and they are about to kiss again when an exhausted Michael stumbles out of the bushes. [ 11 ] Michael invites her to follow him to the Others' camp when he recovers. The next day, Kate, Jack, Sawyer, and Hurley join Michael Dawson as they head for the Others' camp. They are ambushed, gagged, tied up, and taken to a pier. [ 12 ] Season 3 Kate is placed in a cage opposite Sawyer to work for the Others, under the eye of Pickett . [ 13 ] Sawyer discovers they are actually on another island, and tries to keep the information from Kate so as to give her hope. When Jack contacts her via Pickett's radio, informing her that she has a head-start to escape, she and Sawyer run towards the beach. [ 1 ] They encounter Alex , who gives them her boat [ 14 ] When arriving on the beach, she scolds Sayid and Locke for not bothering to rescue Jack. They head into the jungle and find Rousseau, who agrees to help them after learning of Alex's status. [ 15 ] The four trek into the jungle, where they discover the Flame station. There they confront the Other Mikhail and take him hostage. [ 16 ] The four resume their hike, eventually arriving at the Others' barracks, and see Jack socializing with the Others. [ 17 ] That evening, Kate approaches Jack, but the Others capture Sayid and her. When they are alone, Jack explains to Kate that he has made a deal with The Others. In exchange for saving Ben's life, Jack will be allowed to return home. He promises Kate that he will come back for her and the rest of their friends. But Locke blows up the Other's submarine before Jack can leave. [ 18 ] The following day, Kate is gassed by the Others and wakes up in the jungle, handcuffed to Juliet. They eventually return to the beach with Jack and Sayid. [ 19 ] Upon returning, Kate is still wary of Juliet, and becomes especially jealous of Juliet's developing relationship with Jack. Later, she learns of Naomi 's arrival. [ 20 ] Kate is then shown Jack and Juliet's plan to deal with the Others' imminent attack while the majority travels to the radio tower. En route, Sawyer tells Kate that he's turning back to help the survivors on the beach. Kate wants to go with him, but Sawyer won't let her, and Jack defends Sawyer's actions, knowing that Sawyer is trying to protect Kate. When Kate asks why he is sticking up for Sawyer because she knows Sawyer would never stick up for Jack, Jack replies that it's because he (Jack) loves her. They eventually encounter Ben and Alex in the jungle, at which point Ben is taken hostage. [ 21 ] Season 4 Kate follows a trail of Naomi's blood until being attacked by Naomi, who suddenly dies. After a confrontation between Jack and Locke, Kate decides to stay with Jack, but questions Sawyer when he decides to go with Locke. Later, they come across Daniel Faraday , whom they believe has arrived to rescue them. [ 22 ] After finding Miles , Kate and Jack find themselves at gunpoint until she takes them to Naomi's body. [ 23 ] Later, they team up with Frank , who managed to arrive on the island with the helicopter. Upon learning of the location of the final team member, Charlotte Staples Lewis , Kate accompanies Sayid and Miles to the barracks. They are eventually captured by Locke. [ 24 ] Kate decides to remain at the barracks, in an attempt to extract information from Miles. She arranges for him to speak to Ben, but is caught by Locke. She spends the night with Sawyer (although they did not have sex) and tells him that she is not pregnant. They argue over his exaggerated show of relief. Sawyer accuses her of bouncing back and forth between him and Jack. Kate slaps him on the face and then heads back to the beach. [ 25 ] When Sawyer returns with Miles and Aaron, she also takes over as Aaron's primary caretaker when Sawyer reveals that Claire has gone missing. Later, Sayid and Kate follow Jack and Sawyer to avoid them being attacked by the boat's soldiers. They meet up with the remaining Others and join forces to defeat the boat's soldiers. They all board Lapidus' helicopter, but as they travel back to the freighter a fuel leak is discovered, and after all the excess weight is thrown out, Sawyer kisses Kate, then asks her to do a favor for him back home and jumps out. [ 26 ] After the Island In " Eggtown ", Kate goes on trial for her father's murder. Jack testifies on her behalf as a character witness. He lies under oath and tells the court that it was Kate that saved him and the other survivors. Under cross-examination, he is asked whether he loves the defendant and he replies "Not anymore." Kate looks crestfallen and demands that Jack's testimony cease. Kate's mother, the prosecution's star witness, tries to reconcile with Kate, and then decides not to testify. She is consequently released on ten years probation, provided that she does not leave California. [ 25 ] Kate meets up with Jack after she is released and he confesses to her that he lied on the stand (about no longer loving her) and Kate is delighted. She invites him to come home with her, but he hesitates because he is not ready to see Aaron (his nephew) again. In " Something Nice Back Home ", Kate is seen living in an established relationship with Jack, who is also acting as a surrogate father for his nephew Aaron . Later, Jack asks Kate to marry him, which she happily accepts. Jack later confronts Kate about her "errands", which involved her meeting with Sawyer's daughter; Clementine and his ex-girlfriend Cassidy. Kate refuses to tell Jack any details about this, as she knows Sawyer would not want anybody else to know. Jack is angered by her secrecy and raises his voice, waking Aaron up. Kate rushes to comfort him then Jack leaves, paranoid, ending their relationship. [ 27 ] In " Through the Looking Glass ", Jack informs her of John Locke 's funeral. Jack then tells her that they need to return to the island, but Kate grows furious and leaves. [ 21 ] Season 5 Kate is surprisingly confronted by Dan Norton, a lawyer who is asking for a blood sample from both her and Aaron to determine their biological relationship. Norton refuses to tell Kate who his client is, and Kate refuses to give him a blood sample. Kate visits Sun, who convinces her to go see Norton and try to get him to reveal who his client is. Kate leaves Aaron in Sun's care while visiting Norton's firm, but cannot get a name out of him. Kate and Jack follow Norton to his clients house, who turns out to be Claire's mother. Jack goes in to talk to her and then realizes that she isn't the client they were looking for. When approached by Ben later, Kate discovers that he was the one who was trying to get a blood sample from her. Kate realizes that she is not supposed to raise Aaron and leaves him in the care of Claire's mother. She goes to Jack's apartment and they spend the night together. She returns to the island with the other survivors on flight 316. Sawyer explains that the year is 1977 and secretly gets her, Jack and Hurley to join the Dharma Initiative. Sayid shoots a young Ben Linus and Kate and Sawyer save his life by bringing him to Richard Alpert. After refusing to aid Jack in his plans to detonate the hydrogen bomb, Kate returns to the Dharma Initiative, to then be put on the Dharma sub with Sawyer and Juliet. However, she insists that the three leave the submarine to prevent Jack from detonating the bomb. When the three return to the island, they eventually reunite with Jack, Jin, Sayid and Hurley. Although Sawyer tries to persuade Jack not to use the bomb, his efforts are in vain and they fight. Kate tells Jack that if he really believes that detonating the bomb is the best thing, then she will help him, while Sawyer reluctantly agrees to go along with the plan after Juliet also takes Jack's side. Kate assists Jack in getting the bomb to the required location, but when he drops it down a tunnel, it does not go off, despite the fact that it is supposed to explode on impact. Jack, Kate, Sawyer and Juliet are shocked, but immediately, the Dharma drill that had been drilling deep into the pocket of magnetic energy that Jack was trying to contain went too far, and Juliet is ultimately dragged down the tunnel, into the source of the energy. Kate and Sawyer try to get her out but the strength of the magnetism is too much and she is pulled into the tunnel. Kate attempts to remove a distressed Sawyer from the scene along with Jack, unaware that Juliet remains conscious for now and desperately attempts to detonate the bomb, eventually succeeding. Season 6 Kate continues her mission to reunite Claire with Aaron. When she eventually finds her, she discovers that a dark side has grown in Claire, who has become unstable due to many years of living alone, in the belief that the others are holding her son hostage in a Temple. Sawyer escapes from the Temple and Kate follows him to apologize for the loss of Juliet and to ask him to help her find Claire. Sawyer assures Kate she is not to blame, and reveals his intention to propose to Juliet. Kate breaks down, and ultimately returns to the Temple to get Claire. When Kate joins the Man in Black's camp, after Claire learns that it was Kate who took Aaron and attempts to murder Kate by throwing her to the ground and pulling a knife on her. Kate is saved by 'Locke' and seeing that Kate is upset by the loss of Claire's friendship, warns her that Claire should not be reunited with Aaron as she is now 'crazy'. Claire later tearfully apologises for her actions and thanks Kate for keeping her son safe. Kate, (who has since grouped up with 'Locke') plans a breakout from the Man in Black's party, Kate wants to bring Claire but Sawyer refuses, saying she is no longer the friend they once knew following her attack on Kate. When Claire sees them leaving her behind again she gives chase and holds them at gunpoint just as they attempt to board a boat to escape. Kate talks Claire around, convincing her to come with them so she can finally go home to her son. The group try to leave on Widmore's sub, and Kate is shot through the right collarbone. Once on board, while Jack is tending to Kate's wound, they discover that the Man in Black has placed a C4 explosive on board. Sawyer inadvertently causes the timer to count down faster and Sayid, Jin and Sun are killed in the resulting explosion. Jack asks Hurley to take care of Kate and make sure that he takes her to safety off the sinking vessel. On the shore, Kate races over to Jack and is relieved to find him safe. Kate, Jack and Hurley mourn the loss of their friends while Sawyer remains unconscious. As the Man in Black starts to destroy the Island, Kate helps Jack kill him by shooting him. Jack is wounded in the fight with 'Locke' and he and Kate part for the final time due to their different destinies. Jack and Kate share a passionate kiss and declare their love for each other one last time before Jack leaves with Hurley to save the Island, and Kate goes to fulfill her promise to find Claire before departing on the Ajira plane, piloted by Frank. Along the way, they find Claire, who is scared to leave the island as she feels she is no longer a fit mother. Kate convinces her that her worries are normal and promises to help her. Kate escapes the island on the plane with Claire, Sawyer, Miles, Frank and Richard - Kate hand in hand with Claire. In the Sideways, Kate remembers her life when she helps deliver Aaron at the concert. Kate waits at the concert so she can reunite with Jack. She finds him and tells him "I've missed you so much", a reference that she probably lived a long life after leaving the Island and missed Jack profoundly. Jack eventually awakens and remembers Kate and his friends. Together with Jack at her side, they move on together. Development Before the pilot was shot, and during the writing phase, Kate was to emerge as the leader for the survivors, motivating them to build shelter and begin considering life as permanent residents of the island, however when it was decided Jack should survive, she was a second-in-command. In this original description for Kate, she was a slightly older woman separated from her husband, who went to the bathroom in the tail-section of the plane. However, that idea ended up being used for Rose Henderson ( L. Scott Caldwell ) and her husband Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ). Kate is involved in a love triangle with Jack ( Matthew Fox ) and Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) and is seen as very protective of Claire ( Emilie de Ravin ) and her baby Aaron. In the initial plans, Jack was going to die midway through the first episode and then Kate would emerge as the leader. She was not going to be a fugitive; instead, her husband was going to go to the bathroom shortly before the plane split in mid-air and she would remain adamant on the Island that he was alive. This ended up being used for Rose's character. The producers were impressed with Canadian Evangeline Lilly's audition, as she displayed the confidence with vulnerability that they were looking for. However, as this was Lilly's first role, she had difficulty obtaining a visa to work in the United States. She was supposed to start on the first day of filming, but the schedule was rearranged to give her more time and, in the meantime, the producers began auditioning again in case the visa did not come through. However, during one of the auditions, they got an email confirming that she had obtained her visa and could start work on the show. [ 28 ] Executive producer Damon Lindelof told about Lilly's casting: .mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}} Evangeline was a complete and total unknown. We had read 60 to 65 women for the role of Kate. We were fast-forwarding through a tape, and he [Abrams] saw her and said, 'That's the girl'. [ 29 ] Evangeline was a complete and total unknown. We had read 60 to 65 women for the role of Kate. We were fast-forwarding through a tape, and he [Abrams] saw her and said, 'That's the girl'. [ 29 ] Reception Some critics considered Kate Austen to be one of the more weakly written characters of Lost . [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Evangeline Lilly, who portrayed Kate, was critical of the way her character was written saying that “I did throw scripts across rooms when I'd read them . . . because I would get very frustrated by the diminishing amount of autonomy she had and the diminishing amount of her own story there was to play.” [ 35 ] Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger did not find Kate to be "nearly as compelling a central character as Sayid or Hurley (or some of the freighter people, for that matter)." [ 36 ] In reviewing the episode " What Kate Does " in 2010, critic Emily VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times stated that though "Kate's one of the show's most important characters,... she's also one of the series' most obvious missed opportunities." [ 37 ] When discussing the mistreatment of women and minorities in the series finale " The End " and the later seasons as a whole, Sady Doyle of Slant gave a negative assessment of Kate's arc stating, "Spunky, disobedient Kate was passed between Jack and Sawyer like a football before motherhood gave her life true purpose." [ 38 ] In 2023, Caroline Bernstein of Collider evaluated the show's "questionable-at-best treatment" of its female characters. She remarked that "any real plot or character development for Kate is more or less thrown out the window" by the end of its second season. [ 39 ] Assessing her mistreatment in relation to both writing and fandom as a whole, Bernstein remarked: In a chicken-or-egg type of paradox, Kate became one of the least favorite characters among fans during Lost's original run, which poses the question of whether she was hated for bad plotlines and inconsistent personality or given bad storylines because the writers didn't know where to go with her character beyond a certain point. [...] Kate became somewhat of a scapegoat in the fandom for all things wrong with the show, thus perpetuating the cycle of thinly veiled misogyny. [ 39 ] In a chicken-or-egg type of paradox, Kate became one of the least favorite characters among fans during Lost's original run, which poses the question of whether she was hated for bad plotlines and inconsistent personality or given bad storylines because the writers didn't know where to go with her character beyond a certain point. [...] Kate became somewhat of a scapegoat in the fandom for all things wrong with the show, thus perpetuating the cycle of thinly veiled misogyny. [ 39 ] On the other hand, Robert Bianco of USA Today said Lilly's performance in the season four episode " Eggtown " was worthy of a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. [ 40 ] Lilly's performance in " Whatever Happened, Happened " also received praise from TV critics and fans of the show alike. Lilly got a Golden Globe nomination for best dramatic actress in a lead role for her work in season 3. [ 41 ] Lifestyle website Beliefnet named her among the Top 10 Most Empowering Women on TV Today. [ 42 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Tucker Gates (director); Damon Lindelof & Carlton Cuse (writers) (November 8, 2006). " I Do ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 6. ABC. ^ Tucker Gates (director); Javier Grillo-Marxuach (story), Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz (teleplay) (May 11, 2005). " Born To Run ". Lost . Season 1. Episode 22. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Damon Lindelof (writer) (October 6, 2004). " Tabula Rasa ". Lost . Season 1. Episode 3. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Damon Lindelof (writer) (September 21, 2005). " Man of Science, Man of Faith ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 1. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Steven Maeda & Leonard Dick (writers) (September 28, 2005). " Adrift ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 2. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Javier Grillo-Marxuach & Craig Wright (writers) (October 5, 2005). " Orientation ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 3. ABC. ^ Paul Edwards (director); Steven Maeda & Craig Wright (writers) (November 30, 2005). " What Kate Did ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 9. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Elizabeth Sarnoff & Christina M. Kim (writers) (January 18, 2006). " The Hunting Party ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 11. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Dawn Lambertsen Kelly & Matt Ragghianti (writers) (March 1, 2006). " Maternity Leave ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 15. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Damon Lindelof & Carlton Cuse (writers) (March 29, 2006). " Lockdown ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 17. ABC. ^ Eric Laneuville (director); Steven Maeda & Leonard Dick (writers) (April 12, 2006). " S.O.S. ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 19. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Damon Lindelof & Carlton Cuse (writers) (May 24, 2006). " Live Together, Die Alone ". Lost . Season 2. Episode 23. ABC. ^ Paul Edwards (director); Drew Goddard & Jeff Pinkner (writers) (October 11, 2006). " The Glass Ballerina ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 2. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Carlton Cuse & Jeff Pinkner (writers) (February 7, 2007). " Not in Portland ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 7. ABC. ^ Jack Bender , Eric Laneuville (directors); Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz (writers) (February 28, 2007). " Tricia Tanaka is Dead ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 10. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Carlton Cuse & Damon Lindelof (writers) (March 7, 2007). " Enter 77 ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 11. ABC. ^ Paul Edwards (director); Christina M. Kim & Jordan Rosenberg (writers) (March 14, 2007). " Par Avion ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 12. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Drew Goddard & Jeff Pinkner (writers) (March 21, 2007). " The Man from Tallahassee ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 13. ABC. ^ Karen Gaviola (director); Damon Lindelof & Elizabeth Sarnoff (writers) (April 4, 2007). " Left Behind ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 15. ABC. ^ Bobby Roth (director); Elizabeth Sarnoff & Drew Goddard (writers) (May 9, 2007). " The Man Behind the Curtain ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 20. ABC. ^ a b Jack Bender (director); Carlton Cuse & Damon Lindelof (writers) (May 23, 2007). " Through the Looking Glass ". Lost . Season 3. Episode 22. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Damon Lindelof & Carlton Cuse (writers) (January 31, 2008). " The Beginning of the End ". Lost . Season 4. Episode 1. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Drew Goddard & Brian K. Vaughan (writers) (February 7, 2008). " Confirmed Dead ". Lost . Season 4. Episode 2. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz (writers) (February 14, 2008). " The Economist ". Lost . Season 4. Episode 3. ABC. ^ a b Stephen Williams (director); Elizabeth Sarnoff & Greggory Nations (writers) (February 21, 2008). " Eggtown ". Lost . Season 4. Episode 4. ABC. ^ Jack Bender (director); Carlton Cuse & Damon Lindelof (writers) (May 29, 2008). " There's No Place Like Home: Part 2 ". Lost . Season 4. Episode 13/14. ABC. ^ Stephen Williams (director); Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz (writers) (May 1, 2008). " Something Nice Back Home ". Lost . Season 4. Episode 10. ABC. ^ "Before They Were Lost". Lost: The Complete First Season , Buena Vista Home Entertainment . September 6, 2005. Featurette , disc 7. ^ Keveney, Bill (January 4, 2005). "The many aliases of J.J. Abrams" . USA Today . Archived from the original on November 4, 2012 . Retrieved December 27, 2012 . ^ McNutt, Myles (October 22, 2014). "Lost (Classic): "What Kate Did"/"The 23rd Psalm" " . The A.V. Club . CSC Corporate Domains, Inc. Archived from the original on January 31, 2020 . Retrieved January 31, 2020 . The problem was that [Kate's past] was a mystery the first season made no effort to solve, leaving Kate's flashbacks a frustrating evasion of the very question the show itself had asked.... It was the show seeing how far they could draw out each character's back story, and with Kate they ultimately pushed too far... ^ Sepinwall, Alan (October 12, 2006). "Lost: They're gonna need another boat" . What's Alan Watching . Archived from the original on July 10, 2019 . Retrieved January 31, 2020 . I could have done without Kate being turned into a damsel in distress again, though.... it's irritating how they spent so much time setting her up as a bad-ass and then inevitably use her as a human shield for the bad guys. ^ Sepinwall, Alan (March 6, 2008). "Lost: Goodwin some, lose some" . What's Alan Watching? . Archived from the original on January 31, 2020 . Retrieved January 31, 2020 . ... [W]e're back to Jack and Kate being complete imbeciles -- Kate the alleged badass letting Charlotte get in position to cold cock her even though she knew these two were up to no good... ^ Deggans, Eric (February 10, 2010). "Lost ratchets up the confusion with a Kate-centered episode presenting few answers" . tampabay.com . St. Petersburg Times . Archived from the original on June 24, 2010. ... [T]here's the typical Lost leaps in logic. Why do Claire and Kate bond in the not-crash timeline, when they first meet because Kate sticks a gun in the pregnant mom's face, stealing her cab, suitcase and clothes? Why does Kate, who seems to be a smart fugitive, keep driving around in her stolen cab like it's a rental car she picked up at LAX? ^ Goldman, Eric (September 23, 2014). "Ranking Every Episode of Lost" . IGN . Archived from the original on December 7, 2019 . Retrieved January 31, 2020 . Unfortunately, of the main characters on the show, Kate was often at the center of some of the weaker episodes... ^ "Evangeline Lilly Details Awful Experiences on the Set of Lost" . 2 August 2018. ^ Sepinwall, Alan (February 21, 2008). "Lost: Gone baby gone" . What's Alan Watching . Archived from the original on 31 January 2020 . Retrieved 31 January 2020 . ... Kate, whether solo or as part of the love triangle, isn't nearly as compelling a central character as Sayid or Hurley (or some of the freighter people, for that matter). ^ VanDerWerff, Todd (February 9, 2010), " Look Out! It's a Kate Episode! Archived 2020-01-31 at the Wayback Machine ", Los Angeles Times . Retrieved on February 14, 2010. ^ Doyle, Sady (May 25, 2010). "What Happened to All the Women and Minorities on "Lost" " . Slate . Brooklyn, New York: Slate . Retrieved March 24, 2024 . ^ a b Bernstein, Caroline (October 8, 2023). " 'Lost' Failed Just About All of Its Female Characters" . Collider . Los Angeles, California: Valnet Inc . Retrieved March 24, 2024 . ^ Bianco, Robert, (June 12, 2008) " Who Will Make Emmy Happy? Archived 2011-02-16 at the Wayback Machine ", USA Today . Retrieved on June 13, 2008. ^ "Evangeline Lilly" . Golden Globes . Retrieved 2025-06-25 . ^ "Top 10 Most Empowering Women on TV Today" . Beliefnet . Retrieved August 5, 2018 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Lost v t e Awards and nominations Cast Soundtracks Awards and nominations Cast Soundtracks Episodes Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Missing Pieces Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 ( Epilogue ) Season 1 Season 2 Season 3 Missing Pieces Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 ( Epilogue ) Characters Alex Rousseau Ana Lucia Cortez Ben Linus Boone Carlyle Charles Widmore Charlie Pace Charlotte Lewis Christian Shephard Claire Littleton Daniel Faraday Danielle Rousseau Desmond Hume Ethan Rom Frank Lapidus Hugo "Hurley" Reyes Ilana Verdansky Jack Shephard Jacob James "Sawyer" Ford Jin-Soo Kwon John Locke Juliet Burke Kate Austen Libby Smith Man in Black Martin Keamy Michael Dawson Miles Straume Mr. Eko Nikki and Paulo Penny Widmore Richard Alpert Rose and Bernard Nadler Sayid Jarrah Shannon Rutherford Sun-Hwa Kwon Tom Friendly Walt Lloyd Alex Rousseau Ana Lucia Cortez Ben Linus Boone Carlyle Charles Widmore Charlie Pace Charlotte Lewis Christian Shephard Claire Littleton Daniel Faraday Danielle Rousseau Desmond Hume Ethan Rom Frank Lapidus Hugo "Hurley" Reyes Ilana Verdansky Jack Shephard Jacob James "Sawyer" Ford Jin-Soo Kwon John Locke Juliet Burke Kate Austen Libby Smith Man in Black Martin Keamy Michael Dawson Miles Straume Mr. Eko Nikki and Paulo Penny Widmore Richard Alpert Rose and Bernard Nadler Sayid Jarrah Shannon Rutherford Sun-Hwa Kwon Tom Friendly Walt Lloyd Mythology Dharma Initiative Oceanic Airlines Dharma Initiative Oceanic Airlines Related articles Find 815 Lost Experience Lostpedia Lost: Via Domus Mythology Find 815 Lost Experience Lostpedia Lost: Via Domus Mythology Category Category Lost (2004 TV series) characters American female characters in television Fictional con artists Fictional characters from Iowa Fictional mechanics Fictional female murderers Fictional patricides Fictional sole survivors Television characters introduced in 2004 Time travelers Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles with hAudio microformats Spoken articles This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 04:35 (UTC) . 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–3 of 3 results for author: Bryner, D Show abstracts Hide abstracts arXiv:2601.10524 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Diagnosing Generalization Failures in Fine-Tuned LLMs: A Cross-Architectural Study on Phishing Detection Authors: Frank Bobe III , Gregory D. Vetaw , Chase Pavlick , Darshan Bryner , Matthew Cook , Jose Salas-Vernis Abstract : The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high… ▽ More The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high-stakes phishing detection task and use SHAP analysis and mechanistic interpretability to uncover the root causes of their generalization failures. Our investigation reveals three critical findings: (1) Generalization is driven by a powerful synergy between architecture and data diversity. The Gemma 2 9B model achieves state-of-the-art performance (>91\% F1), but only when trained on a stylistically diverse ``generalist'' dataset. (2) Generalization is highly architecture-dependent. We diagnose a specific failure mode in Llama 3.1 8B, which performs well on a narrow domain but cannot integrate diverse data, leading to a significant performance drop. (3) Some architectures are inherently more generalizable. The Mistral model proves to be a consistent and resilient performer across multiple training paradigms. By pinpointing the flawed heuristics responsible for these failures, our work provides a concrete methodology for diagnosing and understanding generalization failures, underscoring that reliable AI requires deep validation of the interplay between architecture, data, and training strategy. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2601.10524 [ pdf , ps , other ] Diagnosing Generalization Failures in Fine-Tuned LLMs: A Cross-Architectural Study on Phishing Detection Authors: Frank Bobe III , Gregory D. Vetaw , Chase Pavlick , Darshan Bryner , Matthew Cook , Jose Salas-Vernis Abstract : The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high… ▽ More The practice of fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) has achieved state-of-the-art performance on specialized tasks, yet diagnosing why these models become brittle and fail to generalize remains a critical open problem. To address this, we introduce and apply a multi-layered diagnostic framework to a cross-architectural study. We fine-tune Llama 3.1 8B, Gemma 2 9B, and Mistral models on a high-stakes phishing detection task and use SHAP analysis and mechanistic interpretability to uncover the root causes of their generalization failures. Our investigation reveals three critical findings: (1) Generalization is driven by a powerful synergy between architecture and data diversity. The Gemma 2 9B model achieves state-of-the-art performance (>91\% F1), but only when trained on a stylistically diverse ``generalist'' dataset. (2) Generalization is highly architecture-dependent. We diagnose a specific failure mode in Llama 3.1 8B, which performs well on a narrow domain but cannot integrate diverse data, leading to a significant performance drop. (3) Some architectures are inherently more generalizable. The Mistral model proves to be a consistent and resilient performer across multiple training paradigms. By pinpointing the flawed heuristics responsible for these failures, our work provides a concrete methodology for diagnosing and understanding generalization failures, underscoring that reliable AI requires deep validation of the interplay between architecture, data, and training strategy. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 16 pages, 6 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2105.08604 [ pdf , other ] stat.ME cs.CV Shape Analysis of Functional Data with Elastic Partial Matching Authors: Darshan Bryner , Anuj Srivastava Abstract : Elastic Riemannian metrics have been used successfully in the past for statistical treatments of functional and curve shape data. However, this usage has suffered from an important restriction: the function boundaries are assumed fixed and matched. Functional data exhibiting unmatched boundaries typically arise from dynamical systems with variable evolution rates such as COVID-19 infection rate cu… ▽ More Elastic Riemannian metrics have been used successfully in the past for statistical treatments of functional and curve shape data. However, this usage has suffered from an important restriction: the function boundaries are assumed fixed and matched. Functional data exhibiting unmatched boundaries typically arise from dynamical systems with variable evolution rates such as COVID-19 infection rate curves associated with different geographical regions. In this case, it is more natural to model such data with sliding boundaries and use partial matching, i.e., only a part of a function is matched to another function. Here, we develop a comprehensive Riemannian framework that allows for partial matching, comparing, and clustering of functions under both phase variability and uncertain boundaries. We extend past work by: (1) Forming a joint action of the time-warping and time-scaling groups; (2) Introducing a metric that is invariant to this joint action, allowing for a gradient-based approach to elastic partial matching; and (3) Presenting a modification that, while losing the metric property, allows one to control relative influence of the two groups. This framework is illustrated for registering and clustering shapes of COVID-19 rate curves, identifying essential patterns, minimizing mismatch errors, and reducing variability within clusters compared to previous methods. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2021; originally announced May 2021. Comments: Submitted to IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence arXiv:2105.08604 [ pdf , other ] Shape Analysis of Functional Data with Elastic Partial Matching Authors: Darshan Bryner , Anuj Srivastava Abstract : Elastic Riemannian metrics have been used successfully in the past for statistical treatments of functional and curve shape data. However, this usage has suffered from an important restriction: the function boundaries are assumed fixed and matched. Functional data exhibiting unmatched boundaries typically arise from dynamical systems with variable evolution rates such as COVID-19 infection rate cu… ▽ More Elastic Riemannian metrics have been used successfully in the past for statistical treatments of functional and curve shape data. However, this usage has suffered from an important restriction: the function boundaries are assumed fixed and matched. Functional data exhibiting unmatched boundaries typically arise from dynamical systems with variable evolution rates such as COVID-19 infection rate curves associated with different geographical regions. In this case, it is more natural to model such data with sliding boundaries and use partial matching, i.e., only a part of a function is matched to another function. Here, we develop a comprehensive Riemannian framework that allows for partial matching, comparing, and clustering of functions under both phase variability and uncertain boundaries. We extend past work by: (1) Forming a joint action of the time-warping and time-scaling groups; (2) Introducing a metric that is invariant to this joint action, allowing for a gradient-based approach to elastic partial matching; and (3) Presenting a modification that, while losing the metric property, allows one to control relative influence of the two groups. This framework is illustrated for registering and clustering shapes of COVID-19 rate curves, identifying essential patterns, minimizing mismatch errors, and reducing variability within clusters compared to previous methods. △ Less Submitted 18 May, 2021; originally announced May 2021. Comments: Submitted to IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence arXiv:2102.12017 [ pdf , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.RO Annotating Motion Primitives for Simplifying Action Search in Reinforcement Learning Authors: Isaac J. Sledge , Darshan W. Bryner , Jose C. Principe Abstract : Reinforcement learning in large-scale environments is challenging due to the many possible actions that can be taken in specific situations. We have previously developed a means of constraining, and hence speeding up, the search process through the use of motion primitives; motion primitives are sequences of pre-specified actions taken across a state series. As a byproduct of this work, we have fo… ▽ More Reinforcement learning in large-scale environments is challenging due to the many possible actions that can be taken in specific situations. We have previously developed a means of constraining, and hence speeding up, the search process through the use of motion primitives; motion primitives are sequences of pre-specified actions taken across a state series. As a byproduct of this work, we have found that if the motion primitives' motions and actions are labeled, then the search can be sped up further. Since motion primitives may initially lack such details, we propose a theoretically viewpoint-insensitive and speed-insensitive means of automatically annotating the underlying motions and actions. We do this through a differential-geometric, spatio-temporal kinematics descriptor, which analyzes how the poses of entities in two motion sequences change over time. We use this descriptor in conjunction with a weighted-nearest-neighbor classifier to label the primitives using a limited set of training examples. In our experiments, we achieve high motion and action annotation rates for human-action-derived primitives with as few as one training sample. We also demonstrate that reinforcement learning using accurately labeled trajectories leads to high-performing policies more quickly than standard reinforcement learning techniques. This is partly because motion primitives encode prior domain knowledge and preempt the need to re-discover that knowledge during training. It is also because agents can leverage the labels to systematically ignore action classes that do not facilitate task objectives, thereby reducing the action space. △ Less Submitted 26 November, 2021; v1 submitted 23 February, 2021; originally announced February 2021. Comments: IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence arXiv:2102.12017 [ pdf , other ] Annotating Motion Primitives for Simplifying Action Search in Reinforcement Learning Authors: Isaac J. Sledge , Darshan W. Bryner , Jose C. Principe Abstract : Reinforcement learning in large-scale environments is challenging due to the many possible actions that can be taken in specific situations. We have previously developed a means of constraining, and hence speeding up, the search process through the use of motion primitives; motion primitives are sequences of pre-specified actions taken across a state series. As a byproduct of this work, we have fo… ▽ More Reinforcement learning in large-scale environments is challenging due to the many possible actions that can be taken in specific situations. We have previously developed a means of constraining, and hence speeding up, the search process through the use of motion primitives; motion primitives are sequences of pre-specified actions taken across a state series. As a byproduct of this work, we have found that if the motion primitives' motions and actions are labeled, then the search can be sped up further. Since motion primitives may initially lack such details, we propose a theoretically viewpoint-insensitive and speed-insensitive means of automatically annotating the underlying motions and actions. We do this through a differential-geometric, spatio-temporal kinematics descriptor, which analyzes how the poses of entities in two motion sequences change over time. We use this descriptor in conjunction with a weighted-nearest-neighbor classifier to label the primitives using a limited set of training examples. In our experiments, we achieve high motion and action annotation rates for human-action-derived primitives with as few as one training sample. We also demonstrate that reinforcement learning using accurately labeled trajectories leads to high-performing policies more quickly than standard reinforcement learning techniques. This is partly because motion primitives encode prior domain knowledge and preempt the need to re-discover that knowledge during training. It is also because agents can leverage the labels to systematically ignore action classes that do not facilitate task objectives, thereby reducing the action space. △ Less Submitted 26 November, 2021; v1 submitted 23 February, 2021; originally announced February 2021. Comments: IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Definitions 2 Evolutionary history 3 Ecology Toggle Ecology subsection 3.1 Biodiversity 3.2 Vegetation 3.3 Fauna 3.1 Biodiversity 3.2 Vegetation 3.3 Fauna 4 Ecosystem services Toggle Ecosystem services subsection 4.1 Carbon sequestration 4.2 Other ecosystem services 4.1 Carbon sequestration 4.2 Other ecosystem services 5 Degradation Toggle Degradation subsection 5.1 Causes 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.2 Types of degradation 5.2.1 Land cover change 5.1 Causes 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.1.1 Land use intensification 5.1.2 Climate change 5.1.3 Afforestation or introduction of invasive species 5.1.4 Management 5.2 Types of degradation 5.2.1 Land cover change 5.2.1 Land cover change 6 Conservation and restoration 7 Types of grasslands Toggle Types of grasslands subsection 7.1 Classifications of grassland 7.2 General grasslands types 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 7.1 Classifications of grassland 7.2 General grasslands types 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 7.2.1 Tropical and subtropical 7.2.2 Temperate 7.2.3 Flooded 7.2.4 Montane 7.2.5 Tundra grasslands 7.2.6 Desert and xeric 8 Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions 9 Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Grassland Afrikaans العربية Asturianu বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Magyar മലയാളം ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Polski Português Runa Simi Русский සිංහල Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Svenska தமிழ் Taqbaylit ไทย Türkçe Українська Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item A grassland is an area (or ecosystem) where the vegetation is dominated by grasses . However, sedges and rushes can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover , and other herbs . Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth . Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. [ 1 ] There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, [ 2 ] and agricultural grasslands. [ 1 ] They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Definitions Included among the variety of definitions for grasslands are: "...any plant community, including harvested forages, in which grasses and/or legumes make up the dominant vegetation." [ 1 ] "...terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, and maintained by fire, grazing, drought and/or freezing temperatures." (Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems, 2000) [ 1 ] "A region with sufficient average annual precipitation (25-75 cm) to support grass..." (Stiling, 1999) [ 1 ] Semi-natural grasslands are a very common subcategory of the grasslands biome. [ 5 ] These can be defined as: Grassland existing as a result of human activity (mowing or livestock grazing), where environmental conditions and the species pool are maintained by natural processes. [ 6 ] They can also be described as the following: "Semi-natural grasslands are one of the world's most biodiverse habitats on a small spatial scales." [ 7 ] "Semi-natural grasslands belong to the most species rich ecosystems in the world." [ 8 ] "...have been formed over the course of centuries through extensive grazing and mowing." [ 7 ] "...without the use of pesticides or fertilisers in modern times." [ 9 ] There are many different types of semi-natural grasslands, e.g. hay meadows . [ 9 ] Evolutionary history The graminoids are among the most versatile life forms . They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and coprolites of fossilized dinosaur feces have been found containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo . The appearance of mountains in the western United States during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favourable to the evolution of grasslands. [ 10 ] Around 5 million years ago during the Late Miocene in the New World and the Pliocene in the Old World, the first true grasslands occurred. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. It is known that grasslands have existed in Europe throughout the Pleistocene (the last 1.8 million years). [ 9 ] Following the Pleistocene ice ages (with their glacials and interglacials ), grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. [ 10 ] Since the grasslands have existed for over 1.8 million years, there is high variability. For example steppe-tundra dominated in Northern and Central Europe whereas a higher amount of xerothermic grasslands occurred in the Mediterranean area. [ 9 ] Within temperate Europe, the range of types is quite wide and also became unique due to the exchange of species and genetic material between different biomes. The semi-natural grasslands first appeared when humans started farming. So for the use of agriculture, forests got cleared in Europe. Ancient meadows and pastures were the parts that were suitable for cultivation. The semi-natural grasslands were formed from these areas. [ 9 ] However, there's also evidence for the local persistence of natural grasslands in Europe, originally maintained by wild herbivores, throughout the pre-Neolithic Holocene. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] The removal of the plants by the grazing animals and later the mowing farmers led to co-existence of other plant species around. In the following, the biodiversity of the plants evolve. Also, the species that already lived there adapted to the new conditions. [ 9 ] Most of the grassland areas have been turned to arable fields and disappeared again. The grasslands permanently became arable cropping fields due to the steady decrease in organic matter. [ 13 ] Nowadays, semi-natural grasslands are rather located in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural farming. [ 9 ] Ecology Biodiversity Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon anthropogenic activities such as grazing and cutting regimes. The semi-natural grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 plant-species per 100 square centimeters can be found. [ 9 ] A European record that was found on a meadow in Estonia described 76 species of plants in one square meter. [ 9 ] Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter. In many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing, or re-seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with the wild-plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the snipe and the little bustard . [ 14 ] Owing to semi-natural grasslands being referred to as one of the most-species rich ecosystems in the world and essential habitat for many specialists, also including pollinators, [ 8 ] there are many approaches to conservation activities lately. Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been destroyed by cultivation and by the use of fertilizers. Almost 90% of the European semi-natural grasslands do not exist anymore due to political and economic reasons. This loss took place during the 20th century. [ 7 ] The ones in Western and Central Europe have almost disappeared completely. There are a few left in Northern Europe. [ 7 ] Unfortunately, a large amount of red-listed species are specialists of semi-natural grasslands and are affected by the landscape change due to agriculture of the last century. [ 15 ] The original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as perennial ryegrass and white clover . In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately. Vegetation Grassland vegetation can vary considerably depending on the grassland type and on how strong it is affected by human impact. Dominant trees for the semi-natural grassland are Quercus robur , Betula pendula , Corylus avellana , Crataegus and many kinds of herbs. [ 16 ] In chalk grassland , the plants can vary from very tall to very short. Quite tall grasses can be found in North American tallgrass prairie , South American grasslands, and African savanna . Woody plants, shrubs or trees may occur on some grasslands—forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, such as the African savannas or the dehesa and montado , in Spain and Portugal respectively. [ 17 ] As flowering plants and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm (20 and 35 in). [ 18 ] The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place. Fauna Grasslands support the greatest aggregations of large animals on Earth, including jaguars, African wild dogs, pronghorn , black-footed ferret , plains bison , mountain plover , African elephant, Sunda tiger, black rhino, white rhino, savanna elephant, greater one-horned rhino, Indian elephant and swift fox . Grazing animals, herd animals, and predators in grasslands, like lions and cheetahs live in the grasslands of the African savanna. [ 19 ] Mites , insect larvae , nematodes , and earthworms inhabit deep soil, which can reach 6 metres (20 feet) underground in undisturbed grasslands on the richest soils of the world. These invertebrates, along with symbiotic fungi , extend the root systems, break apart hard soil, enrich it with urea and other natural fertilizers, trap minerals and water and promote growth. Some types of fungi make the plants more resistant to insect and microbial attacks. [ 20 ] Grassland in all its form supports a vast variety of mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Typical large mammals include the blue wildebeest , American bison , giant anteater , and Przewalski's horse . [ 21 ] The plants and animals that live in grasslands are connected through an unlimited web of interactions. But the removal of key species—such as buffalo and prairie dogs within the American West—and introduction of invasive species , like cane toads in northern Australia, have disrupted the balance in these ecosystems and damaged a number of other species. [ 19 ] Grasslands are home to a number of the foremost magnificent animals on the planet—elephants, bison, lions—and hunters have found them to be enticing prey. But when hunting is not controlled or is conducted illegally, species can become extinct. [ 19 ] Ecosystem services Grasslands provide a range of marketed and non-marketed ecosystem services that are fundamental to the livelihoods of an estimated one billion people globally. [ 22 ] Carbon sequestration Grasslands hold about twenty percent of global soil carbon stocks. [ 3 ] Herbaceous (non-wooded) vegetation dominates grasslands and carbon is stored in the roots and soil underground. Above-ground biomass carbon is relatively short-lived due to grazing, fire, and senescence . Grassland species have an extensive fibrous root system, with grasses often accounting for 60–80% of the biomass carbon in this ecosystem. This underground biomass can extend several meters below the surface and store abundant carbon into the soil, resulting in deep, fertile soils with high organic matter content. For this reason, soil carbon accounts for about 81% of the total ecosystem carbon in grasslands. The close link between soil carbon and underground biomass leads to similar responses of these carbon pools to fluctuations in annual precipitation and temperature on a broad spatial scale. Because plant productivity is limited by grassland precipitation, carbon stocks are highest in regions where precipitation is heaviest, such as the high grass prairie in the humid temperate region of the United States. Similarly, as annual temperatures rise, grassland carbon stocks decrease due to increased evapotranspiration . [ 23 ] Grasslands have suffered large losses of organic carbon due to soil disturbances, vegetation degradation, fires, erosion, nutrient deficiencies, and water shortages. The type, frequency and intensity of the disturbance can play a key role in the soil organic carbon ( SOC ) balance of grasslands. Bedrock , irrigation practices, soil acidification , liming , and pasture management can all have potential impacts on grassland organic carbon stocks. [ 24 ] Good grassland management can reverse historical soil carbon losses. [ 3 ] [ 25 ] The relationship of improved biodiversity with carbon storage is subject of research. [ 26 ] There is a lack of agreement on the amount of carbon that can be stored in grassland ecosystem. This is partly caused by different methodologies applied to measure soil organic carbon and limited respective datasets. Further, carbon accumulation in soils changes significantly over time and point in time measurements produce an insufficient evidence base. [ 27 ] Other ecosystem services promotion of genetic diversity weather amelioration [ 28 ] provision of wildlife habitat Degradation Grasslands are among the most threatened ecosystems. [ 29 ] Global losses from grassland degradation are estimated to be over $7 billion per year. [ 30 ] According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most significant threat to grasslands is human land use, especially agriculture and mining. [ 31 ] The vulnerability of grasslands stems from a range of factors, such as misclassification, poor protection and cultivation. [ 22 ] Causes Land use intensification Grasslands have an extensive history of human activity and disturbance . [ 32 ] To feed a growing human population, most of the world's grasslands are converted from natural landscapes to fields of corn, wheat or other crops. Grasslands that have remained largely intact thus far, such as the East African savannas , are in danger of being lost to agriculture. [ 19 ] Grasslands are very sensitive to disturbances, such as people hunting and killing key species, or plowing the land to make more space for farms. Grassland vegetation is often a plagioclimax ; it remains dominant in a particular area usually due to grazing , cutting, or natural or man-made fires, all discouraging colonization by and survival of tree and shrub seedlings . [ 33 ] Some of the world's largest expanses of grassland are found in the African savanna, and these are maintained by wild herbivores as well as by nomadic pastoralists and their cattle , sheep or goats. Grasslands have an impact on climate change by slower decomposition rates of litter compared to forest environments. [ 34 ] Grasslands may occur naturally or as a result of human activity. Hunting cultures around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the U.S. Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois , Indiana , and Ohio by human agency. Much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock. [ 35 ] Climate change Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm (59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. [ 36 ] However, some grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the encroachment of woody species . Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low soil fertility such as serpentine barrens and calcareous grasslands, where woody encroachment is prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species. Another common predicament often experienced by the ill-fated grassland creatures is the constant burning of plants, fueled by oxygen and many expired photosynthesizing organisms, with the lack of rain pushing this problem to further heights. [ 37 ] When not limited by other factors, increasing CO 2 concentration in the air increases plant growth, similarly as water use efficiency, which is very important in drier regions. However, the advantages of elevated CO 2 are limited by factors including water availability and available nutrients , particularly nitrogen. Thus effects of elevated CO 2 on plant growth will vary with local climate patterns, species adaptations to water limitations, and nitrogen availability. Studies indicate that nutrient depletion may happen faster in drier regions, and with factors like plant community composition and grazing. Nitrogen deposition from air pollutants and increased mineralization from higher temperatures can increase plant productivity, but increases are often among a discount in biodiversity as faster-growing plants outcompete others. A study of a California grassland found that global change may speed reductions in diversity and forb species are most prone to this process. [ 23 ] Afforestation or introduction of invasive species Misguided afforestation efforts, for example as part of the global effort to increase carbon sequestration, can harm grasslands and their core ecosystem services. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Forest centric restoration efforts can create the risk of misreading and misclassifying of landscapes. [ 22 ] A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration . It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] It is expected that non-native grasses will continue to outperform native species under warmer and drier conditions that occur in many grasslands due to climate change. [ 42 ] Management The type of land management used in grasslands can also lead to grassland loss or degradation. Many grasslands and other open ecosystems depend on disturbances such as wildfires , controlled burns or grazing to persist, although this subject is still controversial. [ 43 ] A study in Brazilian Subtropical Highland Grasslands found that grasslands without traditional land management—which uses fire every two years and extensive cattle grazing—can disappear within 30 years. [ 44 ] This study showed that grasslands inside protected areas , in which fire is not allowed and cattle grazing is banned, were quickly replaced by shrubs ( shrub encroachment ). Moreover, the absence of fire in grasslands can lead to an increase in the dominance of a few species and litter accumulation, resulting in a reduction in the number of herbaceous species and changes in herbaceous species composition. [ 45 ] Types of degradation Land cover change Land cover has always changed during the years. The following relates to the changes between 1960 and 2015. There has been a decrease in semi-natural grasslands and an increase in areas with arable land , forest and land used for infrastructure and buildings. The line style and relative thickness of the lines indicates the percentage of the total area that changed. Changes less than 1% and land-cover classes with all changes less than 1% (i.e. semi-natural wetlands and water) are not included. [ 15 ] In 1960 most of the land, 49.7%, was covered with forest and there was also more semi-natural grassland (18.8%) than arable land (15.8%). In 2015 this has changed drastically. The forest cover has increased (50.8%) and arable land has also increased (20.4%), but the semi-natural grassland cover has decreased. Although it still covers a large area of the earth (10.6%). [ 15 ] A quarter of semi-natural grassland was lost through intensification, i.e. it was converted into arable or pasture land and forests. [ 46 ] It is more likely that intensification will occur in flat semi-natural grasslands, especially if the soil is fertile. On the other hand, grasslands, where the land is drought-prone or less productive, are more likely to persist as semi-natural grasslands than grasslands with fertile soil and low gradient of the terrain. [ 47 ] Furthermore, the accessibility of the land is also important, as it is then easier to fertilize, for example. For instance, if it is located near a road. With the development of technology, it is becoming increasingly easy to cultivate land with a steeper gradient, to the detriment of grasslands. The management of grasslands is also changing permanently. There is increased use of mineral fertilizers, furthermore borders and field edges are removed to enlarge fields and leveling the terrain to facilitate the use of agricultural machinery. [ 15 ] The professional study of dry grasslands falls under the category of rangeland management , which focuses on ecosystem services associated with the grass-dominated arid and semi-arid rangelands of the world. Rangelands account for an estimated 70% of the earth's landmass; thus, many cultures including those of the United States are indebted to the economics that the world's grasslands have to offer, from producing grazing animals, tourism, ecosystems services such as clean water and air, and energy extraction. [ 48 ] Vast areas of grassland are affected by woody encroachment , which is the expansion of woody plants at the expense of the herbaceous layer. Woody encroachment is caused by a combination of human impact (e.g. fire exclusion, overstocking and resulting overgrazing ) and environmental factors (i.e. increased CO 2 levels in the atmosphere). It can have severe negative consequences on key ecosystem services, like land productivity and groundwater recharge. Conservation and restoration Despite growing recognition of the importance of grasslands, understanding of restoration options remains limited. [ 49 ] Cost of grassland restoration is highly variable and respective data is scarce. [ 50 ] Successful grassland restoration has several dimensions, including recognition in policy, standardisation of indicators of degradation, scientific innovation, knowledge transfer and data sharing. [ 51 ] Restoration methods and measures include the following: [ 52 ] prescribed fires appropriate management of livestock and wild herbivores: in light of land use intensification caused by global food demand, grassland land use practices may need to be adjusted to better support key ecosystem services. [ 53 ] tree cutting shrub removal invasive species control reintroduction of native grasses and forbs via seeding or transplant: a main challenge for grassland restoration is how to overcome seed limitation. [ 49 ] For the period 2021–2030 the United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed the UN Decade on Restoration, involving a joint resolution by over 70 countries. It is led by the United Nations Environment Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization . [ 54 ] Types of grasslands Classifications of grassland Grassland types by Schimper (1898, 1903): [ 55 ] Meadow (hygrophilous or tropophilous grassland) Steppe (xerophilous grassland) Savannah (xerophilous grassland containing isolated trees) Steppe family: a common grassland animal, the swift fox Grassland types by Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967): [ 56 ] Formation-class V. Terrestrial herbaceous communities Savannas and related grasslands (tropical or subtropical grasslands and parklands) Steppes and related grasslands (e.g. North American "prairies" etc.) Meadows, pastures or related grasslands Sedge swamps and flushes Herbaceous and half-woody salt swamps Forb vegetation A hike through the Tallgrass Prairie Heritage Park in Canada Grassland types by Laycock (1979): [ 57 ] Tallgrass (true) prairie Shortgrass prairie Mixed-grass prairie Shrub steppe Annual grassland Desert (arid) grassland High mountain grassland General grasslands types Tropical and subtropical These grasslands can be classified as the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands biome . The rainfall level for that grassland type is between 90 and 150 centimeters per year. Grasses and scattered trees are common for that ecoregion, as well as large mammals , such as wildebeest ( Connochaetes taurinus ) and zebra ( Equus zebra ). Notable tropical and subtropical grasslands include the Llanos grasslands of South America . [ 58 ] Temperate Mid-latitude grasslands, including the prairie and Pacific grasslands of North America , the Pampas of Argentina , Brazil and Uruguay , calcareous downland , and the steppes of Europe . They are classified with temperate savannas and shrublands as the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome . Temperate grasslands are the home to many large herbivores , such as bison , gazelles , zebras , rhinoceroses , and wild horses . Carnivores like lions , wolves , cheetahs and leopards are also found in temperate grasslands. Other animals of this region include deer , prairie dogs , mice , jack rabbits , skunks , coyotes , snakes , foxes , owls , badgers , blackbirds, grasshoppers , meadowlarks , sparrows , quails , hawks and hyenas . [ 59 ] Flooded Grasslands that are flooded seasonally or year-round, like the Everglades of Florida , the Pantanal of Brazil , Bolivia and Paraguay or the Esteros del Ibera in Argentina , are classified with flooded savannas as the flooded grasslands and savannas biome and occur mostly in the tropics and subtropics. The species that live in these grasslands are well adapted to the hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. The Everglades—the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland—is rich in 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 species of orchids , 300 bird species, and 150 fish species. Water-meadows are grasslands that are deliberately flooded for short periods. [ 60 ] Montane High-altitude grasslands located on high mountain ranges around the world, like the Páramo of the Andes Mountains . They are part of the montane grasslands and shrublands biome and can be tropical, subtropical, and temperate. The plants and animals, that can be found in the tropical montane, are able to adapt to cool, wet conditions as well as intense sunlight. [ 61 ] Tundra grasslands Similar to montane grasslands, polar Arctic tundra can have grasses, but high soil moisture means that few tundras are grass-dominated today. However, during the Pleistocene glacial periods (commonly referred to as ice ages ), a grassland known as steppe-tundra or mammoth steppe occupied large areas of the Northern Hemisphere. These areas were very cold and arid and featured sub-surface permafrost (hence tundra) but were nevertheless productive grassland ecosystems supporting a wide variety of fauna. As the temperature increased and the climate became wetter at the beginning of the Holocene much of the mammoth steppe transitioned to forest, while the drier parts in central Eurasia remained as a grassland, becoming the modern Eurasian steppe . [ 62 ] Desert and xeric Also called desert grasslands, they are composed of sparse grassland ecoregions located in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome . Temperature extremes and low amounts of rainfall characterise these kinds of grasslands. Therefore, plants and animals are well adapted to minimize water loss. [ 63 ] Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions The grassland ecoregions of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome are: .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Afrotropical Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Afrotropical Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Al Hajar montane woodlands Amsterdam and Saint-Paul Islands temperate grasslands Tristan da Cunha–Gough Islands shrub and grasslands Bushveld Australasian Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Australasian Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Canterbury–Otago tussock grasslands Eastern Australia mulga shrublands Southeast Australia temperate savanna Nearctic California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands Nearctic California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands California Central Valley grasslands Canadian aspen forests and parklands Central and Southern mixed grasslands Central forest–grasslands transition Central tall grasslands Columbia Plateau Edwards Plateau savanna Flint Hills tall grasslands Montana valley and foothill grasslands Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands Northern mixed grasslands Northern short grasslands Northern tall grasslands Palouse grasslands Texas blackland prairies Western short grasslands Neotropical Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Neotropical Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Argentine Espinal Argentine Monte Humid Pampas Patagonian grasslands Patagonian steppe Semi-arid Pampas Palearctic Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Palearctic Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Ecoregion Location(s) Alai–Western Tian Shan steppe Kazakhstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Altai steppe and semi-desert Kazakhstan Central Anatolian steppe Turkey Daurian forest steppe China , Mongolia , Russia Eastern Anatolian montane steppe Armenia , Azerbaijan , Georgia , Iran , Turkey Emin Valley steppe China , Kazakhstan Faroe Islands boreal grasslands Faroe Islands , Denmark Gissaro–Alai open woodlands Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Uzbekistan Kazakh forest steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh steppe Kazakhstan , Russia Kazakh Uplands Kazakhstan Mongolian–Manchurian grassland China , Mongolia , Russia Pontic steppe Kazakhstan , Moldova , Romania , Russia , Ukraine , Bulgaria Sayan Intermontane steppe Russia Selenge–Orkhon forest steppe Mongolia , Russia South Siberian forest steppe Russia Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands Iraq , Jordan , Syria Tian Shan foothill arid steppe China , Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands ecoregions v t e Afrotropical Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Afrotropical Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Angolan miombo woodlands Angolan mopane woodlands Ascension scrub and grasslands Central Zambezian miombo woodlands East Sudanian savanna Eastern miombo woodlands Guinean forest–savanna mosaic Itigi–Sumbu thicket Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands Mandara Plateau mosaic Northern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Sahelian Acacia savanna Serengeti volcanic grasslands Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune Southern Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets Southern Africa bushveld Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Southern miombo woodlands Saint Helena scrub and woodlands Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic West Sudanian savanna Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic Western Zambezian grasslands Zambezian and mopane woodlands Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands Australasian Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Australasian Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Arnhem Land tropical savanna Brigalow tropical savanna Cape York Peninsula tropical savanna Carpentaria tropical savanna Einasleigh Uplands savanna Kimberley tropical savanna Mitchell grass downs Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands Victoria Plains tropical savanna Indomalayan Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Indomalayan Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands Nearctic Western Gulf coastal grasslands Nearctic Western Gulf coastal grasslands Western Gulf coastal grasslands Neotropical Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Neotropical Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Beni savanna Campos rupestres Cerrado Clipperton Island shrub and grasslands Córdoba montane savanna Guianan savanna Humid Chaco Llanos Uruguayan savanna Oceanian Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub Oceanian Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub Hawaiian tropical high shrublands Hawaiian tropical low shrublands Northwestern Hawaii scrub See also Meadow Forest Woody plant encroachment References ^ a b c d e .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Gibson, David J. 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"Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry . 129 : 144– 152. Bibcode : 2019SBiBi.129..144O . doi : 10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 . hdl : 10261/336676 . S2CID 92606851 . ^ Liu, Jun; Feng, Chao; Wang, Deli; Wang, Ling; Wilsey, Brian J.; Zhong, Zhiwei (August 2015). Firn, Jennifer (ed.). "Impacts of grazing by different large herbivores in grassland depend on plant species diversity" . Journal of Applied Ecology . 52 (4): 1053– 1062. Bibcode : 2015JApEc..52.1053L . doi : 10.1111/1365-2664.12456 . ^ "Grasslands Information and Facts" . National Geographic . 2019-03-15. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017 . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "EO Experiments: Grassland Biome" . Earthobservatory.nasa.gov . 29 April 1999. Archived from the original on 2000-10-27 . 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Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ a b Buisson, Elise; Le Stradic, Soizig; Silveira, Fernando A. O.; Durigan, Giselda; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Fidelis, Alessandra; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Bond, William J.; Hermann, Julia-Maria; Mahy, Gregory; Alvarado, Swanni T. (April 2019). "Resilience and restoration of tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and grassy woodlands: Tropical grassland resilience and restoration" . Biological Reviews . 94 (2): 590– 609. doi : 10.1111/brv.12470 . hdl : 2268/229154 . PMID 30251329 . S2CID 52816465 . ^ Knight, Michelle L.; Overbeck, Gerhard E. (2021-05-28). "How much does is cost to restore a grassland?" . Restoration Ecology . 29 (8) e13463. Bibcode : 2021ResEc..2913463K . doi : 10.1111/rec.13463 . ISSN 1061-2971 . S2CID 236416000 . ^ Bardgett, Richard D.; Bullock, James M.; Lavorel, Sandra; Manning, Peter; Schaffner, Urs; Ostle, Nicholas; Chomel, Mathilde; Durigan, Giselda; L. Fry, Ellen; Johnson, David; Lavallee, Jocelyn M. (2021-09-07). 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UN Decade on Restoration . Retrieved 2021-06-01 . ^ Schimper, A. F. W. (1903) [1898]. Pflanzen-Geographie auf physiologischer Grundlage [ Plant geography on a physiological basis ] (in German). Translated by Fisher, Jena. ^ Ellenberg, H. & D. Mueller-Dombois. 1967. Tentative physiognomic-ecological classification of plant formations of the Earth [based on a discussion draft of the UNESCO working group on vegetation classification and mapping.] Berichte des Geobotanischen Institutes der Eidg. Techn. Hochschule, Stiftung Rübel, Zürich 37 (1965-1966): 21—55, [1] Archived 2016-10-21 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Laycock, W.A. (1979). "Introduction". In French, N R. (ed.). Perspectives in Grassland Ecology . New York: Springer. pp. 1– 2. ISBN 978-1-4612-6182-7 – via Google Books . ^ "Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Flooded grasslands and savannas | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Montane grasslands and shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Tundra | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . ^ "Deserts and xeric shrublands | Biomes | WWF" . World Wildlife Fund . Retrieved 2020-05-20 . Further reading Courtwright, Julie. 2011. Prairie Fire: A Great Plains History . University Press of Kansas. 274 pp. French, N. R. (ed.). 1979. Perspectives in Grassland Ecology . Springer, New York, 204 pp., Perspectives in Grassland Ecology: Results and Applications of the US/IBP Grassland Biome Study . Suttie, J. M.; Reynolds, S. G.; C. Batello. 2005. Grasslands of the world . Rome: FAO. Grassland of the world . Wilsey, B.J. 2018. Biology of Grasslands. Oxford University Press. External links @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Grasslands at Wikimedia Commons v t e Phytogeography : Vegetation classification v t e Physiognomy Forests , tropical , seasonal tropical , woodlands , arboretum Shrublands , heath , scrubs, thickets , fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland , subshrublands , dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities , grasslands , steppes , prairies , velds , herbetum Savannas , parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation ( Desert , Barren vegetation ) Forests , tropical , seasonal tropical , woodlands , arboretum Shrublands , heath , scrubs, thickets , fruticetum Dwarf-shrubland , subshrublands , dwarf-scrubs, suffruticetum Herbaceous communities , grasslands , steppes , prairies , velds , herbetum Savannas , parklands Scarcely vegetated areas, desert vegetation ( Desert , Barren vegetation ) Latitude Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Tropical Subtropical Temperate Subpolar Polar Climatic regime Pluvial , rainy , ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Pluvial , rainy , ombrophilous Cloudy Seasonal Drought Altitude Montane Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Montane Polonyna Tundra Polonyna Tundra Submontane Lowland Coastal Leaves Loss of leaves Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Loss of leaves Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Deciduous , caducifolious Semi-deciduous , semicaducifolious Evergreen , perennifolious Leaf hardness Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Sclerophyll , stiff leaves Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves Leaf form Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Aciculifolious, needle-leaved Latifolious, broad-leaved Substrate Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic Aquatic Riparian Mangrove Swampy Riparian Mangrove Swampy Terrestrial Alpine Arctic Alpine Arctic See also Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation Biogeographic realms Biomes Floristic kingdoms Plant habits Plant life-forms Vegetation Authority control databases National United States Japan Czech Republic Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Israel Other NARA Yale LUX NARA Yale LUX Grasslands Agricultural land Ecoregions Grasses Plains Poaceae CS1 maint: location missing publisher CS1 errors: periodical ignored CS1 maint: others CS1 German-language sources (de) Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Commons category link is on Wikidata This page was last edited on 15 January 2026, at 22:03 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Construction 2 End of World War II 3 Post-war events 4 See also 5 References Toggle References subsection 5.1 Informational notes 5.2 Citations 5.1 Informational notes 5.2 Citations 6 Bibliography 7 Further reading 8 External links Führerbunker العربية Asturianu Azərbaycanca Беларуская Български Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Latviešu Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English کوردی Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Führerbunker Führer's bunker July 1947 photo of the rear entrance to the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancellery . The corpses of Hitler and Eva Braun were burned in a shell hole in front of the emergency exit at left; the conical structure in the centre served for ventilation, and as a bomb shelter for the guards. [ 1 ] .mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}} Location within Central Berlin General information Location Berlin , Germany Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 52°30′45″N 13°22′53″E / 52.5125°N 13.3815°E / 52.5125; 13.3815 Construction started 1943 Completed 1944 Destroyed started 1947, completed 1980s Cost 1.35 million ℛ︁ℳ︁ (equivalent to €5 million in 2021) Design and construction Architects Albert Speer , Karl Piepenburg Architecture firm Hochtief AG The Führerbunker ( .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} German pronunciation: [ˈfyːʁɐˌbʊŋkɐ] ⓘ ) was an air raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin , Germany . It was part of a subterranean bunker complex constructed in two phases in 1936 and 1944. It was the last of the Führer Headquarters ( Führerhauptquartiere ) used by Adolf Hitler during World War II . Hitler took up residence in the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945, and it became the centre of the Nazi regime until the last week of World War II in Europe. Hitler married Eva Braun there on 29 April 1945, less than 40 hours before they committed suicide . After the war, both the old and new Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviet Red Army . The underground complex remained largely undisturbed until 1988–89, despite some attempts at demolition. The excavated sections of the old bunker complex were mostly destroyed during reconstruction of that area of Berlin. The site remained unmarked until 2006, when a small plaque was installed with a schematic diagram. Some corridors of the bunker still exist, but are sealed off from the public. Construction The Reich Chancellery bunker was initially constructed as a temporary air-raid shelter for Hitler, who actually spent very little time in the capital during most of the war. Increased bombing of Berlin led to expansion of the complex as an improvised permanent shelter. The elaborate complex consisted of two separate shelters, the Vorbunker ("forward bunker"; the upper bunker), completed in 1936, and the Führerbunker , located 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) lower than the Vorbunker and to the west-southwest, completed in 1944. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] They were connected by a stairway set at right angles and could be closed off from each other by a bulkhead and steel door. [ 4 ] The Vorbunker was located 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) beneath the cellar of a large reception hall behind the old Reich Chancellery at Wilhelmstrasse 77. [ 5 ] The Führerbunker was located about 8.5 m (28 ft) beneath the garden of the old Reich Chancellery, 120 m (390 ft) north of the new Reich Chancellery building at Voßstraße 6. [ 6 ] Besides being deeper under ground, the Führerbunker had significantly more reinforcement. Its roof was made of concrete almost 3 m (9 ft 10 in) thick. [ 7 ] About 30 small rooms were protected by approximately 4 m (13 ft 1 in) of concrete; exits led into the main buildings, as well as an emergency exit up to the garden. The Führerbunker development was built by the Hochtief company as part of an extensive programme of subterranean construction in Berlin begun in 1940. [ 8 ] The construction cost for the Führerbunker totaled 1,349,899.29 Reichsmarks . [ 9 ] Hitler's accommodations were in this newer, lower section, and by February 1945 it had been decorated with high-quality furniture taken from the Chancellery, along with several framed oil paintings. [ 10 ] After descending the stairs into the lower section and passing through the steel door, there was a long corridor with a series of rooms on each side. [ 11 ] On the right side were a series of rooms which included generator/ventilation rooms and the telephone switchboard. [ 11 ] On the left side was Eva Braun 's bedroom/sitting room (also known as Hitler's private guest room), and an antechamber (also known as Hitler's sitting room), which led into Hitler's study/office. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] On the wall hung a large portrait of Frederick the Great , one of Hitler's heroes. [ 14 ] A door led into Hitler's modestly furnished bedroom. [ 13 ] Next to it was the conference/map room (also known as the briefing/situation room) which had a door that led out into the waiting room/anteroom. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The bunker complex was self-contained. [ 15 ] However, as the Führerbunker was below the water table , conditions were unpleasantly damp, with pumps running continuously to remove groundwater . A diesel generator provided electricity, and well water was pumped in as the water supply. [ 16 ] Communications systems included a telex , a telephone switchboard, and an army radio set with an outdoor antenna. As conditions deteriorated at the end of the war, Hitler received much of his war news from BBC radio broadcasts and via courier. [ 17 ] End of World War II Hitler moved into the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945. His senior staff, including Martin Bormann and Joseph Goebbels , as well as Braun, joined them in April, while Magda Goebbels and their six children took residence in the upper Vorbunker . [ 18 ] Two or three dozen support, medical, and administrative staff were also sheltered there. These included Hitler's secretaries (including Traudl Junge ), a nurse named Erna Flegel , and Sergeant Rochus Misch , who was both bodyguard and telephone switchboard operator. Initially, Hitler continued to use the undamaged wing of the Reich Chancellery, where he held afternoon military conferences in his large study. [ 19 ] Afterwards, he would have tea with his secretaries before returning to the bunker complex for the night. After several weeks of this routine, Hitler seldom left the bunker except for short strolls in the chancellery garden with his dog Blondi . [ 19 ] The bunker was crowded, the atmosphere was oppressive, and air raids occurred daily. [ 20 ] Hitler mostly stayed on the lower level, where it was quieter and he could sleep. [ 21 ] Conferences took place for much of the night, [ 20 ] often until 05:00. [ 22 ] On 16 April, the Red Army started the Battle of Berlin , and they started to encircle the city by 19 April. [ 23 ] Hitler made his last trip to the surface on 20 April, his 56th birthday, going to the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery where he awarded the Iron Cross to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth . [ 24 ] That afternoon, Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time. [ 25 ] Hitler was in denial about the dire situation and placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen-SS General Felix Steiner , the Armeeabteilung Steiner (" Army Detachment Steiner "). On 21 April, Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the encircling Soviet salient and ordered the German Ninth Army , south-east of Berlin, to attack northward in a pincer attack . [ 26 ] [ 27 ] That evening, Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of Berlin. [ 28 ] Hitler was told at his afternoon situation conference on 22 April that Steiner's forces had not moved, and he fell into a tearful rage when he realised that the attack was not going to be carried out. He openly declared for the first time the war was lost—and he blamed his generals. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself. [ 29 ] On 23 April, [ a ] Hitler appointed General of the Artillery Helmuth Weidling , commander of the LVI Panzer Corps , as the commander of the Berlin Defense Area, replacing Lieutenant Colonel ( Oberstleutnant ) Ernst Kaether . [ 30 ] The Red Army had consolidated their investment of Berlin by 25 April, despite the commands being issued from the Führerbunker . There was no prospect that the German defence could do anything but delay the city's capture. [ 31 ] Hitler summoned Field Marshal Robert Ritter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to take over command of the Luftwaffe from Hermann Göring , and he arrived on 26 April along with his mistress, the test pilot Hanna Reitsch . [ 32 ] On 28 April, Hitler learned that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies through Count Folke Bernadotte , [ 33 ] and Hitler considered this treason. [ 34 ] Himmler's SS representative in Berlin, Hermann Fegelein , was shot after being court-martialed for desertion, and Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest. [ 35 ] [ 32 ] On the same day, General Hans Krebs made his last telephone call from the Führerbunker to Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel , Chief of German Armed Forces High Command (OKW) in Fürstenberg . Krebs told him that all would be lost if relief did not arrive within 48 hours. Keitel promised to exert the utmost pressure on Generals Walther Wenck , commander of the Twelfth Army , and Theodor Busse , commander of the Ninth Army. Meanwhile, Bormann wired to German Admiral Karl Dönitz : "Reich Chancellery a heap of rubble." [ 32 ] He said that the foreign press was reporting fresh acts of treason and "that without exception Schörner , Wenck and the others must give evidence of their loyalty by the quickest relief of the Führer". [ 36 ] That evening, von Greim and Reitsch flew out from Berlin in an Arado Ar 96 trainer. Field Marshal von Greim was ordered to get the Luftwaffe to attack the Soviet forces that had just reached Potsdamer Platz , only a city block from the Führerbunker . [ b ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] During the night of 28 April, General Wenck reported to Keitel that his Twelfth Army had been forced back along the entire front and it was no longer possible for his army to relieve Berlin. [ 39 ] Keitel gave Wenck permission to break off the attempt. [ 36 ] Hitler married Eva Braun after midnight on 28–29 April in a small civil ceremony within the Führerbunker . He then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament . [ 40 ] [ c ] Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf , Goebbels, and Bormann witnessed and signed the documents at approximately 04:00. [ 40 ] Hitler then retired to bed. [ 41 ] Late in the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted Jodl by radio: "Request immediate report. Firstly of the whereabouts of Wenck's spearheads. Secondly of time intended to attack. Thirdly of the location of the Ninth Army. Fourthly of the precise place in which the Ninth Army will break through. Fifthly of the whereabouts of General Rudolf Holste 's spearhead." [ 39 ] In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs: "Firstly, Wenck's spearhead bogged down south of Schwielow Lake . Secondly, Twelfth Army therefore unable to continue attack on Berlin. Thirdly, bulk of Ninth Army surrounded. Fourthly, Holste's Corps on the defensive." [ 39 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ d ] SS- Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke , commander of the centre government district of Berlin, informed Hitler during the morning of 30 April that he would be able to hold for less than two days. Later that morning, Weidling informed Hitler that the defenders would probably exhaust their ammunition that night and again asked him for permission to break out. Weidling finally received permission at about 13:00. [ 44 ] Hitler shot himself later that afternoon, at around 15:30, while Eva took cyanide . [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In accordance with Hitler's instructions, his and Eva's lifeless bodies were wrapped in blankets, carried outside, and burned. [ 47 ] Goebbels became the new Head of Government and Chancellor of Germany ( Reichskanzler ) in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. Reichskanzler Goebbels and Bormann sent a radio message to Dönitz at 03:15, informing him of Hitler's death, and that he was the new Head of State and President of Germany ( Reichspräsident ), in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament. [ 48 ] Krebs talked to General Vasily Chuikov , commander of the Soviet 8th Guards Army , at about 04:00 on 1 May, [ e ] and Chuikov demanded unconditional surrender of the remaining German forces. Krebs did not have the authority to surrender, so he returned to the bunker. [ 49 ] In the late afternoon, Goebbels had his children poisoned , and he and his wife left the bunker at around 20:30. [ 50 ] There are several different accounts on what followed. According to one account, Goebbels shot his wife and then himself. Another account was that they each bit on a cyanide ampule and were given a coup de grâce immediately afterwards. [ 51 ] Goebbels' SS adjutant Günther Schwägermann testified in 1948 that the couple walked ahead of him up the stairs and out to the Chancellery garden. He waited in the stairwell and heard the shots, then walked up the remaining stairs and saw the lifeless bodies of the couple outside. He then followed Joseph Goebbels' order and had an SS soldier fire several shots into Goebbels' body, which did not move. [ 50 ] The bodies were then doused with petrol and set alight, but the remains were only partially burned and not buried. [ 51 ] Weidling had given the order for the survivors to break out to the northwest, and the plan got underway at around 23:00. The first group from the Reich Chancellery was led by Mohnke; they tried unsuccessfully to break through the Soviet rings and were captured the next day. Mohnke was interrogated by SMERSH , like others who were captured from the Führerbunker . The third breakout attempt from the Reich Chancellery was made around 01:00 on 2 May, and Bormann managed to cross the Spree . Artur Axmann followed the same route and reported seeing Bormann's body a short distance from the Weidendammer bridge . [ 52 ] [ f ] At 01:00, the Soviet forces picked up a radio message from the LVI Panzer Corps requesting a cease-fire. Down in the Führerbunker , General Krebs and General Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to the head. [ 53 ] The last defenders in the area of the bunker complex were mainly made up of Frenchmen of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne , others being Waffen-SS from the remnants of the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland , Latvian SS and Spanish SS units. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] A group of French SS remained in the area of the bunker until the early morning of 2 May. [ 56 ] The Soviet forces then captured the Reich Chancellery. [ 57 ] General Weidling surrendered with his staff at 6:00, and his meeting with Chuikov ended at 8:23. [ 39 ] Johannes Hentschel , the master electro-mechanic for the bunker complex, stayed after everyone else had either left or committed suicide, as the field hospital in the Reich Chancellery above needed power and water. He surrendered to the Red Army as they entered the bunker complex at 09:00 on 2 May. [ 58 ] The bodies of Goebbels' six children were discovered on 3 May. They were found in their beds in the Vorbunker with the clear mark of cyanide shown on their faces. [ 59 ] Post-war events The first post-war photos of the interior of the Führerbunker were taken in July 1945. On 4 July, American writer James P. O'Donnell toured the bunker after giving the Soviet guard a pack of cigarettes. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Many soldiers, politicians, and diplomats visited the bunker complex in the following days and months. Winston Churchill visited the Chancellery and bunker on 14 July 1945. [ 62 ] That month, Life photojournalist William Vandivert photographed the bunker. [ 63 ] [ 64 ] During separate investigations by the Western allies, a bloodstain was noted on Hitler's bed frame. [ 65 ] According to historian Mark Felton , a British officer surmised that Hitler could have been shot in bed, with a less bloody death occurring on the sofa. [ 65 ] On 11 December 1945, the Soviet Union allowed a limited investigation of the bunker grounds by the other Allied powers. Two representatives from each nation watched several Germans dig up soil, including the site where Hitler's remains had allegedly been exhumed that May. The representatives planned to continue the work, but when they arrived the next morning, an NKVD armed guard met them and accused them of removing documents from the Chancellery. This was denied and no further outside probes were allowed for years. [ 66 ] As part of a disinformation campaign, the Soviets alleged that Hitler escaped or died by poison [ 67 ] [ 68 ] while maintaining secrecy about their investigation. [ 69 ] In May 1946, the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs tasked forensicist Piotr Semenovsky with investigating the scene, although it had by then already been contaminated by numerous individuals. In the bunker study, Semenovsky observed blood stains on the sofa and possibly traces of blood on the wall. [ 70 ] He also found blood in some corridors and spurts of blood on the upper walls of the stairwell leading to the emergency exit. The forensicist concluded these were the result of Hitler's body, wrapped in a blanket, being carried outside for burning. Semenovsky surmised that the blanket became blood-soaked in the process. [ 70 ] The outer ruins of both Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949 as part of an effort to destroy the landmarks of Nazi Germany. A detailed interior site investigation by the Soviets, including measurements, took place on 16 May 1946. [ 71 ] Thereafter, the bunker largely survived, although some areas were partially flooded. In December 1947, the Soviets tried to blow up the bunker, but only the separation walls were damaged. In 1959, the East German government began a series of demolitions of the Chancellery, including the bunker. [ 72 ] Because it was near the Berlin Wall , the site was undeveloped and neglected until 1988–89. [ 73 ] During extensive construction of residential housing and other buildings on the site, work crews uncovered several underground sections of the old bunker complex; for the most part these were destroyed. Other parts of the Chancellery underground complex were uncovered, but were filled in, resealed, or ignored. [ 74 ] Government authorities wanted to destroy the last vestiges of these Nazi landmarks. [ 75 ] The construction of the buildings in the area around the Führerbunker was a strategy for ensuring the surroundings remained anonymous and unremarkable. [ 76 ] The emergency exit point for the Führerbunker (which had been in the Chancellery gardens) was occupied by a car park . [ 77 ] On 8 June 2006, during the lead-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup , an information board was installed to mark the location of the Führerbunker . The board, including a schematic diagram of the bunker, can be found at the corner of In den Ministergärten and Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße, two small streets about three minutes' walk from Potsdamer Platz . Rochus Misch , one of the last people living who was in the bunker at the time of Hitler's suicide, attended the ceremony. [ 78 ] In 2025, blood from the sofa in Hitler's study was used by Turi King of the University of Bath for DNA analysis . The blood was confirmed to be Hitler's by comparing it to a relative's DNA. [ 79 ] Ruins of the bunker after demolition in 1947 Site of Führerbunker and information board on Gertrud-Kolmar-Straße in October 2023 A side angle view of the site in July 2007 See also Berghof The Bunker – 1970 book The Bunker – 1981 film based on the book The Bunker – 1981 film based on the book Downfall – 2004 film Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters Nazi architecture Presidential Emergency Operations Center Stalin's bunker Wolf's Lair Fahrerbunker References Informational notes ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 286 states the appointment was 23 April; Hamilton 2008 , p. 160 states "officially" it was the morning of 24 April; Dollinger 1997 , p. 228, gives 26 April for the appointment. ^ The Luftwaffe order differs in different sources. Beevor 2002 , p. 342 states it was to attack Potsdamerplatz , but Ziemke states it was to support Wenck's Twelfth Army attack. Both agree that von Greim was also ordered to make sure Himmler was punished. ^ " MI5 staff 2005 : Hitler's will and marriage" on the website of MI5 , using the sources available to Hugh Trevor-Roper (a World War II MI5 agent and historian/author of The Last Days of Hitler ), records the marriage as taking place after Hitler had dictated his last will and testament. ^ Dollinger 1997 , p. 239, says Jodl replied, but Ziemke 1969 , p. 120, and Beevor 2002 , p. 537, say it was Keitel. ^ Dollinger 1997 , p. 239, states 03:00, and Beevor 2002 , p. 367, 04:00, for Krebs' meeting with Chuikov. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 126 says that Weidling gave no orders for a break-out. Citations ^ Arnold 2012 . ^ Lehrer 2006 , pp. 117, 119, 123. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , p. 56. ^ Mollo 1988 , p. 28. ^ Lehrer 2006 , p. 117. ^ Lehrer 2006 , p. 123. ^ McNab 2014 , pp. 21, 28. ^ Lehrer 2006 , pp. 117, 119, 121–123. ^ Lehrer 2006 , p. 124. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 97. ^ a b McNab 2014 , p. 28. ^ a b McNab 2011 , p. 109. ^ a b c McNab 2014 , p. 29. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 97, 901–902. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 901. ^ Lehrer 2006 , pp. 124–125. ^ Taylor 2007 , p. 184. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 278. ^ a b Kershaw 2008 , p. 902. ^ a b Bullock 1999 , p. 785. ^ Speer 1971 , p. 597. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 903. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 217–233. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 251. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 255. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 267–268. ^ Ziemke 1969 , pp. 87–88. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 255, 256. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 275. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 934. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 111. ^ a b c Dollinger 1997 , p. 228. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 923–925, 943. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 943–946. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 946. ^ a b Ziemke 1969 , p. 119. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 342. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 118. ^ a b c d Dollinger 1997 , p. 239. ^ a b Beevor 2002 , p. 343. ^ Kershaw 2008 , p. 950. ^ Ziemke 1969 , p. 120. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 357, last paragraph. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 358. ^ Joachimsthaler 1999 , pp. 160–182. ^ Linge 2009 , p. 199. ^ Kershaw 2008 , pp. 956–957. ^ Williams 2005 , pp. 324, 325. ^ Shirer 1960 , pp. 1135–1137. ^ a b Joachimsthaler 1999 , p. 52. ^ a b Beevor 2002 , p. 381. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 383, 389. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 387. ^ Weale 2012 , p. 407. ^ Hamilton 2020 , pp. 349, 386. ^ Hamilton 2020 , p. 408. ^ Beevor 2002 , pp. 387, 388. ^ Joachimsthaler 1999 , p. 287. ^ Beevor 2002 , p. 398. ^ O'Donnell 2001 , pp. 9–12. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 98–99. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 98–101. ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Hitler's Destroyed Bunker - William Vandivert" . Google Arts & Culture . Retrieved 14 August 2024 . ^ "Hitler's Underground Shelter - William Vandivert" . Google Arts & Culture . Retrieved 14 August 2024 . ^ a b Felton, Mark (2023). "Back in the Bunker". Find the Führer: The Secret Soviet Investigation . Episode 4. 7:00, 8:30 minutes in. ^ Musmanno, Michael A. (1950). Ten Days to Die . Garden City, NY: Doubleday . pp. 233– 34. ^ Eberle & Uhl 2005 , p. 288. ^ Kershaw 2001 , p. 1037. ^ "Hitlers letzte Reise" . Der Spiegel (in German). 19 July 1992 . Retrieved 6 March 2021 . ^ a b Brisard & Parshina 2018 , pp. 257–259. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 101–102. ^ Mollo 1988 , pp. 48, 49. ^ Mollo 1988 , pp. 49, 50. ^ Mollo 1988 , pp. 46, 48, 50–53. ^ McNab 2014 , p. 21. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , pp. 27, 28. ^ Kellerhoff 2004 , p. 27. ^ Der Spiegel 2006 . ^ Oltermann 2025 . Bibliography Arnold, Dietmar (9 January 2012) [8 June 2010]. "Berliner Unterwelten e.V.: The Legend of Hitler's Bunker" . Berliner-unterwelten.de. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011 . Retrieved 11 June 2011 . Beevor, Antony (2002). Berlin: The Downfall 1945 . London: Viking–Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-03041-5 . Brisard, Jean-Christophe and Parshina, Lana (2018). The Death of Hitler . Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0306922589 . Bullock, Alan (1999) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny . New York: Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 978-1-56852-036-0 . Dollinger, Hans (1997). Decline and the Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan . London: Chancellor. ISBN 978-0-7537-0009-9 . Eberle, Henrik ; Uhl, Matthias, eds. (2005). The Hitler Book: The Secret Dossier Prepared for Stalin from the Interrogations of Hitler's Personal Aides . New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-366-1 . Hamilton, Stephan (2008). Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945 . Solihull: Helion & Co. ISBN 978-1-906033-12-5 . Hamilton, A. Stephan (2020) [2008]. Bloody Streets: The Soviet Assault on Berlin, April 1945 . Helion & Co. ISBN 978-1912866137 . Joachimsthaler, Anton (1999) [1995]. The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends – The Evidence – The Truth . London: Brockhampton Press. ISBN 978-1-86019-902-8 . Kellerhoff, Sven (2004). The Führer Bunker . Berlin: Berlin Story Verlag. ISBN 978-3-929829-23-5 . Kershaw, Ian (2001) [2000]. Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis . London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-027239-0 . Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography . New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6 . Lehrer, Steven (2006). The Reich Chancellery and Führerbunker Complex . An Illustrated History of the Seat of the Nazi Regime . Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2393-4 . Linge, Heinz (2009). With Hitler to the End . London; New York: Frontline Books–Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-804-7 . McNab, Chris (2011). Hitler's Masterplan: The Essential Facts and Figures for Hitler's Third Reich . Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1907446962 . McNab, Chris (2014). Hitler's Fortresses: German Fortifications and Defences 1939–45 . Oxford; New York: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-828-6 . Mollo, Andrew (1988). Ramsey, Winston (ed.). "The Berlin Führerbunker: The Thirteenth Hole". After the Battle (61). London: Battle of Britain International. MI5 staff (2005). "Hitler's last days" . mi5.gov.uk . MI5 . Retrieved 12 June 2011 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link ) O'Donnell, James P. (2001) [1978]. The Bunker . New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80958-3 . Oltermann, Philip (13 November 2025). "Did Hitler really have a 'micropenis'? The dubious documentary analysing the dictator's DNA" . The Guardian . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich . New York: Simon & Schuster. LCCN 60-6729 . Speer, Albert (1971) [1969]. Inside the Third Reich . New York: Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-00071-5 . Staff (9 June 2006). "Debunking Hitler: Marking the Site of the Führer's Bunker" . Spiegel Online . Spiegel-Verlag . Retrieved 7 April 2014 . Taylor, Blaine (2007). Hitler's Headquarters: From Beer Hall to Bunker, 1920–1945 . Dulles, Virginia: Potomac. ISBN 978-1-57488-928-4 . Weale, Adrian (2012). Army of Evil: A History of the SS . New York: Caliber Printing. ISBN 978-0-451-23791-0 . Williams, Andrew (2005). D-Day to Berlin . Hodder . ISBN 978-0-340-83397-1 . Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle For Berlin: End Of The Third Reich . London: MacDonald. OCLC 253711605 . Further reading Boldt, Gerhard (1973). Hitler: The Last Ten Days . New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan. ISBN 978-0-698-10531-7 . C.I.U. General Staff, Geographical Section (1990). Ramsey, Winston G. (ed.). Berlin: Allied Intelligence Map of Key Buildings . After the Battle – Battle of Britain International. ISBN 978-1-870067-33-1 . de Boer, Sjoerd (2021). Escaping Hitler's Bunker: The Fate of the Third Reich Leaders . Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-52679-269-3 . Fest, Joachim (2005). Inside Hitler's Bunker: The Last Days of the Third Reich . New York: Picador. ISBN 978-0-374-13577-5 . Galante, Pierre; Silianoff, Eugene (1989). Voices from the Bunker . New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 978-0-3991-3404-3 . Junge, Traudl (2004). Müller, Melissa (ed.). Until the Final Hour: Hitler's Last Secretary . New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55970-728-2 . Neubauer, Christoph (2010). Stadtführer durch Hitlers Berlin (in German and English). Frankfurt on the Oder: Flashback Medienverlag. ISBN 978-3-9813977-0-3 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2011 . Retrieved 8 October 2010 . Petrova, Ada; Watson, Peter (1995). The Death of Hitler: The Full Story with New Evidence from Secret Russian Archives . New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-03914-6 . Ryan, Cornelius (1966). The Last Battle . New York: Simon and Schuster. Tissier, Tony Le (1999). Race for the Reichstag: The 1945 Battle for Berlin . London; Portland, OR: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-4929-0 . Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1992) [1947]. The Last Days of Hitler (paperback ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-81224-3 . External links Cosgrove, Ben. "After the Fall: Photos of Hitler's Bunker and the Ruins of Berlin" . Life Magazine . Latson, Jennifer (16 January 2015). "The Brief Luxurious Life of Adolf Hitler, 50 Feet Below Berlin" . Time Magazine . Shuger, Scott; Berger, Donald (21 June 2006). "Hitler Slept Here: The too-secret history of the Third Reich's most famous place" . Slate Magazine . 3D-stereoscopic images of Chancellery Hitler's Bunker , National Geographic UK. .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Final occupants of the Führerbunker by date of departure (1945) v t e 20 April Hermann Göring Heinrich Himmler Hermann Göring Heinrich Himmler 21 April Robert Ley Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer Robert Ley Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer 22 April Hugo Blaschke Karl Gebhardt Christa Schroeder Johanna Wolf Eckhard Christian Hugo Blaschke Karl Gebhardt Christa Schroeder Johanna Wolf Eckhard Christian 23 April Albert Bormann Theodor Morell Joachim von Ribbentrop Albert Speer Julius Schaub Albert Bormann Theodor Morell Joachim von Ribbentrop Albert Speer Julius Schaub 24 April Walter Frentz Walter Frentz 28 April Robert Ritter von Greim Hanna Reitsch Robert Ritter von Greim Hanna Reitsch 29 April Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven Gerhard Boldt Rudolf Weiss Wilhelm Zander Heinz Lorenz Willy Johannmeyer Walter Wagner Bernd Freytag von Loringhoven Gerhard Boldt Rudolf Weiss Wilhelm Zander Heinz Lorenz Willy Johannmeyer Walter Wagner 30 April Nicolaus von Below Nicolaus von Below 1 May Wilhelm Mohnke Traudl Junge Gerda Christian Constanze Manziarly Else Krüger Otto Günsche Walther Hewel Ernst-Günther Schenck Hans-Erich Voss Johann Rattenhuber Peter Högl Werner Naumann Martin Bormann Hans Baur Ludwig Stumpfegger Artur Axmann Georg Betz Heinz Linge Erich Kempka Heinrich Doose Günther Schwägermann Ewald Lindloff Hans Reisser Armin D. Lehmann Josef Ochs Heinz Krüger Werner Schwiedel Gerhard Schach Hans Fritzsche Käthe Heusermann Wilhelm Mohnke Traudl Junge Gerda Christian Constanze Manziarly Else Krüger Otto Günsche Walther Hewel Ernst-Günther Schenck Hans-Erich Voss Johann Rattenhuber Peter Högl Werner Naumann Martin Bormann Hans Baur Ludwig Stumpfegger Artur Axmann Georg Betz Heinz Linge Erich Kempka Heinrich Doose Günther Schwägermann Ewald Lindloff Hans Reisser Armin D. Lehmann Josef Ochs Heinz Krüger Werner Schwiedel Gerhard Schach Hans Fritzsche Käthe Heusermann 2 May Helmuth Weidling Hans Refior Theodor von Dufving Siegfried Knappe Rochus Misch Helmuth Weidling Hans Refior Theodor von Dufving Siegfried Knappe Rochus Misch Still present on 2 May Werner Haase Erna Flegel Helmut Kunz Fritz Tornow Liselotte Chervinska Johanna Ruf Johannes Hentschel Werner Haase Erna Flegel Helmut Kunz Fritz Tornow Liselotte Chervinska Johanna Ruf Johannes Hentschel Committed suicide Ernst-Robert Grawitz (24 April) Adolf Hitler (30 April) Eva Hitler (née Braun, 30 April) Joseph Goebbels (1 May) Magda Goebbels (1 May) Alwin-Broder Albrecht (1 May) Wilhelm Burgdorf (2 May) Hans Krebs (2 May) Franz Schädle (2 May) Ernst-Robert Grawitz (24 April) Adolf Hitler (30 April) Eva Hitler (née Braun, 30 April) Joseph Goebbels (1 May) Magda Goebbels (1 May) Alwin-Broder Albrecht (1 May) Wilhelm Burgdorf (2 May) Hans Krebs (2 May) Franz Schädle (2 May) Killed Hermann Fegelein (executed for desertion, 28 April) Blondi (Hitler's dog, poisoned 29 April) Goebbels children (poisoned 1 May) Hermann Fegelein (executed for desertion, 28 April) Blondi (Hitler's dog, poisoned 29 April) Goebbels children (poisoned 1 May) Unknown Heinrich Müller Heinrich Müller v t e Adolf Hitler v t e Politics Führer Führerprinzip Political views Political directives List Speeches Prophecy Mein Kampf in Arabic in English Zweites Buch Last will and testament Books Nazism Führer Führerprinzip Führerprinzip Political views Political directives List List Speeches Prophecy Mein Kampf in Arabic in English in Arabic in English Zweites Buch Last will and testament Books Nazism Events Military career Rise to power Hitler cabinet Nazi Germany World War II The Holocaust Assassination attempts Death conspiracy theories Military career Rise to power Hitler cabinet Nazi Germany World War II The Holocaust Assassination attempts Death conspiracy theories conspiracy theories Places of residence Führer Headquarters Berghof ( Kehlsteinhaus ) Reich Chancellery ( Führerbunker / Vorbunker ) Adlerhorst Anlage Süd Felsennest Tannenberg Werwolf Wolf's Lair Wolfsschlucht I Wolfsschlucht II Special train ( Führersonderzug ) Civilian residences Braunau am Inn Linz Vienna ( Meldemannstraße dormitory ) Munich ( 16 Prinzregentenplatz ) Obersalzberg ( Kampfhäusl ) Führer Headquarters Berghof ( Kehlsteinhaus ) Reich Chancellery ( Führerbunker / Vorbunker ) Adlerhorst Anlage Süd Felsennest Tannenberg Werwolf Wolf's Lair Wolfsschlucht I Wolfsschlucht II Special train ( Führersonderzug ) Berghof ( Kehlsteinhaus ) Reich Chancellery ( Führerbunker / Vorbunker ) Adlerhorst Anlage Süd Felsennest Tannenberg Werwolf Wolf's Lair Wolfsschlucht I Wolfsschlucht II Special train ( Führersonderzug ) Civilian residences Braunau am Inn Linz Vienna ( Meldemannstraße dormitory ) Munich ( 16 Prinzregentenplatz ) Obersalzberg ( Kampfhäusl ) Braunau am Inn Linz Vienna ( Meldemannstraße dormitory ) Munich ( 16 Prinzregentenplatz ) Obersalzberg ( Kampfhäusl ) Personal life Health possible monorchism Wealth and income Religious views Sexuality Vegetarianism Staff Bodyguard August Kubizek Stefanie Rabatsch Reinhold Hanisch Psychopathography Hitler's Table Talk Paintings 50th birthday German naturalization Health possible monorchism possible monorchism Wealth and income Religious views Sexuality Vegetarianism Staff Bodyguard August Kubizek Stefanie Rabatsch Reinhold Hanisch Psychopathography Hitler's Table Talk Paintings 50th birthday German naturalization Personal belongings Hitler's Globe Private library Hitler's Globe Private library Perceptions Books Cult of personality In popular culture Killing baby Hitler The Victory of Faith Triumph of the Will Hitler: The Last Ten Days The Meaning of Hitler Hitler Diaries Moloch Hitler: The Rise of Evil Downfall Shigeru Mizuki's Hitler Apocalypse: Hitler Books Cult of personality In popular culture Killing baby Hitler The Victory of Faith Triumph of the Will Hitler: The Last Ten Days The Meaning of Hitler Hitler Diaries Moloch Hitler: The Rise of Evil Downfall Shigeru Mizuki's Hitler Apocalypse: Hitler Family Eva Braun (wife) Alois Hitler (father) Klara Hitler (mother) Johann Georg Hiedler (grandfather) Maria Schicklgruber (grandmother) Angela Hitler (half-sister) Paula Hitler (sister) Leo Rudolf Raubal Jr. (half-nephew) Geli Raubal (half-niece) William Stuart-Houston (half-nephew) Heinz Hitler (half-nephew) Jean-Marie Loret (possible illegitimate son) Blondi (dog) Eva Braun (wife) Alois Hitler (father) Klara Hitler (mother) Johann Georg Hiedler (grandfather) Maria Schicklgruber (grandmother) Angela Hitler (half-sister) Paula Hitler (sister) Leo Rudolf Raubal Jr. (half-nephew) Geli Raubal (half-niece) William Stuart-Houston (half-nephew) Heinz Hitler (half-nephew) Jean-Marie Loret (possible illegitimate son) Blondi (dog) Other Streets named after Hitler Mannerheim recording Streets named after Hitler Mannerheim recording Category Category Authority control databases Yale LUX Yale LUX Führer Headquarters Death of Adolf Hitler Battle of Berlin World War II sites in Germany Continuity of government Bunkers in Germany Air raid shelters 1944 establishments in Germany Buildings and structures completed in 1944 1947 disestablishments in Germany Buildings and structures demolished in 1947 Demolished buildings and structures in Berlin Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Pages using the Phonos extension Articles containing German-language text CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Good articles Use British English from June 2013 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from September 2025 Use shortened footnotes from June 2021 Coordinates on Wikidata Pages with German IPA Pages including recorded pronunciations CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list Commons category link is on Wikidata 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 1.1 Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) 1.2 Philippine–American War (1898–1902) 1.3 American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) 1.4 Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.4.1 Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre 1.4.2 Construction of the San Juanico Bridge 1.4.3 The New People's Army conflict 1.5 Contemporary history (1986–present) 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Flora and fauna 2.1 Flora and fauna 3 Demographics 4 Administrative divisions and politics 5 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 5.1 Tourism 5.1 Tourism 6 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 6.1 Transportation 6.2 Power and telecommunication 6.3 Education 6.4 Healthcare 7 See also 8 References Toggle References subsection 8.1 Bibliography 8.1 Bibliography 9 External links Samar Afrikaans العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Bikol Central Български Brezhoneg Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Кырык мары Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Polski Português Română Русский Српски / srpski Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Location within the Philippines Geography Coordinates .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 12°00′N 125°00′E / 12.000°N 125.000°E / 12.000; 125.000 Archipelago Visayas Adjacent to .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Leyte Gulf Philippine Sea Samar Sea San Bernardino Strait San Juanico Strait Area 13,428.8 km 2 (5,184.9 sq mi) [ 1 ] Area rank 63rd Coastline 800.6 km (497.47 mi) [ 2 ] Highest elevation 890 m (2920 ft) Highest point Mount Huraw Administration Philippines Region Eastern Visayas Provinces Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Eastern Samar Northern Samar (Western) Samar Largest settlement Calbayog (pop. 187,848) Demographics Population 1,924,651 (2024) [ 3 ] Pop. density 140/km 2 (360/sq mi) Ethnic groups Visayans ( Waray-Waray ) Samar ( / ˈ s ɑː m ɑːr / SAH -mar ) is the third largest island in the Philippines . It has a population of 1,924,651 as of the 2024 census. It is located in the Eastern Visayas region of the Visayas islands. Since 1965, the island is divided into three provinces : Western Samar , Northern Samar , and Eastern Samar . The capitals of these provinces are, respectively, Catarman , Catbalogan , and Borongan . In commemoration of the establishment of these provinces, June 19 is celebrated as an annual holiday. Its main language and ethnicity is Waray and its main religion is Roman Catholic . The island was first sighted by Ferdinand Magellan on March 16, 1521. Although he did not land, other expeditions were made. Many names, such as Samal , Ibabao , and Tandaya , were given to the island prior to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1596. During the early days of Spanish occupation , Samar was under the jurisdiction of Cebu . In the Philippine–American War , Eugenio Daza led a successful attack against the United States Army, later called the Balangiga massacre . This attack led to the Pacification of Samar and deaths of 2,000 people. During the American colonization of the Philippines, two uprisings occurred, including the Pulajan movement which caused massacres in the country. The Battle off Samar was held off the island during World War II. During martial law under Ferdinand Marcos , the Sag-od massacre happened in 1981. The New People's Army rebellion is ongoing. Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas archipelago, lying to the northeast of Leyte and southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon . To the west is the Samar Sea , and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea . The island has the Samar Island Natural Park and numerous biological discoveries and forests. The island has major copra and fishery industries and also produces rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca . The island also has a major tourism industry. The island has numerous major highways and has a portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway . The island has four major ports and three airports servicing flights to Cebu City and Metro Manila . The island has six Department of Education divisions and numerous universities with satellite campuses. History Spanish colonialization (1521–1898) Samar was the first island of the Philippines as a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan revealed the island, originally transcribed Zamal in the journal of Antonio Pigafetta . He sighted it on March 16, 1521, traveling from the Mariana Islands . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Having found an archipelago , Pigafetta named the islands San Lazaro ( transl. Saint Lazarus ) due to their sightings on Lazarus Saturday . Eventually, Filipinas was the perceived name for the archipelago. Although Samar was the first island of the Philippines seen by Magellan, he did not land there. He traversed south and laid anchor at Suluan Island, then landed on Homonhon Island on March 17, 1521. [ 6 ] Later in the 1700s, Samar was recorded to have about 103 Spanish Filipino families and 3,042 native families. [ 7 ] Other Spaniards eventually landed in the island. William Henry Scott, a historian, recognized that a "Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains." He recounted a Samarnon saga, which was called siday , about Bingi of Lawan, a settlement in Samar. [ 8 ] Samar had names which are recorded in early Spanish sources, including Ibabao (or Cibabao ), Achan , Camlaya , and Taridola . The Spanish captain Miguel Lopez de Legaspi also called the island Tandaya , after mistaking the name of a lord with the name of the island. This was spelled by Miguel de Loarca as Candaya . [ 5 ] During the early years of the Spanish colonialization, the province was placed in the jurisdiction of Cebu but was eventually separated into its own province. A rebellion was sparked in 1649 which was centered in Palapag , causing an uprising in Visayas and parts of Mindanao . The uprising was not suppressed until the next year. This caused rebels to migrate to the mountains and create a new settlement. In 1735, the province and Leyte merged into a singular province; Carigara was declared as the capital. In 1768, Samar was separated from Leyte. In 1860, the government structure was reorganized and was maintained until the end of the regime. [ 4 ] Philippine–American War (1898–1902) On September 28, 1901, Eugenio Daza–Area Commander of Southeastern Samar–and Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, [ 9 ] attacked the U.S. Army Company 9th Infantry Regiment who were occupying Balangiga. This action, commonly known as the Balangiga massacre, was a rare Filipino win and a bad loss for American soldiers. [ 10 ] In 1989, "Balangiga Encounter Day" was made a provincial holiday in Eastern Samar in lieu of the victory. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In retaliation for the massacre, General Jacob H. Smith ordered his men to "kill and burn", further stating that "the more you kill and burn, the better it will please me". [ 13 ] [ 14 ] This command led to the deaths of 2,000 Filipino insurgents and civilians while sparking outrage in the United States. [ 13 ] [ 15 ] In his historical account of the war, Brian McAllister Linn asserts "Samar cast a pall on the army's achievement and, for generations, has been associated in the public mind as typifying the Philippine War." [ 16 ] American and Japanese colonization; World War II (1902–1946) After the war, the archipelago was peaceful except the island of Samar, which was a "dark and bloody" isle according to James Henderson Blount . [ 17 ] In 1904, the Pulajans in Samar caused powerful massacres to the extent of Governor-General Luke Edward Wright 's concern. [ 18 ] Numerous civilians joined the uprising due to the feeling of "unprotection". [ 19 ] The rebellion was discussed by many American politicians and military officers and caused court cases just before the 1904 United States presidential election . [ 20 ] Four days after the election, Wright visited Samar, where troops increased to 2,000 from 700. [ 21 ] After battles and negotiations, the uprising eventually ended in 1906. [ 22 ] When the rebellion ended, the island, according to Blount, started becoming "peaceful". [ 23 ] More revolts were made by religious associations in the 1920s to 1930s. [ 24 ] In World War II , the ocean east of the island hosted the Battle off Samar in October 1944 wherein an unarmored force of United States Navy escorts defended attacks from the main force of the Imperial Japanese Navy , including the Japanese battleship Yamato . [ 25 ] When Japan colonized the Philippines, the Pulajan uprising became active again. Japan left the Philippines in 1945. [ 26 ] Marcos's dictatorship era (1965-1986) The beginning months of the 1970s [ 27 ] marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines as well as in Samar, as unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects during Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign led to the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis [ 28 ] [ 29 ] and resulting inflation triggered the First Quarter Storm protests. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] : "43" Three years later and with only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president, Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the Presidency for fourteen more years. [ 34 ] This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses , [ 35 ] [ 36 ] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship. [ 37 ] Deforestation during Martial Law and the Sag-od Massacre The Marcos era was a time of significant deforestation in Samar and throughout the Philippines, with the forest cover of the Philippines shrinking until only 8% remained. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] On the island of Samar, whose forest cover had been at 86% of the island in 1972, forest cover went down to 45% in 1978, and then a mere 10% by 1987. Twelve companies were given Timber License Agreements (TLAs) on the island, including Dolores Timber in the Province of Samar and San Jose Timber in the province of Northern Samar, which were both owned by Juan Ponce Enrile , [ 40 ] [ 41 ] the government official Ferdinand Marcos had put in place to approve Timber License Agreements during Martial Law. [ 40 ] One of the infamous incidents of the Marcos dictatorship era was the Sag-od massacre in Las Navas, Northern Samar , which took place on September 15, 1981. [ 42 ] Numerous security personnel of Juan Ponce Enrile 's San Jose Timber Corporation allied with a paramilitary group called "the Lost Command" and ordered residents of Barrio Sag-od out of their homes, then opened fire on them. Forty-five people were killed, leaving only 13 inhabitants of Barrio Sag-od alive. [ 42 ] Construction of the San Juanico Bridge This era also saw the construction of the San Juanico Bridge between Samar and Leyte, which began as one of the high-visibility foreign-loan funded projects of Ferdinand Marcos' 1969 reelection campaign , and finished four years later in time to be inaugurated on then- First Lady Imelda Marcos ' birthday on July 2, 1973. [ 43 ] The project was initially criticised as a white elephant by officials at the National Economic and Development Authority , noting that it was "useless and expensive to maintain", [ 44 ] because its average daily traffic was too low to justify the cost of its construction. [ 44 ] As a result, its construction has been associated with what has been called the Marcoses' " edifice complex " [ 45 ] [ 46 ] although economic activity in Samar and Leyte has since finally caught up with the bridge's intended function. [ 46 ] At the time, its name was used as a slang term for one of the torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship , in which a person is being beaten while the victim's head and feet lay on separate beds and the body is suspended as though to form a bridge. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] The New People's Army conflict Although the Communist Party of the Philippines and its armed wing, the New People's Army, was newly-formed and relatively still very small throughout Marcos' second term, the Marcos administration hyped up its formation, [ 49 ] : "43" supposedly because this would help build up political and monetary support from the US, [ 49 ] : "43" [ 50 ] which was caught up in red scare paranoia at the time. [ 51 ] When Marcos declared Martial Law, however, the CPP grew rapidly. [ 49 ] On the island of Samar, Marcos' military forces were assigned to protect the logging concessions, and there were frequent encounters between the military and the New People's Army. As a result the towns of Taft , Dolores , Can-avid , and Oras in Eastern Samar were declared by the Military as "no-man's-land" areas from 1978 to 1982. [ 41 ] Since then, the island had numerous human rights cases due to the New People's Army rebellion. [ 52 ] [ failed verification ] In May 2024, the Department of the Interior and Local Government announced that the three provinces on the island of Samar were "free of NPA influence" with no single village in three Samar provinces is under the influence of NPA [that] year. [ 53 ] Contemporary history (1986–present) In 2013, the provinces of Samar, Eastern Samar, and the City of Tacloban were among the localities most severely impacted by Typhoon Haiyan . [ 54 ] In 2020, Samar was also heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Eastern Visayas , with the first case in the region reported on March 23, 2020. [ 55 ] Geography Samar is the third-largest island in the Philippines by area, after the islands of Luzon and Mindanao . [ 56 ] Mount Huraw is Samar's highest point, with an elevation of 2,920 ft (890 m). [ 57 ] Samar is the easternmost island in the Visayas. It lies to the northeast of Leyte, separated from it by the San Juanico Strait . The island lies to the southeast of the Bicol Peninsula on Luzon , separated from it by the San Bernardino Strait . To the west is the Samar Sea, and to the north and east of Samar lies the Philippine Sea. The island is hilly yet has lower altitude than the mountainous terrain in the rest of the Visayas. Lowlands are mostly found near the coast and along rivers; the rivers themselves are small and flow in a radial pattern. [ 56 ] The island, along with the region of Eastern Visayas, is rainy most of the year, ranging from seven to ten months of rain. [ 58 ] Numerous typhoons are formed in the area. Eastern Samar, specifically, has a Type II climate without a dry season with an increase in rainfall. [ 56 ] A portion of the Philippine Trench rests near Samar, capable of generating a magnitude 8.1 earthquake. [ 59 ] The island, particularly parts of Paranas , contains many volcanic rocks, including karst bauxite , common throughout the island. [ 60 ] Flora and fauna The Samar Island Natural Park is a 300,000-hectare (740,000-acre) forest on the island, encompassing all three provinces. It contains the largest tract of intact lowland forest in the Philippines. The park has a population of Dipterocarpaceae species, six of them are endangered, and contains the rare Philippine eagle . The park contains six ecological forest types and has numerous waterfalls. Species in the island itself include the Philippine sailfin lizard , the Draco mindanensis , the Philippine hawk-eagle , the Giant golden-crowned flying fox , the Red-vented cockatoo , and the Philippine crocodile . [ 61 ] The municipality of Basey contains Karst forests with a total of 67 vascular plant species. In these forests, Dipterocarpaceae is the most prominent plant family. [ 62 ] Out of 2,400 flower species throughout the Philippines, 40 are only found in the island. In 2018, three new species of Begonia were found in the isle. [ 63 ] The province of Northern Samar was described by Tiffany Neri of SunStar as one of the Philippines' "best-kept secrets" with numerous rock formations and wildlife sanctuaries. [ 64 ] On June 9, 2025, the Biri Rock Formations in Northern Samar were declared to be a National Geological Monument according to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources . [ 65 ] Demographics Population of Samar Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1903 266,237 — 1918 379,575 +42.6% 1939 546,306 +43.9% 1948 757,212 +38.6% 1960 867,994 +14.6% 1970 1,019,358 +17.4% 1975 1,120,192 +9.9% 1980 1,200,592 +7.2% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Year Pop. ±% 1990 1,246,722 +3.8% 1995 1,405,892 +12.8% 2000 1,517,585 +7.9% 2007 1,650,022 +8.7% 2010 1,751,267 +6.1% 2015 1,880,020 +7.4% 2020 1,909,537 +1.6% 2024 1,924,651 +0.8% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 66 ] As of the 2024 census, the population of the island's three provinces was 1,924,651. [ 66 ] The main language in all three provinces of Samar Island is Waray . The second most popular language in Samar province is Bisaya, while the second most popular in Eastern Samar and Northern Samar is Cebuano . Samar province and Northern Samar both have a scale of 0.13 in the Linguistic diversity index while Eastern Samar has a scale of 0.02. [ 67 ] Many people in the island are part of the Waray people: in Eastern Samar, 97.78 percent of people were Waray while in Samar, 91.45 classified themselves as Waray. Other ethnic groups include Bisaya , Cebuano , and Tagalog . Males were more populated in both provinces than women. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] As of the 2020 census, 1790014 people in the island are Roman Catholic, 1573 are Islam , and 14643 are part of the Iglesia ni Cristo church. In all three provinces, more than 90% of the population are followers of the Roman Catholic Church. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Administrative divisions and politics The island originally used to be a single province. On June 19, 1965, a law passed splitting the province into three: Western Samar, Eastern Samar, and Northern Samar. [ 72 ] Since there are three provinces, there are three provincial governments each with a governor. [ 73 ] For the House of Representatives , Eastern Samar has one congressional district while Western and Northern Samar has two each, causing the island to have five districts. [ 74 ] The Philippines's 9th senatorial district encompassed Samar and Leyte which had two senators representing in the Senate of the Philippines with 24 representatives. The system was abolished in the early 1940s when the country was the Commonwealth of the Philippines . [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Name Capital Area (ha) [ 77 ] (ha) [ 77 ] Population (2024) [ 66 ] (2024) [ 66 ] Western Samar Catbalogan 604,803 806,179 Eastern Samar Borongan 466,047 472,683 Northern Samar Catarman 369,293 645,789 Economy The island has a major copra industry: of the six provinces in Eastern Visayas, all three of the Samar provinces were placed in the top four based on copra production, just behind Leyte. [ 78 ] Western Samar's industry recorded a 6.1 percent increase from 2018 to 2023. The top three industries in the province are food service activities, transportation, and electricity, steam, water, and waste management. As of 2023, the gross domestic product of the province is PHP 61.35 billion. [ 79 ] The island has rice and root crops, including sweet potatoes and cassava . Abacá and dairy from native carabaos are found in the island. [ 56 ] [ 80 ] In Eastern Samar, two house bills were filed to establish two separate coconut oil refineries. [ 81 ] Palay and banana crops are also made in the province; agro-industries are actively promoted. Fishery is a major livelihood in Eastern Samar's coastal communities, but it is experiencing a decline. [ 82 ] Northern Samar, meanwhile, has rice, corn, vegetables, and abaca. Municipal fisheries and tuna operations are also present in the province. [ 83 ] A commercial complex owned by Metro Retail Stores Group was planned to be created in 2019 in Catbalogan from a contract and was opened on August 30, 2024. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Samar is separated from the main island shipping routes. Iron ore , made from the southeast portion of the isle, is shipped from General MacArthur . There are also coal , phosphate , and chromite industries. Since Samar has many forests, logging and sawmill operations are also done in the eastern coastal towns. Catbalogan is a major commercial center in the island, serving as an important coastal port with fishing centers. [ 56 ] Tourism In 2015, the Samar Tourism Council encouraged tourists to visit attractions in Catbalogan as Governor Sharee Ann Tan held meetings with agency partners and the private sector to further boost tourism in Western Samar. [ 86 ] A One Town One Product (OTOP) center from the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) was launched in Calbayog on June 12, 2024. [ 87 ] During the "Benchmarking Tour" held by Eastern Samar officials in Cebu on February 9, 2023, the two provincial governments made a deal to organize a "tourism circuit" to increase tourism in the two provinces. [ 88 ] A DTI "Heritage Month Trade Fair" was held by the DTI provincial office of Northern Samar in Robinsons North Tacloban . [ 89 ] Infrastructure Transportation A segment of the Pan-Philippine Highway is present in Samar, stretching from Northern Samar to Leyte in the western coast of the isle. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] The N670 highway traverses through the northern and eastern coasts in the island, stretching through all three provinces, starting and ending from the Pan-Philippine Highway. Two other highways connect from the Pan-Philippine Highway to the N670 highway: the Catarman-Calbayog Road, which originates in Catarman and ends in Calbayog, and the Wright–Taft Road , stretching from Paranas to Taft . Another highway extends from the N670 highway to Guiuan . [ 91 ] Four major ports are in the island, namely the Port of Calbayog, the Port of Borongan, the Port of Guiuan, and the Port of San Isidro . [ 92 ] A flight route from Cebu to Catarman National Airport was launched on March 4, 2025, serviced by the Philippine Airlines . [ 93 ] Two weekly flight routes from Cebu to Borongan Airport were also launched in December 2022, also serviced by the Philippine Airlines. [ 94 ] Two airlines service at the Calbayog Airport , namely Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific ; the former flies to Manila three times a week while the latter flies to Cebu two times a week. [ 95 ] Power and telecommunication Eastern Samar's electric distribution utility is the Eastern Samar Electric Cooperative (ESAMELCO). [ 96 ] Two electric cooperatives serve Western Samar, namely: the Samar I and Samar II Electric Cooperative (SAMELCO). [ 97 ] Northern Samar's electric cooperative is the Northern Samar Electric Cooperative (NORSAMELCO). [ 98 ] The Philippines' first tidal plant is planned to be built in Catarman, Northern Samar by a private electricity firm, harnessing currents from the San Benardino Strait. [ 99 ] A Singaporean firm invested in a planned wind farm in the borders of the Western and Northern Samar provinces. [ 100 ] Solar power projects were planned in two towns in Western Samar. [ 101 ] In Taft, Eastern Samar, a hydropower plant is operated, with possibilities of it being a tourist site. [ 102 ] The main telecommunication companies serviced in the island are Smart Communications and Globe Telecom . New cell sites from both of the telecommunication operations were planned to be built in Northern Samar. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Over 100 cell sites were planned to be built in Northern Samar following a deal with Governor Edwin Ongchuan and PhilTower Consortium, an infrastructure provider. [ 105 ] Education Six Department of Education divisions are present in the island: three for each of the provinces, and one each for Borongan, Calbayog, and Catbalogan. [ 106 ] Major universities in Eastern Samar include the Eastern Samar State University and four other satellite campuses. In Northern Samar, the University of Eastern Philippines and two other satellite campuses are in the province. For Western Samar, two major universities are placed: the Samar State University with three satellite campuses, and the Northwest Samar State University with one satellite campus. Other local colleges are also in the three provinces. [ 107 ] For the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority , three provincial training centers and five schools are placed in the island. [ 108 ] Healthcare Eastern Samar has 18 hospitals, most significantly the Eastern Samar Provincial Hospital, a hospital with two levels and 100 beds. Northern Samar has 11 hospitals including their provincial hospital with 100 beds too. Western Samar has 11 hospitals also, with the Samar Provincial Hospital and the Catbalogan Doctors Hospital both with 100 beds. [ 109 ] A Senate bill created by Juan Miguel Zubiri was introduced in the 18th Congress of the Philippines , establishing a teritiary level hospital to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center due to the lack of teritiary level hospitals in the island, the nearest being the Eastern Visayas Medical Center . [ 110 ] The law was signed on April 19, 2022, and construction started in 2024. 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Filipinos for A Better Philippines, Inc. ^ Sen, Rabindra (June 2005). "Philippines – U.S. Special Relationship: Cold War and Beyond". Jadavpur Journal of International Relations . 9 (1): 85– 92. doi : 10.1177/0973598405110005 . ISSN 0973-5984 . S2CID 157525312 . ^ Japzon, Maureen (June 24, 2005). "Samar Island in Agony" . Bulatlat . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Samar provinces now free from NPA influence" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved November 14, 2025 . ^ "Twelve Years After Yolanda: The Typhoon That Never Left" . Greenpeace Philippines . November 12, 2025 . Retrieved November 14, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (March 23, 2020). "DOH confirms first Covid-19 case in Eastern Visayas" . Philippine News Agency . Archived from the original on March 24, 2020 . Retrieved March 31, 2020 . ^ a b c d e f "Samar" . Encyclopædia Britannica ( Online ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. ISSN 1085-9721 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Samar Mountains" . PeakVisor . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Agricultural Profile" . Department of Agriculture . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Philippine trenches may generate Magnitude 8 earthquakes, says PHIVOLCS" . GMA News Online . April 4, 2024 . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Arenque et al. 2025 , pp. 2–3. ^ "Samar Island Natural Park" . UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondial . July 2, 2024 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Villanueva et al. 2021 , p. 149. ^ Palma, Ana Margarita (September 2, 2021). "Three new species of Begonia found in Samar Island, Philippines" . University of the Philippines . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Neri, Tiffany L. (April 27, 2025). "Where the sea whispers: Secrets of Northern Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Reyes, Ronald O. (June 9, 2025). "Northern Samar's iconic Biri Rocks named as national geological monument" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ a b c Census of Population (2020). Table B - Population and Annual Growth Rates by Province, City, and Municipality - By Region . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved July 8, 2021 . ^ "The language landscape of the Philippines in 4 maps" . Thinking Machines . August 10, 2016 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Eastern Samar: Home of the Warays" . Philippine Statistics Authority . June 7, 2002. Archived from the original on November 16, 2013 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Samar: Population Getting Younger" . Philippine Statistics Authority . August 13, 2002. Archived from the original on November 15, 2015 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing)" . Philippine Statistics Authority . February 22, 2023 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ "Table A: Household Population by Religious Affiliation, Region, Province" . Philippine Statistics Authority . February 22, 2023 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ a b "Republic Act No. 4221" . Senate of the Philippines Legislative Reference Bureau . June 19, 1965 . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (August 18, 2022). "3 Samar governors to draft island-wide peace, dev't plan" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 23, 2025 . ^ Sioson, Mapa Claire Dennis. "TABLE 1: Population of Legislative Districts by Province and Selected Highly Urbanized/Component City: 2020" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ U.S. Government Printing Office 1918 , p. 38. ^ "History of the Senate" . Senate of the Philippines . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "PSGC Interactive - List of Provinces" . Philippine Statistics Authority . June 30, 2016. Archived from the original on September 12, 2016 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ Gabieta, Joey (January 14, 2020). "Copra prices go up in Eastern Visayas" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ Moraleta, Riza N. (November 28, 2024). "Samar's Economy Records 6.1 Percent Increase in 2023" . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Native Carabaos Do Well in Niche Markets" . Agriculture Monthly . August 4, 2018. Archived from the original on June 3, 2023 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (September 23, 2024). "Solon eyes Eastern Samar coco oil refineries" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Eastern Samar" . Special Area for Agricultural Development . June 23, 2025 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Northern Samar" . Special Area for Agricultural Development . June 23, 2025 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Metro stores, Samar to develop commercial complex in Catbalogan" . SunStar Publishing Inc . February 18, 2019 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Metro Retail Opens Biggest Supermarket Store in Catbalogan" . Leyte Samar Daily News . August 28, 2024 . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "Catbalogan urges tourists to spend summer in Samar" . The Philippine Star . February 22, 2015 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Otop Hub in Calbayog City opens to showcase unique local offerings from Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . June 21, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Cebu, Eastern Samar execs explore 'tourism circuit' " . SunStar Publishing Inc . February 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "DTI Northern Samar products takes center stage in trade fair" . SunStar Publishing Inc . May 30, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Gabieta, Joey (March 18, 2024). "Maharlika Highway in Eastern Visayas to get needed rehab" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ a b Road and Bridge Inventory (Map). Department of Public Works and Highways . Retrieved October 24, 2025 . ^ "List of Ports" (PDF) . Philippine Ports Authority . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Cebu-Catarman flights seen to bring growth to Northern Samar" . SunStar Publishing Inc . March 10, 2025 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (September 13, 2024). "PAL launches 3rd Cebu-Borongan weekly flight" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (August 9, 2024). "Lapid to secure funds for Calbayog Airport's night rating" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ University of Illinois 2005 , p. 405. ^ Republic of the Philippines 1990 , p. 148. ^ "NORSAMELCO" . Department of Energy . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (February 18, 2024). "N. Samar unveils pioneer tidal power" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (November 8, 2024). "Singaporean firm bares P19-B expansion of energy investment in Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel (October 21, 2024). "Solar power projects up for 2 Samar towns" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Amazona, Roel; Abella, Lizbeth Ann (April 27, 2023). "E. Samar hydropower plant eyed as tourist site" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (May 5, 2024). "Telco beefs up N. Samar network" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "TELECOM | Smart LTE expansion keeps Northern Samar island town connected" . TechSabado . August 13, 2022 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ Meniano, Sarwell (January 25, 2024). "Over 100 cell sites to rise in Northern Samar" . Philippine News Agency . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "Schools Division Offices Directory | DepEd Region VIII" . Department of Education . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of Higher Education Institutions" . Commission on Higher Education . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of TESDA Administered Schools and Training Centers in Region VIII - Eastern Samar" . TESDA Online Program . February 15, 2024 . Retrieved October 25, 2025 . ^ "List of Accredited Hospitals and Infirmaries for CY 2025 Updated as of October 31, 2025" (PDF) . PhilHealth . October 31, 2025 . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Zubiri, Juan Miguel F. (March 21, 2022). "An act establishing a tertiary hospital under the control, supervision, and management of the Department of Health in the City of Calbayog, Samar, to be known as the Samar Island Medical Center, appropriating funds therefor, and for other purposes" (PDF) . Senate of the Philippines . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Reyes, Ronald O. (April 19, 2022). "Duterte signs law establishing Samar Island Medical Center" . SunStar Publishing Inc . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . ^ Recuerdo, Elmer (March 17, 2024). "Samar tertiary hospital construction kicked off" . Daily Tribune . Retrieved December 4, 2025 . Bibliography Villamor, Ignacio; Buencamino, Felipe (1920). Census of the Philippine Islands Taken Under the Direction of the Philippine Legislature in the Year 1918 . University of California, Berkeley . Ocampo, Ambeth (2012). Looking Back: Volume 1 . Anvil Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-971-27-3608-7 . Parr, Charles McKew; Crowell, Thomas Y. (1953). So Noble a Captain: The Life and Times of Ferdinand Magellan . Scott, William Henry (1985). Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history . New Day Publishers. ISBN 978-971-10-0073-8 . Tucker, Spencer (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History . Bloomsbury Academic . ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1 . Clodfelter, Micheal (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed . McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7 . Linn, Brian McAllister (2000). The Philippine War 1899-1902 . Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-70061225-4 . Blount, James Henderson (1912). The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912 . G. P. Putnam's Sons. Borrinaga, George Emmanuel R. (April 2019). "Solidarity and Crisis-Derived Identities in Samar and Leyte, Philippines, 1565 to Present" (PDF) . University of Hull . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: ref duplicates default ( link ) Villanueva, Elaine Loreen C.; Fernandez, Desamarie Antoinette P.; Tolentino, Paul John S.; Obeña, Ren Divien R.; Buot, Inocencio E. Jr. (December 31, 2021). "Checklist of the Flora and Fauna of the Karst Forests in Basey, Samar, Philippines" (PDF) . The Thailand Natural History Museum Journal . 15 (2) – via National Research Council of Thailand . United States Congressional Serial Set . U.S. Government Printing Office. 1918. Platts International Directory of Electric Power Producers and Distributors . McGraw Hill Companies . 2005. Provincial Profile: Samar . Republic of the Philippines . 1990. Arenque, L. A.; Gabo-Ratio, J. A.; Payot, B. D.; Guzman, J. T.; Yonezu, K. (2025). "Mineralogy and geochemistry of the Paranas karst bauxite deposit of Samar Island, Philippines" . IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science . 1517 (1) 012040. Bibcode : 2025E&ES.1517a2040A . doi : 10.1088/1755-1315/1517/1/012040 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Etymology 2 History Toggle History subsection 2.1 Early history 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Early modern period 2.4 Contemporary era 2.5 Capital of dynasties, empires, and kingdoms before modern day 2.6 Excavation sites 2.1 Early history 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Early modern period 2.4 Contemporary era 2.5 Capital of dynasties, empires, and kingdoms before modern day 2.6 Excavation sites 3 Demographics Toggle Demographics subsection 3.1 Language 3.2 Religion 3.3 Population 3.1 Language 3.2 Religion 3.3 Population 4 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 4.1 Topography 4.2 Climate 4.3 Environment pollution 4.1 Topography 4.2 Climate 4.3 Environment pollution 5 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 5.1 Historic municipal districts 5.2 Modern municipal districts 5.1 Historic municipal districts 5.2 Modern municipal districts 6 Culture and art Toggle Culture and art subsection 6.1 Literature 6.2 Music 6.3 Painting 6.4 Cuisine 6.1 Literature 6.2 Music 6.3 Painting 6.4 Cuisine 7 Main sights 8 Gardens, green spaces, and parks 9 Economy Toggle Economy subsection 9.1 Industries 9.2 Handcrafts and ateliers 9.3 Shopping 9.4 Tabriz International Exhibition Center 9.1 Industries 9.2 Handcrafts and ateliers 9.3 Shopping 9.4 Tabriz International Exhibition Center 10 Schools and libraries Toggle Schools and libraries subsection 10.1 Universities 10.2 Famous high schools 10.3 Religious schools 10.4 Libraries 10.1 Universities 10.2 Famous high schools 10.3 Religious schools 10.4 Libraries 11 Infrastructure Toggle Infrastructure subsection 11.1 Health systems 11.2 Transportation 11.1 Health systems 11.2 Transportation 12 Sports Toggle Sports subsection 12.1 Football 12.2 Futsal 12.3 Cycling 12.4 Ski 12.1 Football 12.2 Futsal 12.3 Cycling 12.4 Ski 13 Media 14 Famous natives 15 Twin towns – sister cities 16 Consulates 17 Panoramic view 18 See also 19 Notes 20 References 21 Sources 22 Bibliography 23 External links Tabriz Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Արեւմտահայերէն Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) Български བོད་ཡིག Brezhoneg Català Cebuano Čeština Dansk Davvisámegiella Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gagauz گیلکی 한국어 Hausa Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue Ирон Italiano עברית ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî Кыргызча Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Malagasy മലയാളം Māori मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Нохчийн Nordfriisk Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Qırımtatarca Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Shqip Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina Ślůnski Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча / tatarça ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Türkmençe Тыва дыл Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt Winaray Wolof 吴语 ייִדיש 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item This article needs additional citations for verification . 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Find sources: "Tabriz" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ( March 2024 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Tabriz تبریز Tauris City .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}} Tabriz skyline Tabriz Municipality Palace El-Gölü Arg of Tabriz Blue Mosque Bazaar of Tabriz Mausoleum of Poets .mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols{text-align:center;display:table;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-row{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-cell{display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-cellt{display:table-cell;vertical-align:top} Flag Seal Nickname: City of Firsts .mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap img{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}} Tabriz Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 38°04′N 46°18′E / 38.067°N 46.300°E / 38.067; 46.300 [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Country Iran Region 3 Province East Azerbaijan County Tabriz District Central Government • Mayor Yaghoub Houshyar • Chairman of City Council Rasoul Bargi • Parliament Alirezabeighi , Saei , Farhanghi , Bimegdar , Pezeshkian & Saeidi Area • City 325 km 2 (125 sq mi) • Urban 512 km 2 (198 sq mi) • Metro 1,500 km 2 (580 sq mi) Elevation 1,351.4 m (4,434 ft) Population (2016) • Density 12,000/km 2 (31,000/sq mi) • Urban 1,558,693 [ 4 ] • Metro 1,773,023 [ 3 ] • Rank 6th in Iran Demonyms Tabrizian, Tabrizli, Tabrizi Time zone UTC+3:30 ( IRST ) Postal code 51368 Area code 041 Website tabriz .ir Tabriz ( Persian : تبریز , romanized : tabriz ; .mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%} pronounced [tæbˈɾiːz] ⓘ ) [ a ] is a city in the Central District of Tabriz County , in East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the district. [ 5 ] It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. The city of Tabriz lies close to the borders of the Republic of Azerbaijan, 130 kilometers from the Azerbaijan-Iran border. [ 6 ] Tabriz is in the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region [ 7 ] between long ridges of volcanic cones in the Sahand and Eynali mountains. Tabriz's elevation ranges between 1,350 and 1,600 m (4,430 and 5,250 ft) above sea level. The valley opens up into a plain that gently slopes down to the eastern shores of Lake Urmia , 60 km (37 mi) to the west. The city was named World Carpet Weaving City by the World Crafts Council in October 2015 [ 8 ] and Exemplary Tourist City of 2018 by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . [ 9 ] [ 10 ] With a population of over 1.7 million (2016), [ 11 ] Tabriz is the largest economic hub and metropolitan area in northwest Iran. The population is bilingual with most people speaking Azerbaijani as their native language and Persian as their second language. [ 12 ] Tabriz is a major heavy industries hub for automobiles, machine tools, refineries, petrochemicals, textiles and cement production industries. [ 13 ] The city is famous for its handicrafts, including hand-woven rugs and jewelry. Local confectionery, chocolate, dried nuts and traditional Tabrizi food are recognized throughout Iran as some of the best. Some of the most esteemed cultural institutions in northwest Iran are located in Tabriz, which is also a center for intellectual activity. Tabriz contains many historical monuments, representing Iran's architectural transition throughout its long history. Most of Tabriz's preserved historical sites belong to Ilkhanid , Safavid and Qajar . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Among these sites is the grand Bazaar of Tabriz , which is designated a World Heritage Site . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] From the early modern era, Tabriz was pivotal in the development of its three neighboring regions; namely the Caucasus , Eastern Anatolia and Central Iran. [ 19 ] As the country's closest hub to Europe, many aspects of early modernization in Iran began in Tabriz. [ 19 ] The Qajar dynasty was forced to cede the Caucasian territories to Imperial Russia following the two Russo-Persian Wars in the first half of the 19th century. Until 1925, the city was the traditional residence of the Qajar crown princes. Etymology According to some sources, [ 20 ] including Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 21 ] the name Tabriz derives from tap-riz , meaning "flowing hot", in reference to the area's many thermal springs . Other sources [ 22 ] [ 23 ] claim that in AD 246, to avenge his brother's death, king Tiridates II of Armenia repelled Ardashir I of the Sassanid Empire and changed the name of the city from Shahistan to Tauris, deriving from Classical Armenian ta-vrezh "this revenge". In AD 297, it became the capital of Tiridates III , king of Armenia. [ 24 ] However, this story is of popular origin and based on accounts of Vardan Areveltsi , a 13th-century Armenian historian; no ancient source records such an event. [ 25 ] The historical Armenian name for the city was Tavrezh ( Armenian : Թաւրէժ , romanized : T'avrēž ). [ 26 ] The Cambridge History of Iran [ 27 ] points to a connection between the "ancient stronghold of Tarui-Tarmakisa" (or Tarwi-Tarwakisa), which existed in the 8th century BC , [ 28 ] [ 29 ] and the city of Tabriz; Ernst Emil Herzfeld 's Archaeological History of Iran [ 30 ] directly equates Tarwakisa with Tabriz (cf Proto-Iranian tr̥Hwáns "able to overcome"). However, some researchers believe that Tabriz may be considered a pre-Iranian toponym . [ citation needed ] History Early history The early history of Tabriz is not well documented. The earliest civilization signs in the city belongs to an Iron Age grave yard of 1st millennium B.C. which were unearthed in late 1990s in northern side of Blue Mosque . [ 31 ] The city also inscribed as old as 714 B.C. on as Tarui or Tauris, on the Assyrian King Sargon II 's epigraph in 714 B.C. [ 32 ] Egyptologist David Rohl suggested that the legendary Garden of Eden was near Tabriz. Archaeologist Eric H. Cline commented on Rohl's views, writing that "his suggestions have not caught on with the scholarly establishment. His argument is not helped by the fact that it depends upon speculations regarding the transmission of place-names for both the various rivers and nearby related areas from antiquity to the present. In the end, while Rohl's suggestion is not out of the question, it seems no more probable than any other hypothesis, and less likely than those suggested by Speiser, Zarins, and Sauer." [ 33 ] Since the earliest documented history of Tabriz, it has been chosen as the capital for several rulers commencing from Atropates era and his dynasty. It is likely the city has been destroyed multiple times either by natural disasters or by the invading armies. The earliest elements of the present Tabriz are claimed to be built either at the time of the early Sassanids in the 3rd or 4th century AD, or later in the 7th century. [ 34 ] The city used to be called T'awrēš in Middle Persian . Middle Ages After the Muslim conquest of Iran , the Arabian Azd tribe from Yemen resided in Tabriz. The development of post-Islamic Tabriz began as of this time. The Islamic geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi says that Tabriz was a village before Rawwad from the tribe of Azd arrive at Tabriz. [ 25 ] In 791 AD, Zubaidah , the wife of Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid , rebuilt Tabriz after a devastating earthquake and beautified the city so much as to obtain the credit for having been its founder. [ 15 ] [ 24 ] In the 10th century, Ardabil briefly held the status of Azarbayjan's capital, only to be swiftly supplanted by Tabriz, situated 130 miles to the west. Tabriz swiftly rose to prominence as a pivotal commercial hub, facilitating trade between the Far East, Central Asia, and vital routes. It served as a nexus linking Mesopotamia , the Mediterranean , Anatolia , Constantinople , and extending northward through the Caucasus to the Ukraine , Crimea , and Eastern Europe . [ 35 ] In the Ramadan of 1208, Tabriz, as well as its adjacent cities and territories were conquered by the Kingdom of Georgia under Tamar the Great , as a response to the massacre of 12,000 Christians in the Georgian-controlled city of Ani on Easter day by Muslims. In nearby Ardebil , conquered by the Georgians as well, as many as 12,000 Muslims were killed. [ 36 ] The Georgians then pushed further, taking Khoy and Qazvin along the way. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] Nevertheless, the city recovered soon and many western expediters who visited Tabriz in the 13th century on their way to the east were amazed by the richness of the city, its magnificent buildings and its institutions. [ 39 ] Marco Polo , who passed Tabriz around 1275 while travelling on the Silk Road, described it as: "a great city surrounded by beautiful and pleasant gardens. It is excellently situated so the goods brought to here coming from many regions. Latin merchants specially Genevis go there to buy the goods that come from foreign lands." [ 40 ] Chosen as a capital by Abaqa Khan , fourth ruler of the Ilkhanate, for its favored location in the northwestern grasslands, [ 41 ] in 1295, his successor Ghazan Khan made it the chief administrative centre of an empire stretching from Anatolia to the Oxus River and from the Caucasus to the Indian Ocean . Under his rule, new walls were built around the city, and numerous public buildings, educational facilities, and caravansarais were erected to serve traders travelling on the ancient Silk Road . The Byzantine Gregory Chioniades is said to have served as the city's Orthodox bishop during this time. [ citation needed ] At the same time, the Dominican Order established a Latin mission in Tabriz , which would become its own diocese under the archdiocese of Soltaniyeh for some decades in the 14th century. [ 42 ] From 1375 to 1468, Tabriz was the capital of Qara Qoyunlu state in Azerbaijan, [ 43 ] until defeat of Qara Qoyunlu ruler, Jahan Shah by Ag Qoyunlu warriors. Ag Qoyunlus selected Tabriz as their capital from 1469 to 1501. Some of the existing historical monuments including the Blue Mosque belong to the Qara Qoyunlu period. Tabriz was sacked by Timur in 1392, and he invested his son, Miranshah, as governor of the city. [ 44 ] Early modern period In 1501, Ismail I entered Tabriz and proclaimed it the capital of his Safavid state. In 1514, after the Battle of Chaldiran , Tabriz was sacked by Selim I . [ 45 ] On 16 July 1534, prior to Ottoman conquest of Baghdad , Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha occupied Tabriz. [ 46 ] In 1555, Tahmasp I transferred its capital to Qazvin to avoid the growing threat of the Ottoman army to his capital. Between 1585 and 1603, Tabriz was under occupation by Ottomans , as a consequence of the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590) . After it was retaken by the Safavids under Abbas the Great , the city grew as a major commerce centre, conducting trade with the Ottoman Empire , Russia, and the Caucasus . [ 47 ] Tabriz was occupied and sacked by Ottoman Murad IV in 1635, during the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39) , before being returned to Iran in the Treaty of Zohab in 1639. The city was completely devastated by a strong earthquake in 1641 . [ 48 ] The Capuchins founded a small house in the city around 1656. [ 42 ] In summer of 1721, a large earthquake shocked Tabriz, killing about eighty thousand of its residents. The devastation continued in 1724–1725, when the city was invaded by an Ottoman army . During this round of invasion, the Ottomans imprisoned many in Tabriz and killed about two hundred thousand residents. [ 49 ] The city was subsequently retaken by the Iranian army, after which a widespread famine, combined with the spread of fatal diseases, killed more of those who still remained. In addition, another earthquake is disputed to have occurred in 1727 further adding to the region's instability at the time. [ 50 ] In 1780, a major earthquake hit near Tabriz and killed as many as two hundred thousand people, leaving only about thirty thousand survivors. [ 51 ] At the end of the 18th century, the city was divided into several districts, each ruled by a family, until 1799, when the Qajar Prince Abbas Mirza was appointed as the governor of the city. [ 52 ] During the Qajar Empire the city was the residence for the crown prince. The crown prince normally served as governor of Azerbaijan province as well. Some of the most important events in this period were the wars between Qajar Iran and neighbouring Imperial Russia . Prior to the forced cession of Iran's Caucasian territories—comprising what is now Georgia , southern Dagestan , Azerbaijan , and Armenia —to Imperial Russia following the two Russo-Persian Wars of the first half of the 19th century, Tabriz, being strategically located, was instrumental to the implementation of Iranian rule in its Caucasian territories. During the last Russo-Persian War ( 1826–1828 ), the city was captured for Russia in 1828 by General Prince Eristov, who marched into the city with 3,000 soldiers. [ 53 ] After Abbas Mirza and Ivan Paskevich signed the peace treaty , which granted for the irrevocable cession of the last remaining Caucasian territories, the Russian army retreated from the city. Nevertheless, Russian political and military influence remained a major force in Tabriz and north-northwestern Iran even until the fall of the Russian empire in the early 20th century. [ 53 ] After the retreat of the Russian army, Abbas Mirza , the Qajar Crown Prince, launched a modernization scheme from Tabriz, during which he introduced Western-style institutions, imported industrial machinery, installed the first regular postal service, and undertook military reforms in the city. He also began a rebuilding campaign and established a modern taxation system. [ 54 ] Saheb-ol-Amr Mosque and Quru river, Eugène Flandin 1841. Sketch of the gate of Tabriz, Eugène Flandin 1841. A sketch of a 19th-century house in Tabriz, Eugène Flandin . Painting of Blue mosque , Jules Laurens , 1872. Contemporary era Thanks to the geographical closeness to the West and to communications with nearby countries' enlightenment movements, Tabriz became the centre of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution movements between 1905 and 1911, which led to the establishment of a parliament in Iran and the formation of a constitution. Sattar Khan and Bagher Khan , two Tabrizi reformists who led Tabriz people's solidarity against the absolute monarchy, had a great role in achievement to the goals of Iran's constitutional revolution. In 1909, Tabriz was occupied by the Russian forces. [ 55 ] Four months after the constitutional revolution's success, in December 1911, the Russians reinvaded Tabriz . After crushing the local resistance by invading Russian troops, they started suppressing the constitutional revolutionaries and residents of the city. Following the invasion, Russian troops executed about 1,200 of Tabriz residents. [ 56 ] As a result of the campaign, Tabriz was occupied by the Russian forces between 1911 and 1917. [ 55 ] Siege of Tabriz during Constitutional Revolution , September 27, 1908. Constitutional revolutionists defending Davachi bridge against monarchists, May 1, 1909. Constitutionals in Tabriz, 1911. Ark of Tabriz and US flag in the days after constitutional revolution, 1911. From the very start of World War I , Iran declared neutrality. When the war erupted on a full scale, Tabriz and much of northwestern-northern Iran had already been de facto occupied by Russia for several years. In later years of World War I, the Ottoman troops intervened and took control of the city by defeating the Russian troops stationed there. [ 53 ] By this time, the Ottoman army led by Enver Pasha threatened the whole Russian army in the Caucasus region. [ 53 ] Russian troops recaptured the city from the Ottomans at a later stage of the war. By escalation of the revolution in Russia , the Russian armies in Iranian Azerbaijan were evacuated, and the actual power passed into the hands of the local committee of the democrat party, with Ismail Nawbari at its head. [ 53 ] Following Russia's retreat, the Ottomans captured the city once again for a few months until the decisive end of the war, and retreated thereafter. After World War I, a new era in the county's history began. Reza Pahlavi , brigadier-general of the Persian Cossack Brigade , declared himself the king of the country following a coup d'état . He started with promises of modernization programs in Iran which was concentrated on the unification of the country, under the idea of one country, one nation . This included centralization of the power and imposing restrictions on the local culture, heritage, and language in Iranian Azerbaijan, and the city of Tabriz. [ 57 ] The modernization and nationalization plan of Reza Shah continued until the surge of World War II. At the final year of the World War II despite the declaration of the neutrality by the Iranian government, the country was occupied by the allied forces. The allied forces then urged Reza Pahlavi to abdicate and installed his son Mohammad Reza as the new king of the country. The postwar situation was further complicated by Soviet aid to set up a local government called Azerbaijan People's Government in Northwest Iran , having Tabriz as its capital. The new Soviet-backed local government was run by Ja'far Pishevari and held power for one year starting from 1946. Pishevari's government gave more freedom to speech and education in Azerbaijani language and promoted local cultural heritage and gained some popularity among the residents. However, after the withdrawal of Soviet forces, Pishevari's limited armed forces were crushed by the Imperial Iranian army and the Iranian government retook control of the city. One of the major establishments in the period of Pishevari's government was opening of the University of Tabriz which played a major role in the later political movements and protests in the region. [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Russian Invasion of Tabriz, 1911 . Soviet artillery units passing through Tabriz, World War II. Soviet Tank and troops marching through Tabriz, World War II. Soviet T-26 Tank passing through the main street of Tabriz, World War II. For the next 30 years, after the collapse of Azerbaijan's autonomous government, Tabriz enjoyed a stable era until the revolution in 1979. During this period the city received significant investment in its industries and transformed into a heavy-industry hub in the northwestern Iran. The need for a strong workforce increased immigration from all around Azerbaijan toward Tabriz. During this era and because of the continuous policy of the government centralization in Tehran as well as changes in communication and transportation, the city lost its historical dominance, but turned into the gate for reform and modernization of the country. Starting with 1978 and with the heat of the Iranian Revolution , revolutionary movements of some of Tabriz residents played a major role in the revolution. After the revolution, the residents of the city were unsatisfied with the outcome, mainly because of the ignorance of the revolutionary government about the rights of the Azerbaijani minority. [ citation needed ] Another major source of dissatisfaction was the support of most of Iranian Azerbaijanis including Tabriz residents from a more liberal cleric, Grand Ayatollah Shariatmadari , who was against the content of the new constitution which was mixing religion and state together. The unrest in the city calmed down after brutal crush of the protesters in Tabriz and after house arrest of Shariatmadari. [ 60 ] In the 1980s, due to the Iran–Iraq War , like the rest of the country, most of the construction and development projects in the city were stopped in order to fund the war costs. In addition to the indirect effects of the war, city's industrial zone, especially the oil refinery was also a major target for airstrikes by Iraqi's air forces because of the closeness to the Iraqi borderlines, and their strategic roles in the country's economy. With the escalation of the war, the attacks turned to War of the Cities and the air attacks later turned into the random strikes on the residential areas of the city in the later phase of the war. [ 61 ] In recent years [ when? ] , Tabriz is much more stable and the new developments in the city are rapidly changing the face of the city. Capital of dynasties, empires, and kingdoms before modern day Tabriz was chosen as the capital by several rulers commencing from the time of Atropates . It was the capital of the Ilkhanate (Mongol) dynasty since 1265. During the Ghazan Khan era, who came into power in 1295, the city reached its highest splendour. The later realm stretched from the Amu Darya in the East to the Egypt borders in the West and from the Caucasus in the North to the Indian Ocean in the South. [ 62 ] It was again the capital of Iran during the Qara Qoyunlu dynasty from 1375 to 1468 and then during the Ag Qoyunlu within 1468–1500 and it was capital of Iran in the Safavid period from 1501 until their defeat in 1555 . [ 63 ] During the Qajar dynasty, Tabriz was used as residence centre of Iranian Crown Prince (1794–1925). Excavation sites In 2002, during a construction project at the north side of the Blue Mosque (Part of Silk Road Project), an ancient graveyard was revealed. This was kept secret until a construction worker alerted the authorities. Radiocarbon analysis by Allameh Tabatabai University has shown the background of the graves to be more than 3,800 years old. A museum of these excavations including the Blue Mosque was opened to the public in 2006. The other excavation site is in Abbasi Street at the site of Rab'-e Rashidi , which was the location for an academic institution since approximately 700 years ago. It was established in Ilkhanid period. Demographics Language The predominant language spoken in Tabriz is Azerbaijani language ( Azerbaijani people call it Turku ( تۆرکۆ ) or Turki (تۆرکی) language), which is a Turkic language mutually intelligible with modern Turkish dialects . The language has a strong Iranian superstratum since it has been in close contact with the Persian language for many centuries. Similar to the other parts of Iran, the official language is Persian and the most inhabitants have native or near-native knowledge of Persian language , which is the major medium of education. [ 15 ] Nevertheless, the Iranian constitution respects the right to speak and have limited educational facilities in other native languages, including Azerbaijani. For the first time, an academic program on Azerbaijani language opened at the University of Tabriz in 1999. [ 64 ] Other than Azerbaijani, there is a notable minority of Armenian speakers and a smaller minority of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic speakers. It is believed that before the gradual increase and the dominance of Azerbaijani language in the area, other Iranian languages similar to Persian were spoken in Azerbaijan and Tabriz. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] The 13th-century manuscript Safina-yi Tabriz has poems in what its Tabriz-born author has called the Tabrizi language ( Zabān-e-Tabrizi ) which is similar to Persian . [ 68 ] Religion After being crowned at Tabriz in 1501, Shah Ismail I announced the Twelver branch of Shia Islam as the official religion of the Safavid Empire . As a result of this royal order, the mostly Sunni population of Tabriz was force converted to Shiism. [ 69 ] [ 70 ] Currently, the majority of people are followers of Shia Islam. The city has a visible Armenian Apostolic minority who follow Christianity . There used to be a small Jewish community, but most of them have moved to Tehran . [ 15 ] There is also a small, embattled community of the Baháʼí Faith in the city. [ 71 ] Population Year Pop. ±% 1956 289,996 — 1966 403,413 +39.1% 1976 1,074,173 +166.3% 1991 1,088,985 +1.4% 1996 1,191,043 +9.4% 2006 1,398,060 +17.4% 2011 1,494,998 +6.9% 2016 1,558,693 +4.3% source: [ 72 ] The Iranian national census was first completed in 1956 and published decennially until 2006, when, thereafter, the Statistical Center of Iran began to conduct them every five years. [ 76 ] The 1976 census notes a total population more than double of the decade before, a result of rural to urban migration during the White Revolution . At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 1,378,931 in 378,329 households. [ 77 ] The following census in 2011 counted 1,495,452 people in 455,494 households. [ 78 ] The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 1,558,693 people in 497,898 households. [ 4 ] The majority of the city's population are Azerbaijani people , followed by Persians , Kurds , Armenians , Assyrians , and other People of Caucasus . [ 79 ] Geography Topography Tabriz is located in northwest of Iran in East Azerbaijan province between Eynali and Sahand mountains in a fertile area inshore of Aji River and Quri River . The local area is earthquake-prone and during its history, the city has been devastated and rebuilt several times. Climate Tabriz has a cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen : BSk , Trewartha : BS ) bordering on a humid continental climate with hot summers ( Köppen : Dsa , Trewartha : Dc ). The annual precipitation is around 260 mm (10 in), a good deal of which falls as snow during the winter months and rain in spring and autumn . The city enjoys a mild and fine climate in spring and autumn, is hot and dry in summer, while snowy and cold in winter. The average annual temperature is 13.1 °C (55.6 °F). Cool winds blow from east to west, mostly in summer. [ 80 ] Jean Chardin , a French traveler, visited Tabriz during the Safavid era, noting the climate in Tabriz in his travel logs: "Cold weather exists for most of the year. Since the city is northerly, snow exists on the peaks of its mountains for nine months out of the year. The wind blows during mornings and nights, while rain showers form in all seasons except summer. The weather is relatively cloudy the entire year." [ 81 ] Highest recorded temperature: 42.0 °C (107.6 °F) on 26 July 1966 Lowest recorded temperature: −25.0 °C (−13.0 °F) on 20 January 1964 [ 82 ] Climate data for Tabriz (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 16.0 (60.8) 19.0 (66.2) 25.6 (78.1) 31.2 (88.2) 33.8 (92.8) 39.0 (102.2) 42.0 (107.6) 41.0 (105.8) 38.0 (100.4) 30.6 (87.1) 23.4 (74.1) 21.8 (71.2) 42.0 (107.6) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 3.6 (38.5) 6.5 (43.7) 12.1 (53.8) 17.9 (64.2) 23.7 (74.7) 30.0 (86.0) 33.6 (92.5) 33.7 (92.7) 28.9 (84.0) 21.5 (70.7) 12.3 (54.1) 5.7 (42.3) 19.1 (66.4) Daily mean °C (°F) −1.2 (29.8) 1.3 (34.3) 6.5 (43.7) 12.1 (53.8) 17.4 (63.3) 23.3 (73.9) 26.6 (79.9) 26.6 (79.9) 21.8 (71.2) 14.8 (58.6) 6.7 (44.1) 1.0 (33.8) 13.1 (55.5) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −5.3 (22.5) −3.4 (25.9) 1.1 (34.0) 6.2 (43.2) 11.0 (51.8) 16.3 (61.3) 20.1 (68.2) 20.0 (68.0) 15.0 (59.0) 8.7 (47.7) 2.0 (35.6) −3 (27) 7.4 (45.3) Record low °C (°F) −25.0 (−13.0) −22.0 (−7.6) −19.0 (−2.2) −12.0 (10.4) −0.1 (31.8) 4.0 (39.2) 7.0 (44.6) 10.0 (50.0) 4.0 (39.2) −4.0 (24.8) −17.0 (1.4) −19.5 (−3.1) −25.0 (−13.0) Average precipitation mm (inches) 20.3 (0.80) 20.4 (0.80) 31.6 (1.24) 51.5 (2.03) 38.3 (1.51) 10.9 (0.43) 6.7 (0.26) 3.6 (0.14) 5.6 (0.22) 19.3 (0.76) 27.0 (1.06) 23.3 (0.92) 258.5 (10.17) Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 4.4 4.2 6.6 7.4 7.1 2.2 1.3 0.7 1.4 3.2 4.5 4.6 47.6 Average snowy days 9.3 7.9 4.9 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.8 6.2 31.4 Average relative humidity (%) 71 65 56 53 48 37 34 33 37 47 62 70 51.1 Average dew point °C (°F) −6.0 (21.2) −5.0 (23.0) −2.7 (27.1) 1.7 (35.1) 5.0 (41.0) 6.3 (43.3) 8.3 (46.9) 7.6 (45.7) 5.2 (41.4) 2.6 (36.7) −0.6 (30.9) −4.2 (24.4) 1.5 (34.7) Mean monthly sunshine hours 141 161 192 213 273 332 350 343 302 241 179 136 2,863 Source 1: NOAA NCEI , [ 83 ] Source 2: IRIMO(records), [ 82 ] (snow/sleet days 1951–2010) [ 84 ] Environment pollution Air pollution is one of the major environmental issues in Tabriz. Air pollution is due to an increase of the number of cars commuting in the city and polluting industries such as thermal power plants, petrochemical complexes and the oil refinery in the west of the city. Air pollution levels increased continuously in the second half of the 20th century. With a mandate of national environmental codes by heavy industries, industrial air pollution has reduced in recent years. However, the air quality in the city is far from world norms for clean air. An immediate environmental threat is the shrinkage and drying out of the Lake Urmia located in the outskirts of Western Tabriz. The lake has faced a grave crisis since the late 20th century. Water depth reduction, increasing water salinity to saturation level and the appearance of vast salt fields around the lake, are alarming indications of gradual total desiccation of a unique ecosystem. This occurred due to global warming and ever-increasing demands for inadequate freshwater sources in the basin. It is feared that in the near future low-lying clouds of airborne salt and minerals may hover over large areas around the lake, posing serious health hazards. [ 85 ] Governance Authority for the city lies with the Mayor, who is elected by a municipal board. The municipal board is periodically elected by the city's residents. The Municipal central office is located in the Tabriz Municipality Palace . Historic municipal districts Tabriz is divided into 10 municipal districts. Each municipal district retains a number of the older neighborhoods that are of cultural and historical interest. Ahrab (اهراب) Akhmaqaya (آخماقایا) Amraqiz (امره قیز) Bahar (باهار) Baghshoumal (باغ شمال) Baron Avak (Barnava) (بارناوا، بارونآواک) Bazaar (بازار) Beylanki (Beylankooh) (بیلانکی) Charandab (چرنداب) Chousdouzan (چوسدوزان) Davachi (دوچی) Gajil (گجیل) Gazran (Re. Khayyam) (گزران) Imamieh (امامیه) Hokmavar (حکمآوار) Kouchebagh (کوچه باغ) Khatib (Hatib) (خطیب) Khayyam (خیام) Khiyavan (خیاوان) Kujuvar (کوجووار) Laklar (لک لر) Lalah (لاله) Lilava (Leylabad) (لیلآباد) Maghsoudia (مقصودیه) Maralan (مارالان) Nobar (نوبار) Qaraghaj (قرهآغاج) Qaramalik (قارا ملیک) Rastakucha (راستا کوچه) Sarlak (سرلک) Selab (سیلاب) Shanb-e-Ghazan (شنب غازان) Sheshghelan (ششگلان) Sirkhab (سیرخاب) Tapalibagh (تپه لی باغ) Vardjibashi (Vidjooya) (ورجی باشی، ویجویه) Modern municipal districts This is table of modern Tabriz districts. Parvaz ( Persian : پرواز ) Golshahr ( گلشهر ) Zafaranieh ( زعفرانیه ) Rajae Shahr ( رجائیشهر ) Hafez ( حافظ ) Mandana ( ماندانا ) Nesfrah ( نصف راه ) Valieamr ( ولی امر ) Narmak ( نارمک ) Yaghchian ( یاغچیان ) Marzdaran ( مرزداران ) Baghmishe ( باغمیشه ) Elahiyeh ( الهیه ) Abrisham ( ابریشم ) Baharestan ( بهارستان ) Misagh ( میثاق ) Sahand ( سهند ) Ashkan ( اشکان ) Jamaran ( جماران ) Abresan ( آبرسان ) Vali Asr ( ولیعصر ) Elahi Parast ( الهیپرست ) Ferdows / ( فردوس ) North Fereshteh ( فرشته شمالی ) Roshdieh ( رشدیه ) Mirdamad ( میرداماد ) Andishe ( اندیشه ) Khavaran ( خاوران ) Culture and art Literature Sahand , o mountain of pure snow, Descended from Heaven with Zoroaster Fire in your heart, snow on your shoulders, with storm of centuries, And white hair of history on your chest ... Sahand , o mountain of pure snow, Descended from Heaven with Zoroaster Fire in your heart, snow on your shoulders, with storm of centuries, And white hair of history on your chest ... Yadollah Maftun Amini (born in 1926) [ 86 ] The city of Tabriz, historically located at the westernmost end of Iran's trade route and situated along the Silk Road , has long been a hub of commerce as well as culture and art. This strategic position facilitated both economic prosperity and the flourishing of cultural exchanges. In the modern era , the establishment of Memorial School in the late 19th century, followed by the founding of the University of Tabriz, along with the presence of intellectual movements, further boosted the city's cultural development. [ 87 ] Tabriz is also the birthplace of one of Iran's most prominent schools of painting, known as the "Tabriz School." This artistic movement flourished during the periods of the Ilkhanate , Jalayirids , Qara Qoyunlu , Aq Qoyunlu , and Safavid dynasties , leaving a lasting impact on Iranian art. [ 87 ] The proximity to Sahand , a mountain in the south of the city, has been a source of inspiration for contemporary revolutionaries and poets alike. The power of this inspiring source, however, goes to much earlier times. Tabriz was a house for numerous Iranian writers, poets, and illumination movements. In old times the city notables supported poets and writers by organizing periodical meetings. Within its long history, it was a residence for many well known Iranian writers and poets. The list can start from the old-time Rumi , Qatran , Khaqani to recent years Samad Behrangi , Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi , Parvin E'tesami . The prominent Iranian Azerbaijani poet Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar was born in Tabriz. The culture, social values, language and music is a mixture of what exists in the rest of Iran . Tabriz also has a special place in Persian literature , as the following sample of verses from some of Iran's best poets and authors illustrates: ساربانا بار بگشا ز اشتران شهر تبريز است و کوی دلبران Oh Sārbān, have the camels' cargo unloaded, This is Tabriz, the neighborhood of the beloved ones. ― Molana عزیزی در اقصای تبریز بود که همواره بیدار و شبخیز بود A beloved lived in Tabriz away from sight, who was always alert and awake at night ― Bustan of Sadi ساربانا بار بگشا ز اشتران شهر تبريز است و کوی دلبران Oh Sārbān, have the camels' cargo unloaded, This is Tabriz, the neighborhood of the beloved ones. ― Molana عزیزی در اقصای تبریز بود که همواره بیدار و شبخیز بود A beloved lived in Tabriz away from sight, who was always alert and awake at night ― Bustan of Sadi تا به تبریزم دو چیزم حاصل است نیم نان و آب مهران رود و بس As long as I live in Tabriz, two things I need not worry about, The half loaf of bread and the water of Mehranrud [river] are enough! ― Khaqani اين ارك بلند شهر تبريز است افراشته قامتِ رسايش را This is the tall Arg of Tabriz City, Raised its outstanding height there! ― Maftun تا به تبریزم دو چیزم حاصل است نیم نان و آب مهران رود و بس As long as I live in Tabriz, two things I need not worry about, The half loaf of bread and the water of Mehranrud [river] are enough! ― Khaqani اين ارك بلند شهر تبريز است افراشته قامتِ رسايش را This is the tall Arg of Tabriz City, Raised its outstanding height there! ― Maftun Music A century-long autocratic nation-building policy of central governments in Iran has succeeded in cultural assimilation in the favour of a government-sanctioned culture. [ 88 ] As a result, Tabriz, by the turn of the 20th century had nearly become devoid of its once characteristic cultural identity. Thanks to the more liberal policies of the Khatami era (1998–2006), a cultural renaissance took place and the local music was revitalized. The traditional Azerbaijani music is divided into two distinct types, the music of " ashugh " and the " mugham ". Mugham, despite its similarity to Persian classical music, was not common among Iranian Azerbaijanis. In recent years, however, mugham is gaining popularity among the educated middle-class young generation. For instance, Nasir Atapur, from Tabriz, was the laureate of Mugam contest 2007. The ashugh music had survived in a mountainous region of Qaradağ and presently is identified as the characteristic form of music in all Azerbaijan. The ashugh music, throughout its long history, had been associated with nomadic life in mountainous regions and used to be dismissed as back-country folklore. The recent identity renaissance of Azerbaijani speaking people has elevated the status of Ashughs as the guardians of national culture. The newfound unprecedented popularity and frequent concerts and performances in urban settings have resulted in rapid innovative developments aiming to enhance the urban-appealing aspects of these ashugh performances. The main factor for these developments was the opening of academic style music classes in Tabriz by master Ashugs, such as Aşiq Imran Heydəri. Ashugs (Aşiq in Azerbaijani language stemmed from the Arabic word for lover) were travelling bards who sang and played saz, an eight or ten string plucking instrument in the form of a long-necked lute. Their roots can be traced back to at least the 7th century according to the Turkic epic Dede Korkut. [ 89 ] Naturally, the music has evolved in the course of the grand migration and ensuing feuds with the original inhabitants the acquired lands. Still, the essence of the original epics, i.e. metamorphic description of life in pastoral terms with direct reference to the mountainous landscape, persists to the present time. The characteristic aspect of the Ashugh music is its frequent allusions to a mountain with the intention of arousing an emotional state with a tone of mild melancholy in a listener. The first verses of a contemporary Ashug song, composed by Məhəmməd Araz, may well represent the essence of Ashugh music [ 90 ] may clarify the said statement. Bəlkə bu yerlərə birdə gəlmədim (I may not come to these mountains again) duman səlamət qal dağ səlamət qal (Farewell to the Mist and to the mountain) arxamca su səpir göydə bulutlar (Clouds sprinkle drops of rain) leysan səlamət qal yağ səlamət qal (Farewell to summer days, farewell to the rain) Painting "Tabrizian style" painting was shaped in the era of Ilkhanids , Kara Koyunlu and the Safavids . [ 91 ] The paintings date back to the early 14th century and show significant influence from Chinese and Chinese-influenced pictures. Over the years Tabriz became the centre of the noteworthy school of Persian miniature painting. [ 92 ] A fictional account of "Tabrizian style" painting in the Safavids era is narrated by Orhan Pamuk in My Name Is Red . Cuisine Famous dishes in Tabriz include: Aash is a kind of soup prepared with bouillon , various vegetables , carrots , noodles and spices. Abgoosht or Shorva ( آبگوشت ) [ 93 ] is a hearty soup made of mutton and chickpeas. It has been cooked in Iran for many years and, until recently, was the main dish of most families in Tabriz. Chelow kabab , kebab and roasted tomatoes (and roasted hot peppers occasionally) served on a plate of steamed rice [ 94 ] , is the national dish of Iran. Tabriz is famous for the quality of its chelow kabab . Dolma is a traditional food, prepared by filling an eggplant, capsicum, tomato or zucchini with a mixture of meat, split pea , onion and various spices. Garniyarikh (meaning "the torn abdomen" in Azerbaijani ) is a kind of dolma filled with meat, garlic , almonds and spices . Tabriz meatballs are large meatballs composed of ground meat, rice, and leeks, alongside various other ingredients. The word kofta is derived from Persian kūfta : in Persian, kuftan (کوفتن) means "to beat" or "to grind". [ 95 ] A table of some of Tabriz traditional foods (köfte and syrup with sangak and Bonab Kababi with rice) Tabriz meatballs Abgoosht Cutlet Qurutli Aash, a thick soup made of qurut There are also confections, biscuits and cookies which are Tabriz specialties, including Qurabiya , Tabrizi Lovuez , Riss, Nougat , Tasbihi, Latifeh, Ahari, Lovadieh, and Lokum . Qurabiya Tabrizi Lovuez Nouga ( Nougat ) Riss Konjod Halvasi, a laminal sesame cookie. Tabriz's Baklava Dried, Fried, and Salted Nuts Main sights Tabriz was devastated by several earthquakes during its history (e.g., in 858, 1041, and 1721) and as a result, from numerous monuments only few of them or part of them have survived until now. Moreover, some of the historical monuments have been destroyed fully or partially within construction projects (the Arg of Tabriz is in danger of destruction now, because of the ongoing nearby construction project of Mosal'laye Emam). Nonetheless, there are still numerous monuments remaining until now, which include: [ citation needed ] Aji Chay Bridge Amir Nezam House ( Qajar museum) Arg of Tabriz Azerbaijan Museum Baghmasha gate Bazaar of Tabriz , a world heritage site Behnam House (school of architecture) Blue Mosque (Goy Masjid) Boulourchian house Constitutional Revolution House of Tabriz (Mashrouteh museum) Daneshsara (faculty of education) Document Museum East-Azerbaijan State Palace Ferdowsi street Ghadaki house Qari Bridge Haidarzadeh house Hariree house House of Seghat ol Islam Imamzadeh Hamzah, Tabriz Imamzadeh Ibrahim Iron Age museum Jamee mosque of Tabriz Madrasah Akbarieh Maqbaratoshoara (tomb of poets) Mansoor bridge Measure museum Muharram museum Municipality of Tabriz Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Nobar bath On ibn Ali's shrine Ordobadi house Pahlavi street (Imam St.) Pol Sanghi (Stone bridge) Pottery museum Protestant church of Tabriz Qur'an museum Roshdieh school Ruins of Rabe Rashidi University Saheb ol Amr mosque Saint Mary Church of Tabriz (Armenian church) Salmasi house Measure museum Seventh-day Adventist Church , Armenian Seyed Hamzeh shrine Shahnaz street Sharbatoglu house Shahryar literature museum (house of Shahryar ) Shohada Mosque Sorkheh-i house Tabriz Art University (former Charmsazi Khosravi) Tabriz Fire Fighting Tower Tabriz Museum of Natural History Tabriz Railway Station Tabriz Vocational Museum Tarbiyat street Two Kamals tomb Saat Tower The Grand Bazaar Iron Age museum Amir Nezam House ( Qajar museum) Constitution House of Tabriz Measure museum of Tabriz Behnam House Qari Bridge Azerbaijan Museum Blue Mosque Shah-goli park Saint Mary Church of Tabriz Chay kenar (river side) at night Seyed Hamzeh shrine and mosque a mosque in Tabriz Gardens, green spaces, and parks Tabriz has 132 parks, including 97 small parks, 31 regional and 4 city parks. According to 2005 statistics, the area of parks in Tabriz is 2,595 km 2 , and the area of green spaces of Tabriz is 8,548 km 2 , which is 5.6 sq.m per person. A study published in 2018 found that "Most of the urban green spaces are located on the urban fringes and in low-density higher income residential areas." It also found that "Greenspace per capita provision in Tabriz is much lower than the national and international standards (some districts offer only 0–1 sq.m. per capita green space)..." [ 96 ] Another study notes that the cohesion of Tabrizi green spaces is strongest in the Southern and Eastern parts of the city, and poorest in the center of the city, following the river Quri Chay. [ 97 ] The oldest park in Tabriz, Golestan Baği , was established at first Pahlavi 's era in the city center. Tabriz also has 8 traveller-parks with the capacity of 10,000 travellers. [ citation needed ] Baghlar Baghi Khaqani Park Ghaem Magham Golestan Park Mashrouteh Park Saeb Tabrizi Garden Shah Goli Park Shams Tabrizi Garden Eynali state forest park. Baghmesha Park. Shah Goli Park Eynali artificial forest in the north of the Tabriz A week-end ritual at Eynali peak Economy Tabriz is the largest economic center in Northwest Iran. The economy of Tabriz is based on commerce, services, health care and pharmaceutical, small and heavy industries, and handcrafts. Tabriz is the main site for five of Iran's Fortune 100 companies including: ITMCO , Palaz Moket, Kashi Tabriz, Shirin Asal , Aydin. [ 98 ] Industries Modern industries in Tabriz established since early 20 century by match manufacturing industries. Currently manufacturing industries in the city include manufacturing of machinery, vehicles, chemicals and petrochemical materials, refinery , cement , electrical and electronic equipment, home appliances, textiles and leather, nutrition and dairy, woodcraft, and pharmaceuticals. [ 15 ] There are hundreds of industrial complexes in Tabriz's industrial area. Among them is the Iran Tractor Manufacturing Co (ITMCO) which is one of the biggest industrial complexes in the region. This complex alone has the highest foundry and forging capacity in the Middle East and it is the biggest tractor manufacturer in Iran with several production branches within Iran and other countries. Behind ITMCO there are several other industrial complexes including Mashin Sazi Tabriz Co, Iran Diesel Engine Manufacturing Co (IDEM), Pump Iran, Tabriz Petrochemical Complex, Tabriz Oil Refinery and a couple of industrial regions which include hundreds of small industries. Tabriz is also a site for abundant food and some of the most famous chocolate factories in Iran which honoured the city as the Chocolate City of Iran. This includes Dadash and Baradar Industrial Co. with the brand mark of Aidin, Soniz which is one of the biggest factories of its kind in the region. A vast portion of the city's population is involved in small businesses like shoemaking ateliers, stone-cutting, furniture ateliers, confectionery , printing and dry nuts. Handcrafts and ateliers Due to its distinct handicrafts and carpets Tabriz is selected as the world city of crafts and carpet. [ 99 ] Tabriz is the main centre for the production of the famous Iranian Rugs . The distinctive durability of Tabriz's carpets and its unique designs made it a famous brand in the world's carpet markets. Tabrizi rugs and carpets usually have ivory backgrounds with blue, rose, and indigo motifs. They often feature symmetrical and balanced designs. They usually have a single medallion that is surrounded by vines and palmettos. One of the main quality characteristics of Tabriz rugs is the weaving style, using specialities that guarantee the durability of the rug in comparison for example with Kashan rugs . Therefore, most discussion surrounding Tabrizi rugs is on their high quality and durability instead of their traditional designs. However, Tabrizi rug patterns are not as easily identifiable as other cities' rug patterns as they are less distinctive, unlike Isfahan and Shiraz rugs, and most, if not clearly labeled Tabrizi, are assumed Tabrizi and met with labels like "probably Tabrizi." Other than carpets, the city is famous for several other handicrafts including silverwares , wood engraving, pottery and ceramics , Ghalamzani (Irania style of toreutics ), Moarraq (Iranian style of Mosaic ), Monabbat, embroider . A sample of Tabriz rugs A newly made bronze astrolabe , as a sample of Ghalamzani in Tabriz An engraver in Tabriz Shopping Shopping centres are mostly located in the city centre, including Grand Bazaar of Tabriz , pedestrian malls on Tarbiyat street , Shahnaz street and Ferdowsi street . Also, there are some malls and a lot of elegant & luxurious boutiques of jewellery, rugs, clothes, handicrafts, confectionery and nuts, home appliances and so on in the Abresan intersection, Roshdiyeh district and Kouy Valiasr . [ citation needed ] The special feature of Tabriz's malls is that most of them are designated to a particular order, such as home appliances, jewelry, shoes, clothes, wedding ceremonies, ladies/babies/men specialties, leather products, handicrafts, agricultural products, computers, electronic components, industrial equipment, piping equipment, chemical materials, agricultural machines, stationery, books, rugs, construction stuff and others. Likewise, there are seasonal/occasional shopping fairs opened mainly in the Tabriz International Exhibition Center . The city is served by Refah Chain Stores Co. , Iran Hyper Star , Isfahan City Center , Shahrvand Chain Stores Inc. , Kowsar Market , [ 100 ] Ofoq Kourosh chain store [ fa ] . Tabriz International Exhibition Center Tabriz International Exhibition Center which is located in the eastern part of the city holds tens of exhibitions based on yearly schedule. The most famous fair is TEXPO [ 101 ] which is a general trade fair. Established in 1992, it usually holds exhibitions around August 4–9 every year. Schools and libraries Universities Tabriz is the site for 14 of Iran's most prominent universities and higher education institutes. Established in 1947, University of Tabriz [ 102 ] is the most prestigious university in north-western Iran. University of Tabriz is also considered one of five mother universities in the country which works as the regional hub of science for the region. Besides University of Tabriz , there are several other public universities, operating in the city and its suburbs. Among them the famous ones are: Tabriz University of Medical Sciences which branched off the University of Tabriz in 1982 has focus on various medical and paramedical fields. There are several other big universities within Tabriz and its surrounding counties, some of which are listed below: Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch established in 1982 and have a main campus in east of Tabriz and smaller campuses around the city. Sahand University of Technology is established in 1989 and have majored in different fields of Engineering and Technology related sciences. Azarbaijan University of Tarbiat Moallem is established in 1987. Azerbaijan University is a general university. Its main campus is located based in Azarshahr county. Tabriz Islamic Arts University is a public university established in 1997. [ 103 ] the Payam-e Noor University of Tabriz, is part of Payame Noor University network of the remote educational university. There are several private universities and colleges which are also offering higher education. Daneshvaran Higher Education Institute, [ 104 ] Seraj Higher Education Institute, [ 105 ] University College of Nabi Akram, [ 106 ] Khajeh Rashid University. There are few technical colleges, which serve the students as well: Elmi-Karbordi University of Tabriz, [ 107 ] Tabriz College of Technology, [ 108 ] Roshdiyeh Higher Education Institute of Tabriz, [ 109 ] Jahad Daneshgahi (ACECR) Higher Education Institute (East Azerbaijan Branch), Alzahra College of Technology, State Organization of Technical and Vocational Training. There are a couple of research centers supported by Iranian government in the city including: East Azerbaijan Park of Science & Technology, [ 110 ] Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tabriz. [ 111 ] [ 112 ] Furthermore, few other of Iranian universities have branches in Tabriz, including: Imam Hossein University , Shahid Beheshti Training Teacher Center of Tabriz. [ 113 ] Famous high schools Hundreds of public and private schools serve students using the Iranian education system. Students attend primary school for five years, middle school for three years, and secondary school for a final three years. Those entering university must attend one year in college first. While the prominent language in Tabriz is Azerbaijani , Persian is used in school classrooms. Some of the high schools are famous because of their history or higher educational quality. Here is a list of most famous high schools in the city: Memorial school ( American School of Tabriz ) was opened in 1891 and is one of the most famous schools of American Missionary Schools in Iran. After World War II , the school's name was changed to Parvin High School, under Iran education ministry's management. Currently, it is divided into three separate high schools, and the original building is under reconstruction. Howard Baskerville used to teach in Memorial school. Roshdieh school is the first modern Iranian school, which was established by Haji-Mirza Hassan Roshdieh . Currently, its building is used as the Tabriz branch of the National Iranian Documents and Library Office. Vahdat Technical College is another famous school in Tabriz. Its programs was developed by the Germans before World War II . Ferdowsi high school is one of the largest and most prominent high schools in Tabriz. The original building was constructed by German engineers before World War II originally as a hospital with an aerial shape of H. Later on, it was used as Ferdowsi high school. Mansur High School (established 1945) was one of the highest-ranking schools in Tabriz. Later on, the school divided into Mansur (Taleghani) High School and Motahhari high school. The reconstruction of the school in 2010 has caused tension between alumnus of the school and administrators of the education office of Tabriz. [ 114 ] Shahid Madani and Farzanegan or so-called Tiz-houshan high schools (which are part of SAMPAD / NODET ) were established in 1989. The students are admitted to these schools through a competitive entrance exam. These schools are famous because of the higher rate of admission of their graduates through Iranian universities entrance exam. Religious schools Valiasr Religious School and Talebieh Islamic Science School are two major religious schools in the city which are used for teaching Islamic literature. Libraries Tabriz National Library , also known as Central Library of Tabriz, is the largest and the most famous library in the city. The Tabriz National Library has the biggest collection of classic handwritten Persian literature in the northwest region of Iran. There are many other public libraries all around the city such as Tarbiat library , Helal Ahmar, Shahid Motahhari, Shahriyar, Jafarieh, and Farhangsara. Infrastructure Health systems The Ministry of Health operates most of the public hospitals and health centers in the Tabriz metropolitan region, some of which are aligned with the Tabriz Medical School. Transportation Public buses, shuttle taxis, metro, bikes, and personal cars are the main modes of transportation for Tabriz residents. The city has a network of public bus lines that link its districts and some suburbs to the city center. There is also a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) line that runs for 18 km (11 mi) from the West Train Station to the Baseej Square in the far east of the city. Part of Tabriz subway line 1 is operational since 2015 which goes from Shahgoli to Shahriyar. Several lines are planned to connect districts of Tabriz to its city center however the construction is six years behind the schedule. [ 115 ] The government of Iran had planned to finish 6 km (4 mi) of line No.1 of the network in 2006, but this was not achieved due to financial problems and currently only half of the track for the metro line has been laid. [ 115 ] Tabriz is linked to Europe through Turkey's roads and Bazargan ( Azerbaijani , Persian : بازرگان ) border. Tabriz is connected to Tehran by Freeway 2 (Iran) . The city is linked to Iran National Railways ( IRIR , Persian : رجا ) also to Europe by Turkey's railways via Ghotour (Azerbaijani, Persian قطور) bridge in West Azerbaijan province of Iran. Tabriz was the first city in Iran to be served by railways with the construction of the Tabriz- Jolfa line in 1912–1914 (later converted to broad-gauge in 1916). Tabriz Railway Station is located in the western part of the city, at the end of Khomeyni Street. Tabriz International Airport opened in 1950 and is the only international airport in East Azerbaijan (since 1991). It has daily and weekly domestic flights to Tehran , Isfahan , Kish Island , Shiraz , and Mashhad . It also has daily and weekly flights to Istanbul , Tbilisi , Baghdad and Baku . [ 116 ] Sports Tabriz is a hub for the major sports events in the region. The city has a couple of sports complexes. The major sports complex inside the city is Bagh Shomal complex which includes a soccer stadium, swimming pool, an arena for basketball and volleyball. There is also a bigger sports complex which is named the Olympic village which has a soccer stadium and a cycling track . They are several other smaller complexes for martial arts, swimming pools, and gymnasiums. Among many different sports activities soccer and cycling got more attention because of the cities teams and international events which are held in the city. [ citation needed ] Football Football is a major part of the city's culture. Tractor SC is one of the most popular football clubs in Iran and Asia. Tractor play in the Iran Pro League . The home stadium for Tractor is the city's major stadium, Sahand Stadium which has the capacity of 80,000 people. In June 1976 Bagh Shomal Stadium of Tabriz hosted part of the final tournament of the AFC Asian Cup games. [ 117 ] Futsal The city's main futsal club is Mes Sungun which was founded in 2010 and plays at the Shahid Poursharifi Arena in the city. The club won most of the Iranian Futsal Super League and won AFC Futsal Championship in 2018. Cycling Tabriz is also home for Azerbaijan Cycling Tour which is held on a yearly based calendar since 1986. This cycling tour is the most prestigious cycling tour in Iran. Tabriz is also home for Tabriz Petrochemical Cycling Team , a cycling team which is competing in UCI -sanctioned competitions through Asian continents. Ski Sahand and Yam ski resorts are located in an hour drive from Tabriz. Depending on the perception, both resorts start operation from late December till early March. Media Tabriz has one state television channel called Sahand TV that broadcasts in both Persian and Azerbaijani languages. It broadcasts internationally through the Arabsat and Intelsat satellites. [ 118 ] The city has one government-controlled radio channel broadcasting in both Persian and Azerbaijani languages. [ 118 ] The 14 weekly magazines and 8 main newspapers published in the city include: Amin, Mahd Azadi, Asr Azadi, [ 119 ] Fajr Azarbaijan, Saeb Tabriz, Payam Noor, Navaye Misho and Saheb. [ 120 ] Famous natives Within its long history, Tabriz was always the origin for many Iranian illumination and modernization movements. This is why the city was the hometown of numerous Iranian dominant figures including many Iranian politicians, revolutionaries, artists, and military leaders. Here a partial list of some of the most notable people who were born or lived in Tabriz. For a complete list see: Category:People from Tabriz and List of people from Tabriz Shams Tabrizi , poet King Naser al-Din Shah Qajar Iraj Mirza , poet Sattar Khan , a pivotal figure in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution Bagher Khan , a pivotal figure in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution Farah Pahlavi , is the widow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and was the Shahbanu (empress) of Iran Mohammad Taqi Pessian , gendarme and pilot Ahmad Kasravi , linguist, nationalist, religious reformer, historian and cleric Farhad Fakhreddini composer, conductor and founder of Iran's National Orchestra Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar , poet Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi , writer Samad Behrangi , teacher, social critic, folklorist, translator, and writer Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai , Allamah Tahmineh Milani , film director Azim Gheychisaz , mountain climber and summiter of all 14 Eight-thousanders Parvin Etesami , 20th-century Persian poet of Iran Dariush Shayegan , philosopher and former university professor Karim Bagheri , professional football player and coach Javad Fakoori , prominent military official and defence minister Twin towns – sister cities Tabriz is twinned with: [ 121 ] Baku , Azerbaijan (1980) Erzurum , Turkey (2011) Ganja , Azerbaijan (2015) Gaza City , Palestine (2013) Istanbul , Turkey (2010) Karbala , Iraq (2016) Kazan , Russia (2004) Khujand , Tajikistan (2011) Mogilev , Belarus (2012) Shanghai , China (2019) Consulates Azerbaijan and Turkey have consulate offices in Tabriz. Formerly the Soviet Union and the United States had consulate offices in Tabriz. The US consulate office closed after the 1979 Islamic revolution and the USSR's office closed after the collapse of the USSR in 1991. [ citation needed ] Panoramic view See also Pardis Animal Shelter Tabriz Khanate Timeline of Tabriz @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Media related to Tabriz at Wikimedia Commons Tabriz travel guide from Wikivoyage Notes ^ Azerbaijani : تبریز References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} OpenStreetMap contributors (6 September 2024). 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Bibliography External links Official website Preceded by Ghazna Capital of Khwarazmian Empire (Persia) 1225–1231 Succeeded by - Preceded by Maragha Capital of Ilkhanate (Persia) 1265–1306 Succeeded by Soltaniyeh Preceded by - Capital of Kara Koyunlu dynasty 1375–1468 Succeeded by - Preceded by Amid Capital of Aq Qoyunlu dynasty 1468–1478 Succeeded by - Preceded by Samarkand Capital of Safavid Empire (Persia) 1501–1555 Succeeded by Qazvin Authority control databases International VIAF GND FAST VIAF GND FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Poland Israel United States France BnF data Czech Republic Poland Israel Geographic MusicBrainz area MusicBrainz area Other IdRef NARA İslâm Ansiklopedisi Kulturenvanteri monument Yale LUX IdRef NARA İslâm Ansiklopedisi Kulturenvanteri monument Yale LUX .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Tabriz landmarks v t e Famous and historic structures Arg of Tabriz Bazaar of Tabriz Maqbaratoshoara Rab'-e Rashidi Tomb of Two Kamals Tabriz Fire Fighting Tower Nobar bath Aji Chay Bridge Sangi Bridge Qari Bridge Vadi-e Rahmat Arg of Tabriz Bazaar of Tabriz Maqbaratoshoara Rab'-e Rashidi Tomb of Two Kamals Tabriz Fire Fighting Tower Nobar bath Aji Chay Bridge Sangi Bridge Qari Bridge Vadi-e Rahmat Places of worship Imamzadeh Hamzah, Tabriz Jameh Mosque of Tabriz Saheb-ol-Amr Mosque Blue Mosque, Tabriz Shohada Mosque Catholic Church of Tabriz St. Mary Armenian Church Shoghakat Armenian Church Saint Sarkis Armenian Church Protestant church of Tabriz On ibn Ali's shrine Imamzadeh Hamzah, Tabriz Jameh Mosque of Tabriz Saheb-ol-Amr Mosque Blue Mosque, Tabriz Shohada Mosque Catholic Church of Tabriz St. Mary Armenian Church Shoghakat Armenian Church Saint Sarkis Armenian Church Protestant church of Tabriz On ibn Ali's shrine Nature and parks Khaqani Park El-Gölü Ghaem Magham Golestan Park Khaqani Park El-Gölü Ghaem Magham Golestan Park Entertainment and recreation Azerbaijan Museum Iron Age museum Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Pottery museum of Tabriz Tabriz Museum of Natural History Sahand Eynali Eynali Cable Kandovan Shahran Tower Azerbaijan Museum Iron Age museum Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Pottery museum of Tabriz Tabriz Museum of Natural History Sahand Eynali Eynali Cable Kandovan Shahran Tower Arts and culture Tabriz International Book Fair Tabriz National Library Tarbiat library Pictorial carpet Tabriz rug Tabriz International Book Fair Tabriz National Library Tarbiat library Pictorial carpet Tabriz rug Science and education Madrasah Akbarieh American Memorial School in Tabriz Mansur High School Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University Sahand University of Technology Tabriz University of Medical Sciences University of Tabriz Tabriz Islamic Arts University Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University of Tabriz Tabriz Technical College Madrasah Akbarieh American Memorial School in Tabriz Mansur High School Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University Sahand University of Technology Tabriz University of Medical Sciences University of Tabriz Tabriz Islamic Arts University Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University of Tabriz Tabriz Technical College Sport venues Shahid Qasem Soleimani Stadium Yadegar-e Emam Stadium Takhti Stadium Marzdaran Stadium Tractor Stadium Shahid Poursharifi Arena Tabriz Cycling Track Tractor Sazi F.C. Academy Sahand Ski Resort Shahid Qasem Soleimani Stadium Yadegar-e Emam Stadium Takhti Stadium Marzdaran Stadium Tractor Stadium Shahid Poursharifi Arena Tabriz Cycling Track Tractor Sazi F.C. Academy Sahand Ski Resort Transportation Tabriz International Airport ATA Airlines Tabriz railway station Tabriz Metro Tabriz and Suburbs Bus Company Tabriz International Airport ATA Airlines Tabriz railway station Tabriz Metro Tabriz and Suburbs Bus Company Bridge, Squares and streets Tabriz Cable Bridge Azerbaijan Square Tarbiat street Shahnaz street Ferdowsi Street Freeway 2 Tabriz Cable Bridge Azerbaijan Square Tarbiat street Shahnaz street Ferdowsi Street Freeway 2 Houses Amir Nezam House Behnam House Constitution House of Tabriz Haidarzadeh house House of Seghat ol Islam Hariree house Pars El-Gölü Hotel Amir Nezam House Behnam House Constitution House of Tabriz Haidarzadeh house House of Seghat ol Islam Hariree house Pars El-Gölü Hotel Economy Tabriz International Exhibition Center Aras Free Zone Shirin Asal World Trade Center Machine Sazi Tabriz Rakhsh Khodro Diesel Iran Tractor Manufacturing Company Iran Khodro Tabriz Azar Motor Industrial CO Tabriz International Exhibition Center Aras Free Zone Shirin Asal World Trade Center Machine Sazi Tabriz Rakhsh Khodro Diesel Iran Tractor Manufacturing Company Iran Khodro Tabriz Azar Motor Industrial CO Government and financial institutions Tabriz Stock Exchange Sa'at Tower East Azerbaijan Governance Palace Tabriz City Council Tabriz Stock Exchange Sa'at Tower East Azerbaijan Governance Palace Tabriz City Council Category:Tabriz v t e Monuments of Tabriz v t e Tabriz city hall Aji Chay Bridge Amir Nezam House Arg of Tabriz Azerbaijan Museum Baghmisheh gate Bazaar of Tabriz Behnam House Blue Mosque Protestant Church of Tabriz Tabriz Constitution House East Azerbaijan State Capital Eynali Ghari Bridge Haidarzadeh house Iron Age museum Jameh Mosque of Tabriz Kandovan Madrasah Akbarieh Maqbaratoshoara Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Nobar bath On ibn Ali's shrine Sangi Bridge Pottery museum Rab'-e Rashidi Sa'at Tower Saheb ol Amr Mosque Seyed Hamzeh shrine Seghat ol Islam's House Shah-goli Shohada Mosque Tabriz Fire Fighting Tower Tabriz Railway Station Tarbiyat street Tomb of Two Kamals Aji Chay Bridge Amir Nezam House Arg of Tabriz Azerbaijan Museum Baghmisheh gate Bazaar of Tabriz Behnam House Blue Mosque Protestant Church of Tabriz Tabriz Constitution House East Azerbaijan State Capital Eynali Ghari Bridge Haidarzadeh house Iron Age museum Jameh Mosque of Tabriz Kandovan Madrasah Akbarieh Maqbaratoshoara Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Nobar bath On ibn Ali's shrine Sangi Bridge Pottery museum Rab'-e Rashidi Sa'at Tower Saheb ol Amr Mosque Seyed Hamzeh shrine Seghat ol Islam's House Shah-goli Shohada Mosque Tabriz Fire Fighting Tower Tabriz Railway Station Tarbiyat street Tomb of Two Kamals v t e Iranian architecture v t e Periods Pre-Islamic Achaemenid Parthian style Sasanian Islamic Early Islamic Seljuk Ilkhanid Timurid Safavid Pre-Islamic Achaemenid Parthian style Sasanian Achaemenid Parthian style Sasanian Islamic Early Islamic Seljuk Ilkhanid Timurid Safavid Early Islamic Seljuk Ilkhanid Timurid Safavid Types Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Takyeh Bazaars Caravanserais Khaneqah Mosques Takyeh Elements Ab anbar Andaruni Ayeneh-kari Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden ( hayāt ) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchāl Ab anbar Andaruni Ayeneh-kari Biruni Burj Chahartaq Dalan e Vorudi Gonbad Hashti Howz Imamzadeh Iwan Kariz Kucheh Panjdari Persian Garden ( hayāt ) Qanat Sahn Shabestan Talar Windcatchers Yakhchāl Traditional cities Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Amol Andijan Baku Bam Bukhara Ctesiphon Derbent Ganja Gur-e-Amir Hatra Herat Isfahan Kashan Kashmar Khiva Khorramabad Mashhad Merv Nakhchivan Nishapur Persepolis Qazvin Qom Samarkand Shahrisabz Shiraz Susa Tabriz Takht-e Soleymān Tehran Yazd Theory and analysis Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Islamic architecture Traditional Persian residential architecture Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity Lists Architects of Iran Arg s, castles, and ghal'eh s List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs Architects of Iran Arg s, castles, and ghal'eh s List of ab anbars of Qazvin List of mosques List of ziyarat-gahs v t e East Azerbaijan province v t e Capital Tabriz Tabriz Counties and cities Ahar County Ahar Hurand Ajab Shir County Ajab Shir Khezerlu Azarshahr County Azarshahr Gugan Mamqan Bonab County Bonab Bostanabad County Bostanabad Tekmeh Dash Charuymaq County Qarah Aghaj Hashtrud County Hashtrud Nazarkahrizi Heris County Heris Bakhshayesh Khvajeh Kolvanaq Zarnaq Jolfa County Jolfa Hadishahr Siah Rud Kaleybar County Kaleybar Abish Ahmad Khoda Afarin County Khomarlu Malekan County Malekan Leylan Maragheh County Maragheh Kharaju Marand County Marand Bonab Jadid Koshksaray Yamchi Zonuz Mianeh County Mianeh Aqkand Tark Torkamanchay Osku County Osku Ilkhchi Sahand Sarab County Sarab Duzduzan Mehraban Sharabian Shabestar County Shabestar Khamaneh Kuzeh Kanan Nazarlu Sharafkhaneh Shendabad Sis Sufian Tasuj Vayqan Tabriz County Tabriz Basmenj Khosrowshahr Malek Kian Sardrud Shahriar Varzaqan County Varzeqan Kharvana Ahar County Ahar Hurand Ahar Hurand Ajab Shir County Ajab Shir Khezerlu Ajab Shir Khezerlu Azarshahr County Azarshahr Gugan Mamqan Azarshahr Gugan Mamqan Bonab County Bonab Bonab Bostanabad County Bostanabad Tekmeh Dash Bostanabad Tekmeh Dash Charuymaq County Qarah Aghaj Qarah Aghaj Hashtrud County Hashtrud Nazarkahrizi Hashtrud Nazarkahrizi Heris County Heris Bakhshayesh Khvajeh Kolvanaq Zarnaq Heris Bakhshayesh Khvajeh Kolvanaq Zarnaq Jolfa County Jolfa Hadishahr Siah Rud Jolfa Hadishahr Siah Rud Kaleybar County Kaleybar Abish Ahmad Kaleybar Abish Ahmad Khoda Afarin County Khomarlu Khomarlu Malekan County Malekan Leylan Malekan Leylan Maragheh County Maragheh Kharaju Maragheh Kharaju Marand County Marand Bonab Jadid Koshksaray Yamchi Zonuz Marand Bonab Jadid Koshksaray Yamchi Zonuz Mianeh County Mianeh Aqkand Tark Torkamanchay Mianeh Aqkand Tark Torkamanchay Osku County Osku Ilkhchi Sahand Osku Ilkhchi Sahand Sarab County Sarab Duzduzan Mehraban Sharabian Sarab Duzduzan Mehraban Sharabian Shabestar County Shabestar Khamaneh Kuzeh Kanan Nazarlu Sharafkhaneh Shendabad Sis Sufian Tasuj Vayqan Shabestar Khamaneh Kuzeh Kanan Nazarlu Sharafkhaneh Shendabad Sis Sufian Tasuj Vayqan Tabriz County Tabriz Basmenj Khosrowshahr Malek Kian Sardrud Shahriar Tabriz Basmenj Khosrowshahr Malek Kian Sardrud Shahriar Varzaqan County Varzeqan Kharvana Varzeqan Kharvana Landmarks and Sights Amir Nezam House Arasbaran Arg of Tabriz Azerbaijan Museum Babak Fort Bazaar of Tabriz Blue Mosque, Tabriz Eynali Quri-gol Haidar Zadeh house House of constitution Iron Age museum Jamee mosque of Tabriz Kandovan Khodaafarin Bridges Maqbaratoshoara Maragheh observatory Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Saint Stepanos Monastery Gonbad-e Sorkh El-Gölü Tabriz Municipality Zahhak Castle Kiz bridge Amir Nezam House Arasbaran Arg of Tabriz Azerbaijan Museum Babak Fort Bazaar of Tabriz Blue Mosque, Tabriz Eynali Quri-gol Haidar Zadeh house House of constitution Iron Age museum Jamee mosque of Tabriz Kandovan Khodaafarin Bridges Maqbaratoshoara Maragheh observatory Museum of Ostad Bohtouni Saint Stepanos Monastery Gonbad-e Sorkh El-Gölü Tabriz Municipality Zahhak Castle Kiz bridge Places List of cities, towns and villages in East Azerbaijan Province List of cities, towns and villages in East Azerbaijan Province v t e Tabriz County v t e Capital Tabriz Tabriz Districts Central Cities Basmenj Malek Kian Sardrud Tabriz Rural Districts and villages Aji Chay Alvar-e Olya Alvar-e Sofla Bagh-e Maruf Khvajeh Dizaj Kojaabad Mayan-e Olya Mayan-e Sofla Qezel Dizaj Sahlan Ughli Esperan Aghaj Ughli Ana Khatun Aq Dash Bababaghi Hospice Golujeh Golzar Gomanj-e Olya Gomanj-e Sofla Guy Bolagh-e Pain Kord Kandi Kozanaq Moshirabad Nosratabad Sefidan-e Atiq Uli Yengi Esperan Meydan Chay Arpa Darrehsi Bagh-e Yaqub Beyraq Chavan Dizaj-e Leyli Khani Eskandar Estiar Fathabad Gavar Hajj Abdal Heravi Janqur Karkaj Kolluk Daraq Kond Rud Liqvan Nematabad Sefideh Khvan Shadbad-e Mashayekh Shadbad-e Olya Tuyqun Zarnaq Sard-e Sahra Anarjan Asenjan Hezehburan Khelejan Korjan Varnaq Zinjanab Khosrowshah Cities Khosrowshah Rural Districts and villages Lahijan Aspos Esfahlan Hararati Power Station Lahijan Qalehcheh Radar Tabriz Sheykh Hasan Yengi Kandi Tazeh Kand Akhuleh Baranlu Nowjeh Deh Qareh Tappeh Satellu Tazeh Kand Central Cities Basmenj Malek Kian Sardrud Tabriz Rural Districts and villages Aji Chay Alvar-e Olya Alvar-e Sofla Bagh-e Maruf Khvajeh Dizaj Kojaabad Mayan-e Olya Mayan-e Sofla Qezel Dizaj Sahlan Ughli Esperan Aghaj Ughli Ana Khatun Aq Dash Bababaghi Hospice Golujeh Golzar Gomanj-e Olya Gomanj-e Sofla Guy Bolagh-e Pain Kord Kandi Kozanaq Moshirabad Nosratabad Sefidan-e Atiq Uli Yengi Esperan Meydan Chay Arpa Darrehsi Bagh-e Yaqub Beyraq Chavan Dizaj-e Leyli Khani Eskandar Estiar Fathabad Gavar Hajj Abdal Heravi Janqur Karkaj Kolluk Daraq Kond Rud Liqvan Nematabad Sefideh Khvan Shadbad-e Mashayekh Shadbad-e Olya Tuyqun Zarnaq Sard-e Sahra Anarjan Asenjan Hezehburan Khelejan Korjan Varnaq Zinjanab Cities Basmenj Malek Kian Sardrud Tabriz Basmenj Malek Kian Sardrud Tabriz Rural Districts and villages Aji Chay Alvar-e Olya Alvar-e Sofla Bagh-e Maruf Khvajeh Dizaj Kojaabad Mayan-e Olya Mayan-e Sofla Qezel Dizaj Sahlan Ughli Esperan Aghaj Ughli Ana Khatun Aq Dash Bababaghi Hospice Golujeh Golzar Gomanj-e Olya Gomanj-e Sofla Guy Bolagh-e Pain Kord Kandi Kozanaq Moshirabad Nosratabad Sefidan-e Atiq Uli Yengi Esperan Meydan Chay Arpa Darrehsi Bagh-e Yaqub Beyraq Chavan Dizaj-e Leyli Khani Eskandar Estiar Fathabad Gavar Hajj Abdal Heravi Janqur Karkaj Kolluk Daraq Kond Rud Liqvan Nematabad Sefideh Khvan Shadbad-e Mashayekh Shadbad-e Olya Tuyqun Zarnaq Sard-e Sahra Anarjan Asenjan Hezehburan Khelejan Korjan Varnaq Zinjanab Aji Chay Alvar-e Olya Alvar-e Sofla Bagh-e Maruf Khvajeh Dizaj Kojaabad Mayan-e Olya Mayan-e Sofla Qezel Dizaj Sahlan Ughli Alvar-e Olya Alvar-e Sofla Bagh-e Maruf Khvajeh Dizaj Kojaabad Mayan-e Olya Mayan-e Sofla Qezel Dizaj Sahlan Ughli Esperan Aghaj Ughli Ana Khatun Aq Dash Bababaghi Hospice Golujeh Golzar Gomanj-e Olya Gomanj-e Sofla Guy Bolagh-e Pain Kord Kandi Kozanaq Moshirabad Nosratabad Sefidan-e Atiq Uli Yengi Esperan Aghaj Ughli Ana Khatun Aq Dash Bababaghi Hospice Golujeh Golzar Gomanj-e Olya Gomanj-e Sofla Guy Bolagh-e Pain Kord Kandi Kozanaq Moshirabad Nosratabad Sefidan-e Atiq Uli Yengi Esperan Meydan Chay Arpa Darrehsi Bagh-e Yaqub Beyraq Chavan Dizaj-e Leyli Khani Eskandar Estiar Fathabad Gavar Hajj Abdal Heravi Janqur Karkaj Kolluk Daraq Kond Rud Liqvan Nematabad Sefideh Khvan Shadbad-e Mashayekh Shadbad-e Olya Tuyqun Zarnaq Arpa Darrehsi Bagh-e Yaqub Beyraq Chavan Dizaj-e Leyli Khani Eskandar Estiar Fathabad Gavar Hajj Abdal Heravi Janqur Karkaj Kolluk Daraq Kond Rud Liqvan Nematabad Sefideh Khvan Shadbad-e Mashayekh Shadbad-e Olya Tuyqun Zarnaq Sard-e Sahra Anarjan Asenjan Hezehburan Khelejan Korjan Varnaq Zinjanab Anarjan Asenjan Hezehburan Khelejan Korjan Varnaq Zinjanab Khosrowshah Cities Khosrowshah Rural Districts and villages Lahijan Aspos Esfahlan Hararati Power Station Lahijan Qalehcheh Radar Tabriz Sheykh Hasan Yengi Kandi Tazeh Kand Akhuleh Baranlu Nowjeh Deh Qareh Tappeh Satellu Tazeh Kand Cities Khosrowshah Khosrowshah Rural Districts and villages Lahijan Aspos Esfahlan Hararati Power Station Lahijan Qalehcheh Radar Tabriz Sheykh Hasan Yengi Kandi Tazeh Kand Akhuleh Baranlu Nowjeh Deh Qareh Tappeh Satellu Tazeh Kand Lahijan Aspos Esfahlan Hararati Power Station Lahijan Qalehcheh Radar Tabriz Sheykh Hasan Yengi Kandi Aspos Esfahlan Hararati Power Station Lahijan Qalehcheh Radar Tabriz Sheykh Hasan Yengi Kandi Tazeh Kand Akhuleh Baranlu Nowjeh Deh Qareh Tappeh Satellu Tazeh Kand Akhuleh Baranlu Nowjeh Deh Qareh Tappeh Satellu Tazeh Kand v t e Provincial capitals of Iran v t e Ahvaz Arak Ardabil Bandar Abbas Birjand Bojnord Bushehr Gorgan Hamadan Ilam Isfahan Karaj Kerman Kermanshah Khorramabad Mashhad Qazvin Qom Rasht Sanandaj Sari Semnan Shahr-e Kord Shiraz Tabriz Tehran Urmia Yasuj Yazd Zahedan Zanjan Ahvaz Arak Ardabil Bandar Abbas Birjand Bojnord Bushehr Gorgan Hamadan Ilam Isfahan Karaj Kerman Kermanshah Khorramabad Mashhad Qazvin Qom Rasht Sanandaj Sari Semnan Shahr-e Kord Shiraz Tabriz Tehran Urmia Yasuj Yazd Zahedan Zanjan Tabriz Populated places in Tabriz County Cities in East Azerbaijan province Iranian provincial capitals Ancient Iranian cities Populated places along the Silk Road Architecture in Iran Archaeological sites in Iran Former capitals of Iran Populated places destroyed by earthquakes Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments Pages using the Phonos extension Articles containing South Azerbaijani-language text CS1 Persian-language sources (fa) Articles containing Persian-language text CS1 uses Persian-language script (fa) CS1 Armenian-language sources (hy) CS1: long volume value Webarchive template wayback links CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown CS1: unfit URL All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles needing additional references from March 2024 All articles needing additional references Use dmy dates from April 2023 Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images Coordinates on Wikidata Pages with Persian IPA Pages including recorded pronunciations Articles containing Armenian-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2008 Articles 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La Ansiklopedya Libera ke kada uno puede trokar i amijorar Shabad 10 Djenero 2026 21 Teved 5786 Numero total de artikolos en la Vikipedya Djudeo-Espanyola : 3913 Vinidos buenos Akdama Kategoriyas Portal de la komunita Ayudo Ambezador Venidos buenos i klaros a la Vikipedya en Djudyo , una ansiklopedya en la kuala todos pueden eskrivir, trokar i dezvelopar. La Vikipedya es un projeto enternasyonal ande voluntaryos eskriven i lavoran endjuntos, kon el buto de azer una ansiklopedya libera ke todos pueden meldar i en munchas linguas. El eskopo es la transmisyon de saviduriya i konosimyentos sin detenimyentos burokratikos, editoryales o komersyales. El dezvelopamiento de la Vikipedya en Espanyol muestro esta avyerto a todos los enteresados. Vozos puedesh adjustar aki artikolos en Djudeo-Espanyol. אנסיקלאפידײה • Ansiklopedya מאטימאטיקאס אי סינסיאס נאטוראליס : Matematika i Sensias Naturales : אוסיאנוגרפֿײה • איקולוגֿײה • אסטרונומייה • בוטניקה • בײולוגֿײה • גֿײולוגֿײה • זואולוגֿײה • מאטימאטיקה • מיטיאורולוגֿײה • סינסיאס נאטוראליס • פֿיסיקה • קימיקה Astronomiya • Biolojiya • Botanika • Sensias naturales • Ekolojiya • Fisika • Matematika • Meteorolojiya • Oseanografiya • Kemika • Jeolojiya • Zoolojia פֿילוסופֿײה אי סינסיה סוסיאל : Filosofiya i Sensia Sosyal : אינסיניאנסה • איסטורײה • איקונומײה • ארקיולוגֿײה • גֿיוגראפֿײה • דיריגֿו • לינגואיסטיקה • פוליטיקה • פֿילוסופֿײה • סיקולוגֿײה • סוסײולוגֿײה Arkeolojiya • Dirito • Edukasion i Ensenyansa • Ekonomiya • Filosofiya • Istoria • Jeografiya • Linguistika • Sensia Politika • Psicolojiya • Sosiolojiya סינסיה אי טיקנולוגֿײה : Sensia i Teknolojíya : אגריקולטורה • אינגֿיניירײה • אינפֿורמאטיקה • איסטאטיסטיקה • אנטרופולוגֿײה • ארקיטיקטורה • טראנספורטי • טיליקומוניקאסײוניס • מידיסינה Agrikultura • Antropolojiya • Arkitektura • Enjenyeriya • Estatistika • Informatika • Medisina • Telekomunikasiones • Transporto ארטי אי קולטורה : Arte i Kultura : ארטי אי קולטורה • איספור • טײאטרו • ליטיראטורה • מוזיקה אי קאנטיקאס • מיטולוגֿײה • פואיזײה • פֿולקלור • פֿילמו • קוסינה • ראדײו אי טיליבֿיזײון • ריליגֿײון Arte i Kultura • Espor • Filmo • Folklor • Kosina • Literatura • Mitolojiya • Muzika i Kantikas • Poeziya • Relijion • Radio i Televizyón • Teatro • a • b • c • d • e • f • g • h • i • j • k • l • m • n • o • p • q • r • s • t • u • v • w • x • y • z • • א • ב • ג • ד • ה • ו • ז • ח • ט • י • כ • ל • מ • נ • ס • ע • פ • צ • ק • ר • ש • ת • • vaya a alguna pajina non importa kuala • ver una lista de todos los artikolos Todas las Vikipedyas Vikipedyas en linguas djudias : עברית • גֿודֿיאו־איספאנײול • ײדיש • Vikipedya:Lista de artikolos ke toda Vikipedya kale tener • • Statistikas sovre el uso de esta Vikipedya • • Numero total de Artikolos: 3913 • Vikipedya es un prodjekto de la fondasion sin ánimo de lukro Wikimedia , al igual ke los sigientes prodjektos plurilingues i de kontenido livre: Prodjektos en Judeo-Español Viksionario Diksionario kon sinónimos Vikimanadero La bibblioteka líbbera Vikilivros Lívros de teksto i manuales Koordinasión Commons Imájenes i multimedia Meta-Wiki Koordinasión de prodjektos Wikidata Baza de rejistros de informasion Otros prodjektos Wikinews Habér livres Wikiquote Koleksión de sitas Wikispecies Direktório de espesies Vikiversita Kontenido akademiko libre AY Franseza Turka Alef ‑ bed Vinidos buenos a la Vikipedya ! La Ansiklopedya Libera ke kada uno puede trokar i amijorar Shabad 10 Djenero 2026 21 Teved 5786 Numero total de artikolos en la Vikipedya Djudeo-Espanyola : 3913 Shabad 10 Djenero 2026 21 Teved 5786 Vinidos buenos Akdama Kategoriyas Portal de la komunita Ayudo Ambezador Venidos buenos i klaros a la Vikipedya en Djudyo , una ansiklopedya en la kuala todos pueden eskrivir, trokar i dezvelopar. La Vikipedya es un projeto enternasyonal ande voluntaryos eskriven i lavoran endjuntos, kon el buto de azer una ansiklopedya libera ke todos pueden meldar i en munchas linguas. El eskopo es la transmisyon de saviduriya i konosimyentos sin detenimyentos burokratikos, editoryales o komersyales. El dezvelopamiento de la Vikipedya en Espanyol muestro esta avyerto a todos los enteresados. Vozos puedesh adjustar aki artikolos en Djudeo-Espanyol. אנסיקלאפידײה • Ansiklopedya מאטימאטיקאס אי סינסיאס נאטוראליס : Matematika i Sensias Naturales : אוסיאנוגרפֿײה • איקולוגֿײה • אסטרונומייה • בוטניקה • בײולוגֿײה • גֿײולוגֿײה • זואולוגֿײה • מאטימאטיקה • מיטיאורולוגֿײה • סינסיאס נאטוראליס • פֿיסיקה • קימיקה Astronomiya • Biolojiya • Botanika • Sensias naturales • Ekolojiya • Fisika • Matematika • Meteorolojiya • Oseanografiya • Kemika • Jeolojiya • Zoolojia פֿילוסופֿײה אי סינסיה סוסיאל : Filosofiya i Sensia Sosyal : אינסיניאנסה • איסטורײה • איקונומײה • ארקיולוגֿײה • גֿיוגראפֿײה • דיריגֿו • לינגואיסטיקה • פוליטיקה • פֿילוסופֿײה • סיקולוגֿײה • סוסײולוגֿײה Arkeolojiya • Dirito • Edukasion i Ensenyansa • Ekonomiya • Filosofiya • Istoria • Jeografiya • Linguistika • Sensia Politika • Psicolojiya • Sosiolojiya סינסיה אי טיקנולוגֿײה : Sensia i Teknolojíya : אגריקולטורה • אינגֿיניירײה • אינפֿורמאטיקה • איסטאטיסטיקה • אנטרופולוגֿײה • ארקיטיקטורה • טראנספורטי • טיליקומוניקאסײוניס • מידיסינה Agrikultura • Antropolojiya • Arkitektura • Enjenyeriya • Estatistika • Informatika • Medisina • Telekomunikasiones • Transporto ארטי אי קולטורה : Arte i Kultura : ארטי אי קולטורה • איספור • טײאטרו • ליטיראטורה • מוזיקה אי קאנטיקאס • מיטולוגֿײה • פואיזײה • פֿולקלור • פֿילמו • קוסינה • ראדײו אי טיליבֿיזײון • ריליגֿײון Arte i Kultura • Espor • Filmo • Folklor • Kosina • Literatura • Mitolojiya • Muzika i Kantikas • Poeziya • Relijion • Radio i Televizyón • Teatro • a • b • c • d • e • f • g • h • i • j • k • l • m • n • o • p • q • r • s • t • u • v • w • x • y • z • • א • ב • ג • ד • ה • ו • ז • ח • ט • י • כ • ל • מ • נ • ס • ע • פ • צ • ק • ר • ש • ת • • vaya a alguna pajina non importa kuala • ver una lista de todos los artikolos Todas las Vikipedyas Vikipedyas en linguas djudias : עברית • גֿודֿיאו־איספאנײול • ײדיש אנסיקלאפידײה • Ansiklopedya מאטימאטיקאס אי סינסיאס נאטוראליס : Matematika i Sensias Naturales : אוסיאנוגרפֿײה • איקולוגֿײה • אסטרונומייה • בוטניקה • בײולוגֿײה • גֿײולוגֿײה • זואולוגֿײה • מאטימאטיקה • מיטיאורולוגֿײה • סינסיאס נאטוראליס • פֿיסיקה • קימיקה Astronomiya • Biolojiya • Botanika • Sensias naturales • Ekolojiya • Fisika • Matematika • Meteorolojiya • Oseanografiya • Kemika • Jeolojiya • Zoolojia פֿילוסופֿײה אי סינסיה סוסיאל : Filosofiya i Sensia Sosyal : אינסיניאנסה • איסטורײה • איקונומײה • ארקיולוגֿײה • גֿיוגראפֿײה • דיריגֿו • לינגואיסטיקה • פוליטיקה • פֿילוסופֿײה • סיקולוגֿײה • סוסײולוגֿײה Arkeolojiya • Dirito • Edukasion i Ensenyansa • Ekonomiya • Filosofiya • Istoria • Jeografiya • Linguistika • Sensia Politika • Psicolojiya • Sosiolojiya סינסיה אי טיקנולוגֿײה : Sensia i Teknolojíya : אגריקולטורה • אינגֿיניירײה • אינפֿורמאטיקה • איסטאטיסטיקה • אנטרופולוגֿײה • ארקיטיקטורה • טראנספורטי • טיליקומוניקאסײוניס • מידיסינה Agrikultura • Antropolojiya • Arkitektura • Enjenyeriya • Estatistika • Informatika • Medisina • Telekomunikasiones • Transporto ארטי אי קולטורה : Arte i Kultura : ארטי אי קולטורה • איספור • טײאטרו • ליטיראטורה • מוזיקה אי קאנטיקאס • מיטולוגֿײה • פואיזײה • פֿולקלור • פֿילמו • קוסינה • ראדײו אי טיליבֿיזײון • ריליגֿײון Arte i Kultura • Espor • Filmo • Folklor • Kosina • Literatura • Mitolojiya • Muzika i Kantikas • Poeziya • Relijion • Radio i Televizyón • Teatro • a • b • c • d • e • f • g • h • i • j • k • l • m • n • o • p • q • r • s • t • u • v • w • x • y • z • • א • ב • ג • ד • ה • ו • ז • ח • ט • י • כ • ל • מ • נ • ס • ע • פ • צ • ק • ר • ש • ת • • vaya a alguna pajina non importa kuala • ver una lista de todos los artikolos • Vikipedya:Lista de artikolos ke toda Vikipedya kale tener • • Statistikas sovre el uso de esta Vikipedya • • Numero total de Artikolos: 3913 • • Vikipedya:Lista de artikolos ke toda Vikipedya kale tener • • Statistikas sovre el uso de esta Vikipedya • • Numero total de Artikolos: 3913 • Vikipedya es un prodjekto de la fondasion sin ánimo de lukro Wikimedia , al igual ke los sigientes prodjektos plurilingues i de kontenido livre: Prodjektos en Judeo-Español Viksionario Diksionario kon sinónimos Vikimanadero La bibblioteka líbbera Vikilivros Lívros de teksto i manuales Prodjektos en Judeo-Español Viksionario Diksionario kon sinónimos Vikimanadero La bibblioteka líbbera Vikilivros Lívros de teksto i manuales Koordinasión Commons Imájenes i multimedia Meta-Wiki Koordinasión de prodjektos Wikidata Baza de rejistros de informasion Koordinasión Commons Imájenes i multimedia Meta-Wiki Koordinasión de prodjektos Wikidata Baza de rejistros de informasion Otros prodjektos Wikinews Habér livres Wikiquote Koleksión de sitas Wikispecies Direktório de espesies Vikiversita Kontenido akademiko libre Otros prodjektos Wikinews Habér livres Wikiquote Koleksión de sitas Wikispecies Direktório de espesies Vikiversita Kontenido akademiko libre La Primera Hoja Vikipedya:AY Esta hoja la vez dalcavo se trocó enel 8 des. 2025, a las 08:40 la ora. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 2,362 results for author: Jiang, Y Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10702 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IR Grounding Agent Memory in Contextual Intent Authors: Ruozhen Yang , Yucheng Jiang , Yueqi Jiang , Priyanka Kargupta , Yunyi Zhang , Jiawei Han Abstract : Deploying large language models in long-horizon, goal-oriented interactions remains challenging because similar entities and facts recur under different latent goals and constraints, causing memory systems to retrieve context-mismatched evidence. We propose STITCH (Structured Intent Tracking in Contextual History), an agentic memory system that indexes each trajectory step with a structured retrie… ▽ More Deploying large language models in long-horizon, goal-oriented interactions remains challenging because similar entities and facts recur under different latent goals and constraints, causing memory systems to retrieve context-mismatched evidence. We propose STITCH (Structured Intent Tracking in Contextual History), an agentic memory system that indexes each trajectory step with a structured retrieval cue, contextual intent, and retrieves history by matching the current step's intent. Contextual intent provides compact signals that disambiguate repeated mentions and reduce interference: (1) the current latent goal defining a thematic segment, (2) the action type, and (3) the salient entity types anchoring which attributes matter. During inference, STITCH filters and prioritizes memory snippets by intent compatibility, suppressing semantically similar but context-incompatible history. For evaluation, we introduce CAME-Bench, a benchmark for context-aware retrieval in realistic, dynamic, goal-oriented trajectories. Across CAME-Bench and LongMemEval, STITCH achieves state-of-the-art performance, outperforming the strongest baseline by 35.6%, with the largest gains as trajectory length increases. Our analysis shows that intent indexing substantially reduces retrieval noise, supporting intent-aware memory for robust long-horizon reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. ACM Class: I.2.7; H.3.3 arXiv:2601.10702 [ pdf , ps , other ] Grounding Agent Memory in Contextual Intent Authors: Ruozhen Yang , Yucheng Jiang , Yueqi Jiang , Priyanka Kargupta , Yunyi Zhang , Jiawei Han Abstract : Deploying large language models in long-horizon, goal-oriented interactions remains challenging because similar entities and facts recur under different latent goals and constraints, causing memory systems to retrieve context-mismatched evidence. We propose STITCH (Structured Intent Tracking in Contextual History), an agentic memory system that indexes each trajectory step with a structured retrie… ▽ More Deploying large language models in long-horizon, goal-oriented interactions remains challenging because similar entities and facts recur under different latent goals and constraints, causing memory systems to retrieve context-mismatched evidence. We propose STITCH (Structured Intent Tracking in Contextual History), an agentic memory system that indexes each trajectory step with a structured retrieval cue, contextual intent, and retrieves history by matching the current step's intent. Contextual intent provides compact signals that disambiguate repeated mentions and reduce interference: (1) the current latent goal defining a thematic segment, (2) the action type, and (3) the salient entity types anchoring which attributes matter. During inference, STITCH filters and prioritizes memory snippets by intent compatibility, suppressing semantically similar but context-incompatible history. For evaluation, we introduce CAME-Bench, a benchmark for context-aware retrieval in realistic, dynamic, goal-oriented trajectories. Across CAME-Bench and LongMemEval, STITCH achieves state-of-the-art performance, outperforming the strongest baseline by 35.6%, with the largest gains as trajectory length increases. Our analysis shows that intent indexing substantially reduces retrieval noise, supporting intent-aware memory for robust long-horizon reasoning. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. ACM Class: I.2.7; H.3.3 arXiv:2601.10527 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.CV cs.LG A Safety Report on GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5 Authors: Xingjun Ma , Yixu Wang , Hengyuan Xu , Yutao Wu , Yifan Ding , Yunhan Zhao , Zilong Wang , Jiabin Hua , Ming Wen , Jianan Liu , Ranjie Duan , Yifeng Gao , Yingshui Tan , Yunhao Chen , Hui Xue , Xin Wang , Wei Cheng , Jingjing Chen , Zuxuan Wu , Bo Li , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this report, we present an integrated safety evaluation of 7 frontier models: GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5. We evaluate each model across language, vision-language, and image generation settings using a unified protocol that integrates benchmark evaluation, adversarial evaluation, multilingual evaluation, and compliance evaluation. Aggregating our evaluations into safety leaderboards and model safety profiles across multiple evaluation modes reveals a sharply heterogeneous safety landscape. While GPT-5.2 demonstrates consistently strong and balanced safety performance across evaluations, other models exhibit pronounced trade-offs among benchmark safety, adversarial alignment, multilingual generalization, and regulatory compliance. Both language and vision-language modalities show significant vulnerability under adversarial evaluation, with all models degrading substantially despite strong results on standard benchmarks. Text-to-image models achieve relatively stronger alignment in regulated visual risk categories, yet remain brittle under adversarial or semantically ambiguous prompts. Overall, these results show that safety in frontier models is inherently multidimensional--shaped by modality, language, and evaluation scheme, underscoring the need for standardized safety evaluations to accurately assess real-world risk and guide responsible model development and deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 42 pages, 24 figures arXiv:2601.10527 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Safety Report on GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5 Authors: Xingjun Ma , Yixu Wang , Hengyuan Xu , Yutao Wu , Yifan Ding , Yunhan Zhao , Zilong Wang , Jiabin Hua , Ming Wen , Jianan Liu , Ranjie Duan , Yifeng Gao , Yingshui Tan , Yunhao Chen , Hui Xue , Xin Wang , Wei Cheng , Jingjing Chen , Zuxuan Wu , Bo Li , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this… ▽ More The rapid evolution of Large Language Models (LLMs) and Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) has produced substantial gains in reasoning, perception, and generative capability across language and vision. However, whether these advances yield commensurate improvements in safety remains unclear, in part due to fragmented evaluation practices limited to single modalities or threat models. In this report, we present an integrated safety evaluation of 7 frontier models: GPT-5.2, Gemini 3 Pro, Qwen3-VL, Doubao 1.8, Grok 4.1 Fast, Nano Banana Pro, and Seedream 4.5. We evaluate each model across language, vision-language, and image generation settings using a unified protocol that integrates benchmark evaluation, adversarial evaluation, multilingual evaluation, and compliance evaluation. Aggregating our evaluations into safety leaderboards and model safety profiles across multiple evaluation modes reveals a sharply heterogeneous safety landscape. While GPT-5.2 demonstrates consistently strong and balanced safety performance across evaluations, other models exhibit pronounced trade-offs among benchmark safety, adversarial alignment, multilingual generalization, and regulatory compliance. Both language and vision-language modalities show significant vulnerability under adversarial evaluation, with all models degrading substantially despite strong results on standard benchmarks. Text-to-image models achieve relatively stronger alignment in regulated visual risk categories, yet remain brittle under adversarial or semantically ambiguous prompts. Overall, these results show that safety in frontier models is inherently multidimensional--shaped by modality, language, and evaluation scheme, underscoring the need for standardized safety evaluations to accurately assess real-world risk and guide responsible model development and deployment. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 42 pages, 24 figures arXiv:2601.10120 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.MA cs.AI cs.CL TopoDIM: One-shot Topology Generation of Diverse Interaction Modes for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Rui Sun , Jie Ding , Chenghua Gong , Tianjun Gu , Yihang Jiang , Juyuan Zhang , Liming Pan , Linyuan Lü Abstract : Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent system… ▽ More Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent systems, we propose TopoDIM, a framework for one-shot Topology generation with Diverse Interaction Modes. Designed for decentralized execution to enhance adaptability and privacy, TopoDIM enables agents to autonomously construct heterogeneous communication without iterative coordination, achieving token efficiency and improved task performance. Experiments demonstrate that TopoDIM reduces total token consumption by 46.41% while improving average performance by 1.50% over state-of-the-art methods. Moreover, the framework exhibits strong adaptability in organizing communication among heterogeneous agents. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.10120 [ pdf , ps , other ] TopoDIM: One-shot Topology Generation of Diverse Interaction Modes for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Rui Sun , Jie Ding , Chenghua Gong , Tianjun Gu , Yihang Jiang , Juyuan Zhang , Liming Pan , Linyuan Lü Abstract : Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent system… ▽ More Optimizing communication topology in LLM-based multi-agent system is critical for enabling collective intelligence. Existing methods mainly rely on spatio-temporal interaction paradigms, where the sequential execution of multi-round dialogues incurs high latency and computation. Motivated by the recent insights that evaluation and debate mechanisms can improve problem-solving in multi-agent systems, we propose TopoDIM, a framework for one-shot Topology generation with Diverse Interaction Modes. Designed for decentralized execution to enhance adaptability and privacy, TopoDIM enables agents to autonomously construct heterogeneous communication without iterative coordination, achieving token efficiency and improved task performance. Experiments demonstrate that TopoDIM reduces total token consumption by 46.41% while improving average performance by 1.50% over state-of-the-art methods. Moreover, the framework exhibits strong adaptability in organizing communication among heterogeneous agents. Code is available at: △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09606 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV GRCF: Two-Stage Groupwise Ranking and Calibration Framework for Multimodal Sentiment Analysis Authors: Manning Gao , Leheng Zhang , Shiqin Han , Haifeng Hu , Yuncheng Jiang , Sijie Mai Abstract : Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet… ▽ More Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet, they introduce two new trade-offs: First, they assign uniform importance to all comparisons, failing to adaptively focus on hard-to-rank samples. Second, they employ static ranking margins, which fail to reflect the varying semantic distances between sentiment groups. To address this, we propose a Two-Stage Group-wise Ranking and Calibration Framework (GRCF) that adapts the philosophy of Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Our framework resolves these trade-offs by simultaneously preserving relative ordinal structure, ensuring absolute score calibration, and adaptively focusing on difficult samples. Specifically, Stage 1 introduces a GRPO-inspired Advantage-Weighted Dynamic Margin Ranking Loss to build a fine-grained ordinal structure. Stage 2 then employs an MAE-driven objective to align prediction magnitudes. To validate its generalizability, we extend GRCF to classification tasks, including multimodal humor detection and sarcasm detection. GRCF achieves state-of-the-art performance on core regression benchmarks, while also showing strong generalizability in classification tasks. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09606 [ pdf , ps , other ] GRCF: Two-Stage Groupwise Ranking and Calibration Framework for Multimodal Sentiment Analysis Authors: Manning Gao , Leheng Zhang , Shiqin Han , Haifeng Hu , Yuncheng Jiang , Sijie Mai Abstract : Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet… ▽ More Most Multimodal Sentiment Analysis research has focused on point-wise regression. While straightforward, this approach is sensitive to label noise and neglects whether one sample is more positive than another, resulting in unstable predictions and poor correlation alignment. Pairwise ordinal learning frameworks emerged to address this gap, capturing relative order by learning from comparisons. Yet, they introduce two new trade-offs: First, they assign uniform importance to all comparisons, failing to adaptively focus on hard-to-rank samples. Second, they employ static ranking margins, which fail to reflect the varying semantic distances between sentiment groups. To address this, we propose a Two-Stage Group-wise Ranking and Calibration Framework (GRCF) that adapts the philosophy of Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Our framework resolves these trade-offs by simultaneously preserving relative ordinal structure, ensuring absolute score calibration, and adaptively focusing on difficult samples. Specifically, Stage 1 introduces a GRPO-inspired Advantage-Weighted Dynamic Margin Ranking Loss to build a fine-grained ordinal structure. Stage 2 then employs an MAE-driven objective to align prediction magnitudes. To validate its generalizability, we extend GRCF to classification tasks, including multimodal humor detection and sarcasm detection. GRCF achieves state-of-the-art performance on core regression benchmarks, while also showing strong generalizability in classification tasks. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09503 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI What Do LLM Agents Know About Their World? Task2Quiz: A Paradigm for Studying Environment Understanding Authors: Siyuan Liu , Hongbang Yuan , Xinze Li , Ziyue Zhu , Yixin Cao , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of the environment. To address this gap, we propose Task-to-Quiz (T2Q), a deterministic and automated evaluation paradigm designed to decouple task execution from world-state understanding. We instantiate this paradigm in T2QBench, a suite comprising 30 environments and 1,967 grounded QA pairs across multiple difficulty levels. Our extensive experiments reveal that task success is often a poor proxy for environment understanding, and that current memory machanism can not effectively help agents acquire a grounded model of the environment. These findings identify proactive exploration and fine-grained state representation as primary bottlenecks, offering a robust foundation for developing more generalizable autonomous agents. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09503 [ pdf , ps , other ] What Do LLM Agents Know About Their World? Task2Quiz: A Paradigm for Studying Environment Understanding Authors: Siyuan Liu , Hongbang Yuan , Xinze Li , Ziyue Zhu , Yixin Cao , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in complex decision-making and tool-use tasks, yet their ability to generalize across varying environments remains a under-examined concern. Current evaluation paradigms predominantly rely on trajectory-based metrics that measure task success, while failing to assess whether agents possess a grounded, transferable model of the environment. To address this gap, we propose Task-to-Quiz (T2Q), a deterministic and automated evaluation paradigm designed to decouple task execution from world-state understanding. We instantiate this paradigm in T2QBench, a suite comprising 30 environments and 1,967 grounded QA pairs across multiple difficulty levels. Our extensive experiments reveal that task success is often a poor proxy for environment understanding, and that current memory machanism can not effectively help agents acquire a grounded model of the environment. These findings identify proactive exploration and fine-grained state representation as primary bottlenecks, offering a robust foundation for developing more generalizable autonomous agents. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09352 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Spectral Complex Autoencoder Pruning: A Fidelity-Guided Criterion for Extreme Structured Channel Compression Authors: Wei Liu , Xing Deng , Haijian Shao , Yingtao Jiang Abstract : We propose Spectral Complex Autoencoder Pruning (SCAP), a reconstruction-based criterion that measures functional redundancy at the level of individual output channels. For each convolutional layer, we construct a complex interaction field by pairing the full multi-channel input activation as the real part with a single output-channel activation (spatially aligned and broadcast across input channe… ▽ More We propose Spectral Complex Autoencoder Pruning (SCAP), a reconstruction-based criterion that measures functional redundancy at the level of individual output channels. For each convolutional layer, we construct a complex interaction field by pairing the full multi-channel input activation as the real part with a single output-channel activation (spatially aligned and broadcast across input channels) as the imaginary part. We transform this complex field to the frequency domain and train a low-capacity autoencoder to reconstruct normalized spectra. Channels whose spectra are reconstructed with high fidelity are interpreted as lying close to a low-dimensional manifold captured by the autoencoder and are therefore more compressible; conversely, channels with low fidelity are retained as they encode information that cannot be compactly represented by the learned manifold. This yields an importance score (optionally fused with the filter L1 norm) that supports simple threshold-based pruning and produces a structurally consistent pruned network. On VGG16 trained on CIFAR-10, at a fixed threshold of 0.6, we obtain 90.11% FLOP reduction and 96.30% parameter reduction with an absolute Top-1 accuracy drop of 1.67% from a 93.44% baseline after fine-tuning, demonstrating that spectral reconstruction fidelity of complex interaction fields is an effective proxy for channel-level redundancy under aggressive compression. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2601.09352 [ pdf , ps , other ] Spectral Complex Autoencoder Pruning: A Fidelity-Guided Criterion for Extreme Structured Channel Compression Authors: Wei Liu , Xing Deng , Haijian Shao , Yingtao Jiang Abstract : We propose Spectral Complex Autoencoder Pruning (SCAP), a reconstruction-based criterion that measures functional redundancy at the level of individual output channels. For each convolutional layer, we construct a complex interaction field by pairing the full multi-channel input activation as the real part with a single output-channel activation (spatially aligned and broadcast across input channe… ▽ More We propose Spectral Complex Autoencoder Pruning (SCAP), a reconstruction-based criterion that measures functional redundancy at the level of individual output channels. For each convolutional layer, we construct a complex interaction field by pairing the full multi-channel input activation as the real part with a single output-channel activation (spatially aligned and broadcast across input channels) as the imaginary part. We transform this complex field to the frequency domain and train a low-capacity autoencoder to reconstruct normalized spectra. Channels whose spectra are reconstructed with high fidelity are interpreted as lying close to a low-dimensional manifold captured by the autoencoder and are therefore more compressible; conversely, channels with low fidelity are retained as they encode information that cannot be compactly represented by the learned manifold. This yields an importance score (optionally fused with the filter L1 norm) that supports simple threshold-based pruning and produces a structurally consistent pruned network. On VGG16 trained on CIFAR-10, at a fixed threshold of 0.6, we obtain 90.11% FLOP reduction and 96.30% parameter reduction with an absolute Top-1 accuracy drop of 1.67% from a 93.44% baseline after fine-tuning, demonstrating that spectral reconstruction fidelity of complex interaction fields is an effective proxy for channel-level redundancy under aggressive compression. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2601.09233 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI cs.CL GIFT: Unlocking Global Optimality in Post-Training via Finite-Temperature Gibbs Initialization Authors: Zhengyang Zhao , Lu Ma , Yizhen Jiang , Xiaochen Ma , Zimo Meng , Chengyu Shen , Lexiang Tang , Haoze Sun , Peng Pei , Wentao Zhang Abstract : The prevailing post-training paradigm for Large Reasoning Models (LRMs)--Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) followed by Reinforcement Learning (RL)--suffers from an intrinsic optimization mismatch: the rigid supervision inherent in SFT induces distributional collapse, thereby exhausting the exploration space necessary for subsequent RL. In this paper, we reformulate SFT within a unified post-training fr… ▽ More The prevailing post-training paradigm for Large Reasoning Models (LRMs)--Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) followed by Reinforcement Learning (RL)--suffers from an intrinsic optimization mismatch: the rigid supervision inherent in SFT induces distributional collapse, thereby exhausting the exploration space necessary for subsequent RL. In this paper, we reformulate SFT within a unified post-training framework and propose Gibbs Initialization with Finite Temperature (GIFT). We characterize standard SFT as a degenerate zero-temperature limit that suppresses base priors. Conversely, GIFT incorporates supervision as a finite-temperature energy potential, establishing a distributional bridge that ensures objective consistency throughout the post-training pipeline. Our experiments demonstrate that GIFT significantly outperforms standard SFT and other competitive baselines when utilized for RL initialization, providing a mathematically principled pathway toward achieving global optimality in post-training. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09233 [ pdf , ps , other ] GIFT: Unlocking Global Optimality in Post-Training via Finite-Temperature Gibbs Initialization Authors: Zhengyang Zhao , Lu Ma , Yizhen Jiang , Xiaochen Ma , Zimo Meng , Chengyu Shen , Lexiang Tang , Haoze Sun , Peng Pei , Wentao Zhang Abstract : The prevailing post-training paradigm for Large Reasoning Models (LRMs)--Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) followed by Reinforcement Learning (RL)--suffers from an intrinsic optimization mismatch: the rigid supervision inherent in SFT induces distributional collapse, thereby exhausting the exploration space necessary for subsequent RL. In this paper, we reformulate SFT within a unified post-training fr… ▽ More The prevailing post-training paradigm for Large Reasoning Models (LRMs)--Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) followed by Reinforcement Learning (RL)--suffers from an intrinsic optimization mismatch: the rigid supervision inherent in SFT induces distributional collapse, thereby exhausting the exploration space necessary for subsequent RL. In this paper, we reformulate SFT within a unified post-training framework and propose Gibbs Initialization with Finite Temperature (GIFT). We characterize standard SFT as a degenerate zero-temperature limit that suppresses base priors. Conversely, GIFT incorporates supervision as a finite-temperature energy potential, establishing a distributional bridge that ensures objective consistency throughout the post-training pipeline. Our experiments demonstrate that GIFT significantly outperforms standard SFT and other competitive baselines when utilized for RL initialization, providing a mathematically principled pathway toward achieving global optimality in post-training. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08256 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.HC cs.GR Data-Induced Groupings and How To Find Them Authors: Yilan Jiang , Cindy Xiong Bearfield , Steven Franconeri , Eugene Wu Abstract : Making sense of a visualization requires the reader to consider both the visualization design and the underlying data values. Existing work in the visualization community has largely considered affordances driven by visualization design elements, such as color or chart type, but how visual design interacts with data values to impact interpretation and reasoning has remained under-explored. Dot plo… ▽ More Making sense of a visualization requires the reader to consider both the visualization design and the underlying data values. Existing work in the visualization community has largely considered affordances driven by visualization design elements, such as color or chart type, but how visual design interacts with data values to impact interpretation and reasoning has remained under-explored. Dot plots and bar graphs are commonly used to help users identify groups of points that form trends and clusters, but are liable to manifest groupings that are artifacts of spatial arrangement rather than inherent patterns in the data itself. These ``Data-induced Groups'' can drive suboptimal data comparisons and potentially lead the user to incorrect conclusions. We conduct two user studies using dot plots as a case study to understand the prevalence of data-induced groupings. We find that users rely on data-induced groupings in both conditions despite the fact that trend-based groupings are irrelevant in nominal data. Based on the study results, we build a model to predict whether users are likely to perceive a given set of dot plot points as a group. We discuss two use cases illustrating how the model can assist visualization designers by both diagnosing potential user-perceived groupings in dot plots and offering redesigns that better accentuate desired groupings through data rearrangement. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.08256 [ pdf , ps , other ] Data-Induced Groupings and How To Find Them Authors: Yilan Jiang , Cindy Xiong Bearfield , Steven Franconeri , Eugene Wu Abstract : Making sense of a visualization requires the reader to consider both the visualization design and the underlying data values. Existing work in the visualization community has largely considered affordances driven by visualization design elements, such as color or chart type, but how visual design interacts with data values to impact interpretation and reasoning has remained under-explored. Dot plo… ▽ More Making sense of a visualization requires the reader to consider both the visualization design and the underlying data values. Existing work in the visualization community has largely considered affordances driven by visualization design elements, such as color or chart type, but how visual design interacts with data values to impact interpretation and reasoning has remained under-explored. Dot plots and bar graphs are commonly used to help users identify groups of points that form trends and clusters, but are liable to manifest groupings that are artifacts of spatial arrangement rather than inherent patterns in the data itself. These ``Data-induced Groups'' can drive suboptimal data comparisons and potentially lead the user to incorrect conclusions. We conduct two user studies using dot plots as a case study to understand the prevalence of data-induced groupings. We find that users rely on data-induced groupings in both conditions despite the fact that trend-based groupings are irrelevant in nominal data. Based on the study results, we build a model to predict whether users are likely to perceive a given set of dot plot points as a group. We discuss two use cases illustrating how the model can assist visualization designers by both diagnosing potential user-perceived groupings in dot plots and offering redesigns that better accentuate desired groupings through data rearrangement. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07641 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.MA Beyond Static Tools: Test-Time Tool Evolution for Scientific Reasoning Authors: Jiaxuan Lu , Ziyu Kong , Yemin Wang , Rong Fu , Haiyuan Wan , Cheng Yang , Wenjie Lou , Haoran Sun , Lilong Wang , Yankai Jiang , Xiaosong Wang , Xiao Sun , Dongzhan Zhou Abstract : The central challenge of AI for Science is not reasoning alone, but the ability to create computational methods in an open-ended scientific world. Existing LLM-based agents rely on static, pre-defined tool libraries, a paradigm that fundamentally fails in scientific domains where tools are sparse, heterogeneous, and intrinsically incomplete. In this paper, we propose Test-Time Tool Evolution (TTE)… ▽ More The central challenge of AI for Science is not reasoning alone, but the ability to create computational methods in an open-ended scientific world. Existing LLM-based agents rely on static, pre-defined tool libraries, a paradigm that fundamentally fails in scientific domains where tools are sparse, heterogeneous, and intrinsically incomplete. In this paper, we propose Test-Time Tool Evolution (TTE), a new paradigm that enables agents to synthesize, verify, and evolve executable tools during inference. By transforming tools from fixed resources into problem-driven artifacts, TTE overcomes the rigidity and long-tail limitations of static tool libraries. To facilitate rigorous evaluation, we introduce SciEvo, a benchmark comprising 1,590 scientific reasoning tasks supported by 925 automatically evolved tools. Extensive experiments show that TTE achieves state-of-the-art performance in both accuracy and tool efficiency, while enabling effective cross-domain adaptation of computational tools. The code and benchmark have been released at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07641 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Static Tools: Test-Time Tool Evolution for Scientific Reasoning Authors: Jiaxuan Lu , Ziyu Kong , Yemin Wang , Rong Fu , Haiyuan Wan , Cheng Yang , Wenjie Lou , Haoran Sun , Lilong Wang , Yankai Jiang , Xiaosong Wang , Xiao Sun , Dongzhan Zhou Abstract : The central challenge of AI for Science is not reasoning alone, but the ability to create computational methods in an open-ended scientific world. Existing LLM-based agents rely on static, pre-defined tool libraries, a paradigm that fundamentally fails in scientific domains where tools are sparse, heterogeneous, and intrinsically incomplete. In this paper, we propose Test-Time Tool Evolution (TTE)… ▽ More The central challenge of AI for Science is not reasoning alone, but the ability to create computational methods in an open-ended scientific world. Existing LLM-based agents rely on static, pre-defined tool libraries, a paradigm that fundamentally fails in scientific domains where tools are sparse, heterogeneous, and intrinsically incomplete. In this paper, we propose Test-Time Tool Evolution (TTE), a new paradigm that enables agents to synthesize, verify, and evolve executable tools during inference. By transforming tools from fixed resources into problem-driven artifacts, TTE overcomes the rigidity and long-tail limitations of static tool libraries. To facilitate rigorous evaluation, we introduce SciEvo, a benchmark comprising 1,590 scientific reasoning tasks supported by 925 automatically evolved tools. Extensive experiments show that TTE achieves state-of-the-art performance in both accuracy and tool efficiency, while enabling effective cross-domain adaptation of computational tools. The code and benchmark have been released at △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07320 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Segmental Advantage Estimation: Enhancing PPO for Long-Context LLM Training Authors: Xue Gong , Qi Yi , Ziyuan Nan , Guanhua Huang , Kejiao Li , Yuhao Jiang , Ruibin Xiong , Zenan Xu , Jiaming Guo , Shaohui Peng , Bo Zhou Abstract : Training Large Language Models (LLMs) for reasoning tasks is increasingly driven by Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR), where Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) provides a principled framework for stable policy updates. However, the practical application of PPO is hindered by unreliable advantage estimation in the sparse-reward RLVR regime. This issue arises because the sparse r… ▽ More Training Large Language Models (LLMs) for reasoning tasks is increasingly driven by Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR), where Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) provides a principled framework for stable policy updates. However, the practical application of PPO is hindered by unreliable advantage estimation in the sparse-reward RLVR regime. This issue arises because the sparse rewards in RLVR lead to inaccurate intermediate value predictions, which in turn introduce significant bias when aggregated at every token by Generalized Advantage Estimation (GAE). To address this, we introduce Segmental Advantage Estimation (SAE), which mitigates the bias that GAE can incur in RLVR. Our key insight is that aggregating $n$-step advantages at every token(as in GAE) is unnecessary and often introduces excessive bias, since individual tokens carry minimal information. Instead, SAE first partitions the generated sequence into coherent sub-segments using low-probability tokens as heuristic boundaries. It then selectively computes variance-reduced advantage estimates only from these information-rich segment transitions, effectively filtering out noise from intermediate tokens. Our experiments demonstrate that SAE achieves superior performance, with marked improvements in final scores, training stability, and sample efficiency. These gains are shown to be consistent across multiple model sizes, and a correlation analysis confirms that our proposed advantage estimator achieves a higher correlation with an approximate ground-truth advantage, justifying its superior performance. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07320 [ pdf , ps , other ] Segmental Advantage Estimation: Enhancing PPO for Long-Context LLM Training Authors: Xue Gong , Qi Yi , Ziyuan Nan , Guanhua Huang , Kejiao Li , Yuhao Jiang , Ruibin Xiong , Zenan Xu , Jiaming Guo , Shaohui Peng , Bo Zhou Abstract : Training Large Language Models (LLMs) for reasoning tasks is increasingly driven by Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR), where Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) provides a principled framework for stable policy updates. However, the practical application of PPO is hindered by unreliable advantage estimation in the sparse-reward RLVR regime. This issue arises because the sparse r… ▽ More Training Large Language Models (LLMs) for reasoning tasks is increasingly driven by Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR), where Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) provides a principled framework for stable policy updates. However, the practical application of PPO is hindered by unreliable advantage estimation in the sparse-reward RLVR regime. This issue arises because the sparse rewards in RLVR lead to inaccurate intermediate value predictions, which in turn introduce significant bias when aggregated at every token by Generalized Advantage Estimation (GAE). To address this, we introduce Segmental Advantage Estimation (SAE), which mitigates the bias that GAE can incur in RLVR. Our key insight is that aggregating $n$-step advantages at every token(as in GAE) is unnecessary and often introduces excessive bias, since individual tokens carry minimal information. Instead, SAE first partitions the generated sequence into coherent sub-segments using low-probability tokens as heuristic boundaries. It then selectively computes variance-reduced advantage estimates only from these information-rich segment transitions, effectively filtering out noise from intermediate tokens. Our experiments demonstrate that SAE achieves superior performance, with marked improvements in final scores, training stability, and sample efficiency. These gains are shown to be consistent across multiple model sizes, and a correlation analysis confirms that our proposed advantage estimator achieves a higher correlation with an approximate ground-truth advantage, justifying its superior performance. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07309 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG ARM: Role-Conditioned Neuron Transplantation for Training-Free Generalist LLM Agent Merging Authors: Zhuoka Feng , Kang Chen , Sihan Zhao , Kai Xiong , Yaoning Wang , Minshen Yu , Junjie Nian , Changyi Xiao , Yixin Cao , Yugang Jiang Abstract : Interactive large language model agents have advanced rapidly, but most remain specialized to a single environment and fail to adapt robustly to other environments. Model merging offers a training-free alternative by integrating multiple experts into a single model. In this paper, we propose Agent-Role Merging (ARM), an activation-guided, role-conditioned neuron transplantation method for model me… ▽ More Interactive large language model agents have advanced rapidly, but most remain specialized to a single environment and fail to adapt robustly to other environments. Model merging offers a training-free alternative by integrating multiple experts into a single model. In this paper, we propose Agent-Role Merging (ARM), an activation-guided, role-conditioned neuron transplantation method for model merging in LLM agents. ARM improves existing merging methods from static natural language tasks to multi-turn agent scenarios, and over the generalization ability across various interactive environments. This is achieved with a well designed 3-step framework: 1) constructing merged backbones, 2) selection based on its role-conditioned activation analysis, and 3) neuron transplantation for fine-grained refinements. Without gradient-based optimization, ARM improves cross-benchmark generalization while enjoying efficiency. Across diverse domains, the model obtained via ARM merging outperforms prior model merging methods and domain-specific expert models, while demonstrating strong out-of-domain generalization. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages, 12 figures. Project page: arXiv:2601.07309 [ pdf , ps , other ] ARM: Role-Conditioned Neuron Transplantation for Training-Free Generalist LLM Agent Merging Authors: Zhuoka Feng , Kang Chen , Sihan Zhao , Kai Xiong , Yaoning Wang , Minshen Yu , Junjie Nian , Changyi Xiao , Yixin Cao , Yugang Jiang Abstract : Interactive large language model agents have advanced rapidly, but most remain specialized to a single environment and fail to adapt robustly to other environments. Model merging offers a training-free alternative by integrating multiple experts into a single model. In this paper, we propose Agent-Role Merging (ARM), an activation-guided, role-conditioned neuron transplantation method for model me… ▽ More Interactive large language model agents have advanced rapidly, but most remain specialized to a single environment and fail to adapt robustly to other environments. Model merging offers a training-free alternative by integrating multiple experts into a single model. In this paper, we propose Agent-Role Merging (ARM), an activation-guided, role-conditioned neuron transplantation method for model merging in LLM agents. ARM improves existing merging methods from static natural language tasks to multi-turn agent scenarios, and over the generalization ability across various interactive environments. This is achieved with a well designed 3-step framework: 1) constructing merged backbones, 2) selection based on its role-conditioned activation analysis, and 3) neuron transplantation for fine-grained refinements. Without gradient-based optimization, ARM improves cross-benchmark generalization while enjoying efficiency. Across diverse domains, the model obtained via ARM merging outperforms prior model merging methods and domain-specific expert models, while demonstrating strong out-of-domain generalization. △ Less Submitted 12 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages, 12 figures. Project page: arXiv:2601.07122 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.AI cs.LG Enhancing Cloud Network Resilience via a Robust LLM-Empowered Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Framework Authors: Yixiao Peng , Hao Hu , Feiyang Li , Xinye Cao , Yingchang Jiang , Jipeng Tang , Guoshun Nan , Yuling Liu Abstract : While virtualization and resource pooling empower cloud networks with structural flexibility and elastic scalability, they inevitably expand the attack surface and challenge cyber resilience. Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based defense strategies have been developed to optimize resource deployment and isolation policies under adversarial conditions, aiming to enhance system resilience by maintaining… ▽ More While virtualization and resource pooling empower cloud networks with structural flexibility and elastic scalability, they inevitably expand the attack surface and challenge cyber resilience. Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based defense strategies have been developed to optimize resource deployment and isolation policies under adversarial conditions, aiming to enhance system resilience by maintaining and restoring network availability. However, existing approaches lack robustness as they require retraining to adapt to dynamic changes in network structure, node scale, attack strategies, and attack intensity. Furthermore, the lack of Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) support limits interpretability and flexibility. To address these limitations, we propose CyberOps-Bots, a hierarchical multi-agent reinforcement learning framework empowered by Large Language Models (LLMs). Inspired by MITRE ATT&CK's Tactics-Techniques model, CyberOps-Bots features a two-layer architecture: (1) An upper-level LLM agent with four modules--ReAct planning, IPDRR-based perception, long-short term memory, and action/tool integration--performs global awareness, human intent recognition, and tactical planning; (2) Lower-level RL agents, developed via heterogeneous separated pre-training, execute atomic defense actions within localized network regions. This synergy preserves LLM adaptability and interpretability while ensuring reliable RL execution. Experiments on real cloud datasets show that, compared to state-of-the-art algorithms, CyberOps-Bots maintains network availability 68.5% higher and achieves a 34.7% jumpstart performance gain when shifting the scenarios without retraining. To our knowledge, this is the first study to establish a robust LLM-RL framework with HITL support for cloud defense. We will release our framework to the community, facilitating the advancement of robust and autonomous defense in cloud networks. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.07122 [ pdf , ps , other ] Enhancing Cloud Network Resilience via a Robust LLM-Empowered Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Framework Authors: Yixiao Peng , Hao Hu , Feiyang Li , Xinye Cao , Yingchang Jiang , Jipeng Tang , Guoshun Nan , Yuling Liu Abstract : While virtualization and resource pooling empower cloud networks with structural flexibility and elastic scalability, they inevitably expand the attack surface and challenge cyber resilience. Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based defense strategies have been developed to optimize resource deployment and isolation policies under adversarial conditions, aiming to enhance system resilience by maintaining… ▽ More While virtualization and resource pooling empower cloud networks with structural flexibility and elastic scalability, they inevitably expand the attack surface and challenge cyber resilience. Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based defense strategies have been developed to optimize resource deployment and isolation policies under adversarial conditions, aiming to enhance system resilience by maintaining and restoring network availability. However, existing approaches lack robustness as they require retraining to adapt to dynamic changes in network structure, node scale, attack strategies, and attack intensity. Furthermore, the lack of Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) support limits interpretability and flexibility. To address these limitations, we propose CyberOps-Bots, a hierarchical multi-agent reinforcement learning framework empowered by Large Language Models (LLMs). Inspired by MITRE ATT&CK's Tactics-Techniques model, CyberOps-Bots features a two-layer architecture: (1) An upper-level LLM agent with four modules--ReAct planning, IPDRR-based perception, long-short term memory, and action/tool integration--performs global awareness, human intent recognition, and tactical planning; (2) Lower-level RL agents, developed via heterogeneous separated pre-training, execute atomic defense actions within localized network regions. This synergy preserves LLM adaptability and interpretability while ensuring reliable RL execution. Experiments on real cloud datasets show that, compared to state-of-the-art algorithms, CyberOps-Bots maintains network availability 68.5% higher and achieves a 34.7% jumpstart performance gain when shifting the scenarios without retraining. To our knowledge, this is the first study to establish a robust LLM-RL framework with HITL support for cloud defense. We will release our framework to the community, facilitating the advancement of robust and autonomous defense in cloud networks. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.06969 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IT cs.LG Generalization Bounds for Transformer Channel Decoders Authors: Qinshan Zhang , Bin Chen , Yong Jiang , Shu-Tao Xia Abstract : Transformer channel decoders, such as the Error Correction Code Transformer (ECCT), have shown strong empirical performance in channel decoding, yet their generalization behavior remains theoretically unclear. This paper studies the generalization performance of ECCT from a learning-theoretic perspective. By establishing a connection between multiplicative noise estimation errors and bit-error-rat… ▽ More Transformer channel decoders, such as the Error Correction Code Transformer (ECCT), have shown strong empirical performance in channel decoding, yet their generalization behavior remains theoretically unclear. This paper studies the generalization performance of ECCT from a learning-theoretic perspective. By establishing a connection between multiplicative noise estimation errors and bit-error-rate (BER), we derive an upper bound on the generalization gap via bit-wise Rademacher complexity. The resulting bound characterizes the dependence on code length, model parameters, and training set size, and applies to both single-layer and multi-layer ECCTs. We further show that parity-check-based masked attention induces sparsity that reduces the covering number, leading to a tighter generalization bound. To the best of our knowledge, this work provides the first theoretical generalization guarantees for this class of decoders. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2601.06969 [ pdf , ps , other ] Generalization Bounds for Transformer Channel Decoders Authors: Qinshan Zhang , Bin Chen , Yong Jiang , Shu-Tao Xia Abstract : Transformer channel decoders, such as the Error Correction Code Transformer (ECCT), have shown strong empirical performance in channel decoding, yet their generalization behavior remains theoretically unclear. This paper studies the generalization performance of ECCT from a learning-theoretic perspective. By establishing a connection between multiplicative noise estimation errors and bit-error-rat… ▽ More Transformer channel decoders, such as the Error Correction Code Transformer (ECCT), have shown strong empirical performance in channel decoding, yet their generalization behavior remains theoretically unclear. This paper studies the generalization performance of ECCT from a learning-theoretic perspective. By establishing a connection between multiplicative noise estimation errors and bit-error-rate (BER), we derive an upper bound on the generalization gap via bit-wise Rademacher complexity. The resulting bound characterizes the dependence on code length, model parameters, and training set size, and applies to both single-layer and multi-layer ECCTs. We further show that parity-check-based masked attention induces sparsity that reduces the covering number, leading to a tighter generalization bound. To the best of our knowledge, this work provides the first theoretical generalization guarantees for this class of decoders. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 18 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2601.06801 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.LG Thinking with Deltas: Incentivizing Reinforcement Learning via Differential Visual Reasoning Policy Authors: Shujian Gao , Yuan Wang , Jiangtao Yan , Zuxuan Wu , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has significantly advanced reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models. However, adapting RLVR to multimodal domains suffers from a critical \textit{perception-reasoning decoupling}. Existing paradigms, driven by text-centric outcome rewards, reasoning in language medium, inadvertently encourage models to bypass visual perception. We empiri… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has significantly advanced reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models. However, adapting RLVR to multimodal domains suffers from a critical \textit{perception-reasoning decoupling}. Existing paradigms, driven by text-centric outcome rewards, reasoning in language medium, inadvertently encourage models to bypass visual perception. We empirically validate this through blind experiments: state-of-the-art policies maintain or surprisingly improve performance even when visual inputs are entirely removed. This reveals that these models degenerate into \textit{blind reasoners}, exploiting linguistic priors to generate plausible answers instead of attending to visual evidence. In response, we propose \textbf{Thinking with Deltas}, a framework driven by a \textbf{Differential Visual Reasoning Policy (DVRP)}. DVRP introduces intrinsic supervision via visual triplets, comprising original, masked, and perturbed inputs. It optimizes the model to maximize reasoning divergence from masked inputs (enforcing \textit{visual sensitivity}) while minimizing divergence from perturbed inputs (ensuring \textit{visual robustness}). By aligning reasoning variations strictly with the \textit{Delta} of visual information, DVRP inherently bolsters visual understanding capabilities and significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods on both general and medical benchmarks, without requiring external annotations or auxiliary tools. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 24 pages, 10 tables, 4 figures arXiv:2601.06801 [ pdf , ps , other ] Thinking with Deltas: Incentivizing Reinforcement Learning via Differential Visual Reasoning Policy Authors: Shujian Gao , Yuan Wang , Jiangtao Yan , Zuxuan Wu , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has significantly advanced reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models. However, adapting RLVR to multimodal domains suffers from a critical \textit{perception-reasoning decoupling}. Existing paradigms, driven by text-centric outcome rewards, reasoning in language medium, inadvertently encourage models to bypass visual perception. We empiri… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) has significantly advanced reasoning capabilities in Large Language Models. However, adapting RLVR to multimodal domains suffers from a critical \textit{perception-reasoning decoupling}. Existing paradigms, driven by text-centric outcome rewards, reasoning in language medium, inadvertently encourage models to bypass visual perception. We empirically validate this through blind experiments: state-of-the-art policies maintain or surprisingly improve performance even when visual inputs are entirely removed. This reveals that these models degenerate into \textit{blind reasoners}, exploiting linguistic priors to generate plausible answers instead of attending to visual evidence. In response, we propose \textbf{Thinking with Deltas}, a framework driven by a \textbf{Differential Visual Reasoning Policy (DVRP)}. DVRP introduces intrinsic supervision via visual triplets, comprising original, masked, and perturbed inputs. It optimizes the model to maximize reasoning divergence from masked inputs (enforcing \textit{visual sensitivity}) while minimizing divergence from perturbed inputs (ensuring \textit{visual robustness}). By aligning reasoning variations strictly with the \textit{Delta} of visual information, DVRP inherently bolsters visual understanding capabilities and significantly outperforms state-of-the-art methods on both general and medical benchmarks, without requiring external annotations or auxiliary tools. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 24 pages, 10 tables, 4 figures arXiv:2601.05629 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Cumulative Path-Level Semantic Reasoning for Inductive Knowledge Graph Completion Authors: Jiapu Wang , Xinghe Cheng , Zezheng Wu , Ruiqi Ma , Rui Wang , Zhichao Yan , Haoran Luo , Yuhao Jiang , Kai Sun Abstract : Conventional Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC) methods aim to infer missing information in incomplete Knowledge Graphs (KGs) by leveraging existing information, which struggle to perform effectively in scenarios involving emerging entities. Inductive KGC methods can handle the emerging entities and relations in KGs, offering greater dynamic adaptability. While existing inductive KGC methods have ac… ▽ More Conventional Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC) methods aim to infer missing information in incomplete Knowledge Graphs (KGs) by leveraging existing information, which struggle to perform effectively in scenarios involving emerging entities. Inductive KGC methods can handle the emerging entities and relations in KGs, offering greater dynamic adaptability. While existing inductive KGC methods have achieved some success, they also face challenges, such as susceptibility to noisy structural information during reasoning and difficulty in capturing long-range dependencies in reasoning paths. To address these challenges, this paper proposes the Cumulative Path-Level Semantic Reasoning for inductive knowledge graph completion (CPSR) framework, which simultaneously captures both the structural and semantic information of KGs to enhance the inductive KGC task. Specifically, the proposed CPSR employs a query-dependent masking module to adaptively mask noisy structural information while retaining important information closely related to the targets. Additionally, CPSR introduces a global semantic scoring module that evaluates both the individual contributions and the collective impact of nodes along the reasoning path within KGs. The experimental results demonstrate that CPSR achieves state-of-the-art performance. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05629 [ pdf , ps , other ] Cumulative Path-Level Semantic Reasoning for Inductive Knowledge Graph Completion Authors: Jiapu Wang , Xinghe Cheng , Zezheng Wu , Ruiqi Ma , Rui Wang , Zhichao Yan , Haoran Luo , Yuhao Jiang , Kai Sun Abstract : Conventional Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC) methods aim to infer missing information in incomplete Knowledge Graphs (KGs) by leveraging existing information, which struggle to perform effectively in scenarios involving emerging entities. Inductive KGC methods can handle the emerging entities and relations in KGs, offering greater dynamic adaptability. While existing inductive KGC methods have ac… ▽ More Conventional Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC) methods aim to infer missing information in incomplete Knowledge Graphs (KGs) by leveraging existing information, which struggle to perform effectively in scenarios involving emerging entities. Inductive KGC methods can handle the emerging entities and relations in KGs, offering greater dynamic adaptability. While existing inductive KGC methods have achieved some success, they also face challenges, such as susceptibility to noisy structural information during reasoning and difficulty in capturing long-range dependencies in reasoning paths. To address these challenges, this paper proposes the Cumulative Path-Level Semantic Reasoning for inductive knowledge graph completion (CPSR) framework, which simultaneously captures both the structural and semantic information of KGs to enhance the inductive KGC task. Specifically, the proposed CPSR employs a query-dependent masking module to adaptively mask noisy structural information while retaining important information closely related to the targets. Additionally, CPSR introduces a global semantic scoring module that evaluates both the individual contributions and the collective impact of nodes along the reasoning path within KGs. The experimental results demonstrate that CPSR achieves state-of-the-art performance. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.05403 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Same Claim, Different Judgment: Benchmarking Scenario-Induced Bias in Multilingual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Zhiwei Liu , Yupen Cao , Yuechen Jiang , Mohsinul Kabir , Polydoros Giannouris , Chen Xu , Ziyang Xu , Tianlei Zhu , Tariquzzaman Faisal , Triantafillos Papadopoulos , Yan Wang , Lingfei Qian , Xueqing Peng , Zhuohan Xie , Ye Yuan , Saeed Almheiri , Abdulrazzaq Alnajjar , Mingbin Chen , Harry Stuart , Paul Thompson , Prayag Tiwari , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Xue Liu , Jimin Huang , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on dir… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on direct questioning or simplified, general-purpose settings, with limited consideration of the complex real-world financial environments and high-risk, context-sensitive, multilingual financial misinformation detection tasks (\mfmd). In this work, we propose \mfmdscen, a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating behavioral biases of LLMs in \mfmd across diverse economic scenarios. In collaboration with financial experts, we construct three types of complex financial scenarios: (i) role- and personality-based, (ii) role- and region-based, and (iii) role-based scenarios incorporating ethnicity and religious beliefs. We further develop a multilingual financial misinformation dataset covering English, Chinese, Greek, and Bengali. By integrating these scenarios with misinformation claims, \mfmdscen enables a systematic evaluation of 22 mainstream LLMs. Our findings reveal that pronounced behavioral biases persist across both commercial and open-source models. This project will be available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.05403 [ pdf , ps , other ] Same Claim, Different Judgment: Benchmarking Scenario-Induced Bias in Multilingual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Zhiwei Liu , Yupen Cao , Yuechen Jiang , Mohsinul Kabir , Polydoros Giannouris , Chen Xu , Ziyang Xu , Tianlei Zhu , Tariquzzaman Faisal , Triantafillos Papadopoulos , Yan Wang , Lingfei Qian , Xueqing Peng , Zhuohan Xie , Ye Yuan , Saeed Almheiri , Abdulrazzaq Alnajjar , Mingbin Chen , Harry Stuart , Paul Thompson , Prayag Tiwari , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Xue Liu , Jimin Huang , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on dir… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) have been widely applied across various domains of finance. Since their training data are largely derived from human-authored corpora, LLMs may inherit a range of human biases. Behavioral biases can lead to instability and uncertainty in decision-making, particularly when processing financial information. However, existing research on LLM bias has mainly focused on direct questioning or simplified, general-purpose settings, with limited consideration of the complex real-world financial environments and high-risk, context-sensitive, multilingual financial misinformation detection tasks (\mfmd). In this work, we propose \mfmdscen, a comprehensive benchmark for evaluating behavioral biases of LLMs in \mfmd across diverse economic scenarios. In collaboration with financial experts, we construct three types of complex financial scenarios: (i) role- and personality-based, (ii) role- and region-based, and (iii) role-based scenarios incorporating ethnicity and religious beliefs. We further develop a multilingual financial misinformation dataset covering English, Chinese, Greek, and Bengali. By integrating these scenarios with misinformation claims, \mfmdscen enables a systematic evaluation of 22 mainstream LLMs. Our findings reveal that pronounced behavioral biases persist across both commercial and open-source models. This project will be available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Work in progress arXiv:2601.05244 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV GREx: Generalized Referring Expression Segmentation, Comprehension, and Generation Authors: Henghui Ding , Chang Liu , Shuting He , Xudong Jiang , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Referring Expression Segmentation (RES) and Comprehension (REC) respectively segment and detect the object described by an expression, while Referring Expression Generation (REG) generates an expression for the selected object. Existing datasets and methods commonly support single-target expressions only, i.e., one expression refers to one object, not considering multi-target and no-target express… ▽ More Referring Expression Segmentation (RES) and Comprehension (REC) respectively segment and detect the object described by an expression, while Referring Expression Generation (REG) generates an expression for the selected object. Existing datasets and methods commonly support single-target expressions only, i.e., one expression refers to one object, not considering multi-target and no-target expressions. This greatly limits the real applications of REx (RES/REC/REG). This paper introduces three new benchmarks called Generalized Referring Expression Segmentation (GRES), Comprehension (GREC), and Generation (GREG), collectively denoted as GREx, which extend the classic REx to allow expressions to identify an arbitrary number of objects. We construct the first large-scale GREx dataset gRefCOCO that contains multi-target, no-target, and single-target expressions and their corresponding images with labeled targets. GREx and gRefCOCO are designed to be backward-compatible with REx, facilitating extensive experiments to study the performance gap of the existing REx methods on GREx tasks. One of the challenges of GRES/GREC is complex relationship modeling, for which we propose a baseline ReLA that adaptively divides the image into regions with sub-instance clues and explicitly models the region-region and region-language dependencies. The proposed ReLA achieves the state-of-the-art results on the both GRES and GREC tasks. The proposed gRefCOCO dataset and method are available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: IJCV, Project Page: arXiv:2601.05244 [ pdf , ps , other ] GREx: Generalized Referring Expression Segmentation, Comprehension, and Generation Authors: Henghui Ding , Chang Liu , Shuting He , Xudong Jiang , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Referring Expression Segmentation (RES) and Comprehension (REC) respectively segment and detect the object described by an expression, while Referring Expression Generation (REG) generates an expression for the selected object. Existing datasets and methods commonly support single-target expressions only, i.e., one expression refers to one object, not considering multi-target and no-target express… ▽ More Referring Expression Segmentation (RES) and Comprehension (REC) respectively segment and detect the object described by an expression, while Referring Expression Generation (REG) generates an expression for the selected object. Existing datasets and methods commonly support single-target expressions only, i.e., one expression refers to one object, not considering multi-target and no-target expressions. This greatly limits the real applications of REx (RES/REC/REG). This paper introduces three new benchmarks called Generalized Referring Expression Segmentation (GRES), Comprehension (GREC), and Generation (GREG), collectively denoted as GREx, which extend the classic REx to allow expressions to identify an arbitrary number of objects. We construct the first large-scale GREx dataset gRefCOCO that contains multi-target, no-target, and single-target expressions and their corresponding images with labeled targets. GREx and gRefCOCO are designed to be backward-compatible with REx, facilitating extensive experiments to study the performance gap of the existing REx methods on GREx tasks. One of the challenges of GRES/GREC is complex relationship modeling, for which we propose a baseline ReLA that adaptively divides the image into regions with sub-instance clues and explicitly models the region-region and region-language dependencies. The proposed ReLA achieves the state-of-the-art results on the both GRES and GREC tasks. The proposed gRefCOCO dataset and method are available at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: IJCV, Project Page: arXiv:2601.05038 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI ArcAligner: Adaptive Recursive Aligner for Compressed Context Embeddings in RAG Authors: Jianbo Li , Yi Jiang , Sendong Zhao , Bairui Hu , Haochun Wang , Bing Qin Abstract : Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) helps LLMs stay accurate, but feeding long documents into a prompt makes the model slow and expensive. This has motivated context compression, ranging from token pruning and summarization to embedding-based compression. While researchers have tried ''compressing'' these documents into smaller summaries or mathematical embeddings, there is a catch: the more you… ▽ More Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) helps LLMs stay accurate, but feeding long documents into a prompt makes the model slow and expensive. This has motivated context compression, ranging from token pruning and summarization to embedding-based compression. While researchers have tried ''compressing'' these documents into smaller summaries or mathematical embeddings, there is a catch: the more you compress the data, the more the LLM struggles to understand it. To address this challenge, we propose ArcAligner (Adaptive recursive context *Aligner*), a lightweight module integrated into the language model layers to help the model better utilize highly compressed context representations for downstream generation. It uses an adaptive ''gating'' system that only adds extra processing power when the information is complex, keeping the system fast. Across knowledge-intensive QA benchmarks, ArcAligner consistently beats compression baselines at comparable compression rates, especially on multi-hop and long-tail settings. The source code is publicly available. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Code is available at arXiv:2601.05038 [ pdf , ps , other ] ArcAligner: Adaptive Recursive Aligner for Compressed Context Embeddings in RAG Authors: Jianbo Li , Yi Jiang , Sendong Zhao , Bairui Hu , Haochun Wang , Bing Qin Abstract : Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) helps LLMs stay accurate, but feeding long documents into a prompt makes the model slow and expensive. This has motivated context compression, ranging from token pruning and summarization to embedding-based compression. While researchers have tried ''compressing'' these documents into smaller summaries or mathematical embeddings, there is a catch: the more you… ▽ More Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) helps LLMs stay accurate, but feeding long documents into a prompt makes the model slow and expensive. This has motivated context compression, ranging from token pruning and summarization to embedding-based compression. While researchers have tried ''compressing'' these documents into smaller summaries or mathematical embeddings, there is a catch: the more you compress the data, the more the LLM struggles to understand it. To address this challenge, we propose ArcAligner (Adaptive recursive context *Aligner*), a lightweight module integrated into the language model layers to help the model better utilize highly compressed context representations for downstream generation. It uses an adaptive ''gating'' system that only adds extra processing power when the information is complex, keeping the system fast. Across knowledge-intensive QA benchmarks, ArcAligner consistently beats compression baselines at comparable compression rates, especially on multi-hop and long-tail settings. The source code is publicly available. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Code is available at arXiv:2601.05027 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI OptiSet: Unified Optimizing Set Selection and Ranking for Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Yi Jiang , Sendong Zhao , Jianbo Li , Bairui Hu , Yanrui Du , Haochun Wang , Bing Qin Abstract : Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) improves generation quality by incorporating evidence retrieved from large external corpora. However, most existing methods rely on statically selecting top-k passages based on individual relevance, which fails to exploit combinatorial gains among passages and often introduces substantial redundancy. To address this limitation, we propose OptiSet, a set-centric… ▽ More Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) improves generation quality by incorporating evidence retrieved from large external corpora. However, most existing methods rely on statically selecting top-k passages based on individual relevance, which fails to exploit combinatorial gains among passages and often introduces substantial redundancy. To address this limitation, we propose OptiSet, a set-centric framework that unifies set selection and set-level ranking for RAG. OptiSet adopts an "Expand-then-Refine" paradigm: it first expands a query into multiple perspectives to enable a diverse candidate pool and then refines the candidate pool via re-selection to form a compact evidence set. We then devise a self-synthesis strategy without strong LLM supervision to derive preference labels from the set conditional utility changes of the generator, thereby identifying complementary and redundant evidence. Finally, we introduce a set-list wise training strategy that jointly optimizes set selection and set-level ranking, enabling the model to favor compact, high-gain evidence sets. Extensive experiments demonstrate that OptiSet improves performance on complex combinatorial problems and makes generation more efficient. The source code is publicly available. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Code is available at arXiv:2601.05027 [ pdf , ps , other ] OptiSet: Unified Optimizing Set Selection and Ranking for Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Yi Jiang , Sendong Zhao , Jianbo Li , Bairui Hu , Yanrui Du , Haochun Wang , Bing Qin Abstract : Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) improves generation quality by incorporating evidence retrieved from large external corpora. However, most existing methods rely on statically selecting top-k passages based on individual relevance, which fails to exploit combinatorial gains among passages and often introduces substantial redundancy. To address this limitation, we propose OptiSet, a set-centric… ▽ More Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) improves generation quality by incorporating evidence retrieved from large external corpora. However, most existing methods rely on statically selecting top-k passages based on individual relevance, which fails to exploit combinatorial gains among passages and often introduces substantial redundancy. To address this limitation, we propose OptiSet, a set-centric framework that unifies set selection and set-level ranking for RAG. OptiSet adopts an "Expand-then-Refine" paradigm: it first expands a query into multiple perspectives to enable a diverse candidate pool and then refines the candidate pool via re-selection to form a compact evidence set. We then devise a self-synthesis strategy without strong LLM supervision to derive preference labels from the set conditional utility changes of the generator, thereby identifying complementary and redundant evidence. Finally, we introduce a set-list wise training strategy that jointly optimizes set selection and set-level ranking, enabling the model to favor compact, high-gain evidence sets. Extensive experiments demonstrate that OptiSet improves performance on complex combinatorial problems and makes generation more efficient. The source code is publicly available. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Code is available at arXiv:2601.04853 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL RAAR: Retrieval Augmented Agentic Reasoning for Cross-Domain Misinformation Detection Authors: Zhiwei Liu , Runteng Guo , Baojie Qu , Yuechen Jiang , Min Peng , Qianqian Xie , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : Cross-domain misinformation detection is challenging, as misinformation arises across domains with substantial differences in knowledge and discourse. Existing methods often rely on single-perspective cues and struggle to generalize to challenging or underrepresented domains, while reasoning large language models (LLMs), though effective on complex tasks, are limited to same-distribution data. To… ▽ More Cross-domain misinformation detection is challenging, as misinformation arises across domains with substantial differences in knowledge and discourse. Existing methods often rely on single-perspective cues and struggle to generalize to challenging or underrepresented domains, while reasoning large language models (LLMs), though effective on complex tasks, are limited to same-distribution data. To address these gaps, we introduce RAAR, the first retrieval-augmented agentic reasoning framework for cross-domain misinformation detection. To enable cross-domain transfer beyond same-distribution assumptions, RAAR retrieves multi-perspective source-domain evidence aligned with each target sample's semantics, sentiment, and writing style. To overcome single-perspective modeling and missing systematic reasoning, RAAR constructs verifiable multi-step reasoning paths through specialized multi-agent collaboration, where perspective-specific agents produce complementary analyses and a summary agent integrates them under verifier guidance. RAAR further applies supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning to train a single multi-task verifier to enhance verification and reasoning capabilities. Based on RAAR, we trained the RAAR-8b and RAAR-14b models. Evaluation on three cross-domain misinformation detection tasks shows that RAAR substantially enhances the capabilities of the base models and outperforms other cross-domain methods, advanced LLMs, and LLM-based adaptation approaches. The project will be released at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04853 [ pdf , ps , other ] RAAR: Retrieval Augmented Agentic Reasoning for Cross-Domain Misinformation Detection Authors: Zhiwei Liu , Runteng Guo , Baojie Qu , Yuechen Jiang , Min Peng , Qianqian Xie , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : Cross-domain misinformation detection is challenging, as misinformation arises across domains with substantial differences in knowledge and discourse. Existing methods often rely on single-perspective cues and struggle to generalize to challenging or underrepresented domains, while reasoning large language models (LLMs), though effective on complex tasks, are limited to same-distribution data. To… ▽ More Cross-domain misinformation detection is challenging, as misinformation arises across domains with substantial differences in knowledge and discourse. Existing methods often rely on single-perspective cues and struggle to generalize to challenging or underrepresented domains, while reasoning large language models (LLMs), though effective on complex tasks, are limited to same-distribution data. To address these gaps, we introduce RAAR, the first retrieval-augmented agentic reasoning framework for cross-domain misinformation detection. To enable cross-domain transfer beyond same-distribution assumptions, RAAR retrieves multi-perspective source-domain evidence aligned with each target sample's semantics, sentiment, and writing style. To overcome single-perspective modeling and missing systematic reasoning, RAAR constructs verifiable multi-step reasoning paths through specialized multi-agent collaboration, where perspective-specific agents produce complementary analyses and a summary agent integrates them under verifier guidance. RAAR further applies supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning to train a single multi-task verifier to enhance verification and reasoning capabilities. Based on RAAR, we trained the RAAR-8b and RAAR-14b models. Evaluation on three cross-domain misinformation detection tasks shows that RAAR substantially enhances the capabilities of the base models and outperforms other cross-domain methods, advanced LLMs, and LLM-based adaptation approaches. The project will be released at △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04566 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL BackdoorAgent: A Unified Framework for Backdoor Attacks on LLM-based Agents Authors: Yunhao Feng , Yige Li , Yutao Wu , Yingshui Tan , Yanming Guo , Yifan Ding , Kun Zhai , Xingjun Ma , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents execute tasks through multi-step workflows that combine planning, memory, and tool use. While this design enables autonomy, it also expands the attack surface for backdoor threats. Backdoor triggers injected into specific stages of an agent workflow can persist through multiple intermediate states and adversely influence downstream outputs. However, existing studi… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents execute tasks through multi-step workflows that combine planning, memory, and tool use. While this design enables autonomy, it also expands the attack surface for backdoor threats. Backdoor triggers injected into specific stages of an agent workflow can persist through multiple intermediate states and adversely influence downstream outputs. However, existing studies remain fragmented and typically analyze individual attack vectors in isolation, leaving the cross-stage interaction and propagation of backdoor triggers poorly understood from an agent-centric perspective. To fill this gap, we propose \textbf{BackdoorAgent}, a modular and stage-aware framework that provides a unified, agent-centric view of backdoor threats in LLM agents. BackdoorAgent structures the attack surface into three functional stages of agentic workflows, including \textbf{planning attacks}, \textbf{memory attacks}, and \textbf{tool-use attacks}, and instruments agent execution to enable systematic analysis of trigger activation and propagation across different stages. Building on this framework, we construct a standardized benchmark spanning four representative agent applications: \textbf{Agent QA}, \textbf{Agent Code}, \textbf{Agent Web}, and \textbf{Agent Drive}, covering both language-only and multimodal settings. Our empirical analysis shows that \textit{triggers implanted at a single stage can persist across multiple steps and propagate through intermediate states.} For instance, when using a GPT-based backbone, we observe trigger persistence in 43.58\% of planning attacks, 77.97\% of memory attacks, and 60.28\% of tool-stage attacks, highlighting the vulnerabilities of the agentic workflow itself to backdoor threats. To facilitate reproducibility and future research, our code and benchmark are publicly available at GitHub. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04566 [ pdf , ps , other ] BackdoorAgent: A Unified Framework for Backdoor Attacks on LLM-based Agents Authors: Yunhao Feng , Yige Li , Yutao Wu , Yingshui Tan , Yanming Guo , Yifan Ding , Kun Zhai , Xingjun Ma , Yu-Gang Jiang Abstract : Large language model (LLM) agents execute tasks through multi-step workflows that combine planning, memory, and tool use. While this design enables autonomy, it also expands the attack surface for backdoor threats. Backdoor triggers injected into specific stages of an agent workflow can persist through multiple intermediate states and adversely influence downstream outputs. However, existing studi… ▽ More Large language model (LLM) agents execute tasks through multi-step workflows that combine planning, memory, and tool use. While this design enables autonomy, it also expands the attack surface for backdoor threats. Backdoor triggers injected into specific stages of an agent workflow can persist through multiple intermediate states and adversely influence downstream outputs. However, existing studies remain fragmented and typically analyze individual attack vectors in isolation, leaving the cross-stage interaction and propagation of backdoor triggers poorly understood from an agent-centric perspective. To fill this gap, we propose \textbf{BackdoorAgent}, a modular and stage-aware framework that provides a unified, agent-centric view of backdoor threats in LLM agents. BackdoorAgent structures the attack surface into three functional stages of agentic workflows, including \textbf{planning attacks}, \textbf{memory attacks}, and \textbf{tool-use attacks}, and instruments agent execution to enable systematic analysis of trigger activation and propagation across different stages. Building on this framework, we construct a standardized benchmark spanning four representative agent applications: \textbf{Agent QA}, \textbf{Agent Code}, \textbf{Agent Web}, and \textbf{Agent Drive}, covering both language-only and multimodal settings. Our empirical analysis shows that \textit{triggers implanted at a single stage can persist across multiple steps and propagate through intermediate states.} For instance, when using a GPT-based backbone, we observe trigger persistence in 43.58\% of planning attacks, 77.97\% of memory attacks, and 60.28\% of tool-stage attacks, highlighting the vulnerabilities of the agentic workflow itself to backdoor threats. To facilitate reproducibility and future research, our code and benchmark are publicly available at GitHub. △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04236 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.AI cs.RO eess.AS SmoothSync: Dual-Stream Diffusion Transformers for Jitter-Robust Beat-Synchronized Gesture Generation from Quantized Audio Authors: Yujiao Jiang , Qingmin Liao , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transforme… ▽ More Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architecture to synthesis holistic gestures and enhance sampling variation. Specifically, we (1) fuse audio-motion features via complementary transformer streams to achieve superior synchronization, (2) introduce a jitter-suppression loss to improve temporal smoothness, (3) implement probabilistic audio quantization to generate distinct gesture sequences from identical inputs. To reliably evaluate beat synchronization under jitter, we introduce Smooth-BC, a robust variant of the beat consistency metric less sensitive to motion noise. Comprehensive experiments on the BEAT2 and SHOW datasets demonstrate SmoothSync's superiority, outperforming state-of-the-art methods by -30.6% FGD, 10.3% Smooth-BC, and 8.4% Diversity on BEAT2, while reducing jitter and foot sliding by -62.9% and -17.1% respectively. The code will be released to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04236 [ pdf , ps , other ] SmoothSync: Dual-Stream Diffusion Transformers for Jitter-Robust Beat-Synchronized Gesture Generation from Quantized Audio Authors: Yujiao Jiang , Qingmin Liao , Zongqing Lu Abstract : Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transforme… ▽ More Co-speech gesture generation is a critical area of research aimed at synthesizing speech-synchronized human-like gestures. Existing methods often suffer from issues such as rhythmic inconsistency, motion jitter, foot sliding and limited multi-sampling diversity. In this paper, we present SmoothSync, a novel framework that leverages quantized audio tokens in a novel dual-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) architecture to synthesis holistic gestures and enhance sampling variation. Specifically, we (1) fuse audio-motion features via complementary transformer streams to achieve superior synchronization, (2) introduce a jitter-suppression loss to improve temporal smoothness, (3) implement probabilistic audio quantization to generate distinct gesture sequences from identical inputs. To reliably evaluate beat synchronization under jitter, we introduce Smooth-BC, a robust variant of the beat consistency metric less sensitive to motion noise. Comprehensive experiments on the BEAT2 and SHOW datasets demonstrate SmoothSync's superiority, outperforming state-of-the-art methods by -30.6% FGD, 10.3% Smooth-BC, and 8.4% Diversity on BEAT2, while reducing jitter and foot sliding by -62.9% and -17.1% respectively. The code will be released to facilitate future research. △ Less Submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.04160 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.CE q-fin.CP All That Glisters Is Not Gold: A Benchmark for Reference-Free Counterfactual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Yuechen Jiang , Zhiwei Liu , Yupeng Cao , Yueru He , Ziyang Xu , Chen Xu , Zhiyang Deng , Prayag Tiwari , Xi Chen , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Jimin Huang , Junichi Tsujii , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired orig… ▽ More We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired original perturbed inputs. Experiments reveal a consistent pattern: performance is substantially stronger when comparative context is available, while reference free settings expose significant weaknesses, including unstable predictions and elevated invalid outputs. These results indicate that current models struggle to maintain coherent belief states without external grounding. By highlighting this gap, RFC Bench provides a structured testbed for studying reference free reasoning and advancing more reliable financial misinformation detection in real world settings. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 48 pages; 24 figures arXiv:2601.04160 [ pdf , ps , other ] All That Glisters Is Not Gold: A Benchmark for Reference-Free Counterfactual Financial Misinformation Detection Authors: Yuechen Jiang , Zhiwei Liu , Yupeng Cao , Yueru He , Ziyang Xu , Chen Xu , Zhiyang Deng , Prayag Tiwari , Xi Chen , Alejandro Lopez-Lira , Jimin Huang , Junichi Tsujii , Sophia Ananiadou Abstract : We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired orig… ▽ More We introduce RFC Bench, a benchmark for evaluating large language models on financial misinformation under realistic news. RFC Bench operates at the paragraph level and captures the contextual complexity of financial news where meaning emerges from dispersed cues. The benchmark defines two complementary tasks: reference free misinformation detection and comparison based diagnosis using paired original perturbed inputs. Experiments reveal a consistent pattern: performance is substantially stronger when comparative context is available, while reference free settings expose significant weaknesses, including unstable predictions and elevated invalid outputs. These results indicate that current models struggle to maintain coherent belief states without external grounding. By highlighting this gap, RFC Bench provides a structured testbed for studying reference free reasoning and advancing more reliable financial misinformation detection in real world settings. △ Less Submitted 9 January, 2026; v1 submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 48 pages; 24 figures arXiv:2601.03578 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL PsychEthicsBench: Evaluating Large Language Models Against Australian Mental Health Ethics Authors: Yaling Shen , Stephanie Fong , Yiwen Jiang , Zimu Wang , Feilong Tang , Qingyang Xu , Xiangyu Zhao , Zhongxing Xu , Jiahe Liu , Jinpeng Hu , Dominic Dwyer , Zongyuan Ge Abstract : The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as… ▽ More The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as unempathetic and discourage help-seeking. To address this gap, we move beyond refusal-centric metrics and introduce \texttt{PsychEthicsBench}, the first principle-grounded benchmark based on Australian psychology and psychiatry guidelines, designed to evaluate LLMs' ethical knowledge and behavioral responses through multiple-choice and open-ended tasks with fine-grained ethicality annotations. Empirical results across 14 models reveal that refusal rates are poor indicators of ethical behavior, revealing a significant divergence between safety triggers and clinical appropriateness. Notably, we find that domain-specific fine-tuning can degrade ethical robustness, as several specialized models underperform their base backbones in ethical alignment. PsychEthicsBench provides a foundation for systematic, jurisdiction-aware evaluation of LLMs in mental health, encouraging more responsible development in this domain. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages arXiv:2601.03578 [ pdf , ps , other ] PsychEthicsBench: Evaluating Large Language Models Against Australian Mental Health Ethics Authors: Yaling Shen , Stephanie Fong , Yiwen Jiang , Zimu Wang , Feilong Tang , Qingyang Xu , Xiangyu Zhao , Zhongxing Xu , Jiahe Liu , Jinpeng Hu , Dominic Dwyer , Zongyuan Ge Abstract : The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as… ▽ More The increasing integration of large language models (LLMs) into mental health applications necessitates robust frameworks for evaluating professional safety alignment. Current evaluative approaches primarily rely on refusal-based safety signals, which offer limited insight into the nuanced behaviors required in clinical practice. In mental health, clinically inadequate refusals can be perceived as unempathetic and discourage help-seeking. To address this gap, we move beyond refusal-centric metrics and introduce \texttt{PsychEthicsBench}, the first principle-grounded benchmark based on Australian psychology and psychiatry guidelines, designed to evaluate LLMs' ethical knowledge and behavioral responses through multiple-choice and open-ended tasks with fine-grained ethicality annotations. Empirical results across 14 models reveal that refusal rates are poor indicators of ethical behavior, revealing a significant divergence between safety triggers and clinical appropriateness. Notably, we find that domain-specific fine-tuning can degrade ethical robustness, as several specialized models underperform their base backbones in ethical alignment. PsychEthicsBench provides a foundation for systematic, jurisdiction-aware evaluation of LLMs in mental health, encouraging more responsible development in this domain. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 17 pages arXiv:2601.03555 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI SCRIBE: Structured Mid-Level Supervision for Tool-Using Language Models Authors: Yuxuan Jiang , Francis Ferraro Abstract : Training reliable tool-augmented agents remains a significant challenge, largely due to the difficulty of credit assignment in multi-step reasoning. While process-level reward models offer a promising direction, existing LLM-based judges often produce noisy and inconsistent signals because they lack fine-grained, task-specific rubrics to distinguish high-level planning from low-level execution. In… ▽ More Training reliable tool-augmented agents remains a significant challenge, largely due to the difficulty of credit assignment in multi-step reasoning. While process-level reward models offer a promising direction, existing LLM-based judges often produce noisy and inconsistent signals because they lack fine-grained, task-specific rubrics to distinguish high-level planning from low-level execution. In this work, we introduce SCRIBE (Skill-Conditioned Reward with Intermediate Behavioral Evaluation), a reinforcement learning framework that intervenes at a novel mid-level abstraction. SCRIBE grounds reward modeling in a curated library of skill prototypes, transforming open-ended LLM evaluation into a constrained verification problem. By routing each subgoal to a corresponding prototype, the reward model is equipped with precise, structured rubrics that substantially reduce reward variance. Experimental results show that SCRIBE achieves state-of-the-art performance across a range of reasoning and tool-use benchmarks. In particular, it improves the AIME25 accuracy of a Qwen3-4B model from 43.3% to 63.3%, and significantly increases success rates in complex multi-turn tool interactions. Further analysis of training dynamics reveals a co-evolution across abstraction levels, where mastery of mid-level skills consistently precedes the emergence of effective high-level planning behaviors. Finally, we demonstrate that SCRIBE is additive to low-level tool optimizations, providing a scalable and complementary pathway toward more autonomous and reliable tool-using agents. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03555 [ pdf , ps , other ] SCRIBE: Structured Mid-Level Supervision for Tool-Using Language Models Authors: Yuxuan Jiang , Francis Ferraro Abstract : Training reliable tool-augmented agents remains a significant challenge, largely due to the difficulty of credit assignment in multi-step reasoning. While process-level reward models offer a promising direction, existing LLM-based judges often produce noisy and inconsistent signals because they lack fine-grained, task-specific rubrics to distinguish high-level planning from low-level execution. In… ▽ More Training reliable tool-augmented agents remains a significant challenge, largely due to the difficulty of credit assignment in multi-step reasoning. While process-level reward models offer a promising direction, existing LLM-based judges often produce noisy and inconsistent signals because they lack fine-grained, task-specific rubrics to distinguish high-level planning from low-level execution. In this work, we introduce SCRIBE (Skill-Conditioned Reward with Intermediate Behavioral Evaluation), a reinforcement learning framework that intervenes at a novel mid-level abstraction. SCRIBE grounds reward modeling in a curated library of skill prototypes, transforming open-ended LLM evaluation into a constrained verification problem. By routing each subgoal to a corresponding prototype, the reward model is equipped with precise, structured rubrics that substantially reduce reward variance. Experimental results show that SCRIBE achieves state-of-the-art performance across a range of reasoning and tool-use benchmarks. In particular, it improves the AIME25 accuracy of a Qwen3-4B model from 43.3% to 63.3%, and significantly increases success rates in complex multi-turn tool interactions. Further analysis of training dynamics reveals a co-evolution across abstraction levels, where mastery of mid-level skills consistently precedes the emergence of effective high-level planning behaviors. Finally, we demonstrate that SCRIBE is additive to low-level tool optimizations, providing a scalable and complementary pathway toward more autonomous and reliable tool-using agents. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03416 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV GAMBIT: A Gamified Jailbreak Framework for Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Xiangdong Hu , Yangyang Jiang , Qin Hu , Xiaojun Jia Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have become widely deployed, yet their safety alignment remains fragile under adversarial inputs. Previous work has shown that increasing inference steps can disrupt safety mechanisms and lead MLLMs to generate attacker-desired harmful content. However, most existing attacks focus on increasing the complexity of the modified visual task itself and do not ex… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have become widely deployed, yet their safety alignment remains fragile under adversarial inputs. Previous work has shown that increasing inference steps can disrupt safety mechanisms and lead MLLMs to generate attacker-desired harmful content. However, most existing attacks focus on increasing the complexity of the modified visual task itself and do not explicitly leverage the model's own reasoning incentives. This leads to them underperforming on reasoning models (Models with Chain-of-Thoughts) compared to non-reasoning ones (Models without Chain-of-Thoughts). If a model can think like a human, can we influence its cognitive-stage decisions so that it proactively completes a jailbreak? To validate this idea, we propose GAMBI} (Gamified Adversarial Multimodal Breakout via Instructional Traps), a novel multimodal jailbreak framework that decomposes and reassembles harmful visual semantics, then constructs a gamified scene that drives the model to explore, reconstruct intent, and answer as part of winning the game. The resulting structured reasoning chain increases task complexity in both vision and text, positioning the model as a participant whose goal pursuit reduces safety attention and induces it to answer the reconstructed malicious query. Extensive experiments on popular reasoning and non-reasoning MLLMs demonstrate that GAMBIT achieves high Attack Success Rates (ASR), reaching 92.13% on Gemini 2.5 Flash, 91.20% on QvQ-MAX, and 85.87% on GPT-4o, significantly outperforming baselines. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03416 [ pdf , ps , other ] GAMBIT: A Gamified Jailbreak Framework for Multimodal Large Language Models Authors: Xiangdong Hu , Yangyang Jiang , Qin Hu , Xiaojun Jia Abstract : Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have become widely deployed, yet their safety alignment remains fragile under adversarial inputs. Previous work has shown that increasing inference steps can disrupt safety mechanisms and lead MLLMs to generate attacker-desired harmful content. However, most existing attacks focus on increasing the complexity of the modified visual task itself and do not ex… ▽ More Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have become widely deployed, yet their safety alignment remains fragile under adversarial inputs. Previous work has shown that increasing inference steps can disrupt safety mechanisms and lead MLLMs to generate attacker-desired harmful content. However, most existing attacks focus on increasing the complexity of the modified visual task itself and do not explicitly leverage the model's own reasoning incentives. This leads to them underperforming on reasoning models (Models with Chain-of-Thoughts) compared to non-reasoning ones (Models without Chain-of-Thoughts). If a model can think like a human, can we influence its cognitive-stage decisions so that it proactively completes a jailbreak? To validate this idea, we propose GAMBI} (Gamified Adversarial Multimodal Breakout via Instructional Traps), a novel multimodal jailbreak framework that decomposes and reassembles harmful visual semantics, then constructs a gamified scene that drives the model to explore, reconstruct intent, and answer as part of winning the game. The resulting structured reasoning chain increases task complexity in both vision and text, positioning the model as a participant whose goal pursuit reduces safety attention and induces it to answer the reconstructed malicious query. Extensive experiments on popular reasoning and non-reasoning MLLMs demonstrate that GAMBIT achieves high Attack Success Rates (ASR), reaching 92.13% on Gemini 2.5 Flash, 91.20% on QvQ-MAX, and 85.87% on GPT-4o, significantly outperforming baselines. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03267 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI OpenAI GPT-5 System Card Authors: Aaditya Singh , Adam Fry , Adam Perelman , Adam Tart , Adi Ganesh , Ahmed El-Kishky , Aidan McLaughlin , Aiden Low , AJ Ostrow , Akhila Ananthram , Akshay Nathan , Alan Luo , Alec Helyar , Aleksander Madry , Aleksandr Efremov , Aleksandra Spyra , Alex Baker-Whitcomb , Alex Beutel , Alex Karpenko , Alex Makelov , Alex Neitz , Alex Wei , Alexandra Barr , Alexandre Kirchmeyer , Alexey Ivanov , et al. (459 additional authors not shown) Abstract : This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in… ▽ More This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in the prompt). The router is continuously trained on real signals, including when users switch models, preference rates for responses, and measured correctness, improving over time. Once usage limits are reached, a mini version of each model handles remaining queries. This system card focuses primarily on gpt-5-thinking and gpt-5-main, while evaluations for other models are available in the appendix. The GPT-5 system not only outperforms previous models on benchmarks and answers questions more quickly, but -- more importantly -- is more useful for real-world queries. We've made significant advances in reducing hallucinations, improving instruction following, and minimizing sycophancy, and have leveled up GPT-5's performance in three of ChatGPT's most common uses: writing, coding, and health. All of the GPT-5 models additionally feature safe-completions, our latest approach to safety training to prevent disallowed content. Similarly to ChatGPT agent, we have decided to treat gpt-5-thinking as High capability in the Biological and Chemical domain under our Preparedness Framework, activating the associated safeguards. While we do not have definitive evidence that this model could meaningfully help a novice to create severe biological harm -- our defined threshold for High capability -- we have chosen to take a precautionary approach. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03267 [ pdf , ps , other ] OpenAI GPT-5 System Card Authors: Aaditya Singh , Adam Fry , Adam Perelman , Adam Tart , Adi Ganesh , Ahmed El-Kishky , Aidan McLaughlin , Aiden Low , AJ Ostrow , Akhila Ananthram , Akshay Nathan , Alan Luo , Alec Helyar , Aleksander Madry , Aleksandr Efremov , Aleksandra Spyra , Alex Baker-Whitcomb , Alex Beutel , Alex Karpenko , Alex Makelov , Alex Neitz , Alex Wei , Alexandra Barr , Alexandre Kirchmeyer , Alexey Ivanov , et al. (459 additional authors not shown) Abstract : This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in… ▽ More This is the system card published alongside the OpenAI GPT-5 launch, August 2025. GPT-5 is a unified system with a smart and fast model that answers most questions, a deeper reasoning model for harder problems, and a real-time router that quickly decides which model to use based on conversation type, complexity, tool needs, and explicit intent (for example, if you say 'think hard about this' in the prompt). The router is continuously trained on real signals, including when users switch models, preference rates for responses, and measured correctness, improving over time. Once usage limits are reached, a mini version of each model handles remaining queries. This system card focuses primarily on gpt-5-thinking and gpt-5-main, while evaluations for other models are available in the appendix. The GPT-5 system not only outperforms previous models on benchmarks and answers questions more quickly, but -- more importantly -- is more useful for real-world queries. We've made significant advances in reducing hallucinations, improving instruction following, and minimizing sycophancy, and have leveled up GPT-5's performance in three of ChatGPT's most common uses: writing, coding, and health. All of the GPT-5 models additionally feature safe-completions, our latest approach to safety training to prevent disallowed content. Similarly to ChatGPT agent, we have decided to treat gpt-5-thinking as High capability in the Biological and Chemical domain under our Preparedness Framework, activating the associated safeguards. While we do not have definitive evidence that this model could meaningfully help a novice to create severe biological harm -- our defined threshold for High capability -- we have chosen to take a precautionary approach. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03220 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG stat.ML From Entropy to Epiplexity: Rethinking Information for Computationally Bounded Intelligence Authors: Marc Finzi , Shikai Qiu , Yiding Jiang , Pavel Izmailov , J. Zico Kolter , Andrew Gordon Wilson Abstract : Can we learn more from data than existed in the generating process itself? Can new and useful information be constructed from merely applying deterministic transformations to existing data? Can the learnable content in data be evaluated without considering a downstream task? On these questions, Shannon information and Kolmogorov complexity come up nearly empty-handed, in part because they assume o… ▽ More Can we learn more from data than existed in the generating process itself? Can new and useful information be constructed from merely applying deterministic transformations to existing data? Can the learnable content in data be evaluated without considering a downstream task? On these questions, Shannon information and Kolmogorov complexity come up nearly empty-handed, in part because they assume observers with unlimited computational capacity and fail to target the useful information content. In this work, we identify and exemplify three seeming paradoxes in information theory: (1) information cannot be increased by deterministic transformations; (2) information is independent of the order of data; (3) likelihood modeling is merely distribution matching. To shed light on the tension between these results and modern practice, and to quantify the value of data, we introduce epiplexity, a formalization of information capturing what computationally bounded observers can learn from data. Epiplexity captures the structural content in data while excluding time-bounded entropy, the random unpredictable content exemplified by pseudorandom number generators and chaotic dynamical systems. With these concepts, we demonstrate how information can be created with computation, how it depends on the ordering of the data, and how likelihood modeling can produce more complex programs than present in the data generating process itself. We also present practical procedures to estimate epiplexity which we show capture differences across data sources, track with downstream performance, and highlight dataset interventions that improve out-of-distribution generalization. In contrast to principles of model selection, epiplexity provides a theoretical foundation for data selection, guiding how to select, generate, or transform data for learning systems. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03220 [ pdf , ps , other ] From Entropy to Epiplexity: Rethinking Information for Computationally Bounded Intelligence Authors: Marc Finzi , Shikai Qiu , Yiding Jiang , Pavel Izmailov , J. Zico Kolter , Andrew Gordon Wilson Abstract : Can we learn more from data than existed in the generating process itself? Can new and useful information be constructed from merely applying deterministic transformations to existing data? Can the learnable content in data be evaluated without considering a downstream task? On these questions, Shannon information and Kolmogorov complexity come up nearly empty-handed, in part because they assume o… ▽ More Can we learn more from data than existed in the generating process itself? Can new and useful information be constructed from merely applying deterministic transformations to existing data? Can the learnable content in data be evaluated without considering a downstream task? On these questions, Shannon information and Kolmogorov complexity come up nearly empty-handed, in part because they assume observers with unlimited computational capacity and fail to target the useful information content. In this work, we identify and exemplify three seeming paradoxes in information theory: (1) information cannot be increased by deterministic transformations; (2) information is independent of the order of data; (3) likelihood modeling is merely distribution matching. To shed light on the tension between these results and modern practice, and to quantify the value of data, we introduce epiplexity, a formalization of information capturing what computationally bounded observers can learn from data. Epiplexity captures the structural content in data while excluding time-bounded entropy, the random unpredictable content exemplified by pseudorandom number generators and chaotic dynamical systems. With these concepts, we demonstrate how information can be created with computation, how it depends on the ordering of the data, and how likelihood modeling can produce more complex programs than present in the data generating process itself. We also present practical procedures to estimate epiplexity which we show capture differences across data sources, track with downstream performance, and highlight dataset interventions that improve out-of-distribution generalization. In contrast to principles of model selection, epiplexity provides a theoretical foundation for data selection, guiding how to select, generate, or transform data for learning systems. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03164 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL WebAnchor: Anchoring Agent Planning to Stabilize Long-Horizon Web Reasoning Authors: Xinmiao Yu , Liwen Zhang , Xiaocheng Feng , Yong Jiang , Bing Qin , Pengjun Xie , Jingren Zhou Abstract : Large Language Model(LLM)-based agents have shown strong capabilities in web information seeking, with reinforcement learning (RL) becoming a key optimization paradigm. However, planning remains a bottleneck, as existing methods struggle with long-horizon strategies. Our analysis reveals a critical phenomenon, plan anchor, where the first reasoning step disproportionately impacts downstream behavi… ▽ More Large Language Model(LLM)-based agents have shown strong capabilities in web information seeking, with reinforcement learning (RL) becoming a key optimization paradigm. However, planning remains a bottleneck, as existing methods struggle with long-horizon strategies. Our analysis reveals a critical phenomenon, plan anchor, where the first reasoning step disproportionately impacts downstream behavior in long-horizon web reasoning tasks. Current RL algorithms, fail to account for this by uniformly distributing rewards across the trajectory. To address this, we propose Anchor-GRPO, a two-stage RL framework that decouples planning and execution. In Stage 1, the agent optimizes its first-step planning using fine-grained rubrics derived from self-play experiences and human calibration. In Stage 2, execution is aligned with the initial plan through sparse rewards, ensuring stable and efficient tool usage. We evaluate Anchor-GRPO on four benchmarks: BrowseComp, BrowseComp-Zh, GAIA, and XBench-DeepSearch. Across models from 3B to 30B, Anchor-GRPO outperforms baseline GRPO and First-step GRPO, improving task success and tool efficiency. Notably, WebAnchor-30B achieves 46.0% pass@1 on BrowseComp and 76.4% on GAIA. Anchor-GRPO also demonstrates strong scalability, getting higher accuracy as model size and context length increase. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03164 [ pdf , ps , other ] WebAnchor: Anchoring Agent Planning to Stabilize Long-Horizon Web Reasoning Authors: Xinmiao Yu , Liwen Zhang , Xiaocheng Feng , Yong Jiang , Bing Qin , Pengjun Xie , Jingren Zhou Abstract : Large Language Model(LLM)-based agents have shown strong capabilities in web information seeking, with reinforcement learning (RL) becoming a key optimization paradigm. However, planning remains a bottleneck, as existing methods struggle with long-horizon strategies. Our analysis reveals a critical phenomenon, plan anchor, where the first reasoning step disproportionately impacts downstream behavi… ▽ More Large Language Model(LLM)-based agents have shown strong capabilities in web information seeking, with reinforcement learning (RL) becoming a key optimization paradigm. However, planning remains a bottleneck, as existing methods struggle with long-horizon strategies. Our analysis reveals a critical phenomenon, plan anchor, where the first reasoning step disproportionately impacts downstream behavior in long-horizon web reasoning tasks. Current RL algorithms, fail to account for this by uniformly distributing rewards across the trajectory. To address this, we propose Anchor-GRPO, a two-stage RL framework that decouples planning and execution. In Stage 1, the agent optimizes its first-step planning using fine-grained rubrics derived from self-play experiences and human calibration. In Stage 2, execution is aligned with the initial plan through sparse rewards, ensuring stable and efficient tool usage. We evaluate Anchor-GRPO on four benchmarks: BrowseComp, BrowseComp-Zh, GAIA, and XBench-DeepSearch. Across models from 3B to 30B, Anchor-GRPO outperforms baseline GRPO and First-step GRPO, improving task success and tool efficiency. Notably, WebAnchor-30B achieves 46.0% pass@1 on BrowseComp and 76.4% on GAIA. Anchor-GRPO also demonstrates strong scalability, getting higher accuracy as model size and context length increase. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03153 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Parallel Latent Reasoning for Sequential Recommendation Authors: Jiakai Tang , Xu Chen , Wen Chen , Jian Wu , Yuning Jiang , Bo Zheng Abstract : Capturing complex user preferences from sparse behavioral sequences remains a fundamental challenge in sequential recommendation. Recent latent reasoning methods have shown promise by extending test-time computation through multi-step reasoning, yet they exclusively rely on depth-level scaling along a single trajectory, suffering from diminishing returns as reasoning depth increases. To address th… ▽ More Capturing complex user preferences from sparse behavioral sequences remains a fundamental challenge in sequential recommendation. Recent latent reasoning methods have shown promise by extending test-time computation through multi-step reasoning, yet they exclusively rely on depth-level scaling along a single trajectory, suffering from diminishing returns as reasoning depth increases. To address this limitation, we propose \textbf{Parallel Latent Reasoning (PLR)}, a novel framework that pioneers width-level computational scaling by exploring multiple diverse reasoning trajectories simultaneously. PLR constructs parallel reasoning streams through learnable trigger tokens in continuous latent space, preserves diversity across streams via global reasoning regularization, and adaptively synthesizes multi-stream outputs through mixture-of-reasoning-streams aggregation. Extensive experiments on three real-world datasets demonstrate that PLR substantially outperforms state-of-the-art baselines while maintaining real-time inference efficiency. Theoretical analysis further validates the effectiveness of parallel reasoning in improving generalization capability. Our work opens new avenues for enhancing reasoning capacity in sequential recommendation beyond existing depth scaling. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03153 [ pdf , ps , other ] Parallel Latent Reasoning for Sequential Recommendation Authors: Jiakai Tang , Xu Chen , Wen Chen , Jian Wu , Yuning Jiang , Bo Zheng Abstract : Capturing complex user preferences from sparse behavioral sequences remains a fundamental challenge in sequential recommendation. Recent latent reasoning methods have shown promise by extending test-time computation through multi-step reasoning, yet they exclusively rely on depth-level scaling along a single trajectory, suffering from diminishing returns as reasoning depth increases. To address th… ▽ More Capturing complex user preferences from sparse behavioral sequences remains a fundamental challenge in sequential recommendation. Recent latent reasoning methods have shown promise by extending test-time computation through multi-step reasoning, yet they exclusively rely on depth-level scaling along a single trajectory, suffering from diminishing returns as reasoning depth increases. To address this limitation, we propose \textbf{Parallel Latent Reasoning (PLR)}, a novel framework that pioneers width-level computational scaling by exploring multiple diverse reasoning trajectories simultaneously. PLR constructs parallel reasoning streams through learnable trigger tokens in continuous latent space, preserves diversity across streams via global reasoning regularization, and adaptively synthesizes multi-stream outputs through mixture-of-reasoning-streams aggregation. Extensive experiments on three real-world datasets demonstrate that PLR substantially outperforms state-of-the-art baselines while maintaining real-time inference efficiency. Theoretical analysis further validates the effectiveness of parallel reasoning in improving generalization capability. Our work opens new avenues for enhancing reasoning capacity in sequential recommendation beyond existing depth scaling. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03137 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB cs.CL Accurate Table Question Answering with Accessible LLMs Authors: Yangfan Jiang , Fei Wei , Ergute Bao , Yaliang Li , Bolin Ding , Yin Yang , Xiaokui Xiao Abstract : Given a table T in a database and a question Q in natural language, the table question answering (TQA) task aims to return an accurate answer to Q based on the content of T. Recent state-of-the-art solutions leverage large language models (LLMs) to obtain high-quality answers. However, most rely on proprietary, large-scale LLMs with costly API access, posing a significant financial barrier. This p… ▽ More Given a table T in a database and a question Q in natural language, the table question answering (TQA) task aims to return an accurate answer to Q based on the content of T. Recent state-of-the-art solutions leverage large language models (LLMs) to obtain high-quality answers. However, most rely on proprietary, large-scale LLMs with costly API access, posing a significant financial barrier. This paper instead focuses on TQA with smaller, open-weight LLMs that can run on a desktop or laptop. This setting is challenging, as such LLMs typically have weaker capabilities than large proprietary models, leading to substantial performance degradation with existing methods. We observe that a key reason for this degradation is that prior approaches often require the LLM to solve a highly sophisticated task using long, complex prompts, which exceed the capabilities of small open-weight LLMs. Motivated by this observation, we present Orchestra, a multi-agent approach that unlocks the potential of accessible LLMs for high-quality, cost-effective TQA. Orchestra coordinates a group of LLM agents, each responsible for a relatively simple task, through a structured, layered workflow to solve complex TQA problems -- akin to an orchestra. By reducing the prompt complexity faced by each agent, Orchestra significantly improves output reliability. We implement Orchestra on top of AgentScope, an open-source multi-agent framework, and evaluate it on multiple TQA benchmarks using a wide range of open-weight LLMs. Experimental results show that Orchestra achieves strong performance even with small- to medium-sized models. For example, with Qwen2.5-14B, Orchestra reaches 72.1% accuracy on WikiTQ, approaching the best prior result of 75.3% achieved with GPT-4; with larger Qwen, Llama, or DeepSeek models, Orchestra outperforms all prior methods and establishes new state-of-the-art results across all benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: accepted for publication in the Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE) 2026 arXiv:2601.03137 [ pdf , ps , other ] Accurate Table Question Answering with Accessible LLMs Authors: Yangfan Jiang , Fei Wei , Ergute Bao , Yaliang Li , Bolin Ding , Yin Yang , Xiaokui Xiao Abstract : Given a table T in a database and a question Q in natural language, the table question answering (TQA) task aims to return an accurate answer to Q based on the content of T. Recent state-of-the-art solutions leverage large language models (LLMs) to obtain high-quality answers. However, most rely on proprietary, large-scale LLMs with costly API access, posing a significant financial barrier. This p… ▽ More Given a table T in a database and a question Q in natural language, the table question answering (TQA) task aims to return an accurate answer to Q based on the content of T. Recent state-of-the-art solutions leverage large language models (LLMs) to obtain high-quality answers. However, most rely on proprietary, large-scale LLMs with costly API access, posing a significant financial barrier. This paper instead focuses on TQA with smaller, open-weight LLMs that can run on a desktop or laptop. This setting is challenging, as such LLMs typically have weaker capabilities than large proprietary models, leading to substantial performance degradation with existing methods. We observe that a key reason for this degradation is that prior approaches often require the LLM to solve a highly sophisticated task using long, complex prompts, which exceed the capabilities of small open-weight LLMs. Motivated by this observation, we present Orchestra, a multi-agent approach that unlocks the potential of accessible LLMs for high-quality, cost-effective TQA. Orchestra coordinates a group of LLM agents, each responsible for a relatively simple task, through a structured, layered workflow to solve complex TQA problems -- akin to an orchestra. By reducing the prompt complexity faced by each agent, Orchestra significantly improves output reliability. We implement Orchestra on top of AgentScope, an open-source multi-agent framework, and evaluate it on multiple TQA benchmarks using a wide range of open-weight LLMs. Experimental results show that Orchestra achieves strong performance even with small- to medium-sized models. For example, with Qwen2.5-14B, Orchestra reaches 72.1% accuracy on WikiTQ, approaching the best prior result of 75.3% achieved with GPT-4; with larger Qwen, Llama, or DeepSeek models, Orchestra outperforms all prior methods and establishes new state-of-the-art results across all benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: accepted for publication in the Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Data Engineering (ICDE) 2026 arXiv:2601.03054 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI IBISAgent: Reinforcing Pixel-Level Visual Reasoning in MLLMs for Universal Biomedical Object Referring and Segmentation Authors: Yankai Jiang , Qiaoru Li , Binlu Xu , Haoran Sun , Chao Ding , Junting Dong , Yuxiang Cai , Xuhong Zhang , Jianwei Yin Abstract : Recent research on medical MLLMs has gradually shifted its focus from image-level understanding to fine-grained, pixel-level comprehension. Although segmentation serves as the foundation for pixel-level understanding, existing approaches face two major challenges. First, they introduce implicit segmentation tokens and require simultaneous fine-tuning of both the MLLM and external pixel decoders, w… ▽ More Recent research on medical MLLMs has gradually shifted its focus from image-level understanding to fine-grained, pixel-level comprehension. Although segmentation serves as the foundation for pixel-level understanding, existing approaches face two major challenges. First, they introduce implicit segmentation tokens and require simultaneous fine-tuning of both the MLLM and external pixel decoders, which increases the risk of catastrophic forgetting and limits generalization to out-of-domain scenarios. Second, most methods rely on single-pass reasoning and lack the capability to iteratively refine segmentation results, leading to suboptimal performance. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel agentic MLLM, named IBISAgent, that reformulates segmentation as a vision-centric, multi-step decision-making process. IBISAgent enables MLLMs to generate interleaved reasoning and text-based click actions, invoke segmentation tools, and produce high-quality masks without architectural modifications. By iteratively performing multi-step visual reasoning on masked image features, IBISAgent naturally supports mask refinement and promotes the development of pixel-level visual reasoning capabilities. We further design a two-stage training framework consisting of cold-start supervised fine-tuning and agentic reinforcement learning with tailored, fine-grained rewards, enhancing the model's robustness in complex medical referring and reasoning segmentation tasks. Extensive experiments demonstrate that IBISAgent consistently outperforms both closed-source and open-source SOTA methods. All datasets, code, and trained models will be released publicly. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03054 [ pdf , ps , other ] IBISAgent: Reinforcing Pixel-Level Visual Reasoning in MLLMs for Universal Biomedical Object Referring and Segmentation Authors: Yankai Jiang , Qiaoru Li , Binlu Xu , Haoran Sun , Chao Ding , Junting Dong , Yuxiang Cai , Xuhong Zhang , Jianwei Yin Abstract : Recent research on medical MLLMs has gradually shifted its focus from image-level understanding to fine-grained, pixel-level comprehension. Although segmentation serves as the foundation for pixel-level understanding, existing approaches face two major challenges. First, they introduce implicit segmentation tokens and require simultaneous fine-tuning of both the MLLM and external pixel decoders, w… ▽ More Recent research on medical MLLMs has gradually shifted its focus from image-level understanding to fine-grained, pixel-level comprehension. Although segmentation serves as the foundation for pixel-level understanding, existing approaches face two major challenges. First, they introduce implicit segmentation tokens and require simultaneous fine-tuning of both the MLLM and external pixel decoders, which increases the risk of catastrophic forgetting and limits generalization to out-of-domain scenarios. Second, most methods rely on single-pass reasoning and lack the capability to iteratively refine segmentation results, leading to suboptimal performance. To overcome these limitations, we propose a novel agentic MLLM, named IBISAgent, that reformulates segmentation as a vision-centric, multi-step decision-making process. IBISAgent enables MLLMs to generate interleaved reasoning and text-based click actions, invoke segmentation tools, and produce high-quality masks without architectural modifications. By iteratively performing multi-step visual reasoning on masked image features, IBISAgent naturally supports mask refinement and promotes the development of pixel-level visual reasoning capabilities. We further design a two-stage training framework consisting of cold-start supervised fine-tuning and agentic reinforcement learning with tailored, fine-grained rewards, enhancing the model's robustness in complex medical referring and reasoning segmentation tasks. Extensive experiments demonstrate that IBISAgent consistently outperforms both closed-source and open-source SOTA methods. All datasets, code, and trained models will be released publicly. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02780 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI MiMo-V2-Flash Technical Report Authors: Xiaomi LLM-Core Team , : , Bangjun Xiao , Bingquan Xia , Bo Yang , Bofei Gao , Bowen Shen , Chen Zhang , Chenhong He , Chiheng Lou , Fuli Luo , Gang Wang , Gang Xie , Hailin Zhang , Hanglong Lv , Hanyu Li , Heyu Chen , Hongshen Xu , Houbin Zhang , Huaqiu Liu , Jiangshan Duo , Jianyu Wei , Jiebao Xiao , Jinhao Dong , Jun Shi , et al. (102 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tok… ▽ More We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tokens with Multi-Token Prediction (MTP), employing a native 32k context length and subsequently extended to 256k. To efficiently scale post-training compute, MiMo-V2-Flash introduces a novel Multi-Teacher On-Policy Distillation (MOPD) paradigm. In this framework, domain-specialized teachers (e.g., trained via large-scale reinforcement learning) provide dense and token-level reward, enabling the student model to perfectly master teacher expertise. MiMo-V2-Flash rivals top-tier open-weight models such as DeepSeek-V3.2 and Kimi-K2, despite using only 1/2 and 1/3 of their total parameters, respectively. During inference, by repurposing MTP as a draft model for speculative decoding, MiMo-V2-Flash achieves up to 3.6 acceptance length and 2.6x decoding speedup with three MTP layers. We open-source both the model weights and the three-layer MTP weights to foster open research and community collaboration. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 31 pages, technical report arXiv:2601.02780 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiMo-V2-Flash Technical Report Authors: Xiaomi LLM-Core Team , : , Bangjun Xiao , Bingquan Xia , Bo Yang , Bofei Gao , Bowen Shen , Chen Zhang , Chenhong He , Chiheng Lou , Fuli Luo , Gang Wang , Gang Xie , Hailin Zhang , Hanglong Lv , Hanyu Li , Heyu Chen , Hongshen Xu , Houbin Zhang , Huaqiu Liu , Jiangshan Duo , Jianyu Wei , Jiebao Xiao , Jinhao Dong , Jun Shi , et al. (102 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tok… ▽ More We present MiMo-V2-Flash, a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) model with 309B total parameters and 15B active parameters, designed for fast, strong reasoning and agentic capabilities. MiMo-V2-Flash adopts a hybrid attention architecture that interleaves Sliding Window Attention (SWA) with global attention, with a 128-token sliding window under a 5:1 hybrid ratio. The model is pre-trained on 27 trillion tokens with Multi-Token Prediction (MTP), employing a native 32k context length and subsequently extended to 256k. To efficiently scale post-training compute, MiMo-V2-Flash introduces a novel Multi-Teacher On-Policy Distillation (MOPD) paradigm. In this framework, domain-specialized teachers (e.g., trained via large-scale reinforcement learning) provide dense and token-level reward, enabling the student model to perfectly master teacher expertise. MiMo-V2-Flash rivals top-tier open-weight models such as DeepSeek-V3.2 and Kimi-K2, despite using only 1/2 and 1/3 of their total parameters, respectively. During inference, by repurposing MTP as a draft model for speculative decoding, MiMo-V2-Flash achieves up to 3.6 acceptance length and 2.6x decoding speedup with three MTP layers. We open-source both the model weights and the three-layer MTP weights to foster open research and community collaboration. △ Less Submitted 8 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: 31 pages, technical report arXiv:2601.02731 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.CV cs.MM Omni2Sound: Towards Unified Video-Text-to-Audio Generation Authors: Yusheng Dai , Zehua Chen , Yuxuan Jiang , Baolong Gao , Qiuhong Ke , Jun Zhu , Jianfei Cai Abstract : Training a unified model integrating video-to-audio (V2A), text-to-audio (T2A), and joint video-text-to-audio (VT2A) generation offers significant application flexibility, yet faces two unexplored foundational challenges: (1) the scarcity of high-quality audio captions with tight A-V-T alignment, leading to severe semantic conflict between multimodal conditions, and (2) cross-task and intra-task c… ▽ More Training a unified model integrating video-to-audio (V2A), text-to-audio (T2A), and joint video-text-to-audio (VT2A) generation offers significant application flexibility, yet faces two unexplored foundational challenges: (1) the scarcity of high-quality audio captions with tight A-V-T alignment, leading to severe semantic conflict between multimodal conditions, and (2) cross-task and intra-task competition, manifesting as an adverse V2A-T2A performance trade-off and modality bias in the VT2A task. First, to address data scarcity, we introduce SoundAtlas, a large-scale dataset (470k pairs) that significantly outperforms existing benchmarks and even human experts in quality. Powered by a novel agentic pipeline, it integrates Vision-to-Language Compression to mitigate visual bias of MLLMs, a Junior-Senior Agent Handoff for a 5 times cost reduction, and rigorous Post-hoc Filtering to ensure fidelity. Consequently, SoundAtlas delivers semantically rich and temporally detailed captions with tight V-A-T alignment. Second, we propose Omni2Sound, a unified VT2A diffusion model supporting flexible input modalities. To resolve the inherent cross-task and intra-task competition, we design a three-stage multi-task progressive training schedule that converts cross-task competition into joint optimization and mitigates modality bias in the VT2A task, maintaining both audio-visual alignment and off-screen audio generation faithfulness. Finally, we construct VGGSound-Omni, a comprehensive benchmark for unified evaluation, including challenging off-screen tracks. With a standard DiT backbone, Omni2Sound achieves unified SOTA performance across all three tasks within a single model, demonstrating strong generalization across benchmarks with heterogeneous input conditions. The project page is at △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02731 [ pdf , ps , other ] Omni2Sound: Towards Unified Video-Text-to-Audio Generation Authors: Yusheng Dai , Zehua Chen , Yuxuan Jiang , Baolong Gao , Qiuhong Ke , Jun Zhu , Jianfei Cai Abstract : Training a unified model integrating video-to-audio (V2A), text-to-audio (T2A), and joint video-text-to-audio (VT2A) generation offers significant application flexibility, yet faces two unexplored foundational challenges: (1) the scarcity of high-quality audio captions with tight A-V-T alignment, leading to severe semantic conflict between multimodal conditions, and (2) cross-task and intra-task c… ▽ More Training a unified model integrating video-to-audio (V2A), text-to-audio (T2A), and joint video-text-to-audio (VT2A) generation offers significant application flexibility, yet faces two unexplored foundational challenges: (1) the scarcity of high-quality audio captions with tight A-V-T alignment, leading to severe semantic conflict between multimodal conditions, and (2) cross-task and intra-task competition, manifesting as an adverse V2A-T2A performance trade-off and modality bias in the VT2A task. First, to address data scarcity, we introduce SoundAtlas, a large-scale dataset (470k pairs) that significantly outperforms existing benchmarks and even human experts in quality. Powered by a novel agentic pipeline, it integrates Vision-to-Language Compression to mitigate visual bias of MLLMs, a Junior-Senior Agent Handoff for a 5 times cost reduction, and rigorous Post-hoc Filtering to ensure fidelity. Consequently, SoundAtlas delivers semantically rich and temporally detailed captions with tight V-A-T alignment. Second, we propose Omni2Sound, a unified VT2A diffusion model supporting flexible input modalities. To resolve the inherent cross-task and intra-task competition, we design a three-stage multi-task progressive training schedule that converts cross-task competition into joint optimization and mitigates modality bias in the VT2A task, maintaining both audio-visual alignment and off-screen audio generation faithfulness. Finally, we construct VGGSound-Omni, a comprehensive benchmark for unified evaluation, including challenging off-screen tracks. With a standard DiT backbone, Omni2Sound achieves unified SOTA performance across all three tasks within a single model, demonstrating strong generalization across benchmarks with heterogeneous input conditions. The project page is at △ Less Submitted 11 January, 2026; v1 submitted 6 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02256 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG VAR RL Done Right: Tackling Asynchronous Policy Conflicts in Visual Autoregressive Generation Authors: Shikun Sun , Liao Qu , Huichao Zhang , Yiheng Liu , Yangyang Song , Xian Li , Xu Wang , Yi Jiang , Daniel K. Du , Xinglong Wu , Jia Jia Abstract : Visual generation is dominated by three paradigms: AutoRegressive (AR), diffusion, and Visual AutoRegressive (VAR) models. Unlike AR and diffusion, VARs operate on heterogeneous input structures across their generation steps, which creates severe asynchronous policy conflicts. This issue becomes particularly acute in reinforcement learning (RL) scenarios, leading to unstable training and suboptima… ▽ More Visual generation is dominated by three paradigms: AutoRegressive (AR), diffusion, and Visual AutoRegressive (VAR) models. Unlike AR and diffusion, VARs operate on heterogeneous input structures across their generation steps, which creates severe asynchronous policy conflicts. This issue becomes particularly acute in reinforcement learning (RL) scenarios, leading to unstable training and suboptimal alignment. To resolve this, we propose a novel framework to enhance Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) by explicitly managing these conflicts. Our method integrates three synergistic components: 1) a stabilizing intermediate reward to guide early-stage generation; 2) a dynamic time-step reweighting scheme for precise credit assignment; and 3) a novel mask propagation algorithm, derived from principles of Reward Feedback Learning (ReFL), designed to isolate optimization effects both spatially and temporally. Our approach demonstrates significant improvements in sample quality and objective alignment over the vanilla GRPO baseline, enabling robust and effective optimization for VAR models. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.02256 [ pdf , ps , other ] VAR RL Done Right: Tackling Asynchronous Policy Conflicts in Visual Autoregressive Generation Authors: Shikun Sun , Liao Qu , Huichao Zhang , Yiheng Liu , Yangyang Song , Xian Li , Xu Wang , Yi Jiang , Daniel K. Du , Xinglong Wu , Jia Jia Abstract : Visual generation is dominated by three paradigms: AutoRegressive (AR), diffusion, and Visual AutoRegressive (VAR) models. Unlike AR and diffusion, VARs operate on heterogeneous input structures across their generation steps, which creates severe asynchronous policy conflicts. This issue becomes particularly acute in reinforcement learning (RL) scenarios, leading to unstable training and suboptima… ▽ More Visual generation is dominated by three paradigms: AutoRegressive (AR), diffusion, and Visual AutoRegressive (VAR) models. Unlike AR and diffusion, VARs operate on heterogeneous input structures across their generation steps, which creates severe asynchronous policy conflicts. This issue becomes particularly acute in reinforcement learning (RL) scenarios, leading to unstable training and suboptimal alignment. To resolve this, we propose a novel framework to enhance Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) by explicitly managing these conflicts. Our method integrates three synergistic components: 1) a stabilizing intermediate reward to guide early-stage generation; 2) a dynamic time-step reweighting scheme for precise credit assignment; and 3) a novel mask propagation algorithm, derived from principles of Reward Feedback Learning (ReFL), designed to isolate optimization effects both spatially and temporally. Our approach demonstrates significant improvements in sample quality and objective alignment over the vanilla GRPO baseline, enabling robust and effective optimization for VAR models. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.02204 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI NextFlow: Unified Sequential Modeling Activates Multimodal Understanding and Generation Authors: Huichao Zhang , Liao Qu , Yiheng Liu , Hang Chen , Yangyang Song , Yongsheng Dong , Shikun Sun , Xian Li , Xu Wang , Yi Jiang , Hu Ye , Bo Chen , Yiming Gao , Peng Liu , Akide Liu , Zhipeng Yang , Qili Deng , Linjie Xing , Jiyang Liu , Zhao Wang , Yang Zhou , Mingcong Liu , Yi Zhang , Qian He , Xiwei Hu , et al. (11 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present NextFlow, a unified decoder-only autoregressive transformer trained on 6 trillion interleaved text-image discrete tokens. By leveraging a unified vision representation within a unified autoregressive architecture, NextFlow natively activates multimodal understanding and generation capabilities, unlocking abilities of image editing, interleaved content and video generation. Motivated by… ▽ More We present NextFlow, a unified decoder-only autoregressive transformer trained on 6 trillion interleaved text-image discrete tokens. By leveraging a unified vision representation within a unified autoregressive architecture, NextFlow natively activates multimodal understanding and generation capabilities, unlocking abilities of image editing, interleaved content and video generation. Motivated by the distinct nature of modalities - where text is strictly sequential and images are inherently hierarchical - we retain next-token prediction for text but adopt next-scale prediction for visual generation. This departs from traditional raster-scan methods, enabling the generation of 1024x1024 images in just 5 seconds - orders of magnitude faster than comparable AR models. We address the instabilities of multi-scale generation through a robust training recipe. Furthermore, we introduce a prefix-tuning strategy for reinforcement learning. Experiments demonstrate that NextFlow achieves state-of-the-art performance among unified models and rivals specialized diffusion baselines in visual quality. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.02204 [ pdf , ps , other ] NextFlow: Unified Sequential Modeling Activates Multimodal Understanding and Generation Authors: Huichao Zhang , Liao Qu , Yiheng Liu , Hang Chen , Yangyang Song , Yongsheng Dong , Shikun Sun , Xian Li , Xu Wang , Yi Jiang , Hu Ye , Bo Chen , Yiming Gao , Peng Liu , Akide Liu , Zhipeng Yang , Qili Deng , Linjie Xing , Jiyang Liu , Zhao Wang , Yang Zhou , Mingcong Liu , Yi Zhang , Qian He , Xiwei Hu , et al. (11 additional authors not shown) Abstract : We present NextFlow, a unified decoder-only autoregressive transformer trained on 6 trillion interleaved text-image discrete tokens. By leveraging a unified vision representation within a unified autoregressive architecture, NextFlow natively activates multimodal understanding and generation capabilities, unlocking abilities of image editing, interleaved content and video generation. Motivated by… ▽ More We present NextFlow, a unified decoder-only autoregressive transformer trained on 6 trillion interleaved text-image discrete tokens. By leveraging a unified vision representation within a unified autoregressive architecture, NextFlow natively activates multimodal understanding and generation capabilities, unlocking abilities of image editing, interleaved content and video generation. Motivated by the distinct nature of modalities - where text is strictly sequential and images are inherently hierarchical - we retain next-token prediction for text but adopt next-scale prediction for visual generation. This departs from traditional raster-scan methods, enabling the generation of 1024x1024 images in just 5 seconds - orders of magnitude faster than comparable AR models. We address the instabilities of multi-scale generation through a robust training recipe. Furthermore, we introduce a prefix-tuning strategy for reinforcement learning. Experiments demonstrate that NextFlow achieves state-of-the-art performance among unified models and rivals specialized diffusion baselines in visual quality. △ Less Submitted 5 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project page: arXiv:2601.01554 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SD cs.AI eess.AS MOSS Transcribe Diarize: Accurate Transcription with Speaker Diarization Authors: MOSI. AI , : , Donghua Yu , Zhengyuan Lin , Chen Yang , Yiyang Zhang , Hanfu Chen , Jingqi Chen , Ke Chen , Liwei Fan , Yi Jiang , Jie Zhu , Muchen Li , Wenxuan Wang , Yang Wang , Zhe Xu , Yitian Gong , Yuqian Zhang , Wenbo Zhang , Zhaoye Fei , Songlin Wang , Zhiyu Wu , Qinyuan Cheng , Shimin Li , Xipeng Qiu Abstract : Speaker-Attributed, Time-Stamped Transcription (SATS) aims to transcribe what is said and to precisely determine the timing of each speaker, which is particularly valuable for meeting transcription. Existing SATS systems rarely adopt an end-to-end formulation and are further constrained by limited context windows, weak long-range speaker memory, and the inability to output timestamps. To address t… ▽ More Speaker-Attributed, Time-Stamped Transcription (SATS) aims to transcribe what is said and to precisely determine the timing of each speaker, which is particularly valuable for meeting transcription. Existing SATS systems rarely adopt an end-to-end formulation and are further constrained by limited context windows, weak long-range speaker memory, and the inability to output timestamps. To address these limitations, we present MOSS Transcribe Diarize, a unified multimodal large language model that jointly performs Speaker-Attributed, Time-Stamped Transcription in an end-to-end paradigm. Trained on extensive real wild data and equipped with a 128k context window for up to 90-minute inputs, MOSS Transcribe Diarize scales well and generalizes robustly. Across comprehensive evaluations, it outperforms state-of-the-art commercial systems on multiple public and in-house benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01554 [ pdf , ps , other ] MOSS Transcribe Diarize: Accurate Transcription with Speaker Diarization Authors: MOSI. AI , : , Donghua Yu , Zhengyuan Lin , Chen Yang , Yiyang Zhang , Hanfu Chen , Jingqi Chen , Ke Chen , Liwei Fan , Yi Jiang , Jie Zhu , Muchen Li , Wenxuan Wang , Yang Wang , Zhe Xu , Yitian Gong , Yuqian Zhang , Wenbo Zhang , Zhaoye Fei , Songlin Wang , Zhiyu Wu , Qinyuan Cheng , Shimin Li , Xipeng Qiu Abstract : Speaker-Attributed, Time-Stamped Transcription (SATS) aims to transcribe what is said and to precisely determine the timing of each speaker, which is particularly valuable for meeting transcription. Existing SATS systems rarely adopt an end-to-end formulation and are further constrained by limited context windows, weak long-range speaker memory, and the inability to output timestamps. To address t… ▽ More Speaker-Attributed, Time-Stamped Transcription (SATS) aims to transcribe what is said and to precisely determine the timing of each speaker, which is particularly valuable for meeting transcription. Existing SATS systems rarely adopt an end-to-end formulation and are further constrained by limited context windows, weak long-range speaker memory, and the inability to output timestamps. To address these limitations, we present MOSS Transcribe Diarize, a unified multimodal large language model that jointly performs Speaker-Attributed, Time-Stamped Transcription in an end-to-end paradigm. Trained on extensive real wild data and equipped with a 128k context window for up to 90-minute inputs, MOSS Transcribe Diarize scales well and generalizes robustly. Across comprehensive evaluations, it outperforms state-of-the-art commercial systems on multiple public and in-house benchmarks. △ Less Submitted 13 January, 2026; v1 submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01426 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE cs.CL SWE-Lego: Pushing the Limits of Supervised Fine-tuning for Software Issue Resolving Authors: Chaofan Tao , Jierun Chen , Yuxin Jiang , Kaiqi Kou , Shaowei Wang , Ruoyu Wang , Xiaohui Li , Sidi Yang , Yiming Du , Jianbo Dai , Zhiming Mao , Xinyu Wang , Lifeng Shang , Haoli Bai Abstract : We present SWE-Lego, a supervised fine-tuning (SFT) recipe designed to achieve state-ofthe-art performance in software engineering (SWE) issue resolving. In contrast to prevalent methods that rely on complex training paradigms (e.g., mid-training, SFT, reinforcement learning, and their combinations), we explore how to push the limits of a lightweight SFT-only approach for SWE tasks. SWE-Lego compr… ▽ More We present SWE-Lego, a supervised fine-tuning (SFT) recipe designed to achieve state-ofthe-art performance in software engineering (SWE) issue resolving. In contrast to prevalent methods that rely on complex training paradigms (e.g., mid-training, SFT, reinforcement learning, and their combinations), we explore how to push the limits of a lightweight SFT-only approach for SWE tasks. SWE-Lego comprises three core building blocks, with key findings summarized as follows: 1) the SWE-Lego dataset, a collection of 32k highquality task instances and 18k validated trajectories, combining real and synthetic data to complement each other in both quality and quantity; 2) a refined SFT procedure with error masking and a difficulty-based curriculum, which demonstrably improves action quality and overall performance. Empirical results show that with these two building bricks alone,the SFT can push SWE-Lego models to state-of-the-art performance among open-source models of comparable size on SWE-bench Verified: SWE-Lego-Qwen3-8B reaches 42.2%, and SWE-Lego-Qwen3-32B attains 52.6%. 3) We further evaluate and improve test-time scaling (TTS) built upon the SFT foundation. Based on a well-trained verifier, SWE-Lego models can be significantly boosted--for example, 42.2% to 49.6% and 52.6% to 58.8% under TTS@16 for the 8B and 32B models, respectively. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project website: arXiv:2601.01426 [ pdf , ps , other ] SWE-Lego: Pushing the Limits of Supervised Fine-tuning for Software Issue Resolving Authors: Chaofan Tao , Jierun Chen , Yuxin Jiang , Kaiqi Kou , Shaowei Wang , Ruoyu Wang , Xiaohui Li , Sidi Yang , Yiming Du , Jianbo Dai , Zhiming Mao , Xinyu Wang , Lifeng Shang , Haoli Bai Abstract : We present SWE-Lego, a supervised fine-tuning (SFT) recipe designed to achieve state-ofthe-art performance in software engineering (SWE) issue resolving. In contrast to prevalent methods that rely on complex training paradigms (e.g., mid-training, SFT, reinforcement learning, and their combinations), we explore how to push the limits of a lightweight SFT-only approach for SWE tasks. SWE-Lego compr… ▽ More We present SWE-Lego, a supervised fine-tuning (SFT) recipe designed to achieve state-ofthe-art performance in software engineering (SWE) issue resolving. In contrast to prevalent methods that rely on complex training paradigms (e.g., mid-training, SFT, reinforcement learning, and their combinations), we explore how to push the limits of a lightweight SFT-only approach for SWE tasks. SWE-Lego comprises three core building blocks, with key findings summarized as follows: 1) the SWE-Lego dataset, a collection of 32k highquality task instances and 18k validated trajectories, combining real and synthetic data to complement each other in both quality and quantity; 2) a refined SFT procedure with error masking and a difficulty-based curriculum, which demonstrably improves action quality and overall performance. Empirical results show that with these two building bricks alone,the SFT can push SWE-Lego models to state-of-the-art performance among open-source models of comparable size on SWE-bench Verified: SWE-Lego-Qwen3-8B reaches 42.2%, and SWE-Lego-Qwen3-32B attains 52.6%. 3) We further evaluate and improve test-time scaling (TTS) built upon the SFT foundation. Based on a well-trained verifier, SWE-Lego models can be significantly boosted--for example, 42.2% to 49.6% and 52.6% to 58.8% under TTS@16 for the 8B and 32B models, respectively. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; v1 submitted 4 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Project website: arXiv:2601.01209 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DC cs.NI OrchestrRL: Dynamic Compute and Network Orchestration for Disaggregated RL Authors: Xin Tan , Yicheng Feng , Yu Zhou , Yimin Jiang , Yibo Zhu , Hong Xu Abstract : Post-training with reinforcement learning (RL) has greatly enhanced the capabilities of large language models. Disaggregating the generation and training stages in RL into a parallel, asynchronous pipeline offers the potential for flexible scaling and improved throughput. However, it still faces two critical challenges. First, the generation stage often becomes a bottleneck due to dynamic workload… ▽ More Post-training with reinforcement learning (RL) has greatly enhanced the capabilities of large language models. Disaggregating the generation and training stages in RL into a parallel, asynchronous pipeline offers the potential for flexible scaling and improved throughput. However, it still faces two critical challenges. First, the generation stage often becomes a bottleneck due to dynamic workload shifts and severe execution imbalances. Second, the decoupled stages result in diverse and dynamic network traffic patterns that overwhelm conventional network fabrics. This paper introduces OrchestrRL, an orchestration framework that dynamically manages compute and network rhythms in disaggregated RL. To improve generation efficiency, OrchestrRL employs an adaptive compute scheduler that dynamically adjusts parallelism to match workload characteristics within and across generation steps. This accelerates execution while continuously rebalancing requests to mitigate stragglers. To address the dynamic network demands inherent in disaggregated RL -- further intensified by parallelism switching -- we co-design RFabric, a reconfigurable hybrid optical-electrical fabric. RFabric leverages optical circuit switches at selected network tiers to reconfigure the topology in real time, enabling workload-aware circuits for (i) layer-wise collective communication during training iterations, (ii) generation under different parallelism configurations, and (iii) periodic inter-cluster weight synchronization. We evaluate OrchestrRL on a physical testbed with 48 H800 GPUs, demonstrating up to a 1.40x throughput improvement. Furthermore, we develop RLSim, a high-fidelity simulator, to evaluate RFabric at scale. Our results show that RFabric achieves superior performance-cost efficiency compared to static Fat-Tree networks, establishing it as a highly effective solution for large-scale RL workloads. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01209 [ pdf , ps , other ] OrchestrRL: Dynamic Compute and Network Orchestration for Disaggregated RL Authors: Xin Tan , Yicheng Feng , Yu Zhou , Yimin Jiang , Yibo Zhu , Hong Xu Abstract : Post-training with reinforcement learning (RL) has greatly enhanced the capabilities of large language models. Disaggregating the generation and training stages in RL into a parallel, asynchronous pipeline offers the potential for flexible scaling and improved throughput. However, it still faces two critical challenges. First, the generation stage often becomes a bottleneck due to dynamic workload… ▽ More Post-training with reinforcement learning (RL) has greatly enhanced the capabilities of large language models. Disaggregating the generation and training stages in RL into a parallel, asynchronous pipeline offers the potential for flexible scaling and improved throughput. However, it still faces two critical challenges. First, the generation stage often becomes a bottleneck due to dynamic workload shifts and severe execution imbalances. Second, the decoupled stages result in diverse and dynamic network traffic patterns that overwhelm conventional network fabrics. This paper introduces OrchestrRL, an orchestration framework that dynamically manages compute and network rhythms in disaggregated RL. To improve generation efficiency, OrchestrRL employs an adaptive compute scheduler that dynamically adjusts parallelism to match workload characteristics within and across generation steps. This accelerates execution while continuously rebalancing requests to mitigate stragglers. To address the dynamic network demands inherent in disaggregated RL -- further intensified by parallelism switching -- we co-design RFabric, a reconfigurable hybrid optical-electrical fabric. RFabric leverages optical circuit switches at selected network tiers to reconfigure the topology in real time, enabling workload-aware circuits for (i) layer-wise collective communication during training iterations, (ii) generation under different parallelism configurations, and (iii) periodic inter-cluster weight synchronization. We evaluate OrchestrRL on a physical testbed with 48 H800 GPUs, demonstrating up to a 1.40x throughput improvement. Furthermore, we develop RLSim, a high-fidelity simulator, to evaluate RFabric at scale. Our results show that RFabric achieves superior performance-cost efficiency compared to static Fat-Tree networks, establishing it as a highly effective solution for large-scale RL workloads. △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.01042 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.SE SeRe: A Security-Related Code Review Dataset Aligned with Real-World Review Activities Authors: Zixiao Zhao , Yanjie Jiang , Hui Liu , Kui Liu , Lu Zhang Abstract : Software security vulnerabilities can lead to severe consequences, making early detection essential. Although code review serves as a critical defense mechanism against security flaws, relevant feedback remains scarce due to limited attention to security issues or a lack of expertise among reviewers. Existing datasets and studies primarily focus on general-purpose code review comments, either lack… ▽ More Software security vulnerabilities can lead to severe consequences, making early detection essential. Although code review serves as a critical defense mechanism against security flaws, relevant feedback remains scarce due to limited attention to security issues or a lack of expertise among reviewers. Existing datasets and studies primarily focus on general-purpose code review comments, either lacking security-specific annotations or being too limited in scale to support large-scale research. To bridge this gap, we introduce \textbf{SeRe}, a \textbf{security-related code review dataset}, constructed using an active learning-based ensemble classification approach. The proposed approach iteratively refines model predictions through human annotations, achieving high precision while maintaining reasonable recall. Using the fine-tuned ensemble classifier, we extracted 6,732 security-related reviews from 373,824 raw review instances, ensuring representativeness across multiple programming languages. Statistical analysis indicates that SeRe generally \textbf{aligns with real-world security-related review distribution}. To assess both the utility of SeRe and the effectiveness of existing code review comment generation approaches, we benchmark state-of-the-art approaches on security-related feedback generation. By releasing SeRe along with our benchmark results, we aim to advance research in automated security-focused code review and contribute to the development of more effective secure software engineering practices. △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by ICSE 2026 arXiv:2601.01042 [ pdf , ps , other ] SeRe: A Security-Related Code Review Dataset Aligned with Real-World Review Activities Authors: Zixiao Zhao , Yanjie Jiang , Hui Liu , Kui Liu , Lu Zhang Abstract : Software security vulnerabilities can lead to severe consequences, making early detection essential. Although code review serves as a critical defense mechanism against security flaws, relevant feedback remains scarce due to limited attention to security issues or a lack of expertise among reviewers. Existing datasets and studies primarily focus on general-purpose code review comments, either lack… ▽ More Software security vulnerabilities can lead to severe consequences, making early detection essential. Although code review serves as a critical defense mechanism against security flaws, relevant feedback remains scarce due to limited attention to security issues or a lack of expertise among reviewers. Existing datasets and studies primarily focus on general-purpose code review comments, either lacking security-specific annotations or being too limited in scale to support large-scale research. To bridge this gap, we introduce \textbf{SeRe}, a \textbf{security-related code review dataset}, constructed using an active learning-based ensemble classification approach. The proposed approach iteratively refines model predictions through human annotations, achieving high precision while maintaining reasonable recall. Using the fine-tuned ensemble classifier, we extracted 6,732 security-related reviews from 373,824 raw review instances, ensuring representativeness across multiple programming languages. Statistical analysis indicates that SeRe generally \textbf{aligns with real-world security-related review distribution}. To assess both the utility of SeRe and the effectiveness of existing code review comment generation approaches, we benchmark state-of-the-art approaches on security-related feedback generation. By releasing SeRe along with our benchmark results, we aim to advance research in automated security-focused code review and contribute to the development of more effective secure software engineering practices. △ Less Submitted 2 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by ICSE 2026 arXiv:2512.24847 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG physics.ao-ph AODDiff: Probabilistic Reconstruction of Aerosol Optical Depth via Diffusion-based Bayesian Inference Authors: Linhao Fan , Hongqiang Fang , Jingyang Dai , Yong Jiang , Qixing Zhang Abstract : High-quality reconstruction of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) fields is critical for Atmosphere monitoring, yet current models remain constrained by the scarcity of complete training data and a lack of uncertainty quantification.To address these limitations, we propose AODDiff, a probabilistic reconstruction framework based on diffusion-based Bayesian inference. By leveraging the learned spatiotempor… ▽ More High-quality reconstruction of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) fields is critical for Atmosphere monitoring, yet current models remain constrained by the scarcity of complete training data and a lack of uncertainty quantification.To address these limitations, we propose AODDiff, a probabilistic reconstruction framework based on diffusion-based Bayesian inference. By leveraging the learned spatiotemporal probability distribution of the AOD field as a generative prior, this framework can be flexibly adapted to various reconstruction tasks without requiring task-specific retraining. We first introduce a corruption-aware training strategy to learns a spatiotemporal AOD prior solely from naturally incomplete data. Subsequently, we employ a decoupled annealing posterior sampling strategy that enables the more effective and integration of heterogeneous observations as constraints to guide the generation process. We validate the proposed framework through extensive experiments on Reanalysis data. Results across downscaling and inpainting tasks confirm the efficacy and robustness of AODDiff, specifically demonstrating its advantage in maintaining high spatial spectral fidelity. Furthermore, as a generative model, AODDiff inherently enables uncertainty quantification via multiple sampling, offering critical confidence metrics for downstream applications. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 17 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2512.24847 [ pdf , ps , other ] AODDiff: Probabilistic Reconstruction of Aerosol Optical Depth via Diffusion-based Bayesian Inference Authors: Linhao Fan , Hongqiang Fang , Jingyang Dai , Yong Jiang , Qixing Zhang Abstract : High-quality reconstruction of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) fields is critical for Atmosphere monitoring, yet current models remain constrained by the scarcity of complete training data and a lack of uncertainty quantification.To address these limitations, we propose AODDiff, a probabilistic reconstruction framework based on diffusion-based Bayesian inference. By leveraging the learned spatiotempor… ▽ More High-quality reconstruction of Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) fields is critical for Atmosphere monitoring, yet current models remain constrained by the scarcity of complete training data and a lack of uncertainty quantification.To address these limitations, we propose AODDiff, a probabilistic reconstruction framework based on diffusion-based Bayesian inference. By leveraging the learned spatiotemporal probability distribution of the AOD field as a generative prior, this framework can be flexibly adapted to various reconstruction tasks without requiring task-specific retraining. We first introduce a corruption-aware training strategy to learns a spatiotemporal AOD prior solely from naturally incomplete data. Subsequently, we employ a decoupled annealing posterior sampling strategy that enables the more effective and integration of heterogeneous observations as constraints to guide the generation process. We validate the proposed framework through extensive experiments on Reanalysis data. Results across downscaling and inpainting tasks confirm the efficacy and robustness of AODDiff, specifically demonstrating its advantage in maintaining high spatial spectral fidelity. Furthermore, as a generative model, AODDiff inherently enables uncertainty quantification via multiple sampling, offering critical confidence metrics for downstream applications. △ Less Submitted 31 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 17 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2512.24189 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.MA SCP: Accelerating Discovery with a Global Web of Autonomous Scientific Agents Authors: Yankai Jiang , Wenjie Lou , Lilong Wang , Zhenyu Tang , Shiyang Feng , Jiaxuan Lu , Haoran Sun , Yaning Pan , Shuang Gu , Haoyang Su , Feng Liu , Wangxu Wei , Pan Tan , Dongzhan Zhou , Fenghua Ling , Cheng Tan , Bo Zhang , Xiaosong Wang , Lei Bai , Bowen Zhou Abstract : We introduce SCP: the Science Context Protocol, an open-source standard designed to accelerate discovery by enabling a global network of autonomous scientific agents. SCP is built on two foundational pillars: (1) Unified Resource Integration: At its core, SCP provides a universal specification for describing and invoking scientific resources, spanning software tools, models, datasets, and physical… ▽ More We introduce SCP: the Science Context Protocol, an open-source standard designed to accelerate discovery by enabling a global network of autonomous scientific agents. SCP is built on two foundational pillars: (1) Unified Resource Integration: At its core, SCP provides a universal specification for describing and invoking scientific resources, spanning software tools, models, datasets, and physical instruments. This protocol-level standardization enables AI agents and applications to discover, call, and compose capabilities seamlessly across disparate platforms and institutional boundaries. (2) Orchestrated Experiment Lifecycle Management: SCP complements the protocol with a secure service architecture, which comprises a centralized SCP Hub and federated SCP Servers. This architecture manages the complete experiment lifecycle (registration, planning, execution, monitoring, and archival), enforces fine-grained authentication and authorization, and orchestrates traceable, end-to-end workflows that bridge computational and physical laboratories. Based on SCP, we have constructed a scientific discovery platform that offers researchers and agents a large-scale ecosystem of more than 1,600 tool resources. Across diverse use cases, SCP facilitates secure, large-scale collaboration between heterogeneous AI systems and human researchers while significantly reducing integration overhead and enhancing reproducibility. By standardizing scientific context and tool orchestration at the protocol level, SCP establishes essential infrastructure for scalable, multi-institution, agent-driven science. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24189 [ pdf , ps , other ] SCP: Accelerating Discovery with a Global Web of Autonomous Scientific Agents Authors: Yankai Jiang , Wenjie Lou , Lilong Wang , Zhenyu Tang , Shiyang Feng , Jiaxuan Lu , Haoran Sun , Yaning Pan , Shuang Gu , Haoyang Su , Feng Liu , Wangxu Wei , Pan Tan , Dongzhan Zhou , Fenghua Ling , Cheng Tan , Bo Zhang , Xiaosong Wang , Lei Bai , Bowen Zhou Abstract : We introduce SCP: the Science Context Protocol, an open-source standard designed to accelerate discovery by enabling a global network of autonomous scientific agents. SCP is built on two foundational pillars: (1) Unified Resource Integration: At its core, SCP provides a universal specification for describing and invoking scientific resources, spanning software tools, models, datasets, and physical… ▽ More We introduce SCP: the Science Context Protocol, an open-source standard designed to accelerate discovery by enabling a global network of autonomous scientific agents. SCP is built on two foundational pillars: (1) Unified Resource Integration: At its core, SCP provides a universal specification for describing and invoking scientific resources, spanning software tools, models, datasets, and physical instruments. This protocol-level standardization enables AI agents and applications to discover, call, and compose capabilities seamlessly across disparate platforms and institutional boundaries. (2) Orchestrated Experiment Lifecycle Management: SCP complements the protocol with a secure service architecture, which comprises a centralized SCP Hub and federated SCP Servers. This architecture manages the complete experiment lifecycle (registration, planning, execution, monitoring, and archival), enforces fine-grained authentication and authorization, and orchestrates traceable, end-to-end workflows that bridge computational and physical laboratories. Based on SCP, we have constructed a scientific discovery platform that offers researchers and agents a large-scale ecosystem of more than 1,600 tool resources. Across diverse use cases, SCP facilitates secure, large-scale collaboration between heterogeneous AI systems and human researchers while significantly reducing integration overhead and enhancing reproducibility. By standardizing scientific context and tool orchestration at the protocol level, SCP establishes essential infrastructure for scalable, multi-institution, agent-driven science. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24157 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Training Report of TeleChat3-MoE Authors: Xinzhang Liu , Chao Wang , Zhihao Yang , Zhuo Jiang , Xuncheng Zhao , Haoran Wang , Lei Li , Dongdong He , Luobin Liu , Kaizhe Yuan , Han Gao , Zihan Wang , Yitong Yao , Sishi Xiong , Wenmin Deng , Haowei He , Kaidong Yu , Yu Zhao , Ruiyu Fang , Yuhao Jiang , Yingyan Li , Xiaohui Hu , Xi Yu , Jingqi Li , Yanwei Liu , et al. (29 additional authors not shown) Abstract : TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic met… ▽ More TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic methodologies for operator-level and end-to-end numerical accuracy verification, ensuring consistency across hardware platforms and distributed parallelism strategies. Furthermore, we introduce a suite of performance optimizations, including interleaved pipeline scheduling, attention-aware data scheduling for long-sequence training,hierarchical and overlapped communication for expert parallelism, and DVM-based operator fusion. A systematic parallelization framework, leveraging analytical estimation and integer linear programming, is also proposed to optimize multi-dimensional parallelism configurations. Additionally, we present methodological approaches to cluster-level optimizations, addressing host- and device-bound bottlenecks during large-scale training tasks. These infrastructure advancements yield significant throughput improvements and near-linear scaling on clusters comprising thousands of devices, providing a robust foundation for large-scale language model development on hardware ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24157 [ pdf , ps , other ] Training Report of TeleChat3-MoE Authors: Xinzhang Liu , Chao Wang , Zhihao Yang , Zhuo Jiang , Xuncheng Zhao , Haoran Wang , Lei Li , Dongdong He , Luobin Liu , Kaizhe Yuan , Han Gao , Zihan Wang , Yitong Yao , Sishi Xiong , Wenmin Deng , Haowei He , Kaidong Yu , Yu Zhao , Ruiyu Fang , Yuhao Jiang , Yingyan Li , Xiaohui Hu , Xi Yu , Jingqi Li , Yanwei Liu , et al. (29 additional authors not shown) Abstract : TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic met… ▽ More TeleChat3-MoE is the latest series of TeleChat large language models, featuring a Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture with parameter counts ranging from 105 billion to over one trillion,trained end-to-end on Ascend NPU cluster. This technical report mainly presents the underlying training infrastructure that enables reliable and efficient scaling to frontier model sizes. We detail systematic methodologies for operator-level and end-to-end numerical accuracy verification, ensuring consistency across hardware platforms and distributed parallelism strategies. Furthermore, we introduce a suite of performance optimizations, including interleaved pipeline scheduling, attention-aware data scheduling for long-sequence training,hierarchical and overlapped communication for expert parallelism, and DVM-based operator fusion. A systematic parallelization framework, leveraging analytical estimation and integer linear programming, is also proposed to optimize multi-dimensional parallelism configurations. Additionally, we present methodological approaches to cluster-level optimizations, addressing host- and device-bound bottlenecks during large-scale training tasks. These infrastructure advancements yield significant throughput improvements and near-linear scaling on clusters comprising thousands of devices, providing a robust foundation for large-scale language model development on hardware ecosystems. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24022 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI FUSE-RSVLM: Feature Fusion Vision-Language Model for Remote Sensing Authors: Yunkai Dang , Donghao Wang , Jiacheng Yang , Yifan Jiang , Meiyi Zhu , Yuekun Yang , Cong Wang , Qi Fan , Wenbin Li , Yang Gao Abstract : Large vision-language models (VLMs) exhibit strong performance across various tasks. However, these VLMs encounter significant challenges when applied to the remote sensing domain due to the inherent differences between remote sensing images and natural images. Existing remote sensing VLMs often fail to extract fine-grained visual features and suffer from visual forgetting during deep language pro… ▽ More Large vision-language models (VLMs) exhibit strong performance across various tasks. However, these VLMs encounter significant challenges when applied to the remote sensing domain due to the inherent differences between remote sensing images and natural images. Existing remote sensing VLMs often fail to extract fine-grained visual features and suffer from visual forgetting during deep language processing. To address this, we introduce MF-RSVLM, a Multi-Feature Fusion Remote Sensing Vision--Language Model that effectively extracts and fuses visual features for RS understanding. MF-RSVLM learns multi-scale visual representations and combines global context with local details, improving the capture of small and complex structures in RS scenes. A recurrent visual feature injection scheme ensures the language model remains grounded in visual evidence and reduces visual forgetting during generation. Extensive experiments on diverse RS benchmarks show that MF-RSVLM achieves state-of-the-art or highly competitive performance across remote sensing classification, image captioning, and VQA tasks. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24022 [ pdf , ps , other ] FUSE-RSVLM: Feature Fusion Vision-Language Model for Remote Sensing Authors: Yunkai Dang , Donghao Wang , Jiacheng Yang , Yifan Jiang , Meiyi Zhu , Yuekun Yang , Cong Wang , Qi Fan , Wenbin Li , Yang Gao Abstract : Large vision-language models (VLMs) exhibit strong performance across various tasks. However, these VLMs encounter significant challenges when applied to the remote sensing domain due to the inherent differences between remote sensing images and natural images. Existing remote sensing VLMs often fail to extract fine-grained visual features and suffer from visual forgetting during deep language pro… ▽ More Large vision-language models (VLMs) exhibit strong performance across various tasks. However, these VLMs encounter significant challenges when applied to the remote sensing domain due to the inherent differences between remote sensing images and natural images. Existing remote sensing VLMs often fail to extract fine-grained visual features and suffer from visual forgetting during deep language processing. To address this, we introduce MF-RSVLM, a Multi-Feature Fusion Remote Sensing Vision--Language Model that effectively extracts and fuses visual features for RS understanding. MF-RSVLM learns multi-scale visual representations and combines global context with local details, improving the capture of small and complex structures in RS scenes. A recurrent visual feature injection scheme ensures the language model remains grounded in visual evidence and reduces visual forgetting during generation. Extensive experiments on diverse RS benchmarks show that MF-RSVLM achieves state-of-the-art or highly competitive performance across remote sensing classification, image captioning, and VQA tasks. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.24019 [ pdf , ps , other ] quant-ph cs.CV One-Shot Structured Pruning of Quantum Neural Networks via $q$-Group Engineering and Quantum Geometric Metrics Authors: Haijian Shao , Wei Liu , Xing Deng , Yingtao Jiang Abstract : Quantum neural networks (QNNs) suffer from severe gate-level redundancy, which hinders their deployment on noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices. In this work, we propose q-iPrune, a one-shot structured pruning framework grounded in the algebraic structure of $q$-deformed groups and task-conditioned quantum geometry. Unlike prior heuristic or gradient-based pruning methods, q-iPrune fo… ▽ More Quantum neural networks (QNNs) suffer from severe gate-level redundancy, which hinders their deployment on noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices. In this work, we propose q-iPrune, a one-shot structured pruning framework grounded in the algebraic structure of $q$-deformed groups and task-conditioned quantum geometry. Unlike prior heuristic or gradient-based pruning methods, q-iPrune formulates redundancy directly at the gate level. Each gate is compared within an algebraically consistent subgroup using a task-conditioned $q$-overlap distance, which measures functional similarity through state overlaps on a task-relevant ensemble. A gate is removed only when its replacement by a subgroup representative provably induces a bounded deviation on all task observables. We establish three rigorous theoretical guarantees. First, we prove completeness of redundancy pruning: no gate that violates the prescribed similarity threshold is removed. Second, we show that the pruned circuit is functionally equivalent up to an explicit, task-conditioned error bound, with a closed-form dependence on the redundancy tolerance and the number of replaced gates. Third, we prove that the pruning procedure is computationally feasible, requiring only polynomial-time comparisons and avoiding exponential enumeration over the Hilbert space. To adapt pruning decisions to hardware imperfections, we introduce a noise-calibrated deformation parameter $λ$ that modulates the $q$-geometry and redundancy tolerance. Experiments on standard quantum machine learning benchmarks demonstrate that q-iPrune achieves substantial gate reduction while maintaining bounded task performance degradation, consistent with our theoretical guarantees. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 2 figures arXiv:2512.24019 [ pdf , ps , other ] One-Shot Structured Pruning of Quantum Neural Networks via $q$-Group Engineering and Quantum Geometric Metrics Authors: Haijian Shao , Wei Liu , Xing Deng , Yingtao Jiang Abstract : Quantum neural networks (QNNs) suffer from severe gate-level redundancy, which hinders their deployment on noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices. In this work, we propose q-iPrune, a one-shot structured pruning framework grounded in the algebraic structure of $q$-deformed groups and task-conditioned quantum geometry. Unlike prior heuristic or gradient-based pruning methods, q-iPrune fo… ▽ More Quantum neural networks (QNNs) suffer from severe gate-level redundancy, which hinders their deployment on noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices. In this work, we propose q-iPrune, a one-shot structured pruning framework grounded in the algebraic structure of $q$-deformed groups and task-conditioned quantum geometry. Unlike prior heuristic or gradient-based pruning methods, q-iPrune formulates redundancy directly at the gate level. Each gate is compared within an algebraically consistent subgroup using a task-conditioned $q$-overlap distance, which measures functional similarity through state overlaps on a task-relevant ensemble. A gate is removed only when its replacement by a subgroup representative provably induces a bounded deviation on all task observables. We establish three rigorous theoretical guarantees. First, we prove completeness of redundancy pruning: no gate that violates the prescribed similarity threshold is removed. Second, we show that the pruned circuit is functionally equivalent up to an explicit, task-conditioned error bound, with a closed-form dependence on the redundancy tolerance and the number of replaced gates. Third, we prove that the pruning procedure is computationally feasible, requiring only polynomial-time comparisons and avoiding exponential enumeration over the Hilbert space. To adapt pruning decisions to hardware imperfections, we introduce a noise-calibrated deformation parameter $λ$ that modulates the $q$-geometry and redundancy tolerance. Experiments on standard quantum machine learning benchmarks demonstrate that q-iPrune achieves substantial gate reduction while maintaining bounded task performance degradation, consistent with our theoretical guarantees. △ Less Submitted 30 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 2 figures arXiv:2512.23966 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI Efficient Context Scaling with LongCat ZigZag Attention Authors: Chen Zhang , Yang Bai , Jiahuan Li , Anchun Gui , Keheng Wang , Feifan Liu , Guanyu Wu , Yuwei Jiang , Defei Bu , Li Wei , Haihang Jing , Hongyin Tang , Xin Chen , Xiangzhou Huang , Fengcun Li , Rongxiang Weng , Yulei Qian , Yifan Lu , Yerui Sun , Jingang Wang , Yuchen Xie , Xunliang Cai Abstract : We introduce LongCat ZigZag Attention (LoZA), which is a sparse attention scheme designed to transform any existing full-attention models into sparse versions with rather limited compute budget. In long-context scenarios, LoZA can achieve significant speed-ups both for prefill-intensive (e.g., retrieval-augmented generation) and decode-intensive (e.g., tool-integrated reasoning) cases. Specificall… ▽ More We introduce LongCat ZigZag Attention (LoZA), which is a sparse attention scheme designed to transform any existing full-attention models into sparse versions with rather limited compute budget. In long-context scenarios, LoZA can achieve significant speed-ups both for prefill-intensive (e.g., retrieval-augmented generation) and decode-intensive (e.g., tool-integrated reasoning) cases. Specifically, by applying LoZA to LongCat-Flash during mid-training, we serve LongCat-Flash-Exp as a long-context foundation model that can swiftly process up to 1 million tokens, enabling efficient long-term reasoning and long-horizon agentic capabilities. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 3 figures, 3 tables arXiv:2512.23966 [ pdf , ps , other ] Efficient Context Scaling with LongCat ZigZag Attention Authors: Chen Zhang , Yang Bai , Jiahuan Li , Anchun Gui , Keheng Wang , Feifan Liu , Guanyu Wu , Yuwei Jiang , Defei Bu , Li Wei , Haihang Jing , Hongyin Tang , Xin Chen , Xiangzhou Huang , Fengcun Li , Rongxiang Weng , Yulei Qian , Yifan Lu , Yerui Sun , Jingang Wang , Yuchen Xie , Xunliang Cai Abstract : We introduce LongCat ZigZag Attention (LoZA), which is a sparse attention scheme designed to transform any existing full-attention models into sparse versions with rather limited compute budget. In long-context scenarios, LoZA can achieve significant speed-ups both for prefill-intensive (e.g., retrieval-augmented generation) and decode-intensive (e.g., tool-integrated reasoning) cases. Specificall… ▽ More We introduce LongCat ZigZag Attention (LoZA), which is a sparse attention scheme designed to transform any existing full-attention models into sparse versions with rather limited compute budget. In long-context scenarios, LoZA can achieve significant speed-ups both for prefill-intensive (e.g., retrieval-augmented generation) and decode-intensive (e.g., tool-integrated reasoning) cases. Specifically, by applying LoZA to LongCat-Flash during mid-training, we serve LongCat-Flash-Exp as a long-context foundation model that can swiftly process up to 1 million tokens, enabling efficient long-term reasoning and long-horizon agentic capabilities. △ Less Submitted 6 January, 2026; v1 submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 3 figures, 3 tables arXiv:2512.23808 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.SD eess.AS MiMo-Audio: Audio Language Models are Few-Shot Learners Authors: Xiaomi LLM-Core Team , : , Dong Zhang , Gang Wang , Jinlong Xue , Kai Fang , Liang Zhao , Rui Ma , Shuhuai Ren , Shuo Liu , Tao Guo , Weiji Zhuang , Xin Zhang , Xingchen Song , Yihan Yan , Yongzhe He , Cici , Bowen Shen , Chengxuan Zhu , Chong Ma , Chun Chen , Heyu Chen , Jiawei Li , Lei Li , Menghang Zhu , et al. (76 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Existing audio language models typically rely on task-specific fine-tuning to accomplish particular audio tasks. In contrast, humans are able to generalize to new audio tasks with only a few examples or simple instructions. GPT-3 has shown that scaling next-token prediction pretraining enables strong generalization capabilities in text, and we believe this paradigm is equally applicable to the aud… ▽ More Existing audio language models typically rely on task-specific fine-tuning to accomplish particular audio tasks. In contrast, humans are able to generalize to new audio tasks with only a few examples or simple instructions. GPT-3 has shown that scaling next-token prediction pretraining enables strong generalization capabilities in text, and we believe this paradigm is equally applicable to the audio domain. By scaling MiMo-Audio's pretraining data to over one hundred million of hours, we observe the emergence of few-shot learning capabilities across a diverse set of audio tasks. We develop a systematic evaluation of these capabilities and find that MiMo-Audio-7B-Base achieves SOTA performance on both speech intelligence and audio understanding benchmarks among open-source models. Beyond standard metrics, MiMo-Audio-7B-Base generalizes to tasks absent from its training data, such as voice conversion, style transfer, and speech editing. MiMo-Audio-7B-Base also demonstrates powerful speech continuation capabilities, capable of generating highly realistic talk shows, recitations, livestreaming and debates. At the post-training stage, we curate a diverse instruction-tuning corpus and introduce thinking mechanisms into both audio understanding and generation. MiMo-Audio-7B-Instruct achieves open-source SOTA on audio understanding benchmarks (MMSU, MMAU, MMAR, MMAU-Pro), spoken dialogue benchmarks (Big Bench Audio, MultiChallenge Audio) and instruct-TTS evaluations, approaching or surpassing closed-source models. Model checkpoints and full evaluation suite are available at △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23808 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiMo-Audio: Audio Language Models are Few-Shot Learners Authors: Xiaomi LLM-Core Team , : , Dong Zhang , Gang Wang , Jinlong Xue , Kai Fang , Liang Zhao , Rui Ma , Shuhuai Ren , Shuo Liu , Tao Guo , Weiji Zhuang , Xin Zhang , Xingchen Song , Yihan Yan , Yongzhe He , Cici , Bowen Shen , Chengxuan Zhu , Chong Ma , Chun Chen , Heyu Chen , Jiawei Li , Lei Li , Menghang Zhu , et al. (76 additional authors not shown) Abstract : Existing audio language models typically rely on task-specific fine-tuning to accomplish particular audio tasks. In contrast, humans are able to generalize to new audio tasks with only a few examples or simple instructions. GPT-3 has shown that scaling next-token prediction pretraining enables strong generalization capabilities in text, and we believe this paradigm is equally applicable to the aud… ▽ More Existing audio language models typically rely on task-specific fine-tuning to accomplish particular audio tasks. In contrast, humans are able to generalize to new audio tasks with only a few examples or simple instructions. GPT-3 has shown that scaling next-token prediction pretraining enables strong generalization capabilities in text, and we believe this paradigm is equally applicable to the audio domain. By scaling MiMo-Audio's pretraining data to over one hundred million of hours, we observe the emergence of few-shot learning capabilities across a diverse set of audio tasks. We develop a systematic evaluation of these capabilities and find that MiMo-Audio-7B-Base achieves SOTA performance on both speech intelligence and audio understanding benchmarks among open-source models. Beyond standard metrics, MiMo-Audio-7B-Base generalizes to tasks absent from its training data, such as voice conversion, style transfer, and speech editing. MiMo-Audio-7B-Base also demonstrates powerful speech continuation capabilities, capable of generating highly realistic talk shows, recitations, livestreaming and debates. At the post-training stage, we curate a diverse instruction-tuning corpus and introduce thinking mechanisms into both audio understanding and generation. MiMo-Audio-7B-Instruct achieves open-source SOTA on audio understanding benchmarks (MMSU, MMAU, MMAR, MMAU-Pro), spoken dialogue benchmarks (Big Bench Audio, MultiChallenge Audio) and instruct-TTS evaluations, approaching or surpassing closed-source models. Model checkpoints and full evaluation suite are available at △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23647 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.IR cs.MA Nested Browser-Use Learning for Agentic Information Seeking Authors: Baixuan Li , Jialong Wu , Wenbiao Yin , Kuan Li , Zhongwang Zhang , Huifeng Yin , Zhengwei Tao , Liwen Zhang , Pengjun Xie , Jingren Zhou , Yong Jiang Abstract : Information-seeking (IS) agents have achieved strong performance across a range of wide and deep search tasks, yet their tool use remains largely restricted to API-level snippet retrieval and URL-based page fetching, limiting access to the richer information available through real browsing. While full browser interaction could unlock deeper capabilities, its fine-grained control and verbose page c… ▽ More Information-seeking (IS) agents have achieved strong performance across a range of wide and deep search tasks, yet their tool use remains largely restricted to API-level snippet retrieval and URL-based page fetching, limiting access to the richer information available through real browsing. While full browser interaction could unlock deeper capabilities, its fine-grained control and verbose page content returns introduce substantial complexity for ReAct-style function-calling agents. To bridge this gap, we propose Nested Browser-Use Learning (NestBrowse), which introduces a minimal and complete browser-action framework that decouples interaction control from page exploration through a nested structure. This design simplifies agentic reasoning while enabling effective deep-web information acquisition. Empirical results on challenging deep IS benchmarks demonstrate that NestBrowse offers clear benefits in practice. Further in-depth analyses underscore its efficiency and flexibility. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23647 [ pdf , ps , other ] Nested Browser-Use Learning for Agentic Information Seeking Authors: Baixuan Li , Jialong Wu , Wenbiao Yin , Kuan Li , Zhongwang Zhang , Huifeng Yin , Zhengwei Tao , Liwen Zhang , Pengjun Xie , Jingren Zhou , Yong Jiang Abstract : Information-seeking (IS) agents have achieved strong performance across a range of wide and deep search tasks, yet their tool use remains largely restricted to API-level snippet retrieval and URL-based page fetching, limiting access to the richer information available through real browsing. While full browser interaction could unlock deeper capabilities, its fine-grained control and verbose page c… ▽ More Information-seeking (IS) agents have achieved strong performance across a range of wide and deep search tasks, yet their tool use remains largely restricted to API-level snippet retrieval and URL-based page fetching, limiting access to the richer information available through real browsing. While full browser interaction could unlock deeper capabilities, its fine-grained control and verbose page content returns introduce substantial complexity for ReAct-style function-calling agents. To bridge this gap, we propose Nested Browser-Use Learning (NestBrowse), which introduces a minimal and complete browser-action framework that decouples interaction control from page exploration through a nested structure. This design simplifies agentic reasoning while enabling effective deep-web information acquisition. Empirical results on challenging deep IS benchmarks demonstrate that NestBrowse offers clear benefits in practice. Further in-depth analyses underscore its efficiency and flexibility. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23171 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CR cs.LG doi 10.1109/TIFS.2025.3636788 Certifying the Right to Be Forgotten: Primal-Dual Optimization for Sample and Label Unlearning in Vertical Federated Learning Authors: Yu Jiang , Xindi Tong , Ziyao Liu , Xiaoxi Zhang , Kwok-Yan Lam , Chee Wei Tan Abstract : Federated unlearning has become an attractive approach to address privacy concerns in collaborative machine learning, for situations when sensitive data is remembered by AI models during the machine learning process. It enables the removal of specific data influences from trained models, aligning with the growing emphasis on the "right to be forgotten." While extensively studied in horizontal fede… ▽ More Federated unlearning has become an attractive approach to address privacy concerns in collaborative machine learning, for situations when sensitive data is remembered by AI models during the machine learning process. It enables the removal of specific data influences from trained models, aligning with the growing emphasis on the "right to be forgotten." While extensively studied in horizontal federated learning, unlearning in vertical federated learning (VFL) remains challenging due to the distributed feature architecture. VFL unlearning includes sample unlearning that removes specific data points' influence and label unlearning that removes entire classes. Since different parties hold complementary features of the same samples, unlearning tasks require cross-party coordination, creating computational overhead and complexities from feature interdependencies. To address such challenges, we propose FedORA (Federated Optimization for data Removal via primal-dual Algorithm), designed for sample and label unlearning in VFL. FedORA formulates the removal of certain samples or labels as a constrained optimization problem solved using a primal-dual framework. Our approach introduces a new unlearning loss function that promotes classification uncertainty rather than misclassification. An adaptive step size enhances stability, while an asymmetric batch design, considering the prior influence of the remaining data on the model, handles unlearning and retained data differently to efficiently reduce computational costs. We provide theoretical analysis proving that the model difference between FedORA and Train-from-scratch is bounded, establishing guarantees for unlearning effectiveness. Experiments on tabular and image datasets demonstrate that FedORA achieves unlearning effectiveness and utility preservation comparable to Train-from-scratch with reduced computation and communication overhead. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Published in the IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security Journal ref: IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 20 (2025) 13143-13158 arXiv:2512.23171 [ pdf , ps , other ] Certifying the Right to Be Forgotten: Primal-Dual Optimization for Sample and Label Unlearning in Vertical Federated Learning Authors: Yu Jiang , Xindi Tong , Ziyao Liu , Xiaoxi Zhang , Kwok-Yan Lam , Chee Wei Tan Abstract : Federated unlearning has become an attractive approach to address privacy concerns in collaborative machine learning, for situations when sensitive data is remembered by AI models during the machine learning process. It enables the removal of specific data influences from trained models, aligning with the growing emphasis on the "right to be forgotten." While extensively studied in horizontal fede… ▽ More Federated unlearning has become an attractive approach to address privacy concerns in collaborative machine learning, for situations when sensitive data is remembered by AI models during the machine learning process. It enables the removal of specific data influences from trained models, aligning with the growing emphasis on the "right to be forgotten." While extensively studied in horizontal federated learning, unlearning in vertical federated learning (VFL) remains challenging due to the distributed feature architecture. VFL unlearning includes sample unlearning that removes specific data points' influence and label unlearning that removes entire classes. Since different parties hold complementary features of the same samples, unlearning tasks require cross-party coordination, creating computational overhead and complexities from feature interdependencies. To address such challenges, we propose FedORA (Federated Optimization for data Removal via primal-dual Algorithm), designed for sample and label unlearning in VFL. FedORA formulates the removal of certain samples or labels as a constrained optimization problem solved using a primal-dual framework. Our approach introduces a new unlearning loss function that promotes classification uncertainty rather than misclassification. An adaptive step size enhances stability, while an asymmetric batch design, considering the prior influence of the remaining data on the model, handles unlearning and retained data differently to efficiently reduce computational costs. We provide theoretical analysis proving that the model difference between FedORA and Train-from-scratch is bounded, establishing guarantees for unlearning effectiveness. Experiments on tabular and image datasets demonstrate that FedORA achieves unlearning effectiveness and utility preservation comparable to Train-from-scratch with reduced computation and communication overhead. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Published in the IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security Journal ref: IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 20 (2025) 13143-13158 arXiv:2512.22857 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI AutoForge: Automated Environment Synthesis for Agentic Reinforcement Learning Authors: Shihao Cai , Runnan Fang , Jialong Wu , Baixuan Li , Xinyu Wang , Yong Jiang , Liangcai Su , Liwen Zhang , Wenbiao Yin , Zhen Zhang , Fuli Feng , Pengjun Xie , Xiaobin Wang Abstract : Conducting reinforcement learning (RL) in simulated environments offers a cost-effective and highly scalable way to enhance language-based agents. However, previous work has been limited to semi-automated environment synthesis or tasks lacking sufficient difficulty, offering little breadth or depth. In addition, the instability of simulated users integrated into these environments, along with the… ▽ More Conducting reinforcement learning (RL) in simulated environments offers a cost-effective and highly scalable way to enhance language-based agents. However, previous work has been limited to semi-automated environment synthesis or tasks lacking sufficient difficulty, offering little breadth or depth. In addition, the instability of simulated users integrated into these environments, along with the heterogeneity across simulated environments, poses further challenges for agentic RL. In this work, we propose: (1) a unified pipeline for automated and scalable synthesis of simulated environments associated with high-difficulty but easily verifiable tasks; and (2) an environment level RL algorithm that not only effectively mitigates user instability but also performs advantage estimation at the environment level, thereby improving training efficiency and stability. Comprehensive evaluations on agentic benchmarks, including tau-bench, tau2-Bench, and VitaBench, validate the effectiveness of our proposed method. Further in-depth analyses underscore its out-of-domain generalization. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.22857 [ pdf , ps , other ] AutoForge: Automated Environment Synthesis for Agentic Reinforcement Learning Authors: Shihao Cai , Runnan Fang , Jialong Wu , Baixuan Li , Xinyu Wang , Yong Jiang , Liangcai Su , Liwen Zhang , Wenbiao Yin , Zhen Zhang , Fuli Feng , Pengjun Xie , Xiaobin Wang Abstract : Conducting reinforcement learning (RL) in simulated environments offers a cost-effective and highly scalable way to enhance language-based agents. However, previous work has been limited to semi-automated environment synthesis or tasks lacking sufficient difficulty, offering little breadth or depth. In addition, the instability of simulated users integrated into these environments, along with the… ▽ More Conducting reinforcement learning (RL) in simulated environments offers a cost-effective and highly scalable way to enhance language-based agents. However, previous work has been limited to semi-automated environment synthesis or tasks lacking sufficient difficulty, offering little breadth or depth. In addition, the instability of simulated users integrated into these environments, along with the heterogeneity across simulated environments, poses further challenges for agentic RL. In this work, we propose: (1) a unified pipeline for automated and scalable synthesis of simulated environments associated with high-difficulty but easily verifiable tasks; and (2) an environment level RL algorithm that not only effectively mitigates user instability but also performs advantage estimation at the environment level, thereby improving training efficiency and stability. Comprehensive evaluations on agentic benchmarks, including tau-bench, tau2-Bench, and VitaBench, validate the effectiveness of our proposed method. Further in-depth analyses underscore its out-of-domain generalization. △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Overview 2 Types 3 General Toggle General subsection 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 History 3.2.1 History, chronologically 3.2.2 Women in history 3.1 Prehistory 3.2 History 3.2.1 History, chronologically 3.2.2 Women in history 3.2.1 History, chronologically 3.2.2 Women in history 4 Arts 5 Biographical 6 Contemporary culture Toggle Contemporary culture subsection 6.1 Entertainment 6.2 Comic books 6.1 Entertainment 6.2 Comic books 7 Crime 8 Disasters 9 Economics 10 Environment 11 Fictional timelines of history 12 Peoples, nations, cultures and geographical Toggle Peoples, nations, cultures and geographical subsection 12.1 Ancient civilizations 12.2 Extant civilizations 12.2.1 Supranational entities and regions, peoples 12.2.2 Sovereign states 12.2.3 Subnational regions and cities, narrow timelines 12.1 Ancient civilizations 12.2 Extant civilizations 12.2.1 Supranational entities and regions, peoples 12.2.2 Sovereign states 12.2.3 Subnational regions and cities, narrow timelines 12.2.1 Supranational entities and regions, peoples 12.2.2 Sovereign states 12.2.3 Subnational regions and cities, narrow timelines 13 Health 14 Law 15 Military Toggle Military subsection 15.1 Military conflicts 15.1 Military conflicts 16 Philosophy 17 Politics 18 Religion Toggle Religion subsection 18.1 Ayyavazhi 18.2 Buddhism 18.3 Christianity 18.4 Hinduism 18.5 Islam 18.6 Jainism 18.7 Judaism 18.8 Sikhism 18.1 Ayyavazhi 18.2 Buddhism 18.3 Christianity 18.4 Hinduism 18.5 Islam 18.6 Jainism 18.7 Judaism 18.8 Sikhism 19 Science Toggle Science subsection 19.1 Anthropology 19.2 Astronautics and planetary science 19.3 Astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology 19.4 Biology 19.5 Chemistry 19.6 Environmental sciences 19.7 Geology and paleontology 19.8 Mathematics and statistics 19.9 Meteorology 19.10 Physiology, medicine, and health 19.11 Physics 19.12 Psychology 19.1 Anthropology 19.2 Astronautics and planetary science 19.3 Astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology 19.4 Biology 19.5 Chemistry 19.6 Environmental sciences 19.7 Geology and paleontology 19.8 Mathematics and statistics 19.9 Meteorology 19.10 Physiology, medicine, and health 19.11 Physics 19.12 Psychology 20 Sports 21 Technology Toggle Technology subsection 21.1 Communication and information media 21.2 Computers and related technology 21.3 Everyday necessities 21.4 Light and optical instruments 21.5 Measurement 21.6 General mechanical engineering 21.7 Transportation and space exploration 21.8 Miscellaneous 21.1 Communication and information media 21.2 Computers and related technology 21.3 Everyday necessities 21.4 Light and optical instruments 21.5 Measurement 21.6 General mechanical engineering 21.7 Transportation and space exploration 21.8 Miscellaneous 22 Terrorism 23 See also 24 External links List of timelines العربية বাংলা Deutsch 한국어 Bahasa Indonesia Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Română Русский Tagalog தமிழ் Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is a list of timelines currently on Wikipedia. Overview There are several types of timeline articles. Timelines by topic show the significant historical events and developments for a specific topic, over the course of centuries or millennia. Graphical timelines provide a visual representation for the timespan of multiple events that have a particular duration, over the course of centuries or millennia. Timelines by year are timelines for one particular year that show the developments for that year within the topical area of that timeline. Lists of years or Tables of years are indexes that list all of the individual timelines by year that pertain to a specific topic. Timespans next to the timeline articles listed here include the date of the earliest item included in the linked timeline article. Types Living graph Logarithmic timeline Log file Synchronoptic view Interactive timeline (video games, interactive websites, interactive media, simulations, virtual reality, augmented reality) General Chronology of the universe Timeline of Nature Timeline of cosmological epochs (13,700,000,000 BCE – present) List of time periods List of decades, centuries, and millennia 3rd millennium (expected future events) List of years 2026 2026 Prehistory Timeline of the early universe – events dating from the formation of the universe Timelines from the formation of the Earth to the rise of modern humans Timeline of natural history (13,700,000,000 BCE – 200,000 BCE) Timeline of the evolutionary history of life (4,300,000,000 BCE - present) Timeline of human evolution (4,300,000,000 BCE – 350,000 BCE) Timeline of natural history (13,700,000,000 BCE – 200,000 BCE) Timeline of the evolutionary history of life (4,300,000,000 BCE - present) Timeline of human evolution (4,300,000,000 BCE – 350,000 BCE) Timeline of the evolutionary history of life (4,300,000,000 BCE - present) Timeline of human evolution (4,300,000,000 BCE – 350,000 BCE) Timeline of human evolution (4,300,000,000 BCE – 350,000 BCE) Timeline of human prehistory (350,000 BCE – 3400 BCE) History Timeline of Philippine sovereignty Timeline of South Asian history Timeline of the Russo-Japanese War Timeline of the Russian Revolution of 1905 Timeline of the Greek genocide Timeline of the Chinese Civil War History, chronologically Timeline of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact (47,000 BCE–1492 CE) Timeline of environmental history (15,000 BCE – present) Timeline of country and capital changes (3850 BCE – present) Timeline of ancient history (3500 BCE – 500 CE ) Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians (700 BCE – 600 CE) Timeline of ancient Romania (3900 BCE – 400 CE) Timeline of ancient Greece (800 BCE – 146 CE) Timeline of Roman history (754 BCE - 1453 CE) Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians (700 BCE – 600 CE) Timeline of ancient Romania (3900 BCE – 400 CE) Timeline of ancient Greece (800 BCE – 146 CE) Timeline of Roman history (754 BCE - 1453 CE) Timeline of LGBT history (25th century BCE – present) List of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender firsts by year (1867 – present) Timeline of same-sex marriage (1989 CE–present) List of lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender firsts by year (1867 – present) Timeline of same-sex marriage (1989 CE–present) Chronology of European exploration of Asia (330 BCE–1595 CE) Timeline of the Middle Ages (410 CE – 1499) Chronology of colonialism (821–2010) Chronology of the colonization of North America (986–1791) Chronology of the colonization of North America (986–1791) Abolition of slavery timeline (1102 CE–present) Timeline of European exploration (1418 – present) Timeline of European imperialism (1402–1919) Timelines of modern history (1500 CE – present) Timeline of early modern history (1500 CE – 1899) Timeline of the Salem witch trials (1688–1713) List of African-American firsts (1738–present) Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1807) Timeline of modern American conservatism (1933 CE – present) Timeline of the open-access movement (1942–present) 2026 Timeline of early modern history (1500 CE – 1899) Timeline of the Salem witch trials (1688–1713) List of African-American firsts (1738–present) Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1807) Timeline of the Salem witch trials (1688–1713) List of African-American firsts (1738–present) Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803–1807) Timeline of modern American conservatism (1933 CE – present) Timeline of the open-access movement (1942–present) 2026 Timeline of the far future (10,000 CE – 10 10 10 56 {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{56}}}} ) Women in history List of American women's firsts (1635–present) List of women's firsts Timeline of feminism in the United States Timeline of first-wave feminism Timeline of second-wave feminism Timeline of third-wave feminism Timeline of fourth-wave feminism Timeline of women hazzans Timeline of women hazzans in the United States Timeline of women in aviation Timeline of women in geology Timeline of women in library science Timeline of women in mathematics Timeline of women in religion Timeline of women in religion in the United States Timeline of women in science Timeline of women in science in the United States Timeline of women in the United States (1756 CE – present) Timeline of American women in war and the U.S. military from 1945 to 1999 Timeline of women in war in the United States, Pre-1945 Timeline of women in warfare in Colonial America Timeline of women in warfare in the United States before 1900 Timeline of women in warfare in the United States from 1900 to 1949 Timeline of women lawyers Timeline of women's legal rights in the United States (other than voting) Timeline of women's suffrage Timeline of women's suffrage in Alabama Timeline of women's suffrage in Alaska Timeline of women's suffrage in 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state) Timeline of women's suffrage in Hawaii Timeline of women's suffrage in Illinois Timeline of women's suffrage in Maine Timeline of women's suffrage in Missouri Timeline of women's suffrage in Montana Timeline of women's suffrage in Nevada Timeline of women's suffrage in New Mexico Timeline of women's suffrage in Ohio Timeline of women's suffrage in Rhode Island Timeline of women's suffrage in Texas Timeline of women's suffrage in Utah Timeline of women's suffrage in Virginia Timeline of women's suffrage in Wisconsin Arts Timeline of art (prehistoric – present) Timeline of architecture (8000 BCE – present) Timeline of architectural styles (6000 BCE – present) Timeline of Native American art history (10,200 BCE – present) List of years in literature (2400 BCE – present) 2026 in literature 2026 in literature Chronology of works by Caravaggio Chronology of Shakespeare's plays (1589–1614) Biographical Timeline of Lord Byron (1788–1824) Timeline of Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) 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Chronology of the universe List of years in science (1st century BCE – present) 2026 in science 2026 in science Timeline of nature Timeline of historic inventions (7th century BCE – present) Timeline of scientific discoveries (17th century BCE – present) Timeline of scientific experiments (240 BCE – present) Timeline of the history of scientific method (2000 BCE – 2009 CE) Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world (610 CE – present) Timeline of Polish science and technology (1251 – present) Timeline of dendrochronology timestamp events (~10,000 BCE–present) Anthropology Timeline of human development Timeline of anthropology (1870–2020) Timeline of archaeology (1506 – present) Astronautics and planetary science Timeline of first orbital launches by country (1957–2022) Timeline of Solar System exploration (1944–present) Timeline of space travel by nationality (1961–present) Astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology Timeline of cosmological theories (16th century BCE – present) 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foundation of national rugby unions (1871–2015) Timeline of golf history (1353–1850) Timeline of golf history (1851–1945) Timeline of golf history (1945–1999) Timeline of golf (2000–present) Technology History of technology (2.5 Mya–present) Timeline of historic inventions (3.3–2.6 Mya–present) Timelines of United States inventions and discoveries (1717–2009) Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records Timeline of sustainable energy research 2020–present List of technologies Communication and information media Timeline of communication technology (36th century BCE–present) Timeline of postal history (1639–present) Timeline of the telephone (1849–present) Timeline of the introduction of television in countries and regions (1928–2018) Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries (1950–1987) Timeline of CGI in film and television (1961–present) Timeline of women in library science Computers and related technology Timeline of free and open-source software 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Timeline of rocket and missile technology (1st century–2010) Timeline of spaceflight Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes (1957–2010) Miscellaneous Timeline of biotechnology (7,000 BCE–present) Timeline of British breweries (1880–2000) Timeline of diving technology ( Prehistory –present) Timeline of materials technology (29,000 BCE–present) Women in dentistry (16th century–present) Timeline of female education (1608–present) Timeline of hydrogen technologies (1625–present) Timeline of solar cells (1839–present) Female education in the United States (1639–present) Timeline of women's colleges in the United States (1742–present) Timeline of low-temperature technology (1850–present) Women in dentistry in the United States (1855–present) Timeline of historically black women's colleges (1870–present) List of first female mayors (1887–present) Timeline of particle physics technology (1896–1968) Terrorism Timeline of terrorist attacks in the United States (1782–present) Timeline of the September 11, 2001 attacks (1939–present) Timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks (11 September 2001) Timeline for September following the September 11 attacks (11–30 September 2001) Timeline for October following the September 11 attacks (October 2001) Timeline beyond October following the September 11 attacks (November 2001–present) Timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks (11 September 2001) Timeline for September following the September 11 attacks (11–30 September 2001) Timeline for October following the September 11 attacks (October 2001) Timeline beyond October following the September 11 attacks (November 2001–present) Timeline of Earth Liberation Front actions (1997–present) Timeline of the 2011 Norway attacks (1999–22 July 2011) Timeline of Abu Sayyaf attacks (2000–present) Timeline of terrorism in Egypt (2013–present) This list is incomplete ; you can help by adding missing items . ( August 2008 ) See also Part of a series on History Index Outline Glossary Index Outline Glossary Key concepts Archeology Chronology Common Era ( anno Domini , Gregorian calendar ) Historical method Historical source ( primary , secondary , tertiary ) Historiography Periodization Recorded history Archeology Chronology Common Era ( anno Domini , Gregorian calendar ) Historical method Historical source ( primary , secondary , tertiary ) Historiography Periodization Recorded history Periods Prehistory ( Paleolithic , Mesolithic , Neolithic ) Ancient history ( Copper Age , Bronze Age , Iron Age , classical antiquity ) Post-classical history ( Early Middle Ages , High Middle Ages , Late Middle Ages ) Modern history ( early modern history , late modern history , contemporary history ) Prehistory ( Paleolithic , Mesolithic , Neolithic ) Ancient history ( Copper Age , Bronze Age , Iron Age , classical antiquity ) Post-classical history ( Early Middle Ages , High Middle Ages , Late Middle Ages ) Modern history ( early modern history , late modern history , contemporary history ) By region Africa Antarctica Australia Central America East Asia Europe Middle East New Zealand North America Pacific Islands South America South Asia Southeast Asia The Caribbean Africa Antarctica Australia Central America East Asia Europe Middle East New Zealand North America Pacific Islands South America South Asia Southeast Asia The Caribbean Notable historians Beard Bede Braudel Froissart Geoffrey Gibbon Herodotus Hobsbawm Ibn Khaldun Josephus Karamzin Mommsen Plutarch Ranke Sima Tacitus Taylor Thucydides Turner Vasari Xenophon Beard Bede Braudel Froissart Geoffrey Gibbon Herodotus Hobsbawm Ibn Khaldun Josephus Karamzin Mommsen Plutarch Ranke Sima Tacitus Taylor Thucydides Turner Vasari Xenophon Timelines Prehistoric Ancient Post-classical Modern Future Prehistoric Ancient Post-classical Modern Future History portal Category History portal Category .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Chronology Common Era (explains CE and BCE) Dating creation Hindu/Vedic chronometry Holocene calendar New chronology (Fomenko) Tamil chronometry Timeline Templates: Human timeline Life timeline Nature timeline Human timeline Life timeline Nature timeline Ussher chronology External links ChronoZoom is a timeline for Big History being developed for the International Big History Association by Microsoft Research and University of California, Berkeley Asian Studies online: a timeline of major developments Alabama Civil War Timeline Asian Studies online:timelines data base Art of the Wikipedia Nature Timelines (includes: Human timeline ; Life timeline ; Nature timeline ). History Lists of history lists Wikipedia timelines Chronology Timelines by year Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Incomplete lists from August 2008 Lists of lists with listcat specified This page was last edited on 5 December 2025, at 23:53 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Legal & safety contacts Code of Conduct Developers Statistics Cookie statement Mobile view
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 1.1 Nupedia 1.2 Launch and growth 1.3 Sister projects 1.4 Milestones 1.5 Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views 2 Collaborative editing Toggle Collaborative editing subsection 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 2.1 Restrictions 2.2 Review of changes 2.3 Vandalism 2.4 Disputes and edit warring 3 Policies and content Toggle Policies and content subsection 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 3.1 Content policies and guidelines 4 Governance Toggle Governance subsection 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.1 Administrators 4.2 Dispute resolution 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 4.2.1 Arbitration Committee 5 Community Toggle Community subsection 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 5.1 Research 5.2 Diversity 6 Language editions Toggle Language editions subsection 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 6.1 English Wikipedia editor numbers 7 Reception Toggle Reception subsection 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 7.1 Accuracy of content 7.2 Discouragement in education 7.2.1 Medical information 7.2.1 Medical information 7.3 Coverage of topics and systemic bias 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.3.1 Systemic biases 7.4 Explicit content 7.5 Privacy 7.6 Sexism 8 Operation Toggle Operation subsection 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 8.1 Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements 8.2 Software operations and support 8.3 Automated editing 8.4 Hardware operations and support 8.5 Internal research and operational development 8.6 Internal news publications 8.7 The Wikipedia Library 9 Access to content Toggle Access to content subsection 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 9.1 Content licensing 9.2 Methods of access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.2.1 Mobile access 9.3 Chinese access 10 Cultural influence Toggle Cultural influence subsection 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 10.1 Trusted source to combat fake news 10.2 Readership 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.2.1 COVID-19 pandemic 10.3 Cultural significance 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.3.1 Awards 10.3.2 Satire 10.4 Publishing 10.5 Research use 11 Related projects 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References Toggle References subsection 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 14.1 Footnotes 14.2 Wikipedia-affiliated and primary sources 14.3 Sources 15 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 15.1 Academic studies 15.2 Books 15.3 Book review–related articles 16 External links Wikipedia Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli Dansk الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikirundi Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} Screenshot Wikipedia's desktop homepage Type of site Online encyclopedia Available in 342 languages Headquarters San Francisco , California, US Country of origin United States Owner Wikimedia Foundation (since 2003) Created by .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger Jimmy Wales Larry Sanger URL wikipedia .org Commercial No Registration Optional [ a ] Users 126 million (as of January 16, 2026) Launched January 15, 2001 (25 years ago) ( 2001-01-15 ) Current status Active Content license CC Attribution / Share-Alike 4.0 [ b ] Written in PHP OCLC number 52075003 Wikipedia [ c ] is a free online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers , known as Wikipedians , through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki . Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001, Wikipedia has been hosted since 2003 by the Wikimedia Foundation , an American nonprofit organization funded mainly by donations from readers. [ 1 ] Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Initially available only in English , Wikipedia exists in over 340 languages and is one of the world's most visited websites . The English Wikipedia , with over 7 million articles , remains the largest of the editions, which together comprise more than 66 million articles and attract more than 1.5 billion unique device visits and 13 million edits per month (about five edits per second on average) as of April 2024 [update] . [ W 1 ] As of December 2025 [update] , over 25% of Wikipedia's traffic comes from the United States, while Japan accounts for nearly 7%, and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Russia each represent around 5%. [ 4 ] Wikipedia has been praised for enabling the democratization of knowledge , its extensive coverage, unique structure, and culture. Wikipedia has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site, sometimes due to its criticism of the government or by content otherwise considered blasphemous. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Although Wikipedia's volunteer editors have written extensively on a wide variety of topics, the encyclopedia has also been criticized for systemic bias, such as a gender bias against women and a geographical bias against the Global South . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise from the late 2010s onward. [ 2 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources for up-to-date information about those events. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] History Nupedia Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. [ 13 ] Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. [ 14 ] It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis , a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger , editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman . [ W 2 ] Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, [ 17 ] while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. [ 18 ] On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. [ W 3 ] Launch and growth Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 (referred to as "Wikipedia Day"), [ 19 ] as a single English language edition with the domain name www.wikipedia.com , [ W 4 ] and was announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. [ 17 ] The name, proposed by Sanger to forestall any potential damage to the Nupedia name, [ 20 ] originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] Its integral policy of " neutral point of view " arose within its first year. [ 23 ] Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. [ 17 ] Bomis originally intended for it to be a for-profit business. [ 24 ] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. [ W 5 ] [ W 6 ] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of 2 million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made in China during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years. [ 25 ] Due to fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [ W 7 ] Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org . [ 26 ] [ W 8 ] After an early period of exponential growth, [ 27 ] the growth rate of the English Wikipedia in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors appears to have peaked around early 2007. [ 28 ] The edition reached 3 million articles in August 2009. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. [ W 9 ] A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to "increased coordination and overhead costs, exclusion of newcomers, and resistance to new edits". [ 27 ] Others suggested that the growth flattened naturally because articles that could be called " low-hanging fruit "—topics that clearly merit an article—had already been created and built up extensively. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain, found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. [ 34 ] Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. [ 35 ] Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". [ 36 ] A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, reporting that since 2007 Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and suggesting that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. [ 37 ] In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. [ 38 ] In November 2013, New York magazine stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis." [ 39 ] The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline. [ 40 ] [ 41 ] On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about 2 billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost 9 percent." [ 42 ] Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." [ 42 ] When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky , associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." [ 42 ] By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally. [ 43 ] As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, [ 44 ] from which cloud computing was the most cited page. [ 45 ] Sister projects Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation . These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary , a dictionary project launched in December 2002, [ W 10 ] Wikiquote , a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, [ 46 ] Wikibooks , a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, [ W 11 ] Wikimedia Commons , a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, [ W 12 ] Wikinews , for collaborative journalism, [ W 13 ] and Wikiversity , a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [ W 14 ] Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies , is a catalog of all species, but is not open for public editing. [ 47 ] In 2012, Wikivoyage , an editable travel guide, [ 48 ] and Wikidata , an editable knowledge base, launched. [ W 15 ] Milestones In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. [ 49 ] With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked ninth, surpassing The New York Times (No. 10) and Apple (No. 11). [ 49 ] This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. [ 50 ] In 2014, it received 8 billion page views every month. [ W 16 ] On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". [ 51 ] As of March 2023 [update] , it ranked sixth in popularity, according to Similarweb . [ 52 ] Jeff Loveland and Joseph Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through " stigmergic accumulation". [ 53 ] [ 54 ] On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress —the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours . [ 55 ] More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content. [ 56 ] [ W 17 ] In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia , an asteroid , was named after Wikipedia; [ 57 ] in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument ; [ 58 ] and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia . [ 59 ] In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander , Beresheet , crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. [ 60 ] [ 61 ] In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA . [ 62 ] On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called " Vector 2022 ". [ 63 ] [ 64 ] It featured a redesigned menu bar , moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar , and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. [ 64 ] [ W 18 ] The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes. [ 63 ] [ 65 ] Both Sanger and Wales have given public interviews in late 2025 about their reflections about the status and state of Wikipedia leading up to its 25 years of operation on January 15, 2026; Wales appeared on the PBS television news show GZERO World interviewed by Ian Bremmer [ 66 ] and Sanger has appeared on the FOX news network interviewed by Ashley Rindsberg . [ 67 ] Wales's book The Seven Rules of Trust was published in October 2025 by Penguin Random House . It was described by the publisher as a "sweeping reflection on the global crisis of credibility and knowledge" with the book examining the "rules of trust" that enabled the growth and success of Wikipedia. [ 68 ] Impacts of generative AI on Wikipedia views Since January 2024, the Wikimedia Foundation has reported a roughly 50 percent increase in bandwidth use from downloads of multimedia content across its projects. According to the foundation, this growth is largely attributed to automated programs, or "scraper" bots, that collect large volumes of data from Wikimedia sites for use in training large language models and related applications. [ 69 ] In October 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported an estimated 8 percent decline in traffic as compared to the same months in 2024 in human page views. They speculate it reflects the use of generative AI and social media on how people tend to search for information. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Collaborative editing Restrictions Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only users with 10 edits that have an account that is four days old may create a new article. [ W 19 ] On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. [ 72 ] A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. [ 73 ] A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. [ W 20 ] A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas". [ 74 ] Wikipedia has delegated some functions to bots . Such algorithmic governance has an ease of implementation and scaling, though the automated rejection of edits may have contributed to a downturn in active Wikipedia editors. [ 75 ] Bots must be approved by the community before their tasks are implemented. [ 76 ] In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. [ W 21 ] Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. [ 77 ] Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published. [ 78 ] However, restrictions on editing may reduce the editor engagement as well as efforts to diversify the editing community. [ 79 ] Articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are placed under extended-confirmed protection. [ 80 ] Editors also can make only one revert per day across the entire field and can be banned from editing related articles. These restrictions were introduced in 2008. [ 81 ] In January 2025, the Arbitration Committee introduced the "balanced editing restriction", which requires sanctioned users to devote only a third of their edits to articles related to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict even when no misconduct rules have been violated. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] Review of changes Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. [ e ] [ 84 ] On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. [ W 22 ] "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems. [ W 23 ] In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction". [ 85 ] Vandalism Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. [ 86 ] Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively. [ W 24 ] Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair. [ 89 ] In the Seigenthaler biography incident , an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy . [ 89 ] It remained uncorrected for four months. [ 89 ] Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University , called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". [ 89 ] The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people. [ 92 ] Disputes and edit warring Wikipedia editors often have disagreements regarding content, which can be discussed on article Talk pages. Disputes may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". [ W 25 ] [ 93 ] It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, [ 94 ] and criticized as creating a competitive [ 95 ] and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles . [ 96 ] [ 97 ] Research has focused on, for example, impoliteness of disputes, [ 98 ] [ 99 ] the influence of rival editing camps, [ 100 ] [ 101 ] the conversational structure, [ 102 ] and the shift in conflicts to a focus on sources. [ 103 ] [ 104 ] Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. [ 105 ] [ 106 ] Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush , anarchism , and Muhammad . [ 106 ] By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia , Scientology , and 9/11 conspiracy theories . [ 106 ] In 2020, researchers identified other measures of editor behaviors, beyond mutual reverts, to identify editing conflicts across Wikipedia. [ 104 ] Editors also debate the deletion of articles on Wikipedia , with roughly 500,000 such debates since Wikipedia's inception. Once an article is nominated for deletion, the dispute is typically determined by initial votes (to keep or delete) and by reference to topic-specific notability policies. [ 107 ] Policies and content External videos Jimmy Wales , The Birth of Wikipedia, 2006, TED talks , 20 minutes Katherine Maher , What Wikipedia Teaches Us About Balancing Truth and Beliefs, 2022, TED talks , 15 minutes Wikipedia is composed of 11 different namespaces , with its articles being present in mainspace . Other namespaces have a prefix before their page title and fulfill various purposes. For example, the project namespace uses the Wikipedia prefix and is used for self-governance related discussions. Most readers are not aware of these other namespaces. [ 108 ] The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. [ W 26 ] The five pillars are: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility Wikipedia has no firm rules The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. [ 109 ] Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent. [ W 21 ] Content policies and guidelines According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. [ W 27 ] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability" , which generally means that the topic has been covered extensively in reliable sources that are independent of the article's subject. [ 110 ] Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized and therefore must not present original research. [ 111 ] Some subjects such as politicians and academics have specialized notability requirements. [ 110 ] Finally, Wikipedia must reflect a neutral point of view. This is accomplished through summarizing reliable sources, using impartial language, and ensuring that multiple points of view are presented based on their prominence. Information must also be verifiable. [ 112 ] Information without citations may be tagged or removed entirely. [ 113 ] This can at times lead to the removal of information which, though valid, is not properly sourced. [ 114 ] As Wikipedia policies changed over time, and became more complex, their number has grown. In 2008, there were 44 policy pages and 248 guideline pages; by 2013, scholars counted 383 policy pages and 449 guideline pages. [ 75 ] Governance Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. [ 115 ] [ 116 ] An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article. [ W 28 ] Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights , granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. Some user rights are granted automatically, such as the autoconfirmed and extended confirmed groups, when thresholds for account age and edits are met. [ 73 ] Administrators Experienced editors can choose to run for " adminship ", [ 117 ] which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. [ W 29 ] Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits. [ W 29 ] By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. [ 38 ] In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship. [ 118 ] Dispute resolution Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semi-formal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment", [ W 25 ] in which bots add the discussion to a centralized list of discussions, invite editors to participate, and remove the discussion from the list after 30 days. [ W 30 ] However, editors have the discretion to close (and delist) the discussion early or late. If the result of a discussion is not obvious, a closer—an uninvolved editor usually in good standing—may render a verdict from the strength of the arguments presented and then the numbers of arguers on each side. [ 119 ] Wikipedians emphasize that the process is not a vote by referring to statements of opinion in such discussions as "!vote"s, in which the exclamation mark is the symbol for logical negation and pronounced "not". [ 120 ] Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. [ 121 ] Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers . [ 121 ] : 62 A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings. [ 121 ] : 83 Arbitration Committee The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. [ 122 ] Statistical analyses suggest that the English Wikipedia committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, [ 123 ] functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. [ 122 ] Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). [ f ] Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). [ 122 ] Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and antisocial behavior . [ W 31 ] When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings. [ 122 ] Community Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate. [ 124 ] Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike , [ 125 ] although not always with entirely negative connotations. [ 126 ] Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials , has been referred to as " anti-elitism ". [ W 32 ] Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. [ 127 ] As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. [ 128 ] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". [ 129 ] Since Wikipedia relies on volunteer labour, editors frequently focus on topics that interest them. [ 130 ] The English Wikipedia has 7,122,774 articles, 51,074,164 registered editors, and 267,090 active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days. [ W 33 ] Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". [ 131 ] Editors who do not log in are in some sense " second-class citizens " on Wikipedia, [ 131 ] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", [ 132 ] but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty. [ 132 ] New editors often struggle to understand Wikipedia's complexity. Experienced editors are encouraged to not "bite" the newcomers in order to create a more welcoming atmosphere. [ 133 ] Research A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". [ 134 ] Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users ... 524 people ... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." [ 129 ] However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders". [ 129 ] In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that "one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." [ 135 ] This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz , who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [ 136 ] A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, [ 137 ] although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. [ 138 ] According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content". [ 139 ] Diversity Several studies have shown that most volunteer Wikipedia contributors are male. The results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. [ 140 ] Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. [ 141 ] Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown , gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. [ 141 ] Andrew Lih , a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". [ 142 ] Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors. [ 143 ] Language editions English (10.7%) Cebuano (9.20%) German (4.70%) French (4.10%) Swedish (4.00%) Dutch (3.30%) Spanish (3.10%) Russian (3.10%) Italian (2.90%) Polish (2.50%) Egyptian Arabic (2.50%) Chinese (2.30%) Japanese (2.20%) Ukrainian (2.10%) Vietnamese (2.00%) Arabic (2.00%) Waray (1.90%) Portuguese (1.90%) Persian (1.60%) Catalan (1.20%) Other (32.7%) There are currently 342 language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions , or simply Wikipedias ). As of January 2026, the six largest, in order of article count, are the English , Cebuano , German , French , Swedish , and Dutch Wikipedias. [ W 35 ] The second and fifth-largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot , which as of 2013 [update] had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia , and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias . The latter are both languages of the Philippines . In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each ( Spanish , Russian , Italian , Polish , Egyptian Arabic , Chinese , Japanese , Ukrainian , Vietnamese , Arabic , Waray , and Portuguese ), seven more have over 500,000 articles ( Persian , Catalan , Indonesian , Korean , Chechen , Serbian , and Norwegian ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. [ W 36 ] [ W 35 ] The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 7.1 million articles. As of January 2021, [update] the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic. [ W 37 ] Most viewed editions of Wikipedia, 2008–2024 Most edited editions of Wikipedia, 2001–2024 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 English 7,122,774 Cebuano 6,115,889 German 3,088,174 French 2,732,651 Swedish 2,621,894 Dutch 2,209,177 Spanish 2,087,385 Russian 2,080,543 Italian 1,952,325 Polish 1,681,454 Egyptian Arabic 1,630,376 Chinese 1,520,328 Japanese 1,486,306 Ukrainian 1,403,978 Vietnamese 1,297,325 Arabic 1,294,750 Waray 1,266,852 Portuguese 1,163,273 Persian 1,066,733 Catalan 787,329 Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color ) [ W 38 ] or points of view. [ W 39 ] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use . [ W 40 ] [ 145 ] The content of articles on the same subject can differ significantly between languages, depending on the sources editors use and other factors. [ 146 ] [ 147 ] Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". [ W 41 ] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). [ W 42 ] For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [ W 43 ] and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [ W 44 ] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. [ W 44 ] It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects. [ W 45 ] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. [ 149 ] [ W 46 ] A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the Simple English Wikipedia . [ 148 ] English Wikipedia editor numbers On March 1, 2014, The Economist , in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." [ 150 ] The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014. [ 150 ] In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia. [ 150 ] Reception Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation , which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words as of 2014. [update] [ 151 ] [ 121 ] Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias . In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". [ 152 ] Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's " undue-weight policy ", concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] [ 155 ] Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. [ 152 ] [ 156 ] A 2008 article in Education Next journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin . [ 157 ] In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online." [ 158 ] Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased . In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much " leftist bias". [ 159 ] Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger , who left Wikipedia in 2002 to establish competing websites, has said that Wikipedia had become "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. [ 160 ] [ 161 ] In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics. [ 162 ] Some studies suggest that Wikipedia (and in particular the English Wikipedia) has a "western cultural bias " (or "pro-western bias") [ 163 ] or "Eurocentric bias", [ 164 ] reiterating, says Anna Samoilenko, "similar biases that are found in the 'ivory tower' of academic historiography". Carwil Bjork-James proposes that Wikipedia could follow the diversification pattern of contemporary scholarship [ 165 ] and Dangzhi Zhao calls for a "decolonization" of Wikipedia to reduce bias from opinionated White male editors. [ 166 ] In October 2025, Larry Sanger published his Nine Theses , a critical assessment and reform agenda for Wikipedia. The proposal is part of his broader effort to address what Sanger perceives as systemic issues within Wikipedia, which include ideological bias, lack of transparency in the editor hierarchies and an ineffective consensus-based decision making procedure. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Accuracy of content External audio The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1 , Ideas with Paul Kennedy , CBC , January 15, 2014 Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts , lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. [ 169 ] However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica , about three." [ 170 ] Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." [ 171 ] [ failed verification ] Others raised similar critiques. [ 172 ] The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica , [ 173 ] [ 174 ] and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica . [ 175 ] In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Nature ' s manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals ), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size , 42 or 4 × 10 1 articles compared, vs >10 5 and >10 6 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively). [ 176 ] As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. [ W 47 ] Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, [ 177 ] vandalism , and similar problems. Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources". [ 178 ] Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [ 179 ] Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". [ 180 ] In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that: "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate ... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopædia Britannica , summarizing that "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty." [ 181 ] Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. [ 182 ] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. [ 183 ] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. [ 184 ] Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles. [ 185 ] External videos Inside Wikipedia – Attack of the PR Industry , Deutsche Welle , 7:13 mins [ 186 ] Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls , spammers , and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia. [ 84 ] [ W 48 ] In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. [ 187 ] The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher , the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. ' " [ 187 ] [ 188 ] [ 189 ] [ 190 ] [ 191 ] These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report . [ 192 ] Discouragement in education Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work , preferring primary sources ; [ 193 ] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [ 194 ] [ 195 ] Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. [ 196 ] Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said. [ 197 ] In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi , although without realizing the articles might change. [ 198 ] In June 2007, Michael Gorman , former president of the American Library Association , condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything". [ 199 ] A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education " flipped classroom ", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education. [ 200 ] Medical information On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." [ 201 ] Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues , as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. [ 201 ] In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." [ 202 ] Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed." [ 202 ] Coverage of topics and systemic bias Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space , it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. [ W 49 ] The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism ). [ 203 ] [ 204 ] Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [ W 50 ] The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. [ 205 ] The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China [ 206 ] and Pakistan, [ 207 ] among other countries. [ 208 ] [ 209 ] [ 210 ] Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles. [ 211 ] A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science". [ 212 ] An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers . [ 213 ] Systemic biases Wikipedia's policies may limit "its capacity for truly representing global knowledge". For example, Wikipedia only considers published sources to be reliable. Oral knowledge of Indigenous cultures is not always reflected in print. Marginalized topics are also more likely to lack significant coverage in reliable sources. Wikipedia's content is therefore limited as a result of larger systemic biases. [ 214 ] Academic studies of Wikipedia have shown that the average contributor to the English Wikipedia is an educated, technically inclined white male, aged 15–49, from a developed, predominantly Christian country. [ 215 ] The corresponding point of view (POV) is over-represented. [ 216 ] [ 165 ] This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias , gender bias , and geographical bias on Wikipedia . [ 217 ] [ 218 ] There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references). [ 216 ] Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view . [ 217 ] In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". [ 36 ] The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors . [ 37 ] Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, with Africa being the most underrepresented. [ 219 ] Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events. [ 220 ] Explicit content Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. [ 221 ] Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces , cadaver , human penis , vulva , and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children. [ W 51 ] The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation , illustrations of zoophilia , and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children . [ W 52 ] The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer —a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions —features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers. [ 222 ] In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law . [ 223 ] [ 224 ] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon , were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003 . [ 225 ] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law . [ 225 ] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. [ 226 ] Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, [ 227 ] saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." [ 227 ] Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". [ 228 ] Critics, including Wikipediocracy , noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. [ 229 ] Privacy One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia regards one's right to remain a private citizen rather than a public figure in the eyes of the law. [ 230 ] [ g ] It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life . The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment". [ W 53 ] In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic , aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated. [ 231 ] Wikipedia has a " .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} Volunteer Response Team " that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS [ W 54 ] to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project. [ W 55 ] In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the UK's Online Safety Bill legislation. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers. [ 232 ] Sexism Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment . [ 233 ] [ 234 ] The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. [ 235 ] Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics. [ 236 ] In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. [ W 56 ] [ 237 ] Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. [ 237 ] [ 238 ] Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou . [ 237 ] Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." [ 239 ] Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage. [ 239 ] A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University 's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men." [ 240 ] Operation Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation , a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks . [ W 57 ] The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. [ 241 ] [ W 58 ] The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million. [ W 59 ] In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. [ W 60 ] The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background, from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." [ 242 ] [ 243 ] The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue ( paid advocacy ) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency ... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said. [ 242 ] Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, [ W 61 ] Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. [ W 62 ] Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority ... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words." [ 142 ] Maher served as executive director until April 2021. [ 244 ] Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community. [ 245 ] Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates . These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimedia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia. [ W 63 ] Software operations and support The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki , a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. [ W 64 ] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language , variables , a transclusion system for templates , and URL redirection . [ W 65 ] MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. [ W 64 ] [ W 66 ] Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. [ W 67 ] Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske . The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker . Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software. [ W 68 ] In April 2005, a Lucene extension [ W 69 ] [ W 70 ] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch . [ W 71 ] In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor , was opened to public use. [ 246 ] [ 247 ] [ 248 ] It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". [ 249 ] The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward. [ W 72 ] Automated editing Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. [ W 73 ] [ 250 ] [ 251 ] One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson , created articles with his bot Lsjbot , which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. [ 252 ] Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). [ W 74 ] Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. [ 250 ] Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. [ 253 ] Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation. [ W 75 ] According to Andrew Lih , the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots. [ 254 ] Hardware operations and support As of 2021, [update] page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server . [ W 76 ] Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. [ W 76 ] The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. [ 255 ] Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. [ W 77 ] By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia . [ W 78 ] [ 256 ] A second application data center was created in 2014 in Carrollton, Texas , to improve Wikipedia's reliability. [ 257 ] [ 258 ] Both datacenters work as the primary one, in alternate semesters, with the other one working as secondary datacenter. [ 259 ] In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore , the first of its kind in Asia. [ W 79 ] In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille , France. [ W 80 ] In 2024, a caching data center was opened in São Paulo , the first of its kind in South America. [ W 81 ] As of November 2024, [update] caching clusters are located in Amsterdam , San Francisco, Singapore, Marseille, and São Paulo. [ W 82 ] [ W 83 ] Internal research and operational development Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, [ 37 ] the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. [ 260 ] Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. [ 37 ] [ 249 ] The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe , who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. [ 261 ] At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, [ W 84 ] the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. [ 261 ] In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, [ W 85 ] updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually. [ 261 ] Internal news publications Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia 's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. [ 262 ] [ 263 ] The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects . [ W 86 ] The Wikipedia Library Wikipedia editors sometimes struggle to access paywalled sources needed to improve a subject. [ 264 ] The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications , so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. [ 265 ] [ 266 ] Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers." [ 267 ] Access to content Content licensing When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. [ W 87 ] The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL . This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. [ 268 ] In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. [ W 88 ] Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. [ W 89 ] In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009. [ W 90 ] [ W 91 ] [ W 92 ] [ W 93 ] The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, [ W 94 ] while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law ). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons ' CC BY-SA ) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. [ W 95 ] Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text. [ 269 ] The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France. [ 270 ] [ 271 ] Methods of access Since Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. [ W 96 ] The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website. Thousands of " mirror sites " exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com . [ 272 ] [ 273 ] Another example is Wapedia , which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. [ W 97 ] Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset ) [ 274 ] and DuckDuckGo . Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs . An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. [ W 98 ] The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, [ W 99 ] the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, [ W 100 ] and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. [ W 101 ] Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children , is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen. [ W 102 ] There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [ 275 ] [ W 103 ] Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM . [ 276 ] The website DBpedia , begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. [ 277 ] Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF . [ W 104 ] As of February 2023, [update] it has over 101 million items. [ W 105 ] WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009. [ W 106 ] Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. [ W 107 ] Wikipedia publishes " dumps " of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2023, [update] there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. [ W 108 ] Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this. [ 278 ] Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation , the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk , with an accuracy of 55 percent. [ 279 ] Mobile access Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection . Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller , deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." In 2014 The New York Times reported that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment. [ 51 ] By 2023, the Wikimedia Foundation's staff had grown to over 700 employees. [ 1 ] Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. [ W 97 ] In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone , Android -based devices, or WebOS -based devices. [ W 109 ] Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation . [ 280 ] [ 281 ] The Android app for Wikipedia was released in January 2012, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. [ W 110 ] [ W 111 ] The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews. [ W 112 ] Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. [ W 113 ] [ 282 ] It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators. [ W 113 ] Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, [ 283 ] and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. [ 37 ] Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it. [ 283 ] [ 284 ] Chinese access Access to Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. [ 6 ] [ 285 ] [ 286 ] This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult. [ 287 ] Cultural influence Trusted source to combat fake news In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. [ 288 ] [ 289 ] Noam Cohen , writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out ' fake news '." [ 289 ] [ 290 ] Readership In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, ... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." [ 51 ] However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. [ 43 ] The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022. [ 43 ] In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [ W 114 ] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. [ 291 ] The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [ W 115 ] The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. [ 292 ] In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements. [ 293 ] According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization. [ W 116 ] As of February 2023, [update] Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month. [ W 1 ] COVID-19 pandemic During the COVID-19 pandemic , Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. [ 294 ] [ 295 ] [ 296 ] [ 297 ] Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." [ 295 ] In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. [ 298 ] There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias, as of November 2021. [update] [ 299 ] [ 300 ] Cultural significance Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. [ W 117 ] [ 301 ] [ 302 ] The Parliament of Canada 's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act . [ 303 ] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization [ 304 ] —though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. [ 305 ] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. [ 306 ] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [ 307 ] Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [ 308 ] [ 309 ] often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia . [ 310 ] [ 311 ] [ 312 ] [ 313 ] In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit , MySpace , and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. [ 314 ] On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign , saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [ 315 ] An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability. [ 316 ] One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama . He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [ 317 ] A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford -based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence ) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing ... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth". [ 318 ] [ 319 ] In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired , Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web " and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services , the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than " sapere aude " ( lit. ' dare to know ' ), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know." [ 320 ] Awards Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. [ W 118 ] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category. [ 321 ] In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić , Eckart Höfling , and Peter Gabriel . The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger . [ 322 ] In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize , which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, [ 323 ] and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. [ 324 ] Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users. [ 325 ] Satire Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality , meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". [ 192 ] Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion , [ 326 ] as well as the 2010 The Onion article " 'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today". [ 327 ] In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office , office manager ( Michael Scott ) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. [ 328 ] Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page. [ 329 ] " My Number One Doctor ", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs , played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide . [ 330 ] In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [ 331 ] The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia." [ 332 ] In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia , which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. [ 333 ] Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [ 334 ] On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" [ 335 ] The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman . [ 336 ] In June 2024, nature.com published a fictional Wikipedia Talk page under the title "Plastic-eating fungus caused doomsday" by Emma Burnett. The Talk page concerned a fictional article describing the unintended consequences of the release of a plastic-eating fungus to clean up an oil spill. The article contained Talk page topics found on Wikipedia, like discussions of changes in the articles priority level. [ 337 ] Publishing The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica , which were unable to compete with a free alternative. [ 338 ] [ 339 ] [ 340 ] Nicholas Carr 's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0 " criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [ 341 ] Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson , the former editor-in-chief of Wired , wrote in Nature that the " wisdom of crowds " approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes. [ 342 ] Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". [ 343 ] Kathryn Hughes , professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?" [ 343 ] Research use Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics , information retrieval and natural language processing . [ 344 ] [ 345 ] In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", [ 346 ] and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation . [ 347 ] Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia. [ 348 ] In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. [ 349 ] [ 350 ] [ 351 ] They used PageRank , CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". [ 351 ] [ 352 ] The study was updated in 2019. [ 353 ] In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had "never caught it out". He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it. [ 354 ] A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used in Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications. [ 355 ] Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence [ 319 ] to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism [ 356 ] [ 357 ] and data quality assessment in Wikipedia. [ 358 ] [ 359 ] Related projects Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project , which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008. [ 360 ] Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2 ), [ 361 ] with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE ). [ W 119 ] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2 , which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative. [ 362 ] Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review , such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium . [ 363 ] [ 364 ] The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia. [ 365 ] [ 366 ] See also Internet portal Wikipedia portal Democratization of knowledge Interpedia – an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia List of films about Wikipedia List of online encyclopedias List of Wikipedia controversies List of wikis Missing Links and Secret Histories Network effect Outline of Wikipedia – guide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines QRpedia – multilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia Wikipedia Review Notes ^ Registration is required for certain tasks, such as editing protected pages, creating pages on the English Wikipedia, and uploading files. ^ Most text is also dual-licensed under GFDL ; media licensing varies. ^ Pronounced / ˌ w ɪ k ɪ ˈ p iː d i ə / ⓘ WIK -ih- PEE -dee-ə or / ˌ w ɪ k i -/ ⓘ WIK -ee- PEE -dee-ə in English ^ Available as an archive at the Nostalgia Wikipedia ^ Revisions with libelous content, criminal threats, or copyright infringements may be removed completely. ^ The committee may directly rule that a content change is inappropriate, but may not directly rule that certain content is inappropriate. ^ See "Libel" by David McHam for the legal distinction. References Footnotes ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Seitz-Gruwell, Lisa (October 23, 2023). 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ISSN 2573-0142 . ^ Petroni, Fabio; Broscheit, Samuel; Piktus, Aleksandra; Lewis, Patrick; Izacard, Gautier; Hosseini, Lucas; Dwivedi-Yu, Jane; Lomeli, Maria; Schick, Timo; Bevilacqua, Michele; Mazaré, Pierre-Emmanuel; Joulin, Armand; Grave, Edouard; Riedel, Sebastian (2023). "Improving Wikipedia verifiability with AI" . Nature Machine Intelligence . 5 (10): 1142– 1148. arXiv : 2207.06220 . doi : 10.1038/s42256-023-00726-1 . ^ Heart Internet. "Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface" . Archived from the original on May 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 9, 2014 . ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 21, 2000). "The next generation of online encyclopedias" . CNN . Archived from the original on August 14, 2004 . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ Rubin, Harriet (May 31, 1998). "The Hitchhikers Guide to the New Economy" . Fast Company . Retrieved February 4, 2023 . ^ "Encyclopedia of Life" . National Museum of Natural History . Smithsonian . 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Retrieved November 6, 2012. ^ a b Wikipedia:Dispute resolution ^ Wikipedia:Five pillars ^ Wikipedia:Citing sources : "Wikipedia's verifiability policy requires inline citations for any material challenged or likely to be challenged, and for all quotations, anywhere in article space." ^ Wikipedia:Ownership of content : "No one "owns" content (including articles or any page at Wikipedia)." ^ a b Wikipedia:Administrators ^ Wikipedia:Requests for comment ^ Wikipedia:Banning policy ^ Sanger, Larry (December 31, 2004). "Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism" . Kuro5hin , Op–Ed . Archived from the original on November 1, 2021 . Retrieved March 26, 2021 . There is a certain mindset associated with unmoderated Usenet groups [...] that infects the collectively-managed Wikipedia project: if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you [...] demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship", attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll. [...] The root problem: anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise. There is a deeper problem [...] which explains both of the above-elaborated problems. Namely, as a community, Wikipedia lacks the habit or tradition of respect for expertise. As a community, far from being elitist, it is anti-elitist (which, in this context, means that expertise is not accorded any special respect, and snubs and disrespect of expertise are tolerated). This is one of my failures: a policy that I attempted to institute in Wikipedia's first year, but for which I did not muster adequate support, was the policy of respecting and deferring politely to experts. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 1– 107. ISBN 978-0-367-55571-9 . Further reading Balke, Jeff (March 2008). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" . Houston Chronicle . Broken Record (blog). Archived from the original on December 29, 2008 . Retrieved December 17, 2008 . Borland, John (August 14, 2007). "See Who's Editing Wikipedia – Diebold, the CIA, a Campaign" . Wired . Archived from the original on November 16, 2015 . Retrieved October 23, 2018 . Dee, Jonathan (July 1, 2007). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" . The New York Times Magazine . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Giles, Jim (September 20, 2007). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" . New Scientist . Retrieved January 14, 2008 . Miliard, Mike (December 2, 2007). "Wikipedia Rules" . The Phoenix . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . Poe, Marshall (September 1, 2006). "The Hive" . The Atlantic Monthly . Retrieved March 22, 2008 . Rosenwald, Michael S. (October 23, 2009). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a DuPont Circle bedroom" . The Washington Post . Retrieved October 22, 2009 . Runciman, David (May 28, 2009). "Like Boiling a Frog" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on May 27, 2009 . Retrieved June 3, 2009 . Stix, Gary , "Wiki-Curious: Are you a 'busybody,' a 'hunter" or a 'dancer'?", Scientific American , vol. 332, no. 2 (February 2025), p. 18. "'Curiosity actually works by connecting pieces of information, not just acquiring them.'" Taylor, Chris (May 29, 2005). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" . Time . Archived from the original on June 2, 2005 . Retrieved February 22, 2008 . "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" . The Economist . June 5, 2008 . Retrieved June 5, 2008 . Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that anyone can edit. What will he do next? "Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries" , BBC News, October 21, 2013. "The Decline of Wikipedia" Archived October 23, 2013, at the Library of Congress Web Archives, MIT Technology Review , October 22, 2013 "Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1 Police Plaza" Archived March 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine (March 2015), Capital Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard "Dark Side of Wikipedia" . Full Measure . Archived from the original on August 4, 2016 . Retrieved April 17, 2016 . Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson , April 17, 2016. (Includes video.) Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). "How Wikipedia Works" . Cato Institute . Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users. The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus , Ideas, with Paul Kennedy , CBC Radio One , originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here ). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required). "So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent , February 3, 2009. Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019 . Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo. Academic studies Leitch, Thomas (2014). Wikipedia U: Knowledge, authority, and a liberal education in the digital age . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1535-2 . Jensen, Richard (October 2012). "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812" (PDF) . The Journal of Military History . 76 (4): 523– 556. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2012. Yasseri, Taha; Sumi, Robert; Kertész, János (2012). Szolnoki, Attila (ed.). "Circadian Patterns of Wikipedia Editorial Activity: A Demographic Analysis" . PLOS ONE . 7 (1) e30091. arXiv : 1109.1746 . Bibcode : 2012PLoSO...730091Y . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0030091 . PMC 3260192 . PMID 22272279 . Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences". Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law . 8 . SSRN 1458162 . ( A blog post by the author. ) Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (8). arXiv : 0805.1154 . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.246.4536 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i8.1997 . S2CID 58893 . Pfeil, Ulrike; Zaphiris, Panayiotis; Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia" . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication . 12 (1): 88. doi : 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Priedhorsky; Reid; Chen, Jilin; Shyong (Tony) K. Lam; Panciera, Katherine; Terveen, Loren ; Riedl, John (2007). "Creating, destroying, and restoring value in Wikipedia". Proceedings of the 2007 international ACM conference on Conference on supporting group work – Group '07 . pp. 259– 268. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.123.7456 . doi : 10.1145/1316624.1316663 . ISBN 978-1-59593-845-9 . S2CID 15350808 . Reagle, Joseph (2007). Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia (PDF) . WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis . Montreal: ACM. hdl : 2047/d20002876 . Retrieved December 26, 2008 . Rijshouwer, Emiel (2019). Organizing Democracy. Power concentration and self-organization in the evolution of Wikipedia (PhD, Erasmus University Rotterdam) . Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. hdl : 1765/113937 . ISBN 978-94-028-1371-5 . OCLC 1081174169 . (Open access) Rosenzweig, Roy . Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past . (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.) Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Huberman, Bernardo A. (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" . First Monday . 12 (4). arXiv : cs/0702140 . Bibcode : 2007cs........2140W . CiteSeerX 10.1.1.342.6933 . doi : 10.5210/fm.v12i4.1763 . hdl : 2027.42/136037 . S2CID 10484077 . Halfaker, Aaron; R. Stuart Geiger; Morgan, Jonathan T.; Riedl, John (2012). "The Rise and Decline of an Open Collaboration Community". American Behavioral Scientist . 57 (5): 664. doi : 10.1177/0002764212469365 . S2CID 144208941 . Maggio, Lauren A.; Willinsky, John M. ; Steinberg, Ryan M.; Mietchen, Daniel; Wass, Joseph L.; Dong, Ting (2017). "Wikipedia as a gateway to biomedical research: The relative distribution and use of citations in the English Wikipedia" . PLOS One . 12 (12) e0190046. PLOS . Bibcode : 2017PLoSO..1290046M . doi : 10.1371/journal.pone.0190046 . PMC 5739466 . PMID 29267345 . Books Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur . Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5 . (Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.) Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Listen to: Keen, Andrew (June 16, 2007). "Does the Internet Undermine Culture?" . National Public Radio, US . The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. Ayers, Phoebe; Matthews, Charles; Yates, Ben (2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can Be a Part of It . San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3 . Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia – The Missing Manual . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51516-4 . (See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.) Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide . Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 978-0-596-52174-5 . Rafaeli, Sheizaf ; Ariel, Yaron (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution in Wikipedia". In Barak, A. (ed.). Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . pp. 243 –267. ISBN 978-0-521-69464-3 . Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality . Siduri. ISBN 978-0-9562052-0-9 . Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia . New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6 . O'Sullivan, Dan (2009). Wikipedia: a new community of practice? . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-7433-7 . Rahmstorf, Olaf (2023). Wikipedia – die rationale Seite der Digitalisierung? (in German). transcript Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8394-5862-4 . Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia . Cambridge, MA: the MIT Press . ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2 . Retrieved October 25, 2015 . Jemielniak, Dariusz (2014). Common Knowledge? An Ethnography of Wikipedia . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press . ISBN 978-0-8047-8944-8 . Reagle, Joseph; Koerner, Jackie, eds. (2020). Wikipedia @ 20: Stories of an Incomplete Revolution . MIT Press . doi : 10.7551/mitpress/12366.001.0001 . ISBN 978-0-262-53817-6 . Retrieved October 13, 2020 . Bruckman, Amy S. (2022). Should You Believe Wikipedia?: Online Communities and the Construction of Knowledge . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781108780704 . ISBN 978-1-108-78070-4 . Book review–related articles Baker, Nicholson . "The Charms of Wikipedia" . The New York Review of Books , March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual , by John Broughton, as listed previously.) Crovitz, L. Gordon . "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal online – April 6, 2009.) Postrel, Virginia , "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it" , Pacific Standard , November/December 2014 issue. External links Official website – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions) Wikipedia on Twitter Wikipedia on Instagram Wikipedia collected news and commentary at The Guardian Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia Ro, Christine (February 19, 2025). "Why these scientists devote time to editing and updating Wikipedia". Nature . doi : 10.1038/d41586-025-00244-7 . 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Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Maryana Iskander Lisa Seitz-Gruwell Dariusz Jemielniak Rebecca MacKinnon Raju Narisetti Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight Esra'a Al Shafei Jimmy Wales Incoming Bernadette Meehan Bernadette Meehan Past Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Hampton Lintorn-Catlin Danese Cooper Bishakha Datta Florence Devouard Oscar van Dillen Sue Gardner Arnnon Geshuri Mike Godwin Aaron Halfaker James Heilman Guy Kawasaki Patricio Lorente Katherine Maher Erik Möller Larry Sanger María Sefidari Lila Tretikov Luis Villa Projects Wikipedia history List of Wikipedias Censorship of Wikipedia Wiktionary Wikimedia Commons Wikidata Wikiquote Wikibooks Wikisource 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NSA Knowledge Engine Related The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage The Signpost Wikipedia Monument Wikimedian of the Year Tides Foundation Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects Google and Wikipedia Wikipedia for World Heritage v t e Wikis v t e Types Fan Personal Medical Semantic Fan Personal Medical Semantic Components Software Software Lists Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Fan wikis LocalWikis Wikis Wiki software Wikipedias Wiktionaries Comparisons Software Wiki farms Software Wiki farms Notable wikis Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Ballotpedia Biographicon Book Drum Chalo Chatu Conservapedia DavisWiki Diplopedia Encyclopedia Dramatica Engineering and Technology History Wiki Family History Research Wiki Gene Wiki Geo-Wiki Giant Bomb Gynopedia The Hidden Wiki Intellipedia LifeWiki LocalWiki Moegirlpedia Namuwiki Open protein structure annotation network Qiuwen Baike RationalWiki Resistance Manual Rigveda Wiki Ruwiki Sky-Map.org The Cutting Room Floor TV Tropes Uncyclopedia WikiArt WikiFactor Wikifonia wikiHow Wikiloc Wikimania Wikipedia WikiProfessional Wikiprogress Wikirating WikiStage Wikistrat WikiTribune Wowpedia Wiki farms Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint Confluence Fandom PBworks Wetpaint See also Wikis and education History Creole .wiki Wikis and education History Creole .wiki v t e Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation v t e Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program 1981: José López Portillo 1982: Enrique V. Iglesias 1983: Belisario Betancur 1984: Contadora group 1985: Raúl Alfonsín 1986: University of Salamanca and University of Coimbra 1987: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar 1988: Óscar Arias 1989: Jacques Delors and Mikhail Gorbachev 1990: Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1991: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 1992: Frederik W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela 1993: United Nations Blue Berets stationed in Ex-Yugoslavia 1994: Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat 1995: Mário Soares 1996: Helmut Kohl 1997: Government of Guatemala and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity 1998: Emma Bonino , Olayinka Koso-Thomas , Graça Machel , Fatiha Boudiaf , Rigoberta Menchú , Fatana Ishaq Gailani , and Somaly Mam 1999: Pedro Duque , John Glenn , Chiaki Mukai , and Valeri Polyakov 2000: Fernando Henrique Cardoso 2001: International Space Station 2002: The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 2003: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva 2004: The European Union's Erasmus Programme 2005: Simone Veil 2006: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation 2007: Al Gore 2008: Manhiça Centre of Health Research (Mozambique), Ifakara Health Institute (Tanzania), Malaria Research and Training Centre (Mali), and Kintampo Health Research Centre (Ghana) 2009: World Health Organization 2010: The Transplantation Society and the Spanish National Transplant Organization 2011: Bill Drayton 2012: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 2013: Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2014: Fulbright Program Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Princess of Asturias Award for International Cooperation 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi 2015: Wikipedia 2016: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement 2017: The Hispanic Society of America 2018: Amref Health Africa 2019: Salman Khan and the Khan Academy 2020: Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance 2021: Camfed, Campaign for Female Education 2022: Ellen MacArthur 2023: Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi) 2024: Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture (OEI) 2025: Mario Draghi Definitions from 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Help | Advanced Search quick links Login Help Pages About Computer Science > Artificial Intelligence Title: NSR-Boost: A Neuro-Symbolic Residual Boosting Framework for Industrial Legacy Models Abstract: Although the Gradient Boosted Decision Trees (GBDTs) dominate industrial tabular applications, upgrading legacy models in high-concurrency production environments still faces prohibitive retraining costs and systemic risks. To address this problem, we present NSR-Boost, a neuro-symbolic residual boosting framework designed specifically for industrial scenarios. Its core advantage lies in being "non-intrusive". It treats the legacy model as a frozen model and performs targeted repairs on "hard regions" where predictions fail. The framework comprises three key stages: first, finding hard regions through residuals, then generating interpretable experts by generating symbolic code structures using Large Language Model (LLM) and fine-tuning parameters using Bayesian optimization, and finally dynamically integrating experts with legacy model output through a lightweight aggregator. We report on the successful deployment of NSR-Boost within the core financial risk control system at Qfin Holdings. This framework not only significantly outperforms state-of-the-art (SOTA) baselines across six public datasets and one private dataset, more importantly, shows excellent performance gains on real-world online data. In conclusion, it effectively captures long-tail risks missed by traditional models and offers a safe, low-cost evolutionary paradigm for industry. Subjects: Artificial Intelligence (cs.AI) Cite as: arXiv:2601.10457 [cs.AI] (or arXiv:2601.10457v1 [cs.AI] for this version) Focus to learn more arXiv-issued DOI via DataCite (pending registration) Submission history Access Paper: View PDF HTML (experimental) TeX Source References & Citations NASA ADS Google Scholar Semantic Scholar BibTeX formatted citation Bookmark Bibliographic and Citation Tools Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Author Venue Institution Topic arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs . About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status arXiv Operational Status
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Cëtëjë nen artikel Zobacz skrócony adres URL Pobierz kod QR Przełącz na starszy parser Ùsadzë ksążkã Zladënk jakò PDF Wersëjô do drëkù Wikimedia Commons Element Wikipòdôwków Swiãta ë ùroczëznë [ edicëjô | editëjë zdrój ] Mionowi dzéń (Jimieninë): Antonégò, Roscysława Swiãta ë ùroczëznë Mionowi dzéń (Jimieninë): Antonégò, Roscysława Wëdarzenia [ edicëjô | editëjë zdrój ] 1819 - Simón Bolívar ògłosył ùsôdztwò Kolumbii jakò państwa 1920 – wòjskò polscze zaczęłe przejmowanie Gduńsczego Pòmòrza od Miemcow 1945 - wòjskò sowieccze wchòdzy do Warszawy, Zgierza, Jasła i Gorlic Wëdarzenia 1819 - Simón Bolívar ògłosył ùsôdztwò Kolumbii jakò państwa 1920 – wòjskò polscze zaczęłe przejmowanie Gduńsczego Pòmòrza od Miemcow 1945 - wòjskò sowieccze wchòdzy do Warszawy, Zgierza, Jasła i Gorlic Ùrodzëlë sã [ edicëjô | editëjë zdrój ] 1706 - Benjamin Franklin , amerikańsczi pòlitikôrz, fizëk, wënalôzca (ùm. 1790) 1820 - Anne Brontë , anielskô runitkô (ùm. 1849) 1860 - Antón Czechow , rusczi runita (ùm. 1904) 1899 - Al Capone , amerikańsczi gangster (ùm. 1947). 1927 - Eartha Kitt , amerikańskô teatrownica (ùm. 2008). 1931 - James Earl Jones , amerikańsczi teatrownik 1942 - Muhammad Ali , amerikańsczi bokser (ùm. 2016) 1964 - Michelle Obama , amerikańskô pierszô damô i prawniczkô Ùrodzëlë sã 1706 - Benjamin Franklin , amerikańsczi pòlitikôrz, fizëk, wënalôzca (ùm. 1790) 1820 - Anne Brontë , anielskô runitkô (ùm. 1849) 1860 - Antón Czechow , rusczi runita (ùm. 1904) 1899 - Al Capone , amerikańsczi gangster (ùm. 1947). 1927 - Eartha Kitt , amerikańskô teatrownica (ùm. 2008). 1931 - James Earl Jones , amerikańsczi teatrownik 1942 - Muhammad Ali , amerikańsczi bokser (ùm. 2016) 1964 - Michelle Obama , amerikańskô pierszô damô i prawniczkô Ùmarlë [ edicëjô | editëjë zdrój ] 395 - Teodozjusz, cesôrz rzëmsczi (ùr. 347) 1468 - Skanderbeg , albańsczi bohater nôrodni (ùr. ~1405). 1961 - Patrice Lumumba , pierszi premier DR Kongo (ùr. 1925) 1966 - Kazimierz Jasnoch 2004 - Czesław Niemen , polski spiéwôr, kompozitora (ùr. 1939) Ùmarlë 395 - Teodozjusz, cesôrz rzëmsczi (ùr. 347) 1468 - Skanderbeg , albańsczi bohater nôrodni (ùr. ~1405). 1961 - Patrice Lumumba , pierszi premier DR Kongo (ùr. 1925) 1966 - Kazimierz Jasnoch 2004 - Czesław Niemen , polski spiéwôr, kompozitora (ùr. 1939) Przësłowié [ edicëjô | editëjë zdrój ] Nie wierz jasnémù niebù ë człowiekòwi, co sã wiedno ùsmiéwô. Kalãdarium : Stëcznik - Gromicznik - Strëmiannik - Łżëkwiat - Môj - Czerwińc Lëpińc - Zélnik - Séwnik - Pazdzérznik - Lëstopadnik - Gòdnik Przësłowié Nie wierz jasnémù niebù ë człowiekòwi, co sã wiedno ùsmiéwô. Stëcznik Na starna bëła slédno editowónô: 24 lës 2021, 23:53. Strona została wyrenderowana z wykorzystaniem Parsoida . Hewòtny tekst je dostãpny na [ licencje Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike ], w niechtërnëch przëtrôfkach mògą równak dochadac dodôwkòwé zastrzedżi. Czëtôj wiãcy: Warënczi kòrzëstaniô . Òchrona priwatnoscë Ò Wikipediji Prawné zastrzedżi Powszechne Zasady Postępowania Rozwijarze Statystyki Ò kùszkach Mòbilnô wersëjô.
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Composition Toggle Composition subsection 1.1 Leadership 1.2 Members of the 136th House of Representatives 1.1 Leadership 1.2 Members of the 136th House of Representatives 2 Officials Toggle Officials subsection 2.1 Speaker of the House 2.2 Clerk of the House 2.3 Sergeant-at-Arms 2.1 Speaker of the House 2.2 Clerk of the House 2.3 Sergeant-at-Arms 3 Standing Committees 4 Past composition of the House of Representatives 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links Ohio House of Representatives العربية 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Deutsch Ελληνικά Español Français Italiano עברית Latina مصرى 日本語 Simple English Svenska 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Ohio House of Representatives 136th Ohio General Assembly Type Type Lower House Term limits 4 terms (8 years total) History New session started January 3, 2023 Leadership Speaker Matt Huffman ( R ) since January 6, 2025 Speaker pro tempore Gayle Manning ( R ) since January 6, 2025 Majority Leader Marilyn John ( R ) since January 6, 2025 Minority Leader Dani Isaacsohn ( D ) since June 24, 2025 Structure Seats 99 Seat display Map display Political groups Majority .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (65) Minority Democratic (34) .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} Republican (65) Minority Democratic (34) Length of term 2 years Authority Article II, Ohio Constitution Salary $68,674/year Elections Last election November 5, 2024 (99 seats) Next election November 5, 2026 (99 seats) Redistricting Ohio Redistricting Commission Meeting place House of Representatives Chamber Ohio Statehouse Columbus, Ohio Website Ohio House of Representatives The Ohio House of Representatives is the lower house of the Ohio General Assembly , the state legislature of the U.S. state of Ohio ; the other house of the bicameral legislature being the Ohio Senate . The House of Representatives first met in Chillicothe on March 3, 1803, under the later superseded state constitution of that year. In 1816, the capital was moved to Columbus , where it is located today. [ 1 ] Members are limited to four successive two-year elected terms (terms are considered successive if they are separated by less than four years). [ 2 ] Time served by appointment to fill out another representative's uncompleted term does not count against the term limit. There are 99 members in the house, elected from single-member districts. Every even-numbered year, all the seats are up for re-election. Composition Party (Shading indicates majority caucus) Total Vacant Democratic Republican End of previous Assembly 32 67 99 0 Begin 2025 Session 34 65 99 0 Latest voting share 34% 66% Leadership Presiding Officers Speaker of the House Matt Huffman Speaker Pro Tempore Gayle Manning Assistant Speaker Pro Tempore Phil Plummer Majority Leadership Majority Floor Leader Marilyn John Assistant Majority Floor Leader Adam Bird Majority Whip Riordan McClain , Steve Demetriou , Nick Santucci , Josh Williams Minority Leadership Minority Leader Dani Isaacsohn Assistant Minority Leader Phil Robinson Minority Whip Beryl Piccolantonio Assistant Minority Whip Desiree Tims Members of the 136th House of Representatives District Representative Party Residence Counties represented First elected Term limited 1 Dontavius Jarrells Democratic Columbus Franklin (part) 2020 2028 2 Latyna Humphrey Democratic Columbus Franklin (part) 2021↑ 2030 3 Ismail Mohamed Democratic Columbus Franklin (part) 2022 2030 4 Beryl Piccolantonio Democratic Gahanna Franklin (part) 2024↑ 2032 5 Meredith Lawson-Rowe Democratic Reynoldsburg Franklin (part) 2024 2032 6 Christine Cockley Democratic Columbus Franklin (part) 2024 2032 7 Allison Russo Democratic Upper Arlington Franklin (part) 2018 2026 8 Anita Somani Democratic Dublin Franklin (part) 2022 2030 9 Munira Abdullahi Democratic Columbus Franklin (part) 2022 2030 10 Mark Sigrist Democratic Grove City Franklin (part) 2024 2032 11 Crystal Lett Democratic Columbus Franklin (part) 2024 2032 12 Brian Stewart Republican Ashville Franklin (part) Pickaway Madison 2020 2028 13 Tristan Rader Democratic Lakewood Cuyahoga (part) 2024 2032 14 Sean Brennan Democratic Parma Cuyahoga (part) 2022 2030 15 Chris Glassburn Democratic North Olmsted Cuyahoga (part) 2024 2032 16 Bride Rose Sweeney Democratic Cleveland Cuyahoga (part) 2018 2026 17 Mike Dovilla Republican Berea Cuyahoga (part) 2024 2032 18 Juanita Brent Democratic Cleveland Cuyahoga (part) 2018 2026 19 Phil Robinson Democratic Solon Cuyahoga (part) 2018 2026 20 Terrence Upchurch Democratic Cleveland Cuyahoga (part) 2018 2026 21 Eric Synenberg Democratic Beachwood Cuyahoga (part) 2024 2032 22 Darnell Brewer Democratic Cleveland Cuyahoga (part) 2022 2030 23 Daniel Troy Democratic Willowick Lake (part) 2020 2028 24 Dani Isaacsohn Democratic Cincinnati Hamilton (part) 2022 2030 25 Cecil Thomas Democratic Cincinnati Hamilton (part) 2022 2030 26 Ashley Bryant Bailey Democratic Cincinnati Hamilton (part) 2025↑ 2034 27 Rachel Baker Democratic Cincinnati Hamilton (part) 2022 2030 28 Karen Brownlee Democratic Symmes Township Hamilton (part) 2024 2032 29 Cindy Abrams Republican Harrison Hamilton (part) 2019↑ 2028 30 Mike Odioso Republican Green Township Hamilton (part) 2024 2032 31 Bill Roemer Republican Richfield Stark (part) Summit (part) 2018 2026 32 Jack Daniels Republican New Franklin Summit (part) 2024↑ 2032 33 Veronica Sims Democratic Akron Summit (part) 2024↑ 2032 34 Derrick Hall Democratic Akron Summit (part) 2024 2032 35 Steve Demetriou Republican Chagrin Falls Cuyahoga (part) 2022 2030 36 Andrea White Republican Kettering Montgomery (part) 2020 2028 37 Tom Young Republican Miamisburg Montgomery (part) 2020 2028 38 Desiree Tims Democratic Dayton Montgomery (part) 2024 2032 39 Phil Plummer Republican Dayton Montgomery (part) 2018 2026 40 Rodney Creech Republican West Alexandria Montgomery Preble (part) 2020 2028 41 Erika White Democratic Springfield Township Lucas (part) 2024 2032 42 Elgin Rogers Jr. Democratic Toledo Lucas (part) 2022↑ 2030 43 Michele Grim Democratic Toledo Lucas (part) 2022 2030 44 Josh Williams Republican Sylvania Township Lucas (part) 2022 2030 45 Jennifer Gross Republican West Chester Butler (part) 2020 2028 46 Thomas Hall Republican Madison Township Butler (part) 2020 2028 47 Diane Mullins Republican Hamilton Butler (part) 2024 2032 48 Scott Oelslager Republican North Canton Stark (part) 2018 2026 49 Jim Thomas Republican Canton Stark (part) 2022 2030 50 Matthew Kishman Republican Minerva Stark (part) 2024 2032 51 Jodi Salvo Republican Bolivar Tuscarawas (part) 2024 2032 52 Gayle Manning Republican North Ridgeville Lorain (part) 2018 2026 53 Joe Miller Democratic Amherst Lorain (part) 2018 2026 54 Kellie Deeter Republican Norwalk Huron Lorain (part) 2024 2032 55 Michelle Teska Republican Clearcreek Township Warren (part) 2024 2032 56 Adam Mathews Republican Lebanon Warren (part) 2022 2030 57 Jamie Callender Republican Concord Township Lake (part) 2018 2026 58 Lauren McNally Democratic Youngstown Mahoning (part) 2022 2030 59 Tex Fischer Republican Boardman Mahoning (part) 2024↑ 2032 60 Brian Lorenz Republican Republican Powell Delaware (part) 2023↑ 2032 61 Beth Lear Republican Galena Delaware (part) 2022 2030 62 Jean Schmidt Republican Loveland Clermont (part) 2020 2028 63 Adam Bird Republican New Richmond Brown Clermont (part) 2020 2028 64 Nick Santucci Republican Howland Township Trumbull (part) 2022 2030 65 David Thomas Republican Jefferson Ashtabula (part) 2024 2032 66 Sharon Ray Republican Wadsworth Medina (part) 2020 2028 67 Melanie Miller Republican Ashland Ashland (part) Mediana (part) 2022 2030 68 Thaddeus Claggett Republican Newark Licking (part) 2022 2030 69 Kevin Miller Republican Newark Coshocton Licking (part) Perry 2021↑ 2030 70 Brian Lampton Republican Beavercreek Greene (part) 2020 2028 71 Levi Dean Republican Xenia Clark (part) Greene (part) Madison 2024 2032 72 Heidi Workman Republican Rootstown Portage (part) 2024 2032 73 Jeff LaRe Republican Violet Township Fairfield (part) 2019↑ 2028 74 Bernard Willis Republican Springfield Clark (part) 2022 2030 75 Haraz Ghanbari Republican Perrysburg Wood (part) 2019↑ 2028 76 Marilyn John Republican Shelby Richland (part) 2020 2028 77 Meredith Craig Republican Wayne Township Wayne (part) 2024 2032 78 Matt Huffman Republican Lima Auglaize (part) Darke (part) Mercer Shelby (part) 2024 2032 79 Monica Robb Blasdel Republican German Township Carroll Columbiana (part) 2022 2030 80 Johnathan Newman Republican Troy Darke (part) Miami 2024 2032 81 James Hoops Republican Napoleon Fulton (part) Henry Putnam Williams 2018 2026 82 Roy Klopfenstein Republican Haviland Paulding 2022 2030 83 Ty Mathews Republican Findlay Hancock Hardin Logan (part) 2024 2032 84 Angela King Republican Celina Mercer (part) 2022 2030 85 Tim Barhorst Republican Fort Loramie Champaign Logan (part) Shelby (part) 2022 2030 86 Tracy Richardson Republican Marysville Marion (part) Union 2018 2026 87 Riordan McClain Republican Upper Sandusky Crawford Marion (part) Morrow Seneca (part) Wyandot 2018↑ 2026 88 Gary Click Republican Fremont Sandusky Seneca (part) 2020 2028 89 D. J. Swearingen Republican Huron Erie Ottawa 2019↑ 2028 90 Justin Pizzulli Republican Republican Franklin Furnace Adams Lawrence (part) Scioto 2023↑ 2032 91 Bob Peterson Republican Washington Court House Highland Pike Fayette Ross (part) 2022 2030 92 Mark Johnson Republican Chillicothe Fayette Pickaway (part) Ross (part) 2020 2028 93 Jason Stephens Republican Kitts Hill Gallia Jackson (part) Lawrence (part) Vinton (part) 2019↑ 2028 94 Kevin Ritter Republican Marietta Athens (part) Meigs Vinton (part) Washington (part) 2024 2032 95 Ty Moore Republican Caldwell Belmont (part) Carroll Harrison Noble , Washington (part) 2025↑ 2034 96 Ron Ferguson Republican Wintersville Belmont (part) Jefferson Monroe 2020 2028 97 Adam Holmes Republican Nashport Guernsey Muskingum (part) 2019↑ 2028 98 Mark Hiner Republican Loudonville Holmes (part) Tuscarawas 2024 2032 99 Sarah Fowler Arthur Republican Geneva Ashtabula (part) Geauga (part) 2020 2028 ↑: Member was originally appointed to the seat. Officials Speaker of the House The Speaker of the House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the House. The duties of the Speaker include preserving order and decorum at all times, recognizing visitors in the galleries, controlling and providing security for the Hall, appointing members to perform the duties of the Speaker for a temporary period of time, naming committees and subcommittees and appointing their chairs and members, overseeing the performance of House employees, and signing bills, acts, resolutions, and more. [ 3 ] Clerk of the House The Clerk of the House of Representatives is in charge of and regulates the distribution of records of the House. The Clerk is the custodian of legislative documents within the House. The duties of the Clerk include examining bills or resolutions before introduction, numbering bills and resolutions for filing, providing bills and documents pertaining to the bill to the chair of the corresponding committee, publishing calendars to notify the public about bills and resolutions, keeping a journal of House proceedings, superintending the presentation of bills and resolutions, and attesting writs and subpoenas issued by the House of Representatives. [ 3 ] Sergeant-at-Arms The Sergeant-at-arms of the House of Representatives is tasked with maintaining security and order in the House. The Sergeant-at-arms may be ordered by the Speaker to clear the aisles if this is deemed necessary by the Speaker. Other duties of the Sergeant-at-arms include controlling admission to the building, serving subpoenas and warrants issued by the House, and bringing any members found to be absent without leave to the House. [ 3 ] Standing Committees The Speaker of the House is in charge of naming all committees. [ 4 ] During the 136th General Assembly (2025–2026) the standing committees, chairs, vice chairs, and ranking members were: [ 5 ] Committee Chair Vice Chair Ranking Member Agriculture Roy Klopfenstein Johnathan Newman Joe Miller Arts, Athletics, and Tourism Melanie Miller Mark Hiner Dontavius Jarrells Children and Human Services Andrea White Jodi Salvo Crystal Lett Commerce and Labor Mark Johnson Beth Lear Lauren McNally Community Revitalization Gary Click Diane Mullins Darnell Brewer Development James Hoops Brian Lorenz Munira Abdullahi Education Sarah Fowler Arthur Mike Odioso Phil Robinson Energy Adam Holmes Adam Mathews Chris Glassburn Finance Brian Stewart Mike Dovilla Bride Rose Sweeney Financial Institutions Scott Oelslager Justin Pizzulli Eric Synenberg General Government Sharon Ray Jeff LaRe Juanita Brent Government Oversight Thomas Hall Ron Ferguson Latyna Humphrey Health Jean Schmidt Kellie Deeter Anita Somani Insurance Brian Lampton Meredith Craig Desiree Tims Judiciary Jim Thomas D.J. Swearingen Dani Isaacsohn Local Government Angela King Matthew Kishman Veronica Sims Medicaid Jennifer Gross Tim Barhorst Rachel Baker Natural Resources Monica Robb Blasdel Tex Fischer Elgin Rogers Jr. Public Insurance and Pensions Bob Peterson Michelle Teska Sean Brennan Public Safety Cindy Abrams Kevin Miller Cecil Thomas Rules and Reference Matt Huffman Gayle Manning Allison Russo Small Business Haraz Ghanbari Levi Dean Terence Upchurch Technology and Innovation Thaddeus Claggett Heidi Workman Ismail Mohamed Transportation Bernard Willis Jack Daniels Michele Grim Veterans and Military Development Tracy Richardson Ty Mathews Derrick hall Ways and Means Bill Roemer David Thomas Daniel Troy Workforce and Higher Education Tom Young Kevin Ritter Beryl Piccolantonio Past composition of the House of Representatives Notes References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Ohio House History | The Ohio House Of Representatives" . www.ohiohouse.gov . Retrieved 2016-01-20 . ^ "The Ohio Legislature" . ^ a b c "RULES OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES" . The Ohio Legislature . Retrieved 11 February 2016 . ^ "Rules Of The House | Ohio Legislature" . www.legislature.ohio.gov . Retrieved 2025-06-12 . ^ "Committees" . Ohio House of Representatives . Retrieved 2025-06-12 . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life and career 2 Political career Toggle Political career subsection 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.1 Pre-independence 2.2 Federation of Malaysia 2.3 Post-independence 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.3.1 Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) 2.3.2 Minister for Finance (1967–1970) 2.3.3 Minister for Defence (1970–1979) 2.3.4 Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) 2.4 Other contributions 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 2.4.1 Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) 2.4.2 Defence Science Organisation (DSO) 2.4.3 Cultural, sports and recreation 3 Personal life 4 Death 5 Honours and legacy 6 Publications 7 References Toggle References subsection 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 7.1 Notes 7.2 Citations 7.3 Sources 8 Further reading Toggle Further reading subsection 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 8.1 Books 8.2 Eulogies at the state funeral 8.3 Letters of condolence 8.4 News reports 9 External links Goh Keng Swee Български Deutsch Bahasa Indonesia मैथिली मराठी Bahasa Melayu Русский Simple English Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item Goh Keng Swee DUT .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} 吳慶瑞 Goh in 1948 2nd Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore In office 20 March 1973 – 1 January 1985 Serving with S. Rajaratnam (1980–1985) Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Ong Teng Cheong Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore In office August 1980 – December 1997 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Hon Sui Sen Succeeded by Richard Hu Minister for Education In office 12 February 1979 – 2 January 1985 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Succeeded by Tony Tan Minister for Defence In office 11 August 1970 – 11 February 1979 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San (as Minister for Interior and Defence) Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Minister for Finance In office 17 August 1967 – 10 August 1970 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Lim Kim San Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen In office 5 June 1959 – 8 August 1965 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Minister for Interior and Defence In office 9 August 1965 – 16 August 1967 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Lim Kim San Member of the Malaysian Parliament for Singapore In office 2 November 1963 [ 1 ] – 9 August 1965 Preceded by Position established Succeeded by Position abolished Member of the Singapore Parliament for Kreta Ayer In office 30 May 1959 – 4 December 1984 Preceded by Constituency established Succeeded by Richard Hu ( PAP ) Personal details Born Robert Goh Keng Swee [ 2 ] ( 1918-10-06 ) 6 October 1918 Malacca , Straits Settlements Died 14 May 2010 (2010-05-14) (aged 91) Singapore Cause of death Bladder cancer Resting place Mandai Crematorium and Columbarium Nationality Singaporean Party People's Action Party Spouse(s) Alice Woon (m. 1942 div. 1986) Phua Swee Liang (m. 1991) [ 3 ] Children Goh Kian Chee (son) [ 3 ] Relatives Goh Hood Keng (uncle) Tan Cheng Lock (maternal uncle) Tan Siew Sin (maternal cousin) Education London School of Economics ( BSc , PhD ) Signature Military service Branch/service Singapore Volunteer Corps Years of service 1939–1942 Rank Colonel [ a ] Unit 20th People's Defence Force [ 4 ] Goh Keng Swee Traditional Chinese 吳慶瑞 Simplified Chinese 吴庆瑞 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Wú Qìngruì Southern Min Hokkien POJ Gô͘ Khèng-sūi Goh Keng Swee [ b ] DUT (born Robert Goh Keng Swee ; [ 2 ] 6 October 1918 – 14 May 2010) was a Singaporean statesman and economist who served as the second Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore between 1973 and 1985. Goh is widely recognised as one of the founding fathers of modern Singapore. Goh was a member of the People's Action Party (PAP), which has governed the country continuously since independence. He was also a prominent member of the first generation of political leaders following Singapore's independence in 1965. He served as Minister for Finance from 1959 to 1965 and again from 1967 to 1970. He was Minister for Interior and Defence between 1965 and 1967, Minister for Defence from 1970 to 1979 and Minister for Education from 1979 to 1985. Throughout his entire political career, he represented the constituency of Kreta Ayer . As Minister for Interior and Defence, Goh's main objective was to strengthen the country's military and domestic security capabilities after the British had withdrawn its troops from Singapore, which made the newly independent nation vulnerable. A key policy was the creation of National Service (NS), a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had mentioned that he had wanted a conscription consisting both men and women, similar to Israel . However, Goh rejected it, citing that the labour cost at least in its initial years would be too great for the newly independent nation. During Goh's tenure as Minister for Finance, he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity"; the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was later established in 1971. In 1981, Goh also expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . Goh died in 2010 at the age of 91, and he was accorded a state funeral . Early life and career Goh was born in Malacca on 6 October 1918, then a part of the Straits Settlements , [ 5 ] into a middle class Peranakan family and the fifth of six children. [ 6 ] His father Goh Leng Inn was a manager of a rubber plantation, while his mother Tan Swee Eng, [ 7 ] came from the family that produced the Malaysian politicians Tan Cheng Lock and his son, Tan Siew Sin , who would later become Goh's lifelong political opponent. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Goh was given the Christian name Robert, which he disliked and refused to respond to. When he was two years old, his family moved from Malacca to Singapore where his maternal grandparents owned several properties. The Gohs later relocated to the Pasir Panjang rubber estate when his father found work there and became manager in 1933. Like many Peranakan families, the Gohs spoke both English and Malay at home; church services were held at home on Sundays in Malay. [ 2 ] Goh's father Leng Inn and his brothers-in-law Chew Cheng Yong and Goh Hood Keng taught at the Anglo-Chinese School and were involved in the Middle Road Baba Church , where Hood Keng was pastor. Goh attended the church as well. [ 10 ] Goh attended the Anglo-Chinese School [ 6 ] between 1927 and 1936, where he ranked second in his class in the Senior Cambridge examinations. He graduated from Raffles College (now the National University of Singapore ) in 1939 with a Class II Diploma in Arts, with special distinction in economics . [ 7 ] After graduation, Goh joined the colonial Civil Service as a tax collector with the War Tax Department, though his superiors noted he was not very good at the job and he was nearly dismissed. [ 6 ] Shortly after the start of the Second World War , he joined the Singapore Volunteer Corps , a local militia, but returned to his previous work after the fall of Singapore . In 1942, Goh married Alice Woon, a secretary and colleague, [ 6 ] and they had one son, Goh Kian Chee, two years later. After the Japanese occupation ended, Goh moved his family back to Singapore in 1946 and joined the Department of Social Welfare, becoming a supervisor of its Research Section six months later. [ 7 ] Goh earned a scholarship to study at the London School of Economics . While in London, he met fellow students seeking independence for British Malaya , including Abdul Razak , Maurice Baker, Lee Kuan Yew and Toh Chin Chye . He was founding chairman of the Malayan Forum , a student discussion group formed in 1948. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Goh graduated in 1951 with a first class honours in economics and won the William Farr Prize for the highest marks in statistics . [ 5 ] Returning to the Department of Social Welfare, he was appointed Assistant Secretary of Research. In 1952, together with fellow civil servant Kenneth Michael Byrne , he formed the Council of Joint Action to oppose salary and promotion policies favouring Europeans over Asians. Byrne later became Minister for Labour and Minister for Law . [ 7 ] Goh returned to the London School of Economics in 1954 for doctoral studies, supported by a University of London scholarship. He completed his PhD in economics in 1956, [ 11 ] and returned to the Department of Social Welfare, serving as assistant director and then Director. In 1958, he became Director of the Social and Economic Research Division in the Chief Minister's Office before resigning from the civil service in August to work full-time for the People's Action Party (PAP). [ 7 ] Political career Pre-independence Goh was a key member of the PAP's Central Executive Committee (CEC), and serving as vice-chairman. Goh contested in Kreta Ayer during the 1959 general election and won. He was subsequently elected into the Legislative Assembly on 30 May 1959, [ 12 ] and appointed Minister for Finance under Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew 's first Cabinet . As Minister for Finance, Goh assumed the stewardship of Singapore's economy . As a budget deficit of S$14 million was forecast that year, he introduced stringent fiscal discipline which including cutting civil service salaries. As a result of these measures, he was able to announce at the end of the year when delivering the budget that the government had achieved a surplus of $1 million. [ 13 ] Goh initiated the setting up of the Economic Development Board (EDB) which was established in August 1961 to attract foreign multinational corporations to invest in Singapore. [ 5 ] [ 14 ] The next year, he started the development of the Jurong industrial estate on the western end of the island which was then a swamp, offering incentives to local and foreign businesses to locate there. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] According to former Permanent Secretary Sim Kee Boon , Goh admitted that the Jurong project was "an act of faith and he himself jokingly said that this could prove to be Goh's folly". [ 14 ] Nonetheless, Goh also felt strongly that "the only way to avoid making mistakes is not to do anything. And that... will be the ultimate mistake." [ 15 ] In the 1960s, there were great pressures from communist agitators working through Chinese-medium schools and trade unions. Divisions existed within the PAP as well, with a pro-communist faction working to wrest control of the party from the moderate wing, of which Goh and Lee Kuan Yew were key members. A key source of division was the issue of merger with Malaya to form a new state of Malaysia. Goh and his fellow moderates believed this was a necessary condition for Singapore's economic development because Malaya was a key economic hinterland; merger would also provide an alternate vision against communism for Singapore's Chinese majority. In July 1961, 16 members of the pro-communist faction broke away from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis , and captured control of the main trade unions . Federation of Malaysia In 1961, the Singapore Government secured approval from Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman for a merger, motivated in part by the Tunku's desire to stabilise the security situation in Singapore and to counter the perceived communist threat by the Malayan Communist Party . In 1963, Singapore joined Malaya , along with Sabah and Sarawak , to form the Federation of Malaysia. [ 16 ] However, the merger soon proved problematic for Singapore's leaders. Fundamental disagreements emerged over political and economic principles, particularly the issue of Malay dominance . Communal tensions escalated into violence in 1964, incited by both Malay and Chinese activists in Singapore. According to Lee, Goh played a key role in safeguarding Singapore's interests, especially in economic disputes with the Malaysian Minister of Finance and his own cousin Tan Siew Sin , whom he believed acted in hostility toward Singapore. After two difficult years within the Federation, Lee asked Goh to negotiate with Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak and Minister for External Affairs Ismail Abdul Rahman in July 1965. The aim was to explore the possibility of a looser arrangement for Singapore within Malaysia. However, following the discussions, all parties concluded that a clean break would be in the best interests of both sides. Tunku Abdul Rahman ultimately agreed to this course of action, paving the way for Singapore's separation from Malaysia. [ 17 ] Goh maintained a secret dossier that he codenamed " Albatross ", which contains files and notes from the months leading up to Singapore's independence. According to one of the file's documents, authored by Goh himself, Goh chose not to follow Lee's orders to negotiate for a "looser arrangement" but only ever broached separation with Tunku. Writing in his memoirs, Lee claimed that he only realised that Goh "never pressed Razak for a looser rearrangement as I had asked him to" in 1994. [ 18 ] Post-independence Minister for Interior and Defence (1965–1967) Upon the independence of Singapore in 1965, Goh relinquished his portfolio of Minister for Finance and became Minister for Interior and Defence in 1967, assuming responsibilities for strengthening Singapore's military and domestic security capabilities. A key policy was the creation of National Service , a mandatory conscription system for able-bodied young males. [ 19 ] Minister for Finance (1967–1970) Goh served as Minister for Finance again between 1967 and 1970, [ 5 ] [ 7 ] during which he declined to allow the central bank to issue currency, favouring instead a currency board system in the form of the Board of Commissioners of Currency, Singapore , as this would signal to citizens, academics and the financial world that governments cannot "spend their way to prosperity". Minister for Defence (1970–1979) On 11 August 1970, he was reappointed Minister for Defence . [ 5 ] [ 7 ] Deputy Prime Minister (1973–1984) On 1 March 1973, [ 12 ] Goh was appointed Deputy Prime Minister concurrently with his other Cabinet portfolio. [ 7 ] On 12 February 1979, Goh moved on from the Ministry of Defence to the Ministry of Education , where his Goh Report [ 20 ] greatly influenced the development of Singapore's education system. He was described as both a key political and strategic leader responsible for the transformation of the system over 30 years from "fair" to "great", according to a November 2010 McKinsey report. [ 21 ] He set up the Curriculum Development Institute, and introduced key policies such as religious education—subsequently discontinued and, in 1980, the channelling of students into different programmes of study according to their learning abilities, known as "streaming". [ 22 ] Goh served two terms as Minister for Education, his first term ended in 1980, and his second following the 1980 general election from 1981 until his retirement in 1985. From 1 June 1980, he was redesignated First Deputy Prime Minister upon S. Rajaratnam being made Second Deputy Prime Minister, and served as Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore until he stepped down from Parliament on 3 December 1984, at the age of 66. [ 5 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] In a tribute to mark the occasion, Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote: "A whole generation of Singaporeans take their present standard of living for granted because you had laid the foundations of the economy of modern Singapore." [ 23 ] Other contributions Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) In 1981, Goh expressed the view that the central bank need not hold large amounts of cash in reserve to defend the currency, proposing that the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC) be established to invest excess reserves. At the time, it was unprecedented for a non- commodity -based economy to have such a sovereign wealth fund . [ 24 ] The foreign merchant bank, Rothschild, advised on the GIC. [ 25 ] Defence Science Organisation (DSO) In 1971, Goh put together the Electronic Warfare Study Group, a team of newly graduated engineers who had excelled in their university studies that was headed by Tay Eng Soon , then a university lecturer. The group worked on Project Magpie, a secret project to develop Singapore's defence technology capabilities. In 1977, the group was renamed the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Originally part of the Ministry of Defence, the organisation became a non-profit corporation called DSO National Laboratories in 1997. [ 26 ] Cultural, sports and recreation Goh was also responsible for projects that sought to improve Singaporeans' cultural and leisure life, such as the Jurong Bird Park , Singapore Zoo and the Singapore Symphony Orchestra . [ 27 ] He backed the construction of the Kreta Ayer People's Theatre in his constituency as a venue for Chinese opera performances. [ 28 ] In 1968, Goh encouraged the establishment of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Goh was also instrumental in introducing rugby in the Singapore Armed Forces and later in schools. In recognition of his role in promoting the sport, the Schools "C" Division Cup is named after him. [ 29 ] Impressed by an oceanarium in the Bahamas , he contacted the Sentosa Development Corporation and persuaded them to build an oceanarium in Singapore. [ 6 ] Underwater World opened in 1991. Personal life In 1986, Goh divorced his first wife Alice. In 1991, he married his former Ministry of Education colleague Phua Swee Liang. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Goh suffered his first stroke in 1999, and a subsequent one in 2000 which affected the vision in his right eye. [ 30 ] According to Goh's daughter-in-law Tan Siok Sun, the medical condition caused him to become withdrawn and introverted. In July 2007, Tan published a biography titled Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Goh's second wife issued a statement claiming that Goh had not been consulted on the book and had indicated to her that he did not want any book to be written about him. "Therefore, the publication of this book is contrary to his wishes, and is a show of disregard and utmost disrespect to him." In an interview with The Straits Times , Tan said she did not start the dispute between Mrs. Goh and herself, nor did she wish to prolong it. [ 31 ] After retirement from politics, Goh continued to be active in public life, serving as Deputy Chairman of GIC between 1981 and 1994, Economic Adviser to the State Council of the People's Republic of China on Coastal Development and Adviser on Tourism in 1985, Deputy Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore between 1985 and 1992, Chairman of the Singapore Totalisator Board between 1988 and 1990, Director of Gateway Technologies Services Pte. Ltd. from 1991 onward, Adviser to the United Overseas Bank Group from 1993 onward, Chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons (Singapore) Ltd. from 1994 onward, and vice-chairman of Hong Leong Asia Ltd. from 1995 onward. [ 5 ] Goh was also chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of East Asian Philosophies between 1983 and 1992, which was founded to study Confucianism . The institute later turned its focus on China's political and economic development, renaming itself the Institute of East Asian Political Economy, and Goh continued as Executive Chairman and chairman of the Board of Governors until 1995. [ 7 ] In April 1997, the institute was reconstituted as the East Asian Institute, an autonomous research organisation under the auspices of the National University of Singapore . [ 32 ] Death On 14 May 2010, Goh died in the early morning at his home in Dunbar Walk off East Coast Road in Siglap , at the age of 91. His death was as a result of his old age and pneumonia. [ 33 ] His body lay in state at Parliament House from 20 to 22 May, [ 34 ] and there was a state funeral on 23 May 2010 at the Singapore Conference Hall followed by a private ceremony for family members at the Mandai Crematorium . [ 35 ] The latter was conducted by the pastor-in-charge of Barker Road Methodist Church, with a message delivered by the Bishop of the Methodist Church in Singapore , Robert M. Solomon . [ 10 ] As a mark of respect, State flags at all Government buildings were flown at half-mast from 20 to 23 May. [ 36 ] Honours and legacy In 1966, Goh was made an Honorary Fellow of the London school of Economics . In 1972, he was the recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services, which is often regarded as "Asia's Nobel Prize". [ 37 ] It is awarded to people who have demonstrated integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and pragmatic idealism within a democratic society. That same year, the Philippine Government conferred upon him the Order of Sikatuna , which is given to diplomats, officials and nationals of foreign states who have rendered conspicuous services in fostering, developing and strengthening relations between their country and the Philippines. [ 5 ] Following his retirement from politics, Goh was awarded the Order of Temasek (First Class, now known as High Distinction) in 1985, Singapore's highest civilian honour and second overall after the Star of Temasek . He was also presented with the LSE's Distinguished Alumnus Award on 21 January 1989, [ 38 ] and made the first Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Development Board Society in 1991. [ 5 ] Goh is known as one of Singapore's founding fathers. [ 13 ] [ 39 ] During the National Day Rally on 29 August 2010, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that the Singapore Command and Staff College , where senior officers of the Singapore Armed Forces receive training; and a complex to be constructed at the Ministry of Education's North Buona Vista Road headquarters for specialist teacher training academies in English language, physical education, sports and the arts would be respectively named the Goh Keng Swee Command and Staff College and the Goh Keng Swee Centre for Education. [ 40 ] Publications .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} The Economic Front: From a Malayan Point of View . Singapore: Government Printers. 1940. OCLC 226068826 . . Urban Incomes & Housing: A Report on the Social Survey of Singapore, 1953–54 . Singapore: [Department of Social Welfare]. 1956. OCLC 504452751 . . Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] . London: University of London Library, Photographic Section. 1978. OCLC 63630985 . . This is How Your Money is Spent [Budget statement by Goh Keng Swee, Minister for Finance; Towards Socialism, vol. 3] . Singapore: Ministry of Finance . 1960. OCLC 63838096 . . Some Problems of Industrialisation [Towards Socialism; vol. 7] . Singapore: Government Printing Office. 1963. OCLC 17270555 . . Communism in Non-Communist Asian Countries . Singapore: Printed by the Government Printing Office for the Ministry of Culture . c. 1967. OCLC 433094 . . The Economics of Modernization and other Essays . [Singapore]: Asia Pacific Press. 1972. OCLC 534320 . . Later editions: The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2317-8 . . The Economics of Modernization . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . 2004. ISBN 978-981-210-330-7 . . Some Problems of Manpower Development in Singapore [Occasional publication (Singapore Training and Development Association); no. 1] . Singapore: Ad Hoc Publications Sub-committee, Singapore Training & Development Association. 1974. OCLC 226024028 . . Some Unsolved Problems of Economic Growth [Kesatuan lecture; 1] . Singapore: Kesatuan Akademis Universiti Singapura. 1976. ISBN 9971-68-076-9 . OCLC 3072805 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1977. OCLC 4465760 . . Later edition: The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . The Practice of Economic Growth . Singapore: Federal Publications. 1995. ISBN 978-981-01-2322-2 . . Goh, Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979). Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 . Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers. OCLC 416421063 . . Goh, Keng Swee (1995). Low, Linda (ed.). Wealth of East Asian Nations: Speeches and Writings . Singapore: Federal Publications. ISBN 978-981-01-2297-3 . . References Notes ^ Honorary, and during his tenure as the civilian head of the Ministry of the Interior and Defence. He oversaw the establishment of the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) after 1965, a process that laid the foundation built primarily on National Service (NS) from 1967. [ 4 ] ^ simplified Chinese : 吴庆瑞 ; traditional Chinese : 吳慶瑞 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Gô͘ Khèng-sūi ; pinyin : Wú Qìngruì Citations ^ "PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES DEWAN RA'AYAT (HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES) OFFICIAL REPORT" (PDF) . Dewan Rakyat . Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2019 . ^ a b c Tan Siok Sun (7 July 2007), A shy, quiet boy who loved books [Excerpt from Goh Keng Swee, a Portrait ] , AsiaOne , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b Obituary notice of Dr. Goh Keng Swee, The Straits Times (15 May 2010), p. C28. ^ a b Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee: A Public Career Remembered . World Scientific. pp. 83, 98, 101. ISBN 978-9814407533 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Jenny Tien Mui Mun (8 October 2002), Dr Goh Keng Swee , Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore , archived from the original on 23 June 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ a b c d e f Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010), "His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child", The Sunday Times , Singapore, p. 10 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "From civil servant to PAP stalwart", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2, 15 May 2010 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (1998), The Singapore Story: Memoirs of Lee Kuan Yew , Singapore: Times Publishing, pp. 600–602 , ISBN 978-981-204-983-4 . ^ Tan Siok Sun (2007), Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait , Singapore: Editions Didier Millet , pp. 114– 115, ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . ^ a b "The lesser known side of Dr Goh Keng Swee" , Methodist Message , vol. 112, no. 7, p. 12, July 2010, archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . ^ His thesis was entitled Techniques of National Income Estimation in Under-developed Territories, with Special Reference to Asia, Malacca, Singapore and Africa [Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, London School of Economics, 1956] , London: University of London Library, Photographic Section, 1978, OCLC 63630985 . ^ a b c "Parliament pays respects", The Straits Times , 18 May 2010 . ^ a b Lee Hsien Loong (24 May 2010), "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" , Today , pp. 12– 14, archived from the original on 25 May 2010 . ^ a b "A visionary who didn't believe in dreams: A look into the life of the man responsible for HDB flats, National Service, JTC ... even the Zoo", Weekend Today , pp. 12– 13, 15–16 May 2010 . ^ As recalled by Lim Siong Guan , Group President of GIC and former Head of the Singapore Civil Service : see Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ "Singapore – Road to Independence" . U.S. Library of Congress . Retrieved 27 June 2006 . ^ Lee Kuan Yew (24 May 2010), "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Chin, Soo Fang (7 December 2025). "New book sheds light on Singapore's secret negotiations for independence" . The Straits Times . ^ "National Service becomes compulsory - Singapore History" . eresources.nlb.gov.sg . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Goh Keng Swee; Education Study Team (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education 1978 , Singapore: Printed by Singapore National Printers, OCLC 416421063 . ^ Michael Barber; Chinezi Chijioke; Mona Mourshed (2010), Education: How the World's Most Improved School Systems Keep Getting Better , London: McKinsey & Company, pp. 101– 118 . ^ MOKHTAR, FARIS. "Timeline: How secondary school streaming evolved over the decades" . TODAY . Retrieved 1 January 2023 . ^ Chua Mui Hoong (15 May 2010), "Passing of a S'pore titan: Former DPM Goh Keng Swee was economic architect of Singapore and mentor to many", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 . ^ Janadas Devan (15 May 2010), "Remembering Goh Keng Swee, 1918–2010", The Straits Times (Saturday) , p. D2 . ^ Hamilton-Hart, Natasha (2003). Asian states, Asian bankers : central banking in Southeast Asia . Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 89 . ISBN 978-0801439872 . ^ Melanie Chew; Bernard Tan (2002), "A Tribute to Dr Goh Keng Swee" (PDF) , Creating the Technology Edge: DSO National Laboratories, Singapore 1972–2002 , Singapore: Epigram for DSO National Laboratories, pp. 4– 9, ISBN 978-981-04-7199-6 , archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), "S'pore's master builder" , Weekend Today , p. 2, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Leong Weng Kam (15 May 2010), "A thinker and a doer: Dr Goh was a 'great intellectual', recall PAP Old Guard members", The Straits Times , p. A6 . ^ Saad, Imelda (15–16 May 2010), " 'One of the most brilliant architects' of the country, says SM Goh" , Weekend Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 18 May 2010 . ^ Nur Dianah Suhaimi (28 May 2010), "Love against the odds [interview with Dr. Phua Swee Liang]", The Straits Times , pp. A40 – A41 . ^ Lydia Lim (7 July 2007), "No regrets despite objections, except one" , The Straits Times (reproduced on the AsiaOne website) , archived from the original on 2 December 2012 . ^ EAI's profile & objectives , East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore , 2008, archived from the original on 21 December 2010 , retrieved 16 May 2010 . ^ "Farewell to one of Singapore's prime architects" , Weekend Today , p. 1, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . See also Rachel Lin (15 May 2010), "A quiet passing for a quiet man: He lived simply, was a private man, with S'pore uppermost in his mind", The Straits Times , p. A3 . ^ Esther Ng (21 May 2010), "From all walks of life, they came to pay their respects: More than 5,000 queue up at Parliament House to honour Dr Goh" , Today , p. 3, archived from the original on 23 May 2010 ; Nur Dianah Suhaimi; Kor Kian Beng (22 May 2010), " 'Thank you and goodbye': Young and old, from near and far, over 7,000 pay respects to Dr Goh", The Straits Times , p. A16 . ^ Cassandra Chew (22 May 2010), "State funeral an honour reserved for rare few", The Straits Times , p. A16 ; Chua Mui Hoong (24 May 2010), "Goodbye, Dr Goh: Tributes flow at state funeral for one of Singapore's founding fathers", The Straits Times , pp. A1 – A2 ; Rachel Lin (24 May 2010), "A simple, moving funeral for Dr Goh: Nation mourns one of its founders in a sombre but intimate ceremony", The Straits Times , pp. A2 – A3 ; Zul Othman (24 May 2010), "A nation says goodbye" , Today , pp. 1 & 3, archived from the original on 29 May 2010 . ^ "State funeral on May 23" , Weekend Today , p. 2, 15–16 May 2010, archived from the original on 16 May 2010 . ^ 1972 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Services: Biography of Goh Keng Swee , Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation, August 1972, archived from the original on 1 August 2008 , retrieved 15 May 2010 . ^ Phua Kai Hong (25 May 2010), "The day Dr Goh removed words from his citation [letter]" , Today , p. 8, archived from the original on 27 May 2010 . ^ "Remembering the three most outstanding founding fathers" . Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, NUS . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ Clarissa Oon (30 August 2010), "SAF institute, education centre named after Goh Keng Swee", The Straits Times , p. B4 ; Alicia Wong (30 August 2010), "Military college and education centre to be named after Goh Keng Swee", Today , p. 13 . Sources "From civil servant to PAP stalwart". The Straits Times (Saturday) . 15 May 2010. p. D2. Nur Dianah Suhaimi (16 May 2010). His work was his passion: The late Goh Keng Swee showed brilliance even when he was a child . Singapore. p. 10. {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) "Parliament pays respects". The Straits Times . 18 May 2010. Tien, Jenny Mui Mun (8 October 2002). "Dr Goh Keng Swee" . Singapore Infopedia, National Library, Singapore . Archived from the original on 23 June 2008 . Retrieved 15 May 2010 . Further reading Books Austin, Ian Patrick (2004). Goh Keng Swee and Southeast Asian Governance . Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic . ISBN 978-981-210-351-2 . Desker, Barry; Kwa, Chong Guan, eds. (2011). Goh Keng Swee – A Public Career Remembered . Singapore: World Scientific . ISBN 978-981-4291-38-5 . Doshi, Tilak; Coclanis, Peter (1999). "The Economic Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin . pp. 24– 44. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Kuah, Adrian (2007). UnChartered territory: Dr Goh Keng Swee and the ST Engineering Story . Singapore: Published for ST Engineering by SNP International. ISBN 978-981-248-169-6 . Kwok, Kian-Woon (1999). "The Social Architect: Goh Keng Swee". In Lam, Peng Er; Tan, Kevin (eds.). Lee's Lieutenants: Singapore's Old Guard . St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin. pp. 45– 69. ISBN 978-1-86448-639-1 . Nair, E. Shailaja (2008). The Master Sculptor: Goh Keng Swee [Great Singapore Stories. Founding Fathers.] Singapore: SNP Editions. ISBN 978-981-248-160-3 . Ngiam, Tong Dow (2006). A Mandarin and the Making of Public Policy: Reflections by Ngiam Tong Dow . Singapore: NUS Press . ISBN 978-9971-69-350-3 . Ooi, Kee Beng (2010). In Lieu of Ideology: The Intellectual Biography of Goh Keng Swee . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4311-30-4 . Tan, Siok Sun (2007). Goh Keng Swee: A Portrait . Singapore: Editions Didier Millet . ISBN 978-981-4155-82-3 . . Yeo, Siew Siang (1990). Tan Cheng Lock, the Straits Legislator and Chinese Leader . Petaling Jaya, Selangor: Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-236-3 . Eulogies at the state funeral Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "Without him, much of S'pore wouldn't exist: Eulogy by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong". The Straits Times . pp. A4 & A6. ; Lee, Hsien Loong (24 May 2010). "A giant in our midst [eulogy by the Prime Minister]" . Today . pp. 12– 14. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. See also " 'He turned the tide for Singapore': PM Lee recounts Dr Goh's contributions and compassion" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Lee, Kuan Yew (24 May 2010). "He made the greatest difference: Eulogy by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew". The Straits Times . p. A6. . See also "As my troubleshooter, I gave him toughest jobs in Govt: MM" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 3. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. S. Dhanabalan (24 May 2010). "Singapore's greatest entrepreneur: Eulogy by S. Dhanabalan, chairman of Temasek Holdings". The Straits Times . p. A8. . See also "Dhanabalan: How Dr Goh changed my life" . Today . 24 May 2010. p. 4. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Goh, Ken-Yi (24 May 2010). "A caring, selfless grandfather: Eulogy by grandson Goh Ken-Yi". The Straits Times . p. A10. . See also Zul Othman (24 May 2010). "To me, he was simply a great grandfather" . Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 26 May 2010. Hui, Marian (24 May 2010). "He motivated me to pursue my dreams: Excerpt of eulogy by Grand-niece Marian Hui". The Straits Times . p. A8. Letters of condolence Lee, Hsien Loong (15–16 May 2010). "A far-sighted visionary and pragmatic manager [letter from the Prime Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. S.R. Nathan (15–16 May 2010). "Nothing too insignificant for his attention [letter from the president to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 10. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Goh, Chok Tong (15–16 May 2010). "Practical and full of ideas [letter from the Senior Minister to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Tan, Tony Keng Yam (15–16 May 2010). "Farsightedness and fortitude [letter from the Deputy Chairman and Executive Director of the Government Investment Corporation of Singapore to Mrs. Goh Keng Swee]" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. News reports Chang, Rachel; Cai, Haoxiang; Kor, Kian Beng (15 May 2010). "Ex-MPs recall a fearsome technocrat: A strict taskmaster who didn't suffer fools, but he was never brusque". The Straits Times . p. A8. "Leaders salute 'this marvellous man' ". The Straits Times . 15 May 2010. p. A4. S. Ramesh (15–16 May 2010). "A national hero who touched people's lives" . Weekend Today . p. 2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2010. "Goh Keng Swee: Passing of a colossus [editorial]". The Straits Times . 22 May 2010. p. A32. Balji, P.N. (22–23 May 2010). "Dr Goh, the Dream No 2" . Weekend Today . p. 11. Archived from the original on 30 May 2010. Devan, Janadas (23 May 2010). "Simply sincere: Dr Goh's simple yet eloquent writing style showed desire to reach out to ordinary people". The Sunday Times . Singapore. p. 35. External links Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Resources in your library Resources in other libraries Channel NewsAsia – Obituary: Goh Keng Swee 1918–2010 at the Wayback Machine (archived 1 April 2013), archived from the original on 1 April 2013 National Library Singapore – NLS Resource guide on Dr. Goh Keng Swee Political offices Preceded by New post Minister for Finance 1959–65 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by New post Minister for Defence 1965–67 Succeeded by Lim Kim San Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1967–70 Succeeded by Hon Sui Sen Preceded by Lim Kim San Minister for Finance 1970–79 Succeeded by Howe Yoon Chong Preceded by Chua Sian Chin Minister for Education 1979–80 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Minister for Education 1981–85 Succeeded by Tony Tan Keng Yam Preceded by Toh Chin Chye Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore 1973–85 Succeeded by Goh Chok Tong Parliament of Singapore New constituency Member of Parliament for Kreta Ayer 1959–84 Succeeded by Richard Hu Tsu Tau Military offices New title 1st Director, General Staff of Defence Force 1965-1967 Succeeded by T. J. D. Campbell Politics Biography Economics Singapore .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Ramon Magsaysay Award recipients v t e Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Government Service (1958–2008) Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Cambodia Ek Sonn Chan Ek Sonn Chan China Yuan Longping Yuan Longping India C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh C.D. Deshmukh J. M. Lyngdoh Indonesia Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Raden Kodijat Ali Sadikin Japan Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Morihiko Hiramatsu Hiroshi Kuroki Yukiharu Miki Laos Keo Viphakone Keo Viphakone Malaysia Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim B. C. Shekhar Pakistan Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Akhtar Hameed Khan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Jose Vasquez Aguilar Francisca Reyes-Aquino Hilario Davide Jr. Grace Padaca Jesse Robredo Jovito R. Salonga Miriam Defensor Santiago Haydee Yorac Singapore Goh Keng Swee Goh Keng Swee Thailand Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Anand Panyarachun Chamlong Srimuang Jon Ungphakorn Phon Sangsingkeo Prawase Wasi Puey Ungpakorn Taiwan Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Shih-chu Hsu Li Kwoh-ting Jiang Menglin Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Public Service (1958–2008) Burma Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Burma Tee Tee Luce Tee Tee Luce Ceylon Mary H. Rutnam Mary H. Rutnam China Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing Gao Yaojie Jiang Yanyong Liang Congjie Wu Qing India Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Baba Amte Banoo Jehangir Coyaji Manibhai Desai Jayaprakash Narayan V. Shanta Indonesia H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki H.B. Jassin Teten Masduki Pakistan Ruth Pfau Ruth Pfau Philippines Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) Pedro Orata Center for Agriculture and Rural Development Mutually Reinforcing Institutions (CARD MRI) South Korea Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Kim Sun-tae Park Won-soon Spain based in Philippines Joaquin Villalonga Joaquin Villalonga Thailand Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Fua Hariphitak Mechai Viravaidya Nilawan Pintong Phra Parnchand Prateep Ungsongtham Hata Sirindhorn Sithiporn Kridakara Sophon Suphapong Therdchai Jivacate Thongbai Thongpao Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Community Leadership (1958–2008) Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama Bangladesh Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Tahrunessa Abdullah Fazle Hasan Abed Muhammad Yunus Zafrullah Chowdhury Mohammed Yeasin Angela Gomes Burma Cynthia Maung Cynthia Maung India Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Mandakini Amte & Prakash Amte Mabelle Arole & Rajanikant Arole Pandurang Shastri Athavale Chandi Prasad Bhatt Ela Bhatt Vinoba Bhave Aruna Roy Shantha Sinha Rajendra Singh Japan Fusaye Ichikawa Fusaye Ichikawa Laos Sombath Somphone Sombath Somphone Malaysia Tunku Abdul Rahman Tunku Abdul Rahman Nepal Mahabir Pun Mahabir Pun Philippines Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Gawad Kalinga Community Development Foundation Antonio Meloto Thailand Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Aree Valyasevi Krasae Chanawongse Prayong Ronnarong Tibet 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Journalism, Literature, and the Creative Communication Arts (1958–2008) Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Bangladesh Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Matiur Rahman Abdullah Abu Sayeed Burma Edward Michael Law-Yone Edward Michael Law-Yone Ceylon or Sri Lanka Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi Wannakuwatta Amaradeva Tarzie Vittachi India Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Mahasweta Devi Palagummi Sainath Amitabha Chowdhury Indonesia Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Atmakusumah Astraatmadja Mochtar Lubis Japan Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Akira Kurosawa Yasuji Hanamori Michiko Ishimure Akio Ishii Nepal Bharat Koirala Bharat Koirala Philippines Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Zacarias Sarian F. Sionil José Lino Brocka Radio Veritas James Reuter Bienvenido Lumbera Nick Joaquin Raul Locsin Eugenia Duran Apostol Sheila Coronel Thailand Prayoon Chanyavongs Prayoon Chanyavongs Great Britain based in Philippines Robert McCulloch Dick Robert McCulloch Dick Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Peace and International Understanding (1958–2008) China Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield China Tang Xiyang Tang Xiyang India Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Mother Teresa Jockin Arputham Laxminarayan Ramdas Indonesia Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif Japan Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Ikuo Hirayama Tetsu Nakamura Saburo Okita Seiei Toyama Nepal Sanduk Ruit Sanduk Ruit Pakistan Ibn Abdur Rehman Ibn Abdur Rehman Philippines Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino Operation Brotherhood Summer Institute of Linguistics William Masterson Harold Ray Watson International Institute of Rural Reconstruction Press Foundation of Asia Asian Institute of Management Corazon Aquino South Korea Pomnyun Sunim Pomnyun Sunim Thailand Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project Asian Institute of Technology The Royal Project United States based in Thailand Genevieve Caulfield Genevieve Caulfield Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Emergent Leadership (2001–) Burma Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Burma Ka Hsaw Wa Ka Hsaw Wa China Chen Guangcheng Chen Guangcheng Cambodia Oung Chanthol Oung Chanthol India Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Sanjiv Chaturvedi Arvind Kejriwal Nileema Mishra Sandeep Pandey Indonesia Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Ambrosius Ruwindrijarto Dita Indah Sari Philippines Benjamin Abadiano Benjamin Abadiano South Korea Yoon Hye-ran Yoon Hye-ran Sri Lanka Ananda Galappatti Ananda Galappatti Timor-Leste Aniceto Guterres Lopes Aniceto Guterres Lopes United States based in Hong Kong Chung To Chung To Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Uncategorized (2009–) Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Cambodia Yang Saing Koma Koul Panha China Fu Qiping Huo Daishan Ma Jun Pan Yue Yu Xiaogang India Kulandei Francis Harish Hande Deep Joshi Indonesia Hasanain Juaini Tri Mumpuni Japan Tadatoshi Akiba Philippines Alternative Indigenous Development Foundation , Inc. (AIDFI) Christopher Bernido Maria Victoria Carpio-Bernido Romulo Davide Antonio Oposa Jr. Taiwan Chen Shu-chu Thailand Krisana Kraisintu Bangladesh Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. Noman Khan Syeda Rizwana Hasan A.H.M. 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We gratefully acknowledge support from the Simons Foundation, member institutions , and all contributors. Donate Help | Advanced Search Showing 1–50 of 422 results for author: Shen, T Show abstracts Hide abstracts 1 2 3 4 5 … arXiv:2601.10416 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI LLMdoctor: Token-Level Flow-Guided Preference Optimization for Efficient Test-Time Alignment of Large Language Models Authors: Tiesunlong Shen , Rui Mao , Jin Wang , Heming Sun , Jian Zhang , Xuejie Zhang , Erik Cambria Abstract : Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the ba… ▽ More Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the base model. This paper introduces LLMdoctor, a novel framework for efficient test-time alignment that operates via a patient-doctor paradigm. It integrates token-level reward acquisition with token-level flow-guided preference optimization (TFPO) to steer a large, frozen patient LLM with a smaller, specialized doctor model. Unlike conventional methods that rely on trajectory-level rewards, LLMdoctor first extracts fine-grained, token-level preference signals from the patient model's behavioral variations. These signals then guide the training of the doctor model via TFPO, which establishes flow consistency across all subtrajectories, enabling precise token-by-token alignment while inherently preserving generation diversity. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LLMdoctor significantly outperforms existing test-time alignment methods and even surpasses the performance of full fine-tuning approaches like DPO. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI26 arXiv:2601.10416 [ pdf , ps , other ] LLMdoctor: Token-Level Flow-Guided Preference Optimization for Efficient Test-Time Alignment of Large Language Models Authors: Tiesunlong Shen , Rui Mao , Jin Wang , Heming Sun , Jian Zhang , Xuejie Zhang , Erik Cambria Abstract : Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the ba… ▽ More Aligning Large Language Models (LLMs) with human preferences is critical, yet traditional fine-tuning methods are computationally expensive and inflexible. While test-time alignment offers a promising alternative, existing approaches often rely on distorted trajectory-level signals or inefficient sampling, fundamentally capping performance and failing to preserve the generative diversity of the base model. This paper introduces LLMdoctor, a novel framework for efficient test-time alignment that operates via a patient-doctor paradigm. It integrates token-level reward acquisition with token-level flow-guided preference optimization (TFPO) to steer a large, frozen patient LLM with a smaller, specialized doctor model. Unlike conventional methods that rely on trajectory-level rewards, LLMdoctor first extracts fine-grained, token-level preference signals from the patient model's behavioral variations. These signals then guide the training of the doctor model via TFPO, which establishes flow consistency across all subtrajectories, enabling precise token-by-token alignment while inherently preserving generation diversity. Extensive experiments demonstrate that LLMdoctor significantly outperforms existing test-time alignment methods and even surpasses the performance of full fine-tuning approaches like DPO. △ Less Submitted 15 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: Accepted by AAAI26 arXiv:2601.09269 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI RISER: Orchestrating Latent Reasoning Skills for Adaptive Activation Steering Authors: Wencheng Ye , Liang Peng , Xiaoyang Yuan , Yi Bin , Pengpeng Zeng , Hengyu Jin , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Recent work on domain-specific reasoning with large language models (LLMs) often relies on training-intensive approaches that require parameter updates. While activation steering has emerged as a parameter efficient alternative, existing methods apply static, manual interventions that fail to adapt to the dynamic nature of complex reasoning. To address this limitation, we propose RISER (Router-bas… ▽ More Recent work on domain-specific reasoning with large language models (LLMs) often relies on training-intensive approaches that require parameter updates. While activation steering has emerged as a parameter efficient alternative, existing methods apply static, manual interventions that fail to adapt to the dynamic nature of complex reasoning. To address this limitation, we propose RISER (Router-based Intervention for Steerable Enhancement of Reasoning), a plug-and-play intervention framework that adaptively steers LLM reasoning in activation space. RISER constructs a library of reusable reasoning vectors and employs a lightweight Router to dynamically compose them for each input. The Router is optimized via reinforcement learning under task-level rewards, activating latent cognitive primitives in an emergent and compositional manner. Across seven diverse benchmarks, RISER yields 3.4-6.5% average zero-shot accuracy improvements over the base model while surpassing CoT-style reasoning with 2-3x higher token efficiency and robust accuracy gains. Further analysis shows that RISER autonomously combines multiple vectors into interpretable, precise control strategies, pointing toward more controllable and efficient LLM reasoning. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.09269 [ pdf , ps , other ] RISER: Orchestrating Latent Reasoning Skills for Adaptive Activation Steering Authors: Wencheng Ye , Liang Peng , Xiaoyang Yuan , Yi Bin , Pengpeng Zeng , Hengyu Jin , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Recent work on domain-specific reasoning with large language models (LLMs) often relies on training-intensive approaches that require parameter updates. While activation steering has emerged as a parameter efficient alternative, existing methods apply static, manual interventions that fail to adapt to the dynamic nature of complex reasoning. To address this limitation, we propose RISER (Router-bas… ▽ More Recent work on domain-specific reasoning with large language models (LLMs) often relies on training-intensive approaches that require parameter updates. While activation steering has emerged as a parameter efficient alternative, existing methods apply static, manual interventions that fail to adapt to the dynamic nature of complex reasoning. To address this limitation, we propose RISER (Router-based Intervention for Steerable Enhancement of Reasoning), a plug-and-play intervention framework that adaptively steers LLM reasoning in activation space. RISER constructs a library of reusable reasoning vectors and employs a lightweight Router to dynamically compose them for each input. The Router is optimized via reinforcement learning under task-level rewards, activating latent cognitive primitives in an emergent and compositional manner. Across seven diverse benchmarks, RISER yields 3.4-6.5% average zero-shot accuracy improvements over the base model while surpassing CoT-style reasoning with 2-3x higher token efficiency and robust accuracy gains. Further analysis shows that RISER autonomously combines multiple vectors into interpretable, precise control strategies, pointing toward more controllable and efficient LLM reasoning. △ Less Submitted 14 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.03903 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.IR Unleashing the Potential of Neighbors: Diffusion-based Latent Neighbor Generation for Session-based Recommendation Authors: Yuhan Yang , Jie Zou , Guojia An , Jiwei Wei , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Session-based recommendation aims to predict the next item that anonymous users may be interested in, based on their current session interactions. Recent studies have demonstrated that retrieving neighbor sessions to augment the current session can effectively alleviate the data sparsity issue and improve recommendation performance. However, existing methods typically rely on explicitly observed s… ▽ More Session-based recommendation aims to predict the next item that anonymous users may be interested in, based on their current session interactions. Recent studies have demonstrated that retrieving neighbor sessions to augment the current session can effectively alleviate the data sparsity issue and improve recommendation performance. However, existing methods typically rely on explicitly observed session data, neglecting latent neighbors - not directly observed but potentially relevant within the interest space - thereby failing to fully exploit the potential of neighbor sessions in recommendation. To address the above limitation, we propose a novel model of diffusion-based latent neighbor generation for session-based recommendation, named DiffSBR. Specifically, DiffSBR leverages two diffusion modules, including retrieval-augmented diffusion and self-augmented diffusion, to generate high-quality latent neighbors. In the retrieval-augmented diffusion module, we leverage retrieved neighbors as guiding signals to constrain and reconstruct the distribution of latent neighbors. Meanwhile, we adopt a training strategy that enables the retriever to learn from the feedback provided by the generator. In the self-augmented diffusion module, we explicitly guide the generation of latent neighbors by injecting the current session's multi-modal signals through contrastive learning. After obtaining the generated latent neighbors, we utilize them to enhance session representations for improving session-based recommendation. Extensive experiments on four public datasets show that DiffSBR generates effective latent neighbors and improves recommendation performance against state-of-the-art baselines. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This paper has been accepted by KDD 2026 arXiv:2601.03903 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unleashing the Potential of Neighbors: Diffusion-based Latent Neighbor Generation for Session-based Recommendation Authors: Yuhan Yang , Jie Zou , Guojia An , Jiwei Wei , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Session-based recommendation aims to predict the next item that anonymous users may be interested in, based on their current session interactions. Recent studies have demonstrated that retrieving neighbor sessions to augment the current session can effectively alleviate the data sparsity issue and improve recommendation performance. However, existing methods typically rely on explicitly observed s… ▽ More Session-based recommendation aims to predict the next item that anonymous users may be interested in, based on their current session interactions. Recent studies have demonstrated that retrieving neighbor sessions to augment the current session can effectively alleviate the data sparsity issue and improve recommendation performance. However, existing methods typically rely on explicitly observed session data, neglecting latent neighbors - not directly observed but potentially relevant within the interest space - thereby failing to fully exploit the potential of neighbor sessions in recommendation. To address the above limitation, we propose a novel model of diffusion-based latent neighbor generation for session-based recommendation, named DiffSBR. Specifically, DiffSBR leverages two diffusion modules, including retrieval-augmented diffusion and self-augmented diffusion, to generate high-quality latent neighbors. In the retrieval-augmented diffusion module, we leverage retrieved neighbors as guiding signals to constrain and reconstruct the distribution of latent neighbors. Meanwhile, we adopt a training strategy that enables the retriever to learn from the feedback provided by the generator. In the self-augmented diffusion module, we explicitly guide the generation of latent neighbors by injecting the current session's multi-modal signals through contrastive learning. After obtaining the generated latent neighbors, we utilize them to enhance session representations for improving session-based recommendation. Extensive experiments on four public datasets show that DiffSBR generates effective latent neighbors and improves recommendation performance against state-of-the-art baselines. △ Less Submitted 7 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. Comments: This paper has been accepted by KDD 2026 arXiv:2601.02422 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Watch Wider and Think Deeper: Collaborative Cross-modal Chain-of-Thought for Complex Visual Reasoning Authors: Wenting Lu , Didi Zhu , Tao Shen , Donglin Zhu , Ayong Ye , Chao Wu Abstract : Multi-modal reasoning requires the seamless integration of visual and linguistic cues, yet existing Chain-of-Thought methods suffer from two critical limitations in cross-modal scenarios: (1) over-reliance on single coarse-grained image regions, and (2) semantic fragmentation between successive reasoning steps. To address these issues, we propose the CoCoT (Collaborative Coross-modal Thought) fram… ▽ More Multi-modal reasoning requires the seamless integration of visual and linguistic cues, yet existing Chain-of-Thought methods suffer from two critical limitations in cross-modal scenarios: (1) over-reliance on single coarse-grained image regions, and (2) semantic fragmentation between successive reasoning steps. To address these issues, we propose the CoCoT (Collaborative Coross-modal Thought) framework, built upon two key innovations: a) Dynamic Multi-Region Grounding to adaptively detect the most relevant image regions based on the question, and b) Relation-Aware Reasoning to enable multi-region collaboration by iteratively aligning visual cues to form a coherent and logical chain of thought. Through this approach, we construct the CoCoT-70K dataset, comprising 74,691 high-quality samples with multi-region annotations and structured reasoning chains. Extensive experiments demonstrate that CoCoT significantly enhances complex visual reasoning, achieving an average accuracy improvement of 15.4% on LLaVA-1.5 and 4.0% on Qwen2-VL across six challenging benchmarks. The data and code are available at: △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2601.02422 [ pdf , ps , other ] Watch Wider and Think Deeper: Collaborative Cross-modal Chain-of-Thought for Complex Visual Reasoning Authors: Wenting Lu , Didi Zhu , Tao Shen , Donglin Zhu , Ayong Ye , Chao Wu Abstract : Multi-modal reasoning requires the seamless integration of visual and linguistic cues, yet existing Chain-of-Thought methods suffer from two critical limitations in cross-modal scenarios: (1) over-reliance on single coarse-grained image regions, and (2) semantic fragmentation between successive reasoning steps. To address these issues, we propose the CoCoT (Collaborative Coross-modal Thought) fram… ▽ More Multi-modal reasoning requires the seamless integration of visual and linguistic cues, yet existing Chain-of-Thought methods suffer from two critical limitations in cross-modal scenarios: (1) over-reliance on single coarse-grained image regions, and (2) semantic fragmentation between successive reasoning steps. To address these issues, we propose the CoCoT (Collaborative Coross-modal Thought) framework, built upon two key innovations: a) Dynamic Multi-Region Grounding to adaptively detect the most relevant image regions based on the question, and b) Relation-Aware Reasoning to enable multi-region collaboration by iteratively aligning visual cues to form a coherent and logical chain of thought. Through this approach, we construct the CoCoT-70K dataset, comprising 74,691 high-quality samples with multi-region annotations and structured reasoning chains. Extensive experiments demonstrate that CoCoT significantly enhances complex visual reasoning, achieving an average accuracy improvement of 15.4% on LLaVA-1.5 and 4.0% on Qwen2-VL across six challenging benchmarks. The data and code are available at: △ Less Submitted 3 January, 2026; originally announced January 2026. arXiv:2512.23545 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI PathFound: An Agentic Multimodal Model Activating Evidence-seeking Pathological Diagnosis Authors: Shengyi Hua , Jianfeng Wu , Tianle Shen , Kangzhe Hu , Zhongzhen Huang , Shujuan Ni , Zhihong Zhang , Yuan Li , Zhe Wang , Xiaofan Zhang Abstract : Recent pathological foundation models have substantially advanced visual representation learning and multimodal interaction. However, most models still rely on a static inference paradigm in which whole-slide images are processed once to produce predictions, without reassessment or targeted evidence acquisition under ambiguous diagnoses. This contrasts with clinical diagnostic workflows that refin… ▽ More Recent pathological foundation models have substantially advanced visual representation learning and multimodal interaction. However, most models still rely on a static inference paradigm in which whole-slide images are processed once to produce predictions, without reassessment or targeted evidence acquisition under ambiguous diagnoses. This contrasts with clinical diagnostic workflows that refine hypotheses through repeated slide observations and further examination requests. We propose PathFound, an agentic multimodal model designed to support evidence-seeking inference in pathological diagnosis. PathFound integrates the power of pathological visual foundation models, vision-language models, and reasoning models trained with reinforcement learning to perform proactive information acquisition and diagnosis refinement by progressing through the initial diagnosis, evidence-seeking, and final decision stages. Across several large multimodal models, adopting this strategy consistently improves diagnostic accuracy, indicating the effectiveness of evidence-seeking workflows in computational pathology. Among these models, PathFound achieves state-of-the-art diagnostic performance across diverse clinical scenarios and demonstrates strong potential to discover subtle details, such as nuclear features and local invasions. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.23545 [ pdf , ps , other ] PathFound: An Agentic Multimodal Model Activating Evidence-seeking Pathological Diagnosis Authors: Shengyi Hua , Jianfeng Wu , Tianle Shen , Kangzhe Hu , Zhongzhen Huang , Shujuan Ni , Zhihong Zhang , Yuan Li , Zhe Wang , Xiaofan Zhang Abstract : Recent pathological foundation models have substantially advanced visual representation learning and multimodal interaction. However, most models still rely on a static inference paradigm in which whole-slide images are processed once to produce predictions, without reassessment or targeted evidence acquisition under ambiguous diagnoses. This contrasts with clinical diagnostic workflows that refin… ▽ More Recent pathological foundation models have substantially advanced visual representation learning and multimodal interaction. However, most models still rely on a static inference paradigm in which whole-slide images are processed once to produce predictions, without reassessment or targeted evidence acquisition under ambiguous diagnoses. This contrasts with clinical diagnostic workflows that refine hypotheses through repeated slide observations and further examination requests. We propose PathFound, an agentic multimodal model designed to support evidence-seeking inference in pathological diagnosis. PathFound integrates the power of pathological visual foundation models, vision-language models, and reasoning models trained with reinforcement learning to perform proactive information acquisition and diagnosis refinement by progressing through the initial diagnosis, evidence-seeking, and final decision stages. Across several large multimodal models, adopting this strategy consistently improves diagnostic accuracy, indicating the effectiveness of evidence-seeking workflows in computational pathology. Among these models, PathFound achieves state-of-the-art diagnostic performance across diverse clinical scenarios and demonstrates strong potential to discover subtle details, such as nuclear features and local invasions. △ Less Submitted 29 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21782 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cond-mat.mtrl-sci cs.LG physics.chem-ph Accelerating Scientific Discovery with Autonomous Goal-evolving Agents Authors: Yuanqi Du , Botao Yu , Tianyu Liu , Tony Shen , Junwu Chen , Jan G. Rittig , Kunyang Sun , Yikun Zhang , Zhangde Song , Bo Zhou , Cassandra Masschelein , Yingze Wang , Haorui Wang , Haojun Jia , Chao Zhang , Hongyu Zhao , Martin Ester , Teresa Head-Gordon , Carla P. Gomes , Huan Sun , Chenru Duan , Philippe Schwaller , Wengong Jin Abstract : There has been unprecedented interest in developing agents that expand the boundary of scientific discovery, primarily by optimizing quantitative objective functions specified by scientists. However, for grand challenges in science , these objectives are only imperfect proxies. We argue that automating objective function design is a central, yet unmet requirement for scientific discovery agents. I… ▽ More There has been unprecedented interest in developing agents that expand the boundary of scientific discovery, primarily by optimizing quantitative objective functions specified by scientists. However, for grand challenges in science , these objectives are only imperfect proxies. We argue that automating objective function design is a central, yet unmet requirement for scientific discovery agents. In this work, we introduce the Scientific Autonomous Goal-evolving Agent (SAGA) to amend this challenge. SAGA employs a bi-level architecture in which an outer loop of LLM agents analyzes optimization outcomes, proposes new objectives, and converts them into computable scoring functions, while an inner loop performs solution optimization under the current objectives. This bi-level design enables systematic exploration of the space of objectives and their trade-offs, rather than treating them as fixed inputs. We demonstrate the framework through a broad spectrum of applications, including antibiotic design, inorganic materials design, functional DNA sequence design, and chemical process design, showing that automating objective formulation can substantially improve the effectiveness of scientific discovery agents. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21782 [ pdf , ps , other ] Accelerating Scientific Discovery with Autonomous Goal-evolving Agents Authors: Yuanqi Du , Botao Yu , Tianyu Liu , Tony Shen , Junwu Chen , Jan G. Rittig , Kunyang Sun , Yikun Zhang , Zhangde Song , Bo Zhou , Cassandra Masschelein , Yingze Wang , Haorui Wang , Haojun Jia , Chao Zhang , Hongyu Zhao , Martin Ester , Teresa Head-Gordon , Carla P. Gomes , Huan Sun , Chenru Duan , Philippe Schwaller , Wengong Jin Abstract : There has been unprecedented interest in developing agents that expand the boundary of scientific discovery, primarily by optimizing quantitative objective functions specified by scientists. However, for grand challenges in science , these objectives are only imperfect proxies. We argue that automating objective function design is a central, yet unmet requirement for scientific discovery agents. I… ▽ More There has been unprecedented interest in developing agents that expand the boundary of scientific discovery, primarily by optimizing quantitative objective functions specified by scientists. However, for grand challenges in science , these objectives are only imperfect proxies. We argue that automating objective function design is a central, yet unmet requirement for scientific discovery agents. In this work, we introduce the Scientific Autonomous Goal-evolving Agent (SAGA) to amend this challenge. SAGA employs a bi-level architecture in which an outer loop of LLM agents analyzes optimization outcomes, proposes new objectives, and converts them into computable scoring functions, while an inner loop performs solution optimization under the current objectives. This bi-level design enables systematic exploration of the space of objectives and their trade-offs, rather than treating them as fixed inputs. We demonstrate the framework through a broad spectrum of applications, including antibiotic design, inorganic materials design, functional DNA sequence design, and chemical process design, showing that automating objective formulation can substantially improve the effectiveness of scientific discovery agents. △ Less Submitted 25 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.21333 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Fast SAM2 with Text-Driven Token Pruning Authors: Avilasha Mandal , Chaoning Zhang , Fachrina Dewi Puspitasari , Xudong Wang , Jiaquan Zhang , Caiyan Qin , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2), a vision foundation model has significantly advanced in prompt-driven video object segmentation, yet their practical deployment remains limited by the high computational and memory cost of processing dense visual tokens across time. The SAM2 pipelines typically propagate all visual tokens produced by the image encoder through downstream temporal reasoning modules,… ▽ More Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2), a vision foundation model has significantly advanced in prompt-driven video object segmentation, yet their practical deployment remains limited by the high computational and memory cost of processing dense visual tokens across time. The SAM2 pipelines typically propagate all visual tokens produced by the image encoder through downstream temporal reasoning modules, regardless of their relevance to the target object, resulting in reduced scalability due to quadratic memory attention overhead. In this work, we introduce a text-guided token pruning framework that improves inference efficiency by selectively reducing token density prior to temporal propagation, without modifying the underlying segmentation architecture. Operating after visual encoding and before memory based propagation, our method ranks tokens using a lightweight routing mechanism that integrates local visual context, semantic relevance derived from object-centric textual descriptions (either user-provided or automatically generated), and uncertainty cues that help preserve ambiguous or boundary critical regions. By retaining only the most informative tokens for downstream processing, the proposed approach reduces redundant computation while maintaining segmentation fidelity. Extensive experiments across multiple challenging video segmentation benchmarks demonstrate that post-encoder token pruning provides a practical and effective pathway to efficient, prompt-aware video segmentation, achieving up to 42.50 percent faster inference and 37.41 percent lower GPU memory usage compared to the unpruned baseline SAM2, while preserving competitive J and F performance. These results highlight the potential of early token selection to improve the scalability of transformer-based video segmentation systems for real-time and resource-constrained applications. △ Less Submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 28 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2512.21333 [ pdf , ps , other ] Fast SAM2 with Text-Driven Token Pruning Authors: Avilasha Mandal , Chaoning Zhang , Fachrina Dewi Puspitasari , Xudong Wang , Jiaquan Zhang , Caiyan Qin , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2), a vision foundation model has significantly advanced in prompt-driven video object segmentation, yet their practical deployment remains limited by the high computational and memory cost of processing dense visual tokens across time. The SAM2 pipelines typically propagate all visual tokens produced by the image encoder through downstream temporal reasoning modules,… ▽ More Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2), a vision foundation model has significantly advanced in prompt-driven video object segmentation, yet their practical deployment remains limited by the high computational and memory cost of processing dense visual tokens across time. The SAM2 pipelines typically propagate all visual tokens produced by the image encoder through downstream temporal reasoning modules, regardless of their relevance to the target object, resulting in reduced scalability due to quadratic memory attention overhead. In this work, we introduce a text-guided token pruning framework that improves inference efficiency by selectively reducing token density prior to temporal propagation, without modifying the underlying segmentation architecture. Operating after visual encoding and before memory based propagation, our method ranks tokens using a lightweight routing mechanism that integrates local visual context, semantic relevance derived from object-centric textual descriptions (either user-provided or automatically generated), and uncertainty cues that help preserve ambiguous or boundary critical regions. By retaining only the most informative tokens for downstream processing, the proposed approach reduces redundant computation while maintaining segmentation fidelity. Extensive experiments across multiple challenging video segmentation benchmarks demonstrate that post-encoder token pruning provides a practical and effective pathway to efficient, prompt-aware video segmentation, achieving up to 42.50 percent faster inference and 37.41 percent lower GPU memory usage compared to the unpruned baseline SAM2, while preserving competitive J and F performance. These results highlight the potential of early token selection to improve the scalability of transformer-based video segmentation systems for real-time and resource-constrained applications. △ Less Submitted 24 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 28 pages, 9 figures arXiv:2512.19135 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Understanding Chain-of-Thought in Large Language Models via Topological Data Analysis Authors: Chenghao Li , Chaoning Zhang , Yi Lu , Shuxu Chen , Xudong Wang , Jiaquan Zhang , Zhicheng Wang , Zhengxun Jin , Kuien Liu , Sung-Ho Bae , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Hen Tao Shen Abstract : With the development of large language models (LLMs), particularly with the introduction of the long reasoning chain technique, the reasoning ability of LLMs in complex problem-solving has been significantly enhanced. While acknowledging the power of long reasoning chains, we cannot help but wonder: Why do different reasoning chains perform differently in reasoning? What components of the reasonin… ▽ More With the development of large language models (LLMs), particularly with the introduction of the long reasoning chain technique, the reasoning ability of LLMs in complex problem-solving has been significantly enhanced. While acknowledging the power of long reasoning chains, we cannot help but wonder: Why do different reasoning chains perform differently in reasoning? What components of the reasoning chains play a key role? Existing studies mainly focus on evaluating reasoning chains from a functional perspective, with little attention paid to their structural mechanisms. To address this gap, this work is the first to analyze and evaluate the quality of the reasoning chain from a structural perspective. We apply persistent homology from Topological Data Analysis (TDA) to map reasoning steps into semantic space, extract topological features, and analyze structural changes. These changes reveal semantic coherence, logical redundancy, and identify logical breaks and gaps. By calculating homology groups, we assess connectivity and redundancy at various scales, using barcode and persistence diagrams to quantify stability and consistency. Our results show that the topological structural complexity of reasoning chains correlates positively with accuracy. More complex chains identify correct answers sooner, while successful reasoning exhibits simpler topologies, reducing redundancy and cycles, enhancing efficiency and interpretability. This work provides a new perspective on reasoning chain quality assessment and offers guidance for future optimization. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.19135 [ pdf , ps , other ] Understanding Chain-of-Thought in Large Language Models via Topological Data Analysis Authors: Chenghao Li , Chaoning Zhang , Yi Lu , Shuxu Chen , Xudong Wang , Jiaquan Zhang , Zhicheng Wang , Zhengxun Jin , Kuien Liu , Sung-Ho Bae , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Hen Tao Shen Abstract : With the development of large language models (LLMs), particularly with the introduction of the long reasoning chain technique, the reasoning ability of LLMs in complex problem-solving has been significantly enhanced. While acknowledging the power of long reasoning chains, we cannot help but wonder: Why do different reasoning chains perform differently in reasoning? What components of the reasonin… ▽ More With the development of large language models (LLMs), particularly with the introduction of the long reasoning chain technique, the reasoning ability of LLMs in complex problem-solving has been significantly enhanced. While acknowledging the power of long reasoning chains, we cannot help but wonder: Why do different reasoning chains perform differently in reasoning? What components of the reasoning chains play a key role? Existing studies mainly focus on evaluating reasoning chains from a functional perspective, with little attention paid to their structural mechanisms. To address this gap, this work is the first to analyze and evaluate the quality of the reasoning chain from a structural perspective. We apply persistent homology from Topological Data Analysis (TDA) to map reasoning steps into semantic space, extract topological features, and analyze structural changes. These changes reveal semantic coherence, logical redundancy, and identify logical breaks and gaps. By calculating homology groups, we assess connectivity and redundancy at various scales, using barcode and persistence diagrams to quantify stability and consistency. Our results show that the topological structural complexity of reasoning chains correlates positively with accuracy. More complex chains identify correct answers sooner, while successful reasoning exhibits simpler topologies, reducing redundancy and cycles, enhancing efficiency and interpretability. This work provides a new perspective on reasoning chain quality assessment and offers guidance for future optimization. △ Less Submitted 22 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15601 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL You Never Know a Person, You Only Know Their Defenses: Detecting Levels of Psychological Defense Mechanisms in Supportive Conversations Authors: Hongbin Na , Zimu Wang , Zhaoming Chen , Peilin Zhou , Yining Hua , Grace Ziqi Zhou , Haiyang Zhang , Tao Shen , Wei Wang , John Torous , Shaoxiong Ji , Ling Chen Abstract : Psychological defenses are strategies, often automatic, that people use to manage distress. Rigid or overuse of defenses is negatively linked to mental health and shapes what speakers disclose and how they accept or resist help. However, defenses are complex and difficult to reliably measure, particularly in clinical dialogues. We introduce PsyDefConv, a dialogue corpus with help seeker utterances… ▽ More Psychological defenses are strategies, often automatic, that people use to manage distress. Rigid or overuse of defenses is negatively linked to mental health and shapes what speakers disclose and how they accept or resist help. However, defenses are complex and difficult to reliably measure, particularly in clinical dialogues. We introduce PsyDefConv, a dialogue corpus with help seeker utterances labeled for defense level, and DMRS Co-Pilot, a four-stage pipeline that provides evidence-based pre-annotations. The corpus contains 200 dialogues and 4709 utterances, including 2336 help seeker turns, with labeling and Cohen's kappa 0.639. In a counterbalanced study, the co-pilot reduced average annotation time by 22.4%. In expert review, it averaged 4.62 for evidence, 4.44 for clinical plausibility, and 4.40 for insight on a seven-point scale. Benchmarks with strong language models in zero-shot and fine-tuning settings demonstrate clear headroom, with the best macro F1-score around 30% and a tendency to overpredict mature defenses. Corpus analyses confirm that mature defenses are most common and reveal emotion-specific deviations. We will release the corpus, annotations, code, and prompts to support research on defensive functioning in language. △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Under Review arXiv:2512.15601 [ pdf , ps , other ] You Never Know a Person, You Only Know Their Defenses: Detecting Levels of Psychological Defense Mechanisms in Supportive Conversations Authors: Hongbin Na , Zimu Wang , Zhaoming Chen , Peilin Zhou , Yining Hua , Grace Ziqi Zhou , Haiyang Zhang , Tao Shen , Wei Wang , John Torous , Shaoxiong Ji , Ling Chen Abstract : Psychological defenses are strategies, often automatic, that people use to manage distress. Rigid or overuse of defenses is negatively linked to mental health and shapes what speakers disclose and how they accept or resist help. However, defenses are complex and difficult to reliably measure, particularly in clinical dialogues. We introduce PsyDefConv, a dialogue corpus with help seeker utterances… ▽ More Psychological defenses are strategies, often automatic, that people use to manage distress. Rigid or overuse of defenses is negatively linked to mental health and shapes what speakers disclose and how they accept or resist help. However, defenses are complex and difficult to reliably measure, particularly in clinical dialogues. We introduce PsyDefConv, a dialogue corpus with help seeker utterances labeled for defense level, and DMRS Co-Pilot, a four-stage pipeline that provides evidence-based pre-annotations. The corpus contains 200 dialogues and 4709 utterances, including 2336 help seeker turns, with labeling and Cohen's kappa 0.639. In a counterbalanced study, the co-pilot reduced average annotation time by 22.4%. In expert review, it averaged 4.62 for evidence, 4.44 for clinical plausibility, and 4.40 for insight on a seven-point scale. Benchmarks with strong language models in zero-shot and fine-tuning settings demonstrate clear headroom, with the best macro F1-score around 30% and a tendency to overpredict mature defenses. Corpus analyses confirm that mature defenses are most common and reveal emotion-specific deviations. We will release the corpus, annotations, code, and prompts to support research on defensive functioning in language. △ Less Submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: Under Review arXiv:2512.15411 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CV MiVLA: Towards Generalizable Vision-Language-Action Model with Human-Robot Mutual Imitation Pre-training Authors: Zhenhan Yin , Xuanhan Wang , Jiahao Jiang , Kaiyuan Deng , Pengqi Chen , Shuangle Li , Chong Liu , Xing Xu , Jingkuan Song , Lianli Gao , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : While leveraging abundant human videos and simulated robot data poses a scalable solution to the scarcity of real-world robot data, the generalization capability of existing vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains limited by mismatches in camera views, visual appearance, and embodiment morphologies. To overcome this limitation, we propose MiVLA, a generalizable VLA empowered by human-robot mu… ▽ More While leveraging abundant human videos and simulated robot data poses a scalable solution to the scarcity of real-world robot data, the generalization capability of existing vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains limited by mismatches in camera views, visual appearance, and embodiment morphologies. To overcome this limitation, we propose MiVLA, a generalizable VLA empowered by human-robot mutual imitation pre-training, which leverages inherent behavioral similarity between human hands and robotic arms to build a foundation of strong behavioral priors for both human actions and robotic control. Specifically, our method utilizes kinematic rules with left/right hand coordinate systems for bidirectional alignment between human and robot action spaces. Given human or simulated robot demonstrations, MiVLA is trained to forecast behavior trajectories for one embodiment, and imitate behaviors for another one unseen in the demonstration. Based on this mutual imitation, it integrates the behavioral fidelity of real-world human data with the manipulative diversity of simulated robot data into a unified model, thereby enhancing the generalization capability for downstream tasks. Extensive experiments conducted on both simulation and real-world platforms with three robots (ARX, PiPer and LocoMan), demonstrate that MiVLA achieves strong improved generalization capability, outperforming state-of-the-art VLAs (e.g., $\boldsymbolπ_{0}$, $\boldsymbolπ_{0.5}$ and H-RDT) by 25% in simulation, and 14% in real-world robot control tasks. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.15411 [ pdf , ps , other ] MiVLA: Towards Generalizable Vision-Language-Action Model with Human-Robot Mutual Imitation Pre-training Authors: Zhenhan Yin , Xuanhan Wang , Jiahao Jiang , Kaiyuan Deng , Pengqi Chen , Shuangle Li , Chong Liu , Xing Xu , Jingkuan Song , Lianli Gao , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : While leveraging abundant human videos and simulated robot data poses a scalable solution to the scarcity of real-world robot data, the generalization capability of existing vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains limited by mismatches in camera views, visual appearance, and embodiment morphologies. To overcome this limitation, we propose MiVLA, a generalizable VLA empowered by human-robot mu… ▽ More While leveraging abundant human videos and simulated robot data poses a scalable solution to the scarcity of real-world robot data, the generalization capability of existing vision-language-action models (VLAs) remains limited by mismatches in camera views, visual appearance, and embodiment morphologies. To overcome this limitation, we propose MiVLA, a generalizable VLA empowered by human-robot mutual imitation pre-training, which leverages inherent behavioral similarity between human hands and robotic arms to build a foundation of strong behavioral priors for both human actions and robotic control. Specifically, our method utilizes kinematic rules with left/right hand coordinate systems for bidirectional alignment between human and robot action spaces. Given human or simulated robot demonstrations, MiVLA is trained to forecast behavior trajectories for one embodiment, and imitate behaviors for another one unseen in the demonstration. Based on this mutual imitation, it integrates the behavioral fidelity of real-world human data with the manipulative diversity of simulated robot data into a unified model, thereby enhancing the generalization capability for downstream tasks. Extensive experiments conducted on both simulation and real-world platforms with three robots (ARX, PiPer and LocoMan), demonstrate that MiVLA achieves strong improved generalization capability, outperforming state-of-the-art VLAs (e.g., $\boldsymbolπ_{0}$, $\boldsymbolπ_{0.5}$ and H-RDT) by 25% in simulation, and 14% in real-world robot control tasks. △ Less Submitted 19 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.13164 [ pdf ] cs.CV cs.AI A Semantically Enhanced Generative Foundation Model Improves Pathological Image Synthesis Authors: Xianchao Guan , Zhiyuan Fan , Yifeng Wang , Fuqiang Chen , Yanjiang Zhou , Zengyang Che , Hongxue Meng , Xin Li , Yaowei Wang , Hongpeng Wang , Min Zhang , Heng Tao Shen , Zheng Zhang , Yongbing Zhang Abstract : The development of clinical-grade artificial intelligence in pathology is limited by the scarcity of diverse, high-quality annotated datasets. Generative models offer a potential solution but suffer from semantic instability and morphological hallucinations that compromise diagnostic reliability. To address this challenge, we introduce a Correlation-Regulated Alignment Framework for Tissue Synthes… ▽ More The development of clinical-grade artificial intelligence in pathology is limited by the scarcity of diverse, high-quality annotated datasets. Generative models offer a potential solution but suffer from semantic instability and morphological hallucinations that compromise diagnostic reliability. To address this challenge, we introduce a Correlation-Regulated Alignment Framework for Tissue Synthesis (CRAFTS), the first generative foundation model for pathology-specific text-to-image synthesis. By leveraging a dual-stage training strategy on approximately 2.8 million image-caption pairs, CRAFTS incorporates a novel alignment mechanism that suppresses semantic drift to ensure biological accuracy. This model generates diverse pathological images spanning 30 cancer types, with quality rigorously validated by objective metrics and pathologist evaluations. Furthermore, CRAFTS-augmented datasets enhance the performance across various clinical tasks, including classification, cross-modal retrieval, self-supervised learning, and visual question answering. In addition, coupling CRAFTS with ControlNet enables precise control over tissue architecture from inputs such as nuclear segmentation masks and fluorescence images. By overcoming the critical barriers of data scarcity and privacy concerns, CRAFTS provides a limitless source of diverse, annotated histology data, effectively unlocking the creation of robust diagnostic tools for rare and complex cancer phenotypes. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 68 pages, 9 figures, 16 tables arXiv:2512.13164 [ pdf ] A Semantically Enhanced Generative Foundation Model Improves Pathological Image Synthesis Authors: Xianchao Guan , Zhiyuan Fan , Yifeng Wang , Fuqiang Chen , Yanjiang Zhou , Zengyang Che , Hongxue Meng , Xin Li , Yaowei Wang , Hongpeng Wang , Min Zhang , Heng Tao Shen , Zheng Zhang , Yongbing Zhang Abstract : The development of clinical-grade artificial intelligence in pathology is limited by the scarcity of diverse, high-quality annotated datasets. Generative models offer a potential solution but suffer from semantic instability and morphological hallucinations that compromise diagnostic reliability. To address this challenge, we introduce a Correlation-Regulated Alignment Framework for Tissue Synthes… ▽ More The development of clinical-grade artificial intelligence in pathology is limited by the scarcity of diverse, high-quality annotated datasets. Generative models offer a potential solution but suffer from semantic instability and morphological hallucinations that compromise diagnostic reliability. To address this challenge, we introduce a Correlation-Regulated Alignment Framework for Tissue Synthesis (CRAFTS), the first generative foundation model for pathology-specific text-to-image synthesis. By leveraging a dual-stage training strategy on approximately 2.8 million image-caption pairs, CRAFTS incorporates a novel alignment mechanism that suppresses semantic drift to ensure biological accuracy. This model generates diverse pathological images spanning 30 cancer types, with quality rigorously validated by objective metrics and pathologist evaluations. Furthermore, CRAFTS-augmented datasets enhance the performance across various clinical tasks, including classification, cross-modal retrieval, self-supervised learning, and visual question answering. In addition, coupling CRAFTS with ControlNet enables precise control over tissue architecture from inputs such as nuclear segmentation masks and fluorescence images. By overcoming the critical barriers of data scarcity and privacy concerns, CRAFTS provides a limitless source of diverse, annotated histology data, effectively unlocking the creation of robust diagnostic tools for rare and complex cancer phenotypes. △ Less Submitted 15 December, 2025; v1 submitted 15 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: 68 pages, 9 figures, 16 tables arXiv:2512.10416 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Beyond Endpoints: Path-Centric Reasoning for Vectorized Off-Road Network Extraction Authors: Wenfei Guan , Jilin Mei , Tong Shen , Xumin Wu , Shuo Wang , Cheng Min , Yu Hu Abstract : Deep learning has advanced vectorized road extraction in urban settings, yet off-road environments remain underexplored and challenging. A significant domain gap causes advanced models to fail in wild terrains due to two key issues: lack of large-scale vectorized datasets and structural weakness in prevailing methods. Models such as SAM-Road employ a node-centric paradigm that reasons at sparse en… ▽ More Deep learning has advanced vectorized road extraction in urban settings, yet off-road environments remain underexplored and challenging. A significant domain gap causes advanced models to fail in wild terrains due to two key issues: lack of large-scale vectorized datasets and structural weakness in prevailing methods. Models such as SAM-Road employ a node-centric paradigm that reasons at sparse endpoints, making them fragile to occlusions and ambiguous junctions in off-road scenes, leading to topological errors. This work addresses these limitations in two complementary ways. First, we release WildRoad, a global off-road road network dataset constructed efficiently with a dedicated interactive annotation tool tailored for road-network labeling. Second, we introduce MaGRoad (Mask-aware Geodesic Road network extractor), a path-centric framework that aggregates multi-scale visual evidence along candidate paths to infer connectivity robustly. Extensive experiments show that MaGRoad achieves state-of-the-art performance on our challenging WildRoad benchmark while generalizing well to urban datasets. A streamlined pipeline also yields roughly 2.5x faster inference, improving practical applicability. Together, the dataset and path-centric paradigm provide a stronger foundation for mapping roads in the wild. We release both the dataset and code at △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: v2: Corrected the abstract to accurately reflect the paper content. Updated the project link to the correct repository<a href=" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow"></a>. No changes to the main text arXiv:2512.10416 [ pdf , ps , other ] Beyond Endpoints: Path-Centric Reasoning for Vectorized Off-Road Network Extraction Authors: Wenfei Guan , Jilin Mei , Tong Shen , Xumin Wu , Shuo Wang , Cheng Min , Yu Hu Abstract : Deep learning has advanced vectorized road extraction in urban settings, yet off-road environments remain underexplored and challenging. A significant domain gap causes advanced models to fail in wild terrains due to two key issues: lack of large-scale vectorized datasets and structural weakness in prevailing methods. Models such as SAM-Road employ a node-centric paradigm that reasons at sparse en… ▽ More Deep learning has advanced vectorized road extraction in urban settings, yet off-road environments remain underexplored and challenging. A significant domain gap causes advanced models to fail in wild terrains due to two key issues: lack of large-scale vectorized datasets and structural weakness in prevailing methods. Models such as SAM-Road employ a node-centric paradigm that reasons at sparse endpoints, making them fragile to occlusions and ambiguous junctions in off-road scenes, leading to topological errors. This work addresses these limitations in two complementary ways. First, we release WildRoad, a global off-road road network dataset constructed efficiently with a dedicated interactive annotation tool tailored for road-network labeling. Second, we introduce MaGRoad (Mask-aware Geodesic Road network extractor), a path-centric framework that aggregates multi-scale visual evidence along candidate paths to infer connectivity robustly. Extensive experiments show that MaGRoad achieves state-of-the-art performance on our challenging WildRoad benchmark while generalizing well to urban datasets. A streamlined pipeline also yields roughly 2.5x faster inference, improving practical applicability. Together, the dataset and path-centric paradigm provide a stronger foundation for mapping roads in the wild. We release both the dataset and code at △ Less Submitted 12 December, 2025; v1 submitted 11 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. Comments: v2: Corrected the abstract to accurately reflect the paper content. Updated the project link to the correct repository<a href=" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer nofollow"></a>. No changes to the main text arXiv:2512.01556 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.CL cs.LG LEC: Linear Expectation Constraints for False-Discovery Control in Selective Prediction and Routing Systems Authors: Zhiyuan Wang , Aniri , Tianlong Chen , Yue Zhang , Heng Tao Shen , Xiaoshuang Shi , Kaidi Xu Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) often generate unreliable answers, while heuristic uncertainty methods fail to fully distinguish correct from incorrect predictions, causing users to accept erroneous answers without statistical guarantees. We address this issue through the lens of false discovery rate (FDR) control, ensuring that among all accepted predictions, the proportion of errors does not exceed… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) often generate unreliable answers, while heuristic uncertainty methods fail to fully distinguish correct from incorrect predictions, causing users to accept erroneous answers without statistical guarantees. We address this issue through the lens of false discovery rate (FDR) control, ensuring that among all accepted predictions, the proportion of errors does not exceed a target risk level. To achieve this in a principled way, we propose LEC, which reinterprets selective prediction as a constrained decision problem by enforcing a Linear Expectation Constraint over selection and error indicators. Then, we establish a finite-sample sufficient condition, which relies only on a held-out set of exchangeable calibration samples, to compute an FDR-constrained, coverage-maximizing threshold. Furthermore, we extend LEC to a two-model routing mechanism: given a prompt, if the current model's uncertainty exceeds its calibrated threshold, we delegate it to a stronger model, while maintaining a unified FDR guarantee. Evaluations on closed-ended and open-ended question-answering (QA) datasets show that LEC achieves tighter FDR control and substantially improves sample retention over prior methods. Moreover, the two-model routing mechanism achieves lower risk levels while accepting more correct samples than each individual model. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01556 [ pdf , ps , other ] LEC: Linear Expectation Constraints for False-Discovery Control in Selective Prediction and Routing Systems Authors: Zhiyuan Wang , Aniri , Tianlong Chen , Yue Zhang , Heng Tao Shen , Xiaoshuang Shi , Kaidi Xu Abstract : Large language models (LLMs) often generate unreliable answers, while heuristic uncertainty methods fail to fully distinguish correct from incorrect predictions, causing users to accept erroneous answers without statistical guarantees. We address this issue through the lens of false discovery rate (FDR) control, ensuring that among all accepted predictions, the proportion of errors does not exceed… ▽ More Large language models (LLMs) often generate unreliable answers, while heuristic uncertainty methods fail to fully distinguish correct from incorrect predictions, causing users to accept erroneous answers without statistical guarantees. We address this issue through the lens of false discovery rate (FDR) control, ensuring that among all accepted predictions, the proportion of errors does not exceed a target risk level. To achieve this in a principled way, we propose LEC, which reinterprets selective prediction as a constrained decision problem by enforcing a Linear Expectation Constraint over selection and error indicators. Then, we establish a finite-sample sufficient condition, which relies only on a held-out set of exchangeable calibration samples, to compute an FDR-constrained, coverage-maximizing threshold. Furthermore, we extend LEC to a two-model routing mechanism: given a prompt, if the current model's uncertainty exceeds its calibrated threshold, we delegate it to a stronger model, while maintaining a unified FDR guarantee. Evaluations on closed-ended and open-ended question-answering (QA) datasets show that LEC achieves tighter FDR control and substantially improves sample retention over prior methods. Moreover, the two-model routing mechanism achieves lower risk levels while accepting more correct samples than each individual model. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01382 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Reversible Inversion for Training-Free Exemplar-guided Image Editing Authors: Yuke Li , Lianli Gao , Ji Zhang , Pengpeng Zeng , Lichuan Xiang , Hongkai Wen , Heng Tao Shen , Jingkuan Song Abstract : Exemplar-guided Image Editing (EIE) aims to modify a source image according to a visual reference. Existing approaches often require large-scale pre-training to learn relationships between the source and reference images, incurring high computational costs. As a training-free alternative, inversion techniques can be used to map the source image into a latent space for manipulation. However, our em… ▽ More Exemplar-guided Image Editing (EIE) aims to modify a source image according to a visual reference. Existing approaches often require large-scale pre-training to learn relationships between the source and reference images, incurring high computational costs. As a training-free alternative, inversion techniques can be used to map the source image into a latent space for manipulation. However, our empirical study reveals that standard inversion is sub-optimal for EIE, leading to poor quality and inefficiency. To tackle this challenge, we introduce \textbf{Reversible Inversion ({ReInversion})} for effective and efficient EIE. Specifically, ReInversion operates as a two-stage denoising process, which is first conditioned on the source image and subsequently on the reference. Besides, we introduce a Mask-Guided Selective Denoising (MSD) strategy to constrain edits to target regions, preserving the structural consistency of the background. Both qualitative and quantitative comparisons demonstrate that our ReInversion method achieves state-of-the-art EIE performance with the lowest computational overhead. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2512.01382 [ pdf , ps , other ] Reversible Inversion for Training-Free Exemplar-guided Image Editing Authors: Yuke Li , Lianli Gao , Ji Zhang , Pengpeng Zeng , Lichuan Xiang , Hongkai Wen , Heng Tao Shen , Jingkuan Song Abstract : Exemplar-guided Image Editing (EIE) aims to modify a source image according to a visual reference. Existing approaches often require large-scale pre-training to learn relationships between the source and reference images, incurring high computational costs. As a training-free alternative, inversion techniques can be used to map the source image into a latent space for manipulation. However, our em… ▽ More Exemplar-guided Image Editing (EIE) aims to modify a source image according to a visual reference. Existing approaches often require large-scale pre-training to learn relationships between the source and reference images, incurring high computational costs. As a training-free alternative, inversion techniques can be used to map the source image into a latent space for manipulation. However, our empirical study reveals that standard inversion is sub-optimal for EIE, leading to poor quality and inefficiency. To tackle this challenge, we introduce \textbf{Reversible Inversion ({ReInversion})} for effective and efficient EIE. Specifically, ReInversion operates as a two-stage denoising process, which is first conditioned on the source image and subsequently on the reference. Besides, we introduce a Mask-Guided Selective Denoising (MSD) strategy to constrain edits to target regions, preserving the structural consistency of the background. Both qualitative and quantitative comparisons demonstrate that our ReInversion method achieves state-of-the-art EIE performance with the lowest computational overhead. △ Less Submitted 1 December, 2025; originally announced December 2025. arXiv:2511.22594 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI HarmoCLIP: Harmonizing Global and Regional Representations in Contrastive Vision-Language Models Authors: Haoxi Zeng , Haoxuan Li , Yi Bin , Pengpeng Zeng , Xing Xu , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training (CLIP) has demonstrated remarkable generalization ability and strong performance across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, due to the lack of region-level supervision, CLIP exhibits limited fine-grained semantic understanding. Although several methods attempt to mitigate this issue, they unintentionally disrupt the global alignment, resulting in… ▽ More Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training (CLIP) has demonstrated remarkable generalization ability and strong performance across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, due to the lack of region-level supervision, CLIP exhibits limited fine-grained semantic understanding. Although several methods attempt to mitigate this issue, they unintentionally disrupt the global alignment, resulting in a persistent trade-off where improving local perception simultaneously degrades global coherence. In this paper, we propose HarmoCLIP, a novel framework designed to harmonize global and region representations within CLIP. We first identify that the absence of direct alignment between local textual and visual semantics is the fundamental cause of the trade-off. To address this, HarmoCLIP introduces an explicit fine-grained semantic supervision term that directly aligns textual segments with their corresponding visual regions, effectively bridging the image region space and the textual space. To further strengthen the representation capability at the local level, our method introduces a novel Region-Language Alignment supervision strategy that promotes fine-grained semantic learning without compromising global semantic consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that HarmoCLIP achieves state-of-the-art (improvement up to 69.78%) performance on the global task of retrieval and yields a substantial 3.2% improvement in Top-1 accuracy on the region task of bounding-box classification, consistently outperforming prior approaches while providing a balanced, efficient, and plug-and-play solution to the global-local trade-off in CLIP. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 13 pages, 7 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2511.22594 [ pdf , ps , other ] HarmoCLIP: Harmonizing Global and Regional Representations in Contrastive Vision-Language Models Authors: Haoxi Zeng , Haoxuan Li , Yi Bin , Pengpeng Zeng , Xing Xu , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training (CLIP) has demonstrated remarkable generalization ability and strong performance across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, due to the lack of region-level supervision, CLIP exhibits limited fine-grained semantic understanding. Although several methods attempt to mitigate this issue, they unintentionally disrupt the global alignment, resulting in… ▽ More Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training (CLIP) has demonstrated remarkable generalization ability and strong performance across a wide range of vision-language tasks. However, due to the lack of region-level supervision, CLIP exhibits limited fine-grained semantic understanding. Although several methods attempt to mitigate this issue, they unintentionally disrupt the global alignment, resulting in a persistent trade-off where improving local perception simultaneously degrades global coherence. In this paper, we propose HarmoCLIP, a novel framework designed to harmonize global and region representations within CLIP. We first identify that the absence of direct alignment between local textual and visual semantics is the fundamental cause of the trade-off. To address this, HarmoCLIP introduces an explicit fine-grained semantic supervision term that directly aligns textual segments with their corresponding visual regions, effectively bridging the image region space and the textual space. To further strengthen the representation capability at the local level, our method introduces a novel Region-Language Alignment supervision strategy that promotes fine-grained semantic learning without compromising global semantic consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that HarmoCLIP achieves state-of-the-art (improvement up to 69.78%) performance on the global task of retrieval and yields a substantial 3.2% improvement in Top-1 accuracy on the region task of bounding-box classification, consistently outperforming prior approaches while providing a balanced, efficient, and plug-and-play solution to the global-local trade-off in CLIP. Code is available at △ Less Submitted 27 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 13 pages, 7 figures, 6 tables arXiv:2511.18262 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MammothModa2: A Unified AR-Diffusion Framework for Multimodal Understanding and Generation Authors: Tao Shen , Xin Wan , Taicai Chen , Rui Zhang , Junwen Pan , Dawei Lu , Fanding Lei , Zhilin Lu , Yunfei Yang , Chen Cheng , Qi She , Chang Liu , Zhenbang Sun Abstract : Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generat… ▽ More Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generation. Mammoth2 adopts a serial design: an AR path equipped with generation experts performs global semantic modeling over discrete tokens, while a single-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) decoder handles high-fidelity image synthesis. A carefully designed AR-Diffusion feature alignment module combines multi-layer feature aggregation, unified condition encoding, and in-context conditioning to stably align AR's representations with the diffusion decoder's continuous latents. Mammoth2 is trained end-to-end with joint Next-Token Prediction and Flow Matching objectives, followed by supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning over both generation and editing. With roughly 60M supervised generation samples and no reliance on pre-trained generators, Mammoth2 delivers strong text-to-image and instruction-based editing performance on public benchmarks, achieving 0.87 on GenEval, 87.2 on DPGBench, and 4.06 on ImgEdit, while remaining competitive with understanding-only backbones (e.g., Qwen3-VL-8B) on multimodal understanding tasks. These results suggest that a carefully coupled AR-Diffusion architecture can provide high-fidelity generation and editing while maintaining strong multimodal comprehension within a single, parameter- and data-efficient model. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.18262 [ pdf , ps , other ] MammothModa2: A Unified AR-Diffusion Framework for Multimodal Understanding and Generation Authors: Tao Shen , Xin Wan , Taicai Chen , Rui Zhang , Junwen Pan , Dawei Lu , Fanding Lei , Zhilin Lu , Yunfei Yang , Chen Cheng , Qi She , Chang Liu , Zhenbang Sun Abstract : Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generat… ▽ More Unified multimodal models aim to integrate understanding and generation within a single framework, yet bridging the gap between discrete semantic reasoning and high-fidelity visual synthesis remains challenging. We present MammothModa2 (Mammoth2), a unified autoregressive-diffusion (AR-Diffusion) framework designed to effectively couple autoregressive semantic planning with diffusion-based generation. Mammoth2 adopts a serial design: an AR path equipped with generation experts performs global semantic modeling over discrete tokens, while a single-stream Diffusion Transformer (DiT) decoder handles high-fidelity image synthesis. A carefully designed AR-Diffusion feature alignment module combines multi-layer feature aggregation, unified condition encoding, and in-context conditioning to stably align AR's representations with the diffusion decoder's continuous latents. Mammoth2 is trained end-to-end with joint Next-Token Prediction and Flow Matching objectives, followed by supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning over both generation and editing. With roughly 60M supervised generation samples and no reliance on pre-trained generators, Mammoth2 delivers strong text-to-image and instruction-based editing performance on public benchmarks, achieving 0.87 on GenEval, 87.2 on DPGBench, and 4.06 on ImgEdit, while remaining competitive with understanding-only backbones (e.g., Qwen3-VL-8B) on multimodal understanding tasks. These results suggest that a carefully coupled AR-Diffusion architecture can provide high-fidelity generation and editing while maintaining strong multimodal comprehension within a single, parameter- and data-efficient model. △ Less Submitted 22 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16860 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Parts-Mamba: Augmenting Joint Context with Part-Level Scanning for Occluded Human Skeleton Authors: Tianyi Shen , Huijuan Xu , Nilesh Ahuja , Omesh Tickoo , Philip Shin , Vijaykrishnan Narayanan Abstract : Skeleton action recognition involves recognizing human action from human skeletons. The use of graph convolutional networks (GCNs) has driven major advances in this recognition task. In real-world scenarios, the captured skeletons are not always perfect or complete because of occlusions of parts of the human body or poor communication quality, leading to missing parts in skeletons or videos with m… ▽ More Skeleton action recognition involves recognizing human action from human skeletons. The use of graph convolutional networks (GCNs) has driven major advances in this recognition task. In real-world scenarios, the captured skeletons are not always perfect or complete because of occlusions of parts of the human body or poor communication quality, leading to missing parts in skeletons or videos with missing frames. In the presence of such non-idealities, existing GCN models perform poorly due to missing local context. To address this limitation, we propose Parts-Mamba, a hybrid GCN-Mamba model designed to enhance the ability to capture and maintain contextual information from distant joints. The proposed Parts-Mamba model effectively captures part-specific information through its parts-specific scanning feature and preserves non-neighboring joint context via a parts-body fusion module. Our proposed model is evaluated on the NTU RGB+D 60 and NTU RGB+D 120 datasets under different occlusion settings, achieving up to 12.9% improvement in accuracy. △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.16860 [ pdf , ps , other ] Parts-Mamba: Augmenting Joint Context with Part-Level Scanning for Occluded Human Skeleton Authors: Tianyi Shen , Huijuan Xu , Nilesh Ahuja , Omesh Tickoo , Philip Shin , Vijaykrishnan Narayanan Abstract : Skeleton action recognition involves recognizing human action from human skeletons. The use of graph convolutional networks (GCNs) has driven major advances in this recognition task. In real-world scenarios, the captured skeletons are not always perfect or complete because of occlusions of parts of the human body or poor communication quality, leading to missing parts in skeletons or videos with m… ▽ More Skeleton action recognition involves recognizing human action from human skeletons. The use of graph convolutional networks (GCNs) has driven major advances in this recognition task. In real-world scenarios, the captured skeletons are not always perfect or complete because of occlusions of parts of the human body or poor communication quality, leading to missing parts in skeletons or videos with missing frames. In the presence of such non-idealities, existing GCN models perform poorly due to missing local context. To address this limitation, we propose Parts-Mamba, a hybrid GCN-Mamba model designed to enhance the ability to capture and maintain contextual information from distant joints. The proposed Parts-Mamba model effectively captures part-specific information through its parts-specific scanning feature and preserves non-neighboring joint context via a parts-body fusion module. Our proposed model is evaluated on the NTU RGB+D 60 and NTU RGB+D 120 datasets under different occlusion settings, achieving up to 12.9% improvement in accuracy. △ Less Submitted 20 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15618 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV FlashMesh: Faster and Better Autoregressive Mesh Synthesis via Structured Speculation Authors: Tingrui Shen , Yiheng Zhang , Chen Tang , Chuan Ping , Zixing Zhao , Le Wan , Yuwang Wang , Ronggang Wang , Shengfeng He Abstract : Autoregressive models can generate high-quality 3D meshes by sequentially producing vertices and faces, but their token-by-token decoding results in slow inference, limiting practical use in interactive and large-scale applications. We present FlashMesh, a fast and high-fidelity mesh generation framework that rethinks autoregressive decoding through a predict-correct-verify paradigm. The key insig… ▽ More Autoregressive models can generate high-quality 3D meshes by sequentially producing vertices and faces, but their token-by-token decoding results in slow inference, limiting practical use in interactive and large-scale applications. We present FlashMesh, a fast and high-fidelity mesh generation framework that rethinks autoregressive decoding through a predict-correct-verify paradigm. The key insight is that mesh tokens exhibit strong structural and geometric correlations that enable confident multi-token speculation. FlashMesh leverages this by introducing a speculative decoding scheme tailored to the commonly used hourglass transformer architecture, enabling parallel prediction across face, point, and coordinate levels. Extensive experiments show that FlashMesh achieves up to a 2 x speedup over standard autoregressive models while also improving generation fidelity. Our results demonstrate that structural priors in mesh data can be systematically harnessed to accelerate and enhance autoregressive generation. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.15618 [ pdf , ps , other ] FlashMesh: Faster and Better Autoregressive Mesh Synthesis via Structured Speculation Authors: Tingrui Shen , Yiheng Zhang , Chen Tang , Chuan Ping , Zixing Zhao , Le Wan , Yuwang Wang , Ronggang Wang , Shengfeng He Abstract : Autoregressive models can generate high-quality 3D meshes by sequentially producing vertices and faces, but their token-by-token decoding results in slow inference, limiting practical use in interactive and large-scale applications. We present FlashMesh, a fast and high-fidelity mesh generation framework that rethinks autoregressive decoding through a predict-correct-verify paradigm. The key insig… ▽ More Autoregressive models can generate high-quality 3D meshes by sequentially producing vertices and faces, but their token-by-token decoding results in slow inference, limiting practical use in interactive and large-scale applications. We present FlashMesh, a fast and high-fidelity mesh generation framework that rethinks autoregressive decoding through a predict-correct-verify paradigm. The key insight is that mesh tokens exhibit strong structural and geometric correlations that enable confident multi-token speculation. FlashMesh leverages this by introducing a speculative decoding scheme tailored to the commonly used hourglass transformer architecture, enabling parallel prediction across face, point, and coordinate levels. Extensive experiments show that FlashMesh achieves up to a 2 x speedup over standard autoregressive models while also improving generation fidelity. Our results demonstrate that structural priors in mesh data can be systematically harnessed to accelerate and enhance autoregressive generation. △ Less Submitted 19 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.08865 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.HC MirrorLimb: Implementing hand pose acquisition and robot teleoperation based on RealMirror Authors: Cong Tai , Hansheng Wu , Haixu Long , Zhengbin Long , Zhaoyu Zheng , Haodong Xiang , Tao Shen Abstract : In this work, we present a PICO-based robot remote operating framework that enables low-cost, real-time acquisition of hand motion and pose data, outperforming mainstream visual tracking and motion capture solutions in terms of cost-effectiveness. The framework is natively compatible with the RealMirror ecosystem, offering ready-to-use functionality for stable and precise robotic trajectory record… ▽ More In this work, we present a PICO-based robot remote operating framework that enables low-cost, real-time acquisition of hand motion and pose data, outperforming mainstream visual tracking and motion capture solutions in terms of cost-effectiveness. The framework is natively compatible with the RealMirror ecosystem, offering ready-to-use functionality for stable and precise robotic trajectory recording within the Isaac simulation environment, thereby facilitating the construction of Vision-Language-Action (VLA) datasets. Additionally, the system supports real-time teleoperation of a variety of end-effector-equipped robots, including dexterous hands and robotic grippers. This work aims to lower the technical barriers in the study of upper-limb robotic manipulation, thereby accelerating advancements in VLA-related research. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.08865 [ pdf , ps , other ] MirrorLimb: Implementing hand pose acquisition and robot teleoperation based on RealMirror Authors: Cong Tai , Hansheng Wu , Haixu Long , Zhengbin Long , Zhaoyu Zheng , Haodong Xiang , Tao Shen Abstract : In this work, we present a PICO-based robot remote operating framework that enables low-cost, real-time acquisition of hand motion and pose data, outperforming mainstream visual tracking and motion capture solutions in terms of cost-effectiveness. The framework is natively compatible with the RealMirror ecosystem, offering ready-to-use functionality for stable and precise robotic trajectory record… ▽ More In this work, we present a PICO-based robot remote operating framework that enables low-cost, real-time acquisition of hand motion and pose data, outperforming mainstream visual tracking and motion capture solutions in terms of cost-effectiveness. The framework is natively compatible with the RealMirror ecosystem, offering ready-to-use functionality for stable and precise robotic trajectory recording within the Isaac simulation environment, thereby facilitating the construction of Vision-Language-Action (VLA) datasets. Additionally, the system supports real-time teleoperation of a variety of end-effector-equipped robots, including dexterous hands and robotic grippers. This work aims to lower the technical barriers in the study of upper-limb robotic manipulation, thereby accelerating advancements in VLA-related research. △ Less Submitted 11 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.06225 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV MoRA: Missing Modality Low-Rank Adaptation for Visual Recognition Authors: Shu Zhao , Nilesh Ahuja , Tan Yu , Tianyi Shen , Vijaykrishnan Narayanan Abstract : Pre-trained vision language models have shown remarkable performance on visual recognition tasks, but they typically assume the availability of complete multimodal inputs during both training and inference. In real-world scenarios, however, modalities may be missing due to privacy constraints, collection difficulties, or resource limitations. While previous approaches have addressed this challenge… ▽ More Pre-trained vision language models have shown remarkable performance on visual recognition tasks, but they typically assume the availability of complete multimodal inputs during both training and inference. In real-world scenarios, however, modalities may be missing due to privacy constraints, collection difficulties, or resource limitations. While previous approaches have addressed this challenge using prompt learning techniques, they fail to capture the cross-modal relationships necessary for effective multimodal visual recognition and suffer from inevitable computational overhead. In this paper, we introduce MoRA, a parameter-efficient fine-tuning method that explicitly models cross-modal interactions while maintaining modality-specific adaptations. MoRA introduces modality-common parameters between text and vision encoders, enabling bidirectional knowledge transfer. Additionally, combined with the modality-specific parameters, MoRA allows the backbone model to maintain inter-modality interaction and enable intra-modality flexibility. Extensive experiments on standard benchmarks demonstrate that MoRA achieves an average performance improvement in missing-modality scenarios by 5.24% and uses only 25.90% of the inference time compared to the SOTA method while requiring only 0.11% of trainable parameters compared to full fine-tuning. △ Less Submitted 8 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.06225 [ pdf , ps , other ] MoRA: Missing Modality Low-Rank Adaptation for Visual Recognition Authors: Shu Zhao , Nilesh Ahuja , Tan Yu , Tianyi Shen , Vijaykrishnan Narayanan Abstract : Pre-trained vision language models have shown remarkable performance on visual recognition tasks, but they typically assume the availability of complete multimodal inputs during both training and inference. In real-world scenarios, however, modalities may be missing due to privacy constraints, collection difficulties, or resource limitations. While previous approaches have addressed this challenge… ▽ More Pre-trained vision language models have shown remarkable performance on visual recognition tasks, but they typically assume the availability of complete multimodal inputs during both training and inference. In real-world scenarios, however, modalities may be missing due to privacy constraints, collection difficulties, or resource limitations. While previous approaches have addressed this challenge using prompt learning techniques, they fail to capture the cross-modal relationships necessary for effective multimodal visual recognition and suffer from inevitable computational overhead. In this paper, we introduce MoRA, a parameter-efficient fine-tuning method that explicitly models cross-modal interactions while maintaining modality-specific adaptations. MoRA introduces modality-common parameters between text and vision encoders, enabling bidirectional knowledge transfer. Additionally, combined with the modality-specific parameters, MoRA allows the backbone model to maintain inter-modality interaction and enable intra-modality flexibility. Extensive experiments on standard benchmarks demonstrate that MoRA achieves an average performance improvement in missing-modality scenarios by 5.24% and uses only 25.90% of the inference time compared to the SOTA method while requiring only 0.11% of trainable parameters compared to full fine-tuning. △ Less Submitted 8 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.02097 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO cs.CV A Step Toward World Models: A Survey on Robotic Manipulation Authors: Peng-Fei Zhang , Ying Cheng , Xiaofan Sun , Shijie Wang , Fengling Li , Lei Zhu , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Autonomous agents are increasingly expected to operate in complex, dynamic, and uncertain environments, performing tasks such as manipulation, navigation, and decision-making. Achieving these capabilities requires agents to understand the underlying mechanisms and dynamics of the world, moving beyond reactive control or simple replication of observed states. This motivates the development of world… ▽ More Autonomous agents are increasingly expected to operate in complex, dynamic, and uncertain environments, performing tasks such as manipulation, navigation, and decision-making. Achieving these capabilities requires agents to understand the underlying mechanisms and dynamics of the world, moving beyond reactive control or simple replication of observed states. This motivates the development of world models as internal representations that encode environmental states, capture dynamics, and support prediction, planning, and reasoning. Despite growing interest, the definition, scope, architectures, and essential capabilities of world models remain ambiguous. In this survey, we go beyond prescribing a fixed definition and limiting our scope to methods explicitly labeled as world models. Instead, we examine approaches that exhibit the core capabilities of world models through a review of methods in robotic manipulation. We analyze their roles across perception, prediction, and control, identify key challenges and solutions, and distill the core components, capabilities, and functions that a fully realized world model should possess. Building on this analysis, we aim to motivate further development toward generalizable and practical world models for robotics. △ Less Submitted 9 November, 2025; v1 submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 24 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2511.02097 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Step Toward World Models: A Survey on Robotic Manipulation Authors: Peng-Fei Zhang , Ying Cheng , Xiaofan Sun , Shijie Wang , Fengling Li , Lei Zhu , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Autonomous agents are increasingly expected to operate in complex, dynamic, and uncertain environments, performing tasks such as manipulation, navigation, and decision-making. Achieving these capabilities requires agents to understand the underlying mechanisms and dynamics of the world, moving beyond reactive control or simple replication of observed states. This motivates the development of world… ▽ More Autonomous agents are increasingly expected to operate in complex, dynamic, and uncertain environments, performing tasks such as manipulation, navigation, and decision-making. Achieving these capabilities requires agents to understand the underlying mechanisms and dynamics of the world, moving beyond reactive control or simple replication of observed states. This motivates the development of world models as internal representations that encode environmental states, capture dynamics, and support prediction, planning, and reasoning. Despite growing interest, the definition, scope, architectures, and essential capabilities of world models remain ambiguous. In this survey, we go beyond prescribing a fixed definition and limiting our scope to methods explicitly labeled as world models. Instead, we examine approaches that exhibit the core capabilities of world models through a review of methods in robotic manipulation. We analyze their roles across perception, prediction, and control, identify key challenges and solutions, and distill the core components, capabilities, and functions that a fully realized world model should possess. Building on this analysis, we aim to motivate further development toward generalizable and practical world models for robotics. △ Less Submitted 9 November, 2025; v1 submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: 24 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2511.01016 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL Prompt-R1: Collaborative Automatic Prompting Framework via End-to-end Reinforcement Learning Authors: Wenjin Liu , Haoran Luo , Xueyuan Lin , Haoming Liu , Tiesunlong Shen , Jiapu Wang , Rui Mao , Erik Cambria Abstract : Recently, advanced large language models (LLMs) have emerged at an increasingly rapid pace. However, when faced with complex problems, most users are often unable to provide accurate and effective prompts to interact with LLMs, thus limiting the performance of LLMs. To address this challenge, we propose Prompt-R1, an end-to-end reinforcement learning framework that uses a small-scale LLM to collab… ▽ More Recently, advanced large language models (LLMs) have emerged at an increasingly rapid pace. However, when faced with complex problems, most users are often unable to provide accurate and effective prompts to interact with LLMs, thus limiting the performance of LLMs. To address this challenge, we propose Prompt-R1, an end-to-end reinforcement learning framework that uses a small-scale LLM to collaborate with large-scale LLMs, replacing user interaction to solve problems better. This collaboration is cast as a multi-turn prompt interaction, where the small-scale LLM thinks and generates prompts, and the large-scale LLM performs complex reasoning. A dual-constrained reward is designed to optimize for correctness, generation quality, and reasoning accuracy. Prompt-R1 provides a plug-and-play framework that supports both inference and training with various large-scale LLMs. Experiments on multiple public datasets show that Prompt-R1 significantly outperforms baseline models across tasks. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.01016 [ pdf , ps , other ] Prompt-R1: Collaborative Automatic Prompting Framework via End-to-end Reinforcement Learning Authors: Wenjin Liu , Haoran Luo , Xueyuan Lin , Haoming Liu , Tiesunlong Shen , Jiapu Wang , Rui Mao , Erik Cambria Abstract : Recently, advanced large language models (LLMs) have emerged at an increasingly rapid pace. However, when faced with complex problems, most users are often unable to provide accurate and effective prompts to interact with LLMs, thus limiting the performance of LLMs. To address this challenge, we propose Prompt-R1, an end-to-end reinforcement learning framework that uses a small-scale LLM to collab… ▽ More Recently, advanced large language models (LLMs) have emerged at an increasingly rapid pace. However, when faced with complex problems, most users are often unable to provide accurate and effective prompts to interact with LLMs, thus limiting the performance of LLMs. To address this challenge, we propose Prompt-R1, an end-to-end reinforcement learning framework that uses a small-scale LLM to collaborate with large-scale LLMs, replacing user interaction to solve problems better. This collaboration is cast as a multi-turn prompt interaction, where the small-scale LLM thinks and generates prompts, and the large-scale LLM performs complex reasoning. A dual-constrained reward is designed to optimize for correctness, generation quality, and reasoning accuracy. Prompt-R1 provides a plug-and-play framework that supports both inference and training with various large-scale LLMs. Experiments on multiple public datasets show that Prompt-R1 significantly outperforms baseline models across tasks. Our code is publicly available at △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; v1 submitted 2 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. arXiv:2511.00511 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ID-Crafter: VLM-Grounded Online RL for Compositional Multi-Subject Video Generation Authors: Panwang Pan , Jingjing Zhao , Yuchen Lin , Chenguo Lin , Chenxin Li , Hengyu Liu , Tingting Shen , Yadong MU Abstract : Significant progress has been achieved in high-fidelity video synthesis, yet current paradigms often fall short in effectively integrating identity information from multiple subjects. This leads to semantic conflicts and suboptimal performance in preserving identities and interactions, limiting controllability and applicability. To tackle this issue, we introduce ID-Crafter, a framework for multi-… ▽ More Significant progress has been achieved in high-fidelity video synthesis, yet current paradigms often fall short in effectively integrating identity information from multiple subjects. This leads to semantic conflicts and suboptimal performance in preserving identities and interactions, limiting controllability and applicability. To tackle this issue, we introduce ID-Crafter, a framework for multi-subject video generation that achieves superior identity preservation and semantic coherence. ID-Crafter integrates three key components: (i) a hierarchical identity-preserving attention mechanism that progressively aggregates features at intra-subject, inter-subject, and cross-modal levels; (ii) a semantic understanding module powered by a pretrained Vision-Language Model (VLM) to provide fine-grained guidance and capture complex inter-subject relationships; and (iii) an online reinforcement learning phase to further refine the model for critical concepts. Furthermore, we construct a new dataset to facilitate robust training and evaluation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ID-Crafter establishes new state-of-the-art performance on multi-subject video generation benchmarks, excelling in identity preservation, temporal consistency, and overall video quality. Project page: △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; v1 submitted 1 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Project page: Code: arXiv:2511.00511 [ pdf , ps , other ] ID-Crafter: VLM-Grounded Online RL for Compositional Multi-Subject Video Generation Authors: Panwang Pan , Jingjing Zhao , Yuchen Lin , Chenguo Lin , Chenxin Li , Hengyu Liu , Tingting Shen , Yadong MU Abstract : Significant progress has been achieved in high-fidelity video synthesis, yet current paradigms often fall short in effectively integrating identity information from multiple subjects. This leads to semantic conflicts and suboptimal performance in preserving identities and interactions, limiting controllability and applicability. To tackle this issue, we introduce ID-Crafter, a framework for multi-… ▽ More Significant progress has been achieved in high-fidelity video synthesis, yet current paradigms often fall short in effectively integrating identity information from multiple subjects. This leads to semantic conflicts and suboptimal performance in preserving identities and interactions, limiting controllability and applicability. To tackle this issue, we introduce ID-Crafter, a framework for multi-subject video generation that achieves superior identity preservation and semantic coherence. ID-Crafter integrates three key components: (i) a hierarchical identity-preserving attention mechanism that progressively aggregates features at intra-subject, inter-subject, and cross-modal levels; (ii) a semantic understanding module powered by a pretrained Vision-Language Model (VLM) to provide fine-grained guidance and capture complex inter-subject relationships; and (iii) an online reinforcement learning phase to further refine the model for critical concepts. Furthermore, we construct a new dataset to facilitate robust training and evaluation. Extensive experiments demonstrate that ID-Crafter establishes new state-of-the-art performance on multi-subject video generation benchmarks, excelling in identity preservation, temporal consistency, and overall video quality. Project page: △ Less Submitted 14 December, 2025; v1 submitted 1 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Project page: Code: arXiv:2511.00468 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV HumanCrafter: Synergizing Generalizable Human Reconstruction and Semantic 3D Segmentation Authors: Panwang Pan , Tingting Shen , Chenxin Li , Yunlong Lin , Kairun Wen , Jingjing Zhao , Yixuan Yuan Abstract : Recent advances in generative models have achieved high-fidelity in 3D human reconstruction, yet their utility for specific tasks (e.g., human 3D segmentation) remains constrained. We propose HumanCrafter, a unified framework that enables the joint modeling of appearance and human-part semantics from a single image in a feed-forward manner. Specifically, we integrate human geometric priors in the… ▽ More Recent advances in generative models have achieved high-fidelity in 3D human reconstruction, yet their utility for specific tasks (e.g., human 3D segmentation) remains constrained. We propose HumanCrafter, a unified framework that enables the joint modeling of appearance and human-part semantics from a single image in a feed-forward manner. Specifically, we integrate human geometric priors in the reconstruction stage and self-supervised semantic priors in the segmentation stage. To address labeled 3D human datasets scarcity, we further develop an interactive annotation procedure for generating high-quality data-label pairs. Our pixel-aligned aggregation enables cross-task synergy, while the multi-task objective simultaneously optimizes texture modeling fidelity and semantic consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that HumanCrafter surpasses existing state-of-the-art methods in both 3D human-part segmentation and 3D human reconstruction from a single image. △ Less Submitted 1 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted to NeurIPS 2025; Project page: [this URL]( arXiv:2511.00468 [ pdf , ps , other ] HumanCrafter: Synergizing Generalizable Human Reconstruction and Semantic 3D Segmentation Authors: Panwang Pan , Tingting Shen , Chenxin Li , Yunlong Lin , Kairun Wen , Jingjing Zhao , Yixuan Yuan Abstract : Recent advances in generative models have achieved high-fidelity in 3D human reconstruction, yet their utility for specific tasks (e.g., human 3D segmentation) remains constrained. We propose HumanCrafter, a unified framework that enables the joint modeling of appearance and human-part semantics from a single image in a feed-forward manner. Specifically, we integrate human geometric priors in the… ▽ More Recent advances in generative models have achieved high-fidelity in 3D human reconstruction, yet their utility for specific tasks (e.g., human 3D segmentation) remains constrained. We propose HumanCrafter, a unified framework that enables the joint modeling of appearance and human-part semantics from a single image in a feed-forward manner. Specifically, we integrate human geometric priors in the reconstruction stage and self-supervised semantic priors in the segmentation stage. To address labeled 3D human datasets scarcity, we further develop an interactive annotation procedure for generating high-quality data-label pairs. Our pixel-aligned aggregation enables cross-task synergy, while the multi-task objective simultaneously optimizes texture modeling fidelity and semantic consistency. Extensive experiments demonstrate that HumanCrafter surpasses existing state-of-the-art methods in both 3D human-part segmentation and 3D human reconstruction from a single image. △ Less Submitted 1 November, 2025; originally announced November 2025. Comments: Accepted to NeurIPS 2025; Project page: [this URL]( arXiv:2510.27135 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV E-MMDiT: Revisiting Multimodal Diffusion Transformer Design for Fast Image Synthesis under Limited Resources Authors: Tong Shen , Jingai Yu , Dong Zhou , Dong Li , Emad Barsoum Abstract : Diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in generating high-quality images from text prompts. However, these models often require large-scale training data and significant computational resources to train, or suffer from heavy structure with high latency. To this end, we propose Efficient Multimodal Diffusion Transformer (E-MMDiT), an efficient and lightweight multimodal diffusion model wit… ▽ More Diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in generating high-quality images from text prompts. However, these models often require large-scale training data and significant computational resources to train, or suffer from heavy structure with high latency. To this end, we propose Efficient Multimodal Diffusion Transformer (E-MMDiT), an efficient and lightweight multimodal diffusion model with only 304M parameters for fast image synthesis requiring low training resources. We provide an easily reproducible baseline with competitive results. Our model for 512px generation, trained with only 25M public data in 1.5 days on a single node of 8 AMD MI300X GPUs, achieves 0.66 on GenEval and easily reaches to 0.72 with some post-training techniques such as GRPO. Our design philosophy centers on token reduction as the computational cost scales significantly with the token count. We adopt a highly compressive visual tokenizer to produce a more compact representation and propose a novel multi-path compression module for further compression of tokens. To enhance our design, we introduce Position Reinforcement, which strengthens positional information to maintain spatial coherence, and Alternating Subregion Attention (ASA), which performs attention within subregions to further reduce computational cost. In addition, we propose AdaLN-affine, an efficient lightweight module for computing modulation parameters in transformer blocks. Our code is available at and we hope E-MMDiT serves as a strong and practical baseline for future research and contributes to democratization of generative AI models. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.27135 [ pdf , ps , other ] E-MMDiT: Revisiting Multimodal Diffusion Transformer Design for Fast Image Synthesis under Limited Resources Authors: Tong Shen , Jingai Yu , Dong Zhou , Dong Li , Emad Barsoum Abstract : Diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in generating high-quality images from text prompts. However, these models often require large-scale training data and significant computational resources to train, or suffer from heavy structure with high latency. To this end, we propose Efficient Multimodal Diffusion Transformer (E-MMDiT), an efficient and lightweight multimodal diffusion model wit… ▽ More Diffusion models have shown strong capabilities in generating high-quality images from text prompts. However, these models often require large-scale training data and significant computational resources to train, or suffer from heavy structure with high latency. To this end, we propose Efficient Multimodal Diffusion Transformer (E-MMDiT), an efficient and lightweight multimodal diffusion model with only 304M parameters for fast image synthesis requiring low training resources. We provide an easily reproducible baseline with competitive results. Our model for 512px generation, trained with only 25M public data in 1.5 days on a single node of 8 AMD MI300X GPUs, achieves 0.66 on GenEval and easily reaches to 0.72 with some post-training techniques such as GRPO. Our design philosophy centers on token reduction as the computational cost scales significantly with the token count. We adopt a highly compressive visual tokenizer to produce a more compact representation and propose a novel multi-path compression module for further compression of tokens. To enhance our design, we introduce Position Reinforcement, which strengthens positional information to maintain spatial coherence, and Alternating Subregion Attention (ASA), which performs attention within subregions to further reduce computational cost. In addition, we propose AdaLN-affine, an efficient lightweight module for computing modulation parameters in transformer blocks. Our code is available at and we hope E-MMDiT serves as a strong and practical baseline for future research and contributes to democratization of generative AI models. △ Less Submitted 30 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.24795 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.LG cs.RO A Survey on Efficient Vision-Language-Action Models Authors: Zhaoshu Yu , Bo Wang , Pengpeng Zeng , Haonan Zhang , Ji Zhang , Lianli Gao , Jingkuan Song , Nicu Sebe , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Vision-Language-Action models (VLAs) represent a significant frontier in embodied intelligence, aiming to bridge digital knowledge with physical-world interaction. While these models have demonstrated remarkable generalist capabilities, their deployment is severely hampered by the substantial computational and data requirements inherent to their underlying large-scale foundation models. Motivated… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action models (VLAs) represent a significant frontier in embodied intelligence, aiming to bridge digital knowledge with physical-world interaction. While these models have demonstrated remarkable generalist capabilities, their deployment is severely hampered by the substantial computational and data requirements inherent to their underlying large-scale foundation models. Motivated by the urgent need to address these challenges, this survey presents the first comprehensive review of Efficient Vision-Language-Action models (Efficient VLAs) across the entire data-model-training process. Specifically, we introduce a unified taxonomy to systematically organize the disparate efforts in this domain, categorizing current techniques into three core pillars: (1) Efficient Model Design, focusing on efficient architectures and model compression; (2) Efficient Training, which reduces computational burdens during model learning; and (3) Efficient Data Collection, which addresses the bottlenecks in acquiring and utilizing robotic data. Through a critical review of state-of-the-art methods within this framework, this survey not only establishes a foundational reference for the community but also summarizes representative applications, delineates key challenges, and charts a roadmap for future research. We maintain a continuously updated project page to track our latest developments: △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 26 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2510.24795 [ pdf , ps , other ] A Survey on Efficient Vision-Language-Action Models Authors: Zhaoshu Yu , Bo Wang , Pengpeng Zeng , Haonan Zhang , Ji Zhang , Lianli Gao , Jingkuan Song , Nicu Sebe , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Vision-Language-Action models (VLAs) represent a significant frontier in embodied intelligence, aiming to bridge digital knowledge with physical-world interaction. While these models have demonstrated remarkable generalist capabilities, their deployment is severely hampered by the substantial computational and data requirements inherent to their underlying large-scale foundation models. Motivated… ▽ More Vision-Language-Action models (VLAs) represent a significant frontier in embodied intelligence, aiming to bridge digital knowledge with physical-world interaction. While these models have demonstrated remarkable generalist capabilities, their deployment is severely hampered by the substantial computational and data requirements inherent to their underlying large-scale foundation models. Motivated by the urgent need to address these challenges, this survey presents the first comprehensive review of Efficient Vision-Language-Action models (Efficient VLAs) across the entire data-model-training process. Specifically, we introduce a unified taxonomy to systematically organize the disparate efforts in this domain, categorizing current techniques into three core pillars: (1) Efficient Model Design, focusing on efficient architectures and model compression; (2) Efficient Training, which reduces computational burdens during model learning; and (3) Efficient Data Collection, which addresses the bottlenecks in acquiring and utilizing robotic data. Through a critical review of state-of-the-art methods within this framework, this survey not only establishes a foundational reference for the community but also summarizes representative applications, delineates key challenges, and charts a roadmap for future research. We maintain a continuously updated project page to track our latest developments: △ Less Submitted 27 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 26 pages, 8 figures arXiv:2510.24161 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI cs.MM cs.RO BLM$_1$: A Boundless Large Model for Cross-Space, Cross-Task, and Cross-Embodiment Learning Authors: Wentao Tan , Bowen Wang , Heng Zhi , Chenyu Liu , Zhe Li , Jian Liu , Zengrong Lin , Yukun Dai , Yipeng Chen , Wenjie Yang , Enci Xie , Hao Xue , Baixu Ji , Chen Xu , Zhibin Wang , Tianshi Wang , Lei Zhu , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) have advanced vision-language reasoning and are increasingly deployed in embodied agents. However, significant limitations remain: MLLMs generalize poorly across digital-physical spaces and embodiments; vision-language-action models (VLAs) produce low-level actions yet lack robust high-level embodied reasoning; and most embodied large language models (ELLMs… ▽ More Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) have advanced vision-language reasoning and are increasingly deployed in embodied agents. However, significant limitations remain: MLLMs generalize poorly across digital-physical spaces and embodiments; vision-language-action models (VLAs) produce low-level actions yet lack robust high-level embodied reasoning; and most embodied large language models (ELLMs) are constrained to digital-space with poor generalization to the physical world. Thus, unified models that operate seamlessly across digital and physical spaces while generalizing across embodiments and tasks remain absent. We introduce the \textbf{Boundless Large Model (BLM$_1$)}, a multimodal spatial foundation model that preserves instruction following and reasoning, incorporates embodied knowledge, and supports robust cross-embodiment control. BLM$_1$ integrates three key capabilities -- \textit{cross-space transfer, cross-task learning, and cross-embodiment generalization} -- via a two-stage training paradigm. Stage I injects embodied knowledge into the MLLM through curated digital corpora while maintaining language competence. Stage II trains a policy module through an intent-bridging interface that extracts high-level semantics from the MLLM to guide control, without fine-tuning the MLLM backbone. This process is supported by a self-collected cross-embodiment demonstration suite spanning four robot embodiments and six progressively challenging tasks. Evaluations across digital and physical benchmarks show that a single BLM$_1$ instance outperforms four model families -- MLLMs, ELLMs, VLAs, and GMLMs -- achieving $\sim\!\textbf{6%}$ gains in digital tasks and $\sim\!\textbf{3%}$ in physical tasks. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.24161 [ pdf , ps , other ] BLM$_1$: A Boundless Large Model for Cross-Space, Cross-Task, and Cross-Embodiment Learning Authors: Wentao Tan , Bowen Wang , Heng Zhi , Chenyu Liu , Zhe Li , Jian Liu , Zengrong Lin , Yukun Dai , Yipeng Chen , Wenjie Yang , Enci Xie , Hao Xue , Baixu Ji , Chen Xu , Zhibin Wang , Tianshi Wang , Lei Zhu , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) have advanced vision-language reasoning and are increasingly deployed in embodied agents. However, significant limitations remain: MLLMs generalize poorly across digital-physical spaces and embodiments; vision-language-action models (VLAs) produce low-level actions yet lack robust high-level embodied reasoning; and most embodied large language models (ELLMs… ▽ More Multimodal large language models (MLLMs) have advanced vision-language reasoning and are increasingly deployed in embodied agents. However, significant limitations remain: MLLMs generalize poorly across digital-physical spaces and embodiments; vision-language-action models (VLAs) produce low-level actions yet lack robust high-level embodied reasoning; and most embodied large language models (ELLMs) are constrained to digital-space with poor generalization to the physical world. Thus, unified models that operate seamlessly across digital and physical spaces while generalizing across embodiments and tasks remain absent. We introduce the \textbf{Boundless Large Model (BLM$_1$)}, a multimodal spatial foundation model that preserves instruction following and reasoning, incorporates embodied knowledge, and supports robust cross-embodiment control. BLM$_1$ integrates three key capabilities -- \textit{cross-space transfer, cross-task learning, and cross-embodiment generalization} -- via a two-stage training paradigm. Stage I injects embodied knowledge into the MLLM through curated digital corpora while maintaining language competence. Stage II trains a policy module through an intent-bridging interface that extracts high-level semantics from the MLLM to guide control, without fine-tuning the MLLM backbone. This process is supported by a self-collected cross-embodiment demonstration suite spanning four robot embodiments and six progressively challenging tasks. Evaluations across digital and physical benchmarks show that a single BLM$_1$ instance outperforms four model families -- MLLMs, ELLMs, VLAs, and GMLMs -- achieving $\sim\!\textbf{6%}$ gains in digital tasks and $\sim\!\textbf{3%}$ in physical tasks. △ Less Submitted 28 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.22694 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.CL cs.IR Windsock is Dancing: Adaptive Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Shu Zhao , Tianyi Shen , Nilesh Ahuja , Omesh Tickoo , Vijaykrishnan Narayanan Abstract : Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation (MRAG) has emerged as a promising method to generate factual and up-to-date responses of Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) by incorporating non-parametric knowledge from external knowledge bases. However, existing MRAG approaches suffer from static retrieval strategies, inflexible modality selection, and suboptimal utilization of retrieved informati… ▽ More Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation (MRAG) has emerged as a promising method to generate factual and up-to-date responses of Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) by incorporating non-parametric knowledge from external knowledge bases. However, existing MRAG approaches suffer from static retrieval strategies, inflexible modality selection, and suboptimal utilization of retrieved information, leading to three critical challenges: determining when to retrieve, what modality to incorporate, and how to utilize retrieved information effectively. To address these challenges, we introduce Windsock, a query-dependent module making decisions on retrieval necessity and modality selection, effectively reducing computational overhead and improving response quality. Additionally, we propose Dynamic Noise-Resistance (DANCE) Instruction Tuning, an adaptive training strategy that enhances MLLMs' ability to utilize retrieved information while maintaining robustness against noise. Moreover, we adopt a self-assessment approach leveraging knowledge within MLLMs to convert question-answering datasets to MRAG training datasets. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our proposed method significantly improves the generation quality by 17.07% while reducing 8.95% retrieval times. △ Less Submitted 26 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Accepted at NeurIPS 2025 UniReps Workshop arXiv:2510.22694 [ pdf , ps , other ] Windsock is Dancing: Adaptive Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation Authors: Shu Zhao , Tianyi Shen , Nilesh Ahuja , Omesh Tickoo , Vijaykrishnan Narayanan Abstract : Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation (MRAG) has emerged as a promising method to generate factual and up-to-date responses of Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) by incorporating non-parametric knowledge from external knowledge bases. However, existing MRAG approaches suffer from static retrieval strategies, inflexible modality selection, and suboptimal utilization of retrieved informati… ▽ More Multimodal Retrieval-Augmented Generation (MRAG) has emerged as a promising method to generate factual and up-to-date responses of Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) by incorporating non-parametric knowledge from external knowledge bases. However, existing MRAG approaches suffer from static retrieval strategies, inflexible modality selection, and suboptimal utilization of retrieved information, leading to three critical challenges: determining when to retrieve, what modality to incorporate, and how to utilize retrieved information effectively. To address these challenges, we introduce Windsock, a query-dependent module making decisions on retrieval necessity and modality selection, effectively reducing computational overhead and improving response quality. Additionally, we propose Dynamic Noise-Resistance (DANCE) Instruction Tuning, an adaptive training strategy that enhances MLLMs' ability to utilize retrieved information while maintaining robustness against noise. Moreover, we adopt a self-assessment approach leveraging knowledge within MLLMs to convert question-answering datasets to MRAG training datasets. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our proposed method significantly improves the generation quality by 17.07% while reducing 8.95% retrieval times. △ Less Submitted 26 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Accepted at NeurIPS 2025 UniReps Workshop arXiv:2510.17897 [ pdf , ps , other ] eess.IV cs.CV Conformal Lesion Segmentation for 3D Medical Images Authors: Binyu Tan , Zhiyuan Wang , Jinhao Duan , Kaidi Xu , Heng Tao Shen , Xiaoshuang Shi , Fumin Shen Abstract : Medical image segmentation serves as a critical component of precision medicine, enabling accurate localization and delineation of pathological regions, such as lesions. However, existing models empirically apply fixed thresholds (e.g., 0.5) to differentiate lesions from the background, offering no statistical guarantees on key metrics such as the false negative rate (FNR). This lack of principled… ▽ More Medical image segmentation serves as a critical component of precision medicine, enabling accurate localization and delineation of pathological regions, such as lesions. However, existing models empirically apply fixed thresholds (e.g., 0.5) to differentiate lesions from the background, offering no statistical guarantees on key metrics such as the false negative rate (FNR). This lack of principled risk control undermines their reliable deployment in high-stakes clinical applications, especially in challenging scenarios like 3D lesion segmentation (3D-LS). To address this issue, we propose a risk-constrained framework, termed Conformal Lesion Segmentation (CLS), that calibrates data-driven thresholds via conformalization to ensure the test-time FNR remains below a target tolerance $\varepsilon$ under desired risk levels. CLS begins by holding out a calibration set to analyze the threshold setting for each sample under the FNR tolerance, drawing on the idea of conformal prediction. We define an FNR-specific loss function and identify the critical threshold at which each calibration data point just satisfies the target tolerance. Given a user-specified risk level $α$, we then determine the approximate $1-α$ quantile of all the critical thresholds in the calibration set as the test-time confidence threshold. By conformalizing such critical thresholds, CLS generalizes the statistical regularities observed in the calibration set to new test data, providing rigorous FNR constraint while yielding more precise and reliable segmentations. We validate the statistical soundness and predictive performance of CLS on six 3D-LS datasets across five backbone models, and conclude with actionable insights for deploying risk-aware segmentation in clinical practice. △ Less Submitted 19 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.17897 [ pdf , ps , other ] Conformal Lesion Segmentation for 3D Medical Images Authors: Binyu Tan , Zhiyuan Wang , Jinhao Duan , Kaidi Xu , Heng Tao Shen , Xiaoshuang Shi , Fumin Shen Abstract : Medical image segmentation serves as a critical component of precision medicine, enabling accurate localization and delineation of pathological regions, such as lesions. However, existing models empirically apply fixed thresholds (e.g., 0.5) to differentiate lesions from the background, offering no statistical guarantees on key metrics such as the false negative rate (FNR). This lack of principled… ▽ More Medical image segmentation serves as a critical component of precision medicine, enabling accurate localization and delineation of pathological regions, such as lesions. However, existing models empirically apply fixed thresholds (e.g., 0.5) to differentiate lesions from the background, offering no statistical guarantees on key metrics such as the false negative rate (FNR). This lack of principled risk control undermines their reliable deployment in high-stakes clinical applications, especially in challenging scenarios like 3D lesion segmentation (3D-LS). To address this issue, we propose a risk-constrained framework, termed Conformal Lesion Segmentation (CLS), that calibrates data-driven thresholds via conformalization to ensure the test-time FNR remains below a target tolerance $\varepsilon$ under desired risk levels. CLS begins by holding out a calibration set to analyze the threshold setting for each sample under the FNR tolerance, drawing on the idea of conformal prediction. We define an FNR-specific loss function and identify the critical threshold at which each calibration data point just satisfies the target tolerance. Given a user-specified risk level $α$, we then determine the approximate $1-α$ quantile of all the critical thresholds in the calibration set as the test-time confidence threshold. By conformalizing such critical thresholds, CLS generalizes the statistical regularities observed in the calibration set to new test data, providing rigorous FNR constraint while yielding more precise and reliable segmentations. We validate the statistical soundness and predictive performance of CLS on six 3D-LS datasets across five backbone models, and conclude with actionable insights for deploying risk-aware segmentation in clinical practice. △ Less Submitted 19 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.16134 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI cs.HC cs.LG cs.RO Aria Gen 2 Pilot Dataset Authors: Chen Kong , James Fort , Aria Kang , Jonathan Wittmer , Simon Green , Tianwei Shen , Yipu Zhao , Cheng Peng , Gustavo Solaira , Andrew Berkovich , Nikhil Raina , Vijay Baiyya , Evgeniy Oleinik , Eric Huang , Fan Zhang , Julian Straub , Mark Schwesinger , Luis Pesqueira , Xiaqing Pan , Jakob Julian Engel , Carl Ren , Mingfei Yan , Richard Newcombe Abstract : The Aria Gen 2 Pilot Dataset (A2PD) is an egocentric multimodal open dataset captured using the state-of-the-art Aria Gen 2 glasses. To facilitate timely access, A2PD is released incrementally with ongoing dataset enhancements. The initial release features Dia'ane, our primary subject, who records her daily activities alongside friends, each equipped with Aria Gen 2 glasses. It encompasses five pr… ▽ More The Aria Gen 2 Pilot Dataset (A2PD) is an egocentric multimodal open dataset captured using the state-of-the-art Aria Gen 2 glasses. To facilitate timely access, A2PD is released incrementally with ongoing dataset enhancements. The initial release features Dia'ane, our primary subject, who records her daily activities alongside friends, each equipped with Aria Gen 2 glasses. It encompasses five primary scenarios: cleaning, cooking, eating, playing, and outdoor walking. In each of the scenarios, we provide comprehensive raw sensor data and output data from various machine perception algorithms. These data illustrate the device's ability to perceive the wearer, the surrounding environment, and interactions between the wearer and the environment, while maintaining robust performance across diverse users and conditions. The A2PD is publicly available at projectaria.com, with open-source tools and usage examples provided in Project Aria Tools. △ Less Submitted 17 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.16134 [ pdf , ps , other ] Aria Gen 2 Pilot Dataset Authors: Chen Kong , James Fort , Aria Kang , Jonathan Wittmer , Simon Green , Tianwei Shen , Yipu Zhao , Cheng Peng , Gustavo Solaira , Andrew Berkovich , Nikhil Raina , Vijay Baiyya , Evgeniy Oleinik , Eric Huang , Fan Zhang , Julian Straub , Mark Schwesinger , Luis Pesqueira , Xiaqing Pan , Jakob Julian Engel , Carl Ren , Mingfei Yan , Richard Newcombe Abstract : The Aria Gen 2 Pilot Dataset (A2PD) is an egocentric multimodal open dataset captured using the state-of-the-art Aria Gen 2 glasses. To facilitate timely access, A2PD is released incrementally with ongoing dataset enhancements. The initial release features Dia'ane, our primary subject, who records her daily activities alongside friends, each equipped with Aria Gen 2 glasses. It encompasses five pr… ▽ More The Aria Gen 2 Pilot Dataset (A2PD) is an egocentric multimodal open dataset captured using the state-of-the-art Aria Gen 2 glasses. To facilitate timely access, A2PD is released incrementally with ongoing dataset enhancements. The initial release features Dia'ane, our primary subject, who records her daily activities alongside friends, each equipped with Aria Gen 2 glasses. It encompasses five primary scenarios: cleaning, cooking, eating, playing, and outdoor walking. In each of the scenarios, we provide comprehensive raw sensor data and output data from various machine perception algorithms. These data illustrate the device's ability to perceive the wearer, the surrounding environment, and interactions between the wearer and the environment, while maintaining robust performance across diverse users and conditions. The A2PD is publicly available at projectaria.com, with open-source tools and usage examples provided in Project Aria Tools. △ Less Submitted 17 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.11608 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI ParaCook: On Time-Efficient Planning for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Shiqi Zhang , Xinbei Ma , Yunqing Xu , Zouying Cao , Pengrui Lu , Haobo Yuan , Tiancheng Shen , Zhuosheng Zhang , Hai Zhao , Ming-Hsuan Yang Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit strong reasoning abilities for planning long-horizon, real-world tasks, yet existing agent benchmarks focus on task completion while neglecting time efficiency in parallel and asynchronous operations. To address this, we present ParaCook, a benchmark for time-efficient collaborative planning. Inspired by the Overcooked game, ParaCook provides an environment for… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit strong reasoning abilities for planning long-horizon, real-world tasks, yet existing agent benchmarks focus on task completion while neglecting time efficiency in parallel and asynchronous operations. To address this, we present ParaCook, a benchmark for time-efficient collaborative planning. Inspired by the Overcooked game, ParaCook provides an environment for various challenging interaction planning of multi-agent systems that are instantiated as cooking tasks, with a simplified action space to isolate the core challenge of strategic parallel planning. Through a comprehensive evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs, we find that current approaches achieve suboptimal plans, which struggle with parallel actions or coordination. Our analysis also reveals LLMs' potential on abstract tasks where they can focus on high-level parallel optimization. ParaCook provides a scalable evaluation framework with adjustable complexity, establishing a foundation for developing and assessing time efficiency-aware multi-agent planning. The code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 13 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.11608 [ pdf , ps , other ] ParaCook: On Time-Efficient Planning for Multi-Agent Systems Authors: Shiqi Zhang , Xinbei Ma , Yunqing Xu , Zouying Cao , Pengrui Lu , Haobo Yuan , Tiancheng Shen , Zhuosheng Zhang , Hai Zhao , Ming-Hsuan Yang Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit strong reasoning abilities for planning long-horizon, real-world tasks, yet existing agent benchmarks focus on task completion while neglecting time efficiency in parallel and asynchronous operations. To address this, we present ParaCook, a benchmark for time-efficient collaborative planning. Inspired by the Overcooked game, ParaCook provides an environment for… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit strong reasoning abilities for planning long-horizon, real-world tasks, yet existing agent benchmarks focus on task completion while neglecting time efficiency in parallel and asynchronous operations. To address this, we present ParaCook, a benchmark for time-efficient collaborative planning. Inspired by the Overcooked game, ParaCook provides an environment for various challenging interaction planning of multi-agent systems that are instantiated as cooking tasks, with a simplified action space to isolate the core challenge of strategic parallel planning. Through a comprehensive evaluation of state-of-the-art LLMs, we find that current approaches achieve suboptimal plans, which struggle with parallel actions or coordination. Our analysis also reveals LLMs' potential on abstract tasks where they can focus on high-level parallel optimization. ParaCook provides a scalable evaluation framework with adjustable complexity, establishing a foundation for developing and assessing time efficiency-aware multi-agent planning. The code and data are available at △ Less Submitted 13 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.08962 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI Analytical Survey of Learning with Low-Resource Data: From Analysis to Investigation Authors: Xiaofeng Cao , Mingwei Xu , Xin Yu , Jiangchao Yao , Wei Ye , Shengjun Huang , Minling Zhang , Ivor W. Tsang , Yew Soon Ong , James T. Kwok , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Learning with high-resource data has demonstrated substantial success in artificial intelligence (AI); however, the costs associated with data annotation and model training remain significant. A fundamental objective of AI research is to achieve robust generalization with limited-resource data. This survey employs agnostic active sampling theory within the Probably Approximately Correct (PAC) fram… ▽ More Learning with high-resource data has demonstrated substantial success in artificial intelligence (AI); however, the costs associated with data annotation and model training remain significant. A fundamental objective of AI research is to achieve robust generalization with limited-resource data. This survey employs agnostic active sampling theory within the Probably Approximately Correct (PAC) framework to analyze the generalization error and label complexity associated with learning from low-resource data in both model-agnostic supervised and unsupervised settings. Based on this analysis, we investigate a suite of optimization strategies tailored for low-resource data learning, including gradient-informed optimization, meta-iteration optimization, geometry-aware optimization, and LLMs-powered optimization. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive overview of multiple learning paradigms that can benefit from low-resource data, including domain transfer, reinforcement feedback, and hierarchical structure modeling. Finally, we conclude our analysis and investigation by summarizing the key findings and highlighting their implications for learning with low-resource data. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Accepted by ACM Computing Surveys Journal ref: ACM Computing Surveys 2025 arXiv:2510.08962 [ pdf , ps , other ] Analytical Survey of Learning with Low-Resource Data: From Analysis to Investigation Authors: Xiaofeng Cao , Mingwei Xu , Xin Yu , Jiangchao Yao , Wei Ye , Shengjun Huang , Minling Zhang , Ivor W. Tsang , Yew Soon Ong , James T. Kwok , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Learning with high-resource data has demonstrated substantial success in artificial intelligence (AI); however, the costs associated with data annotation and model training remain significant. A fundamental objective of AI research is to achieve robust generalization with limited-resource data. This survey employs agnostic active sampling theory within the Probably Approximately Correct (PAC) fram… ▽ More Learning with high-resource data has demonstrated substantial success in artificial intelligence (AI); however, the costs associated with data annotation and model training remain significant. A fundamental objective of AI research is to achieve robust generalization with limited-resource data. This survey employs agnostic active sampling theory within the Probably Approximately Correct (PAC) framework to analyze the generalization error and label complexity associated with learning from low-resource data in both model-agnostic supervised and unsupervised settings. Based on this analysis, we investigate a suite of optimization strategies tailored for low-resource data learning, including gradient-informed optimization, meta-iteration optimization, geometry-aware optimization, and LLMs-powered optimization. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive overview of multiple learning paradigms that can benefit from low-resource data, including domain transfer, reinforcement feedback, and hierarchical structure modeling. Finally, we conclude our analysis and investigation by summarizing the key findings and highlighting their implications for learning with low-resource data. △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Accepted by ACM Computing Surveys Journal ref: ACM Computing Surveys 2025 arXiv:2510.04290 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV ChronoEdit: Towards Temporal Reasoning for Image Editing and World Simulation Authors: Jay Zhangjie Wu , Xuanchi Ren , Tianchang Shen , Tianshi Cao , Kai He , Yifan Lu , Ruiyuan Gao , Enze Xie , Shiyi Lan , Jose M. Alvarez , Jun Gao , Sanja Fidler , Zian Wang , Huan Ling Abstract : Recent advances in large generative models have greatly enhanced both image editing and in-context image generation, yet a critical gap remains in ensuring physical consistency, where edited objects must remain coherent. This capability is especially vital for world simulation related tasks. In this paper, we present ChronoEdit, a framework that reframes image editing as a video generation problem… ▽ More Recent advances in large generative models have greatly enhanced both image editing and in-context image generation, yet a critical gap remains in ensuring physical consistency, where edited objects must remain coherent. This capability is especially vital for world simulation related tasks. In this paper, we present ChronoEdit, a framework that reframes image editing as a video generation problem. First, ChronoEdit treats the input and edited images as the first and last frames of a video, allowing it to leverage large pretrained video generative models that capture not only object appearance but also the implicit physics of motion and interaction through learned temporal consistency. Second, ChronoEdit introduces a temporal reasoning stage that explicitly performs editing at inference time. Under this setting, target frame is jointly denoised with reasoning tokens to imagine a plausible editing trajectory that constrains the solution space to physically viable transformations. The reasoning tokens are then dropped after a few steps to avoid the high computational cost of rendering a full video. To validate ChronoEdit, we introduce PBench-Edit, a new benchmark of image-prompt pairs for contexts that require physical consistency, and demonstrate that ChronoEdit surpasses state-of-the-art baselines in both visual fidelity and physical plausibility. Project page for code and models: △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2025; v1 submitted 5 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2510.04290 [ pdf , ps , other ] ChronoEdit: Towards Temporal Reasoning for Image Editing and World Simulation Authors: Jay Zhangjie Wu , Xuanchi Ren , Tianchang Shen , Tianshi Cao , Kai He , Yifan Lu , Ruiyuan Gao , Enze Xie , Shiyi Lan , Jose M. Alvarez , Jun Gao , Sanja Fidler , Zian Wang , Huan Ling Abstract : Recent advances in large generative models have greatly enhanced both image editing and in-context image generation, yet a critical gap remains in ensuring physical consistency, where edited objects must remain coherent. This capability is especially vital for world simulation related tasks. In this paper, we present ChronoEdit, a framework that reframes image editing as a video generation problem… ▽ More Recent advances in large generative models have greatly enhanced both image editing and in-context image generation, yet a critical gap remains in ensuring physical consistency, where edited objects must remain coherent. This capability is especially vital for world simulation related tasks. In this paper, we present ChronoEdit, a framework that reframes image editing as a video generation problem. First, ChronoEdit treats the input and edited images as the first and last frames of a video, allowing it to leverage large pretrained video generative models that capture not only object appearance but also the implicit physics of motion and interaction through learned temporal consistency. Second, ChronoEdit introduces a temporal reasoning stage that explicitly performs editing at inference time. Under this setting, target frame is jointly denoised with reasoning tokens to imagine a plausible editing trajectory that constrains the solution space to physically viable transformations. The reasoning tokens are then dropped after a few steps to avoid the high computational cost of rendering a full video. To validate ChronoEdit, we introduce PBench-Edit, a new benchmark of image-prompt pairs for contexts that require physical consistency, and demonstrate that ChronoEdit surpasses state-of-the-art baselines in both visual fidelity and physical plausibility. Project page for code and models: △ Less Submitted 16 October, 2025; v1 submitted 5 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2510.02249 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG Explore Briefly, Then Decide: Mitigating LLM Overthinking via Cumulative Entropy Regulation Authors: Tianyi Jiang , Yi Bin , Yujuan Ding , Kainian Zhu , Fei Ma , Jingkuan Song , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable reasoning abilities on complex problems using long Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. However, they often suffer from overthinking, meaning generating unnecessarily lengthy reasoning steps for simpler problems. This issue may degrade the efficiency of the models and make them difficult to adapt the reasoning depth to the complexity of proble… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable reasoning abilities on complex problems using long Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. However, they often suffer from overthinking, meaning generating unnecessarily lengthy reasoning steps for simpler problems. This issue may degrade the efficiency of the models and make them difficult to adapt the reasoning depth to the complexity of problems. To address this, we introduce a novel metric Token Entropy Cumulative Average (TECA), which measures the extent of exploration throughout the reasoning process. We further propose a novel reasoning paradigm -- Explore Briefly, Then Decide -- with an associated Cumulative Entropy Regulation (CER) mechanism. This paradigm leverages TECA to help the model dynamically determine the optimal point to conclude its thought process and provide a final answer, thus achieving efficient reasoning. Experimental results across diverse mathematical benchmarks show that our approach substantially mitigates overthinking without sacrificing problem-solving ability. With our thinking paradigm, the average response length decreases by up to 71% on simpler datasets, demonstrating the effectiveness of our method in creating a more efficient and adaptive reasoning process. △ Less Submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.02249 [ pdf , ps , other ] Explore Briefly, Then Decide: Mitigating LLM Overthinking via Cumulative Entropy Regulation Authors: Tianyi Jiang , Yi Bin , Yujuan Ding , Kainian Zhu , Fei Ma , Jingkuan Song , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable reasoning abilities on complex problems using long Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. However, they often suffer from overthinking, meaning generating unnecessarily lengthy reasoning steps for simpler problems. This issue may degrade the efficiency of the models and make them difficult to adapt the reasoning depth to the complexity of proble… ▽ More Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable reasoning abilities on complex problems using long Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning. However, they often suffer from overthinking, meaning generating unnecessarily lengthy reasoning steps for simpler problems. This issue may degrade the efficiency of the models and make them difficult to adapt the reasoning depth to the complexity of problems. To address this, we introduce a novel metric Token Entropy Cumulative Average (TECA), which measures the extent of exploration throughout the reasoning process. We further propose a novel reasoning paradigm -- Explore Briefly, Then Decide -- with an associated Cumulative Entropy Regulation (CER) mechanism. This paradigm leverages TECA to help the model dynamically determine the optimal point to conclude its thought process and provide a final answer, thus achieving efficient reasoning. Experimental results across diverse mathematical benchmarks show that our approach substantially mitigates overthinking without sacrificing problem-solving ability. With our thinking paradigm, the average response length decreases by up to 71% on simpler datasets, demonstrating the effectiveness of our method in creating a more efficient and adaptive reasoning process. △ Less Submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.02227 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CL cs.AI cs.LG More Than One Teacher: Adaptive Multi-Guidance Policy Optimization for Diverse Exploration Authors: Xiaoyang Yuan , Yujuan Ding , Yi Bin , Wenqi Shao , Jinyu Cai , Jingkuan Song , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is a promising paradigm for enhancing the reasoning ability in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, prevailing methods primarily rely on self-exploration or a single off-policy teacher to elicit long chain-of-thought (LongCoT) reasoning, which may introduce intrinsic model biases and restrict exploration, ultimately limiting reasoning diversi… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is a promising paradigm for enhancing the reasoning ability in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, prevailing methods primarily rely on self-exploration or a single off-policy teacher to elicit long chain-of-thought (LongCoT) reasoning, which may introduce intrinsic model biases and restrict exploration, ultimately limiting reasoning diversity and performance. Drawing inspiration from multi-teacher strategies in knowledge distillation, we introduce Adaptive Multi-Guidance Policy Optimization (AMPO), a novel framework that adaptively leverages guidance from multiple proficient teacher models, but only when the on-policy model fails to generate correct solutions. This "guidance-on-demand" approach expands exploration while preserving the value of self-discovery. Moreover, AMPO incorporates a comprehension-based selection mechanism, prompting the student to learn from the reasoning paths that it is most likely to comprehend, thus balancing broad exploration with effective exploitation. Extensive experiments show AMPO substantially outperforms a strong baseline (GRPO), with a 4.3% improvement on mathematical reasoning tasks and 12.2% on out-of-distribution tasks, while significantly boosting Pass@k performance and enabling more diverse exploration. Notably, using four peer-sized teachers, our method achieves comparable results to approaches that leverage a single, more powerful teacher (e.g., DeepSeek-R1) with more data. These results demonstrate a more efficient and scalable path to superior reasoning and generalizability. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; v1 submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2510.02227 [ pdf , ps , other ] More Than One Teacher: Adaptive Multi-Guidance Policy Optimization for Diverse Exploration Authors: Xiaoyang Yuan , Yujuan Ding , Yi Bin , Wenqi Shao , Jinyu Cai , Jingkuan Song , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is a promising paradigm for enhancing the reasoning ability in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, prevailing methods primarily rely on self-exploration or a single off-policy teacher to elicit long chain-of-thought (LongCoT) reasoning, which may introduce intrinsic model biases and restrict exploration, ultimately limiting reasoning diversi… ▽ More Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) is a promising paradigm for enhancing the reasoning ability in Large Language Models (LLMs). However, prevailing methods primarily rely on self-exploration or a single off-policy teacher to elicit long chain-of-thought (LongCoT) reasoning, which may introduce intrinsic model biases and restrict exploration, ultimately limiting reasoning diversity and performance. Drawing inspiration from multi-teacher strategies in knowledge distillation, we introduce Adaptive Multi-Guidance Policy Optimization (AMPO), a novel framework that adaptively leverages guidance from multiple proficient teacher models, but only when the on-policy model fails to generate correct solutions. This "guidance-on-demand" approach expands exploration while preserving the value of self-discovery. Moreover, AMPO incorporates a comprehension-based selection mechanism, prompting the student to learn from the reasoning paths that it is most likely to comprehend, thus balancing broad exploration with effective exploitation. Extensive experiments show AMPO substantially outperforms a strong baseline (GRPO), with a 4.3% improvement on mathematical reasoning tasks and 12.2% on out-of-distribution tasks, while significantly boosting Pass@k performance and enabling more diverse exploration. Notably, using four peer-sized teachers, our method achieves comparable results to approaches that leverage a single, more powerful teacher (e.g., DeepSeek-R1) with more data. These results demonstrate a more efficient and scalable path to superior reasoning and generalizability. Our code is available at △ Less Submitted 9 October, 2025; v1 submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. Comments: 20 pages, 5 figures arXiv:2510.02186 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.LG GeoPurify: A Data-Efficient Geometric Distillation Framework for Open-Vocabulary 3D Segmentation Authors: Weijia Dou , Xu Zhang , Yi Bin , Jian Liu , Bo Peng , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Recent attempts to transfer features from 2D Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to 3D semantic segmentation expose a persistent trade-off. Directly projecting 2D features into 3D yields noisy and fragmented predictions, whereas enforcing geometric coherence necessitates costly training pipelines and large-scale annotated 3D data. We argue that this limitation stems from the dominant segmentation-and-ma… ▽ More Recent attempts to transfer features from 2D Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to 3D semantic segmentation expose a persistent trade-off. Directly projecting 2D features into 3D yields noisy and fragmented predictions, whereas enforcing geometric coherence necessitates costly training pipelines and large-scale annotated 3D data. We argue that this limitation stems from the dominant segmentation-and-matching paradigm, which fails to reconcile 2D semantics with 3D geometric structure. The geometric cues are not eliminated during the 2D-to-3D transfer but remain latent within the noisy and view-aggregated features. To exploit this property, we propose GeoPurify that applies a small Student Affinity Network to purify 2D VLM-generated 3D point features using geometric priors distilled from a 3D self-supervised teacher model. During inference, we devise a Geometry-Guided Pooling module to further denoise the point cloud and ensure the semantic and structural consistency. Benefiting from latent geometric information and the learned affinity network, GeoPurify effectively mitigates the trade-off and achieves superior data efficiency. Extensive experiments on major 3D benchmarks demonstrate that GeoPurify achieves or surpasses state-of-the-art performance while utilizing only about 1.5% of the training data. Our codes and checkpoints are available at [ △ Less Submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2510.02186 [ pdf , ps , other ] GeoPurify: A Data-Efficient Geometric Distillation Framework for Open-Vocabulary 3D Segmentation Authors: Weijia Dou , Xu Zhang , Yi Bin , Jian Liu , Bo Peng , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Recent attempts to transfer features from 2D Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to 3D semantic segmentation expose a persistent trade-off. Directly projecting 2D features into 3D yields noisy and fragmented predictions, whereas enforcing geometric coherence necessitates costly training pipelines and large-scale annotated 3D data. We argue that this limitation stems from the dominant segmentation-and-ma… ▽ More Recent attempts to transfer features from 2D Vision-Language Models (VLMs) to 3D semantic segmentation expose a persistent trade-off. Directly projecting 2D features into 3D yields noisy and fragmented predictions, whereas enforcing geometric coherence necessitates costly training pipelines and large-scale annotated 3D data. We argue that this limitation stems from the dominant segmentation-and-matching paradigm, which fails to reconcile 2D semantics with 3D geometric structure. The geometric cues are not eliminated during the 2D-to-3D transfer but remain latent within the noisy and view-aggregated features. To exploit this property, we propose GeoPurify that applies a small Student Affinity Network to purify 2D VLM-generated 3D point features using geometric priors distilled from a 3D self-supervised teacher model. During inference, we devise a Geometry-Guided Pooling module to further denoise the point cloud and ensure the semantic and structural consistency. Benefiting from latent geometric information and the learned affinity network, GeoPurify effectively mitigates the trade-off and achieves superior data efficiency. Extensive experiments on major 3D benchmarks demonstrate that GeoPurify achieves or surpasses state-of-the-art performance while utilizing only about 1.5% of the training data. Our codes and checkpoints are available at [ △ Less Submitted 2 October, 2025; originally announced October 2025. arXiv:2509.25963 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV doi 10.1145/3746027.3754913 Self-Supervised Anatomical Consistency Learning for Vision-Grounded Medical Report Generation Authors: Longzhen Yang , Zhangkai Ni , Ying Wen , Yihang Liu , Lianghua He , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Vision-grounded medical report generation aims to produce clinically accurate descriptions of medical images, anchored in explicit visual evidence to improve interpretability and facilitate integration into clinical workflows. However, existing methods often rely on separately trained detection modules that require extensive expert annotations, introducing high labeling costs and limiting generali… ▽ More Vision-grounded medical report generation aims to produce clinically accurate descriptions of medical images, anchored in explicit visual evidence to improve interpretability and facilitate integration into clinical workflows. However, existing methods often rely on separately trained detection modules that require extensive expert annotations, introducing high labeling costs and limiting generalizability due to pathology distribution bias across datasets. To address these challenges, we propose Self-Supervised Anatomical Consistency Learning (SS-ACL) -- a novel and annotation-free framework that aligns generated reports with corresponding anatomical regions using simple textual prompts. SS-ACL constructs a hierarchical anatomical graph inspired by the invariant top-down inclusion structure of human anatomy, organizing entities by spatial location. It recursively reconstructs fine-grained anatomical regions to enforce intra-sample spatial alignment, inherently guiding attention maps toward visually relevant areas prompted by text. To further enhance inter-sample semantic alignment for abnormality recognition, SS-ACL introduces a region-level contrastive learning based on anatomical consistency. These aligned embeddings serve as priors for report generation, enabling attention maps to provide interpretable visual evidence. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SS-ACL, without relying on expert annotations, (i) generates accurate and visually grounded reports -- outperforming state-of-the-art methods by 10\% in lexical accuracy and 25\% in clinical efficacy, and (ii) achieves competitive performance on various downstream visual tasks, surpassing current leading visual foundation models by 8\% in zero-shot visual grounding. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.25963 [ pdf , ps , other ] Self-Supervised Anatomical Consistency Learning for Vision-Grounded Medical Report Generation Authors: Longzhen Yang , Zhangkai Ni , Ying Wen , Yihang Liu , Lianghua He , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Vision-grounded medical report generation aims to produce clinically accurate descriptions of medical images, anchored in explicit visual evidence to improve interpretability and facilitate integration into clinical workflows. However, existing methods often rely on separately trained detection modules that require extensive expert annotations, introducing high labeling costs and limiting generali… ▽ More Vision-grounded medical report generation aims to produce clinically accurate descriptions of medical images, anchored in explicit visual evidence to improve interpretability and facilitate integration into clinical workflows. However, existing methods often rely on separately trained detection modules that require extensive expert annotations, introducing high labeling costs and limiting generalizability due to pathology distribution bias across datasets. To address these challenges, we propose Self-Supervised Anatomical Consistency Learning (SS-ACL) -- a novel and annotation-free framework that aligns generated reports with corresponding anatomical regions using simple textual prompts. SS-ACL constructs a hierarchical anatomical graph inspired by the invariant top-down inclusion structure of human anatomy, organizing entities by spatial location. It recursively reconstructs fine-grained anatomical regions to enforce intra-sample spatial alignment, inherently guiding attention maps toward visually relevant areas prompted by text. To further enhance inter-sample semantic alignment for abnormality recognition, SS-ACL introduces a region-level contrastive learning based on anatomical consistency. These aligned embeddings serve as priors for report generation, enabling attention maps to provide interpretable visual evidence. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SS-ACL, without relying on expert annotations, (i) generates accurate and visually grounded reports -- outperforming state-of-the-art methods by 10\% in lexical accuracy and 25\% in clinical efficacy, and (ii) achieves competitive performance on various downstream visual tasks, surpassing current leading visual foundation models by 8\% in zero-shot visual grounding. △ Less Submitted 30 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.21050 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.AI GeoRef: Referring Expressions in Geometry via Task Formulation, Synthetic Supervision, and Reinforced MLLM-based Solutions Authors: Bing Liu , Wenqiang Yv , Xuzheng Yang , Shichang Wang , Junzhuo Liu , Peng Wang , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : AI-driven geometric problem solving is a complex vision-language task that requires accurate diagram interpretation, mathematical reasoning, and robust cross-modal grounding. A foundational yet underexplored capability for this task is the ability to identify and interpret geometric elements based on natural language queries. To address this, we introduce the task of Referring Expression Comprehen… ▽ More AI-driven geometric problem solving is a complex vision-language task that requires accurate diagram interpretation, mathematical reasoning, and robust cross-modal grounding. A foundational yet underexplored capability for this task is the ability to identify and interpret geometric elements based on natural language queries. To address this, we introduce the task of Referring Expression Comprehension (REC) for geometric problems, which evaluates whether models can localize points, shapes, and spatial relations in diagrams in response to textual prompts. We present GeoRef, a benchmark dataset constructed from existing geometric problem corpora, featuring diverse, high-quality annotations and queries. Due to the lack of annotated data for this task, we generate a large-scale synthetic training dataset using a structured geometric formal language, enabling broad coverage of geometric concepts and facilitating model adaptation. We explore two fine-tuning approaches: Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Our results show that GRPO significantly outperforms SFT by better aligning model behavior with task-specific rewards. Furthermore, we propose a verify-and-regenerate mechanism that detects incorrect predictions and re-infers answers using contextual reasoning history, further boosting accuracy. Notably, even state-of-the-art Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) struggle with this task, underscoring the necessity of explicitly evaluating and strengthening geometric grounding as a prerequisite for robust geometric problem solving. Moreover, models trained on GeoRef demonstrate measurable improvements on downstream geometric reasoning tasks, highlighting the broader value of REC as a foundation for multimodal mathematical understanding. △ Less Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.21050 [ pdf , ps , other ] GeoRef: Referring Expressions in Geometry via Task Formulation, Synthetic Supervision, and Reinforced MLLM-based Solutions Authors: Bing Liu , Wenqiang Yv , Xuzheng Yang , Shichang Wang , Junzhuo Liu , Peng Wang , Guoqing Wang , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : AI-driven geometric problem solving is a complex vision-language task that requires accurate diagram interpretation, mathematical reasoning, and robust cross-modal grounding. A foundational yet underexplored capability for this task is the ability to identify and interpret geometric elements based on natural language queries. To address this, we introduce the task of Referring Expression Comprehen… ▽ More AI-driven geometric problem solving is a complex vision-language task that requires accurate diagram interpretation, mathematical reasoning, and robust cross-modal grounding. A foundational yet underexplored capability for this task is the ability to identify and interpret geometric elements based on natural language queries. To address this, we introduce the task of Referring Expression Comprehension (REC) for geometric problems, which evaluates whether models can localize points, shapes, and spatial relations in diagrams in response to textual prompts. We present GeoRef, a benchmark dataset constructed from existing geometric problem corpora, featuring diverse, high-quality annotations and queries. Due to the lack of annotated data for this task, we generate a large-scale synthetic training dataset using a structured geometric formal language, enabling broad coverage of geometric concepts and facilitating model adaptation. We explore two fine-tuning approaches: Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) and Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Our results show that GRPO significantly outperforms SFT by better aligning model behavior with task-specific rewards. Furthermore, we propose a verify-and-regenerate mechanism that detects incorrect predictions and re-infers answers using contextual reasoning history, further boosting accuracy. Notably, even state-of-the-art Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) struggle with this task, underscoring the necessity of explicitly evaluating and strengthening geometric grounding as a prerequisite for robust geometric problem solving. Moreover, models trained on GeoRef demonstrate measurable improvements on downstream geometric reasoning tasks, highlighting the broader value of REC as a foundation for multimodal mathematical understanding. △ Less Submitted 25 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.19296 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.GR Lyra: Generative 3D Scene Reconstruction via Video Diffusion Model Self-Distillation Authors: Sherwin Bahmani , Tianchang Shen , Jiawei Ren , Jiahui Huang , Yifeng Jiang , Haithem Turki , Andrea Tagliasacchi , David B. Lindell , Zan Gojcic , Sanja Fidler , Huan Ling , Jun Gao , Xuanchi Ren Abstract : The ability to generate virtual environments is crucial for applications ranging from gaming to physical AI domains such as robotics, autonomous driving, and industrial AI. Current learning-based 3D reconstruction methods rely on the availability of captured real-world multi-view data, which is not always readily available. Recent advancements in video diffusion models have shown remarkable imagin… ▽ More The ability to generate virtual environments is crucial for applications ranging from gaming to physical AI domains such as robotics, autonomous driving, and industrial AI. Current learning-based 3D reconstruction methods rely on the availability of captured real-world multi-view data, which is not always readily available. Recent advancements in video diffusion models have shown remarkable imagination capabilities, yet their 2D nature limits the applications to simulation where a robot needs to navigate and interact with the environment. In this paper, we propose a self-distillation framework that aims to distill the implicit 3D knowledge in the video diffusion models into an explicit 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representation, eliminating the need for multi-view training data. Specifically, we augment the typical RGB decoder with a 3DGS decoder, which is supervised by the output of the RGB decoder. In this approach, the 3DGS decoder can be purely trained with synthetic data generated by video diffusion models. At inference time, our model can synthesize 3D scenes from either a text prompt or a single image for real-time rendering. Our framework further extends to dynamic 3D scene generation from a monocular input video. Experimental results show that our framework achieves state-of-the-art performance in static and dynamic 3D scene generation. △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2509.19296 [ pdf , ps , other ] Lyra: Generative 3D Scene Reconstruction via Video Diffusion Model Self-Distillation Authors: Sherwin Bahmani , Tianchang Shen , Jiawei Ren , Jiahui Huang , Yifeng Jiang , Haithem Turki , Andrea Tagliasacchi , David B. Lindell , Zan Gojcic , Sanja Fidler , Huan Ling , Jun Gao , Xuanchi Ren Abstract : The ability to generate virtual environments is crucial for applications ranging from gaming to physical AI domains such as robotics, autonomous driving, and industrial AI. Current learning-based 3D reconstruction methods rely on the availability of captured real-world multi-view data, which is not always readily available. Recent advancements in video diffusion models have shown remarkable imagin… ▽ More The ability to generate virtual environments is crucial for applications ranging from gaming to physical AI domains such as robotics, autonomous driving, and industrial AI. Current learning-based 3D reconstruction methods rely on the availability of captured real-world multi-view data, which is not always readily available. Recent advancements in video diffusion models have shown remarkable imagination capabilities, yet their 2D nature limits the applications to simulation where a robot needs to navigate and interact with the environment. In this paper, we propose a self-distillation framework that aims to distill the implicit 3D knowledge in the video diffusion models into an explicit 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) representation, eliminating the need for multi-view training data. Specifically, we augment the typical RGB decoder with a 3DGS decoder, which is supervised by the output of the RGB decoder. In this approach, the 3DGS decoder can be purely trained with synthetic data generated by video diffusion models. At inference time, our model can synthesize 3D scenes from either a text prompt or a single image for real-time rendering. Our framework further extends to dynamic 3D scene generation from a monocular input video. Experimental results show that our framework achieves state-of-the-art performance in static and dynamic 3D scene generation. △ Less Submitted 23 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Project Page: arXiv:2509.17589 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.AI Table2LaTeX-RL: High-Fidelity LaTeX Code Generation from Table Images via Reinforced Multimodal Language Models Authors: Jun Ling , Yao Qi , Tao Huang , Shibo Zhou , Yanqin Huang , Jiang Yang , Ziqi Song , Ying Zhou , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen , Peng Wang Abstract : In this work, we address the task of table image to LaTeX code generation, with the goal of automating the reconstruction of high-quality, publication-ready tables from visual inputs. A central challenge of this task lies in accurately handling complex tables -- those with large sizes, deeply nested structures, and semantically rich or irregular cell content -- where existing methods often fail. W… ▽ More In this work, we address the task of table image to LaTeX code generation, with the goal of automating the reconstruction of high-quality, publication-ready tables from visual inputs. A central challenge of this task lies in accurately handling complex tables -- those with large sizes, deeply nested structures, and semantically rich or irregular cell content -- where existing methods often fail. We begin with a comprehensive analysis, identifying key challenges and highlighting the limitations of current evaluation protocols. To overcome these issues, we propose a reinforced multimodal large language model (MLLM) framework, where a pre-trained MLLM is fine-tuned on a large-scale table-to-LaTeX dataset. To further improve generation quality, we introduce a dual-reward reinforcement learning strategy based on Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Unlike standard approaches that optimize purely over text outputs, our method incorporates both a structure-level reward on LaTeX code and a visual fidelity reward computed from rendered outputs, enabling direct optimization of the visual output quality. We adopt a hybrid evaluation protocol combining TEDS-Structure and CW-SSIM, and show that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance, particularly on structurally complex tables, demonstrating the effectiveness and robustness of our approach. △ Less Submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2509.17589 [ pdf , ps , other ] Table2LaTeX-RL: High-Fidelity LaTeX Code Generation from Table Images via Reinforced Multimodal Language Models Authors: Jun Ling , Yao Qi , Tao Huang , Shibo Zhou , Yanqin Huang , Jiang Yang , Ziqi Song , Ying Zhou , Yang Yang , Heng Tao Shen , Peng Wang Abstract : In this work, we address the task of table image to LaTeX code generation, with the goal of automating the reconstruction of high-quality, publication-ready tables from visual inputs. A central challenge of this task lies in accurately handling complex tables -- those with large sizes, deeply nested structures, and semantically rich or irregular cell content -- where existing methods often fail. W… ▽ More In this work, we address the task of table image to LaTeX code generation, with the goal of automating the reconstruction of high-quality, publication-ready tables from visual inputs. A central challenge of this task lies in accurately handling complex tables -- those with large sizes, deeply nested structures, and semantically rich or irregular cell content -- where existing methods often fail. We begin with a comprehensive analysis, identifying key challenges and highlighting the limitations of current evaluation protocols. To overcome these issues, we propose a reinforced multimodal large language model (MLLM) framework, where a pre-trained MLLM is fine-tuned on a large-scale table-to-LaTeX dataset. To further improve generation quality, we introduce a dual-reward reinforcement learning strategy based on Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Unlike standard approaches that optimize purely over text outputs, our method incorporates both a structure-level reward on LaTeX code and a visual fidelity reward computed from rendered outputs, enabling direct optimization of the visual output quality. We adopt a hybrid evaluation protocol combining TEDS-Structure and CW-SSIM, and show that our method achieves state-of-the-art performance, particularly on structurally complex tables, demonstrating the effectiveness and robustness of our approach. △ Less Submitted 22 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: NeurIPS 2025 arXiv:2509.14687 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.RO RealMirror: A Comprehensive, Open-Source Vision-Language-Action Platform for Embodied AI Authors: Cong Tai , Zhaoyu Zheng , Haixu Long , Hansheng Wu , Haodong Xiang , Zhengbin Long , Jun Xiong , Rong Shi , Shizhuang Zhang , Gang Qiu , He Wang , Ruifeng Li , Jun Huang , Bin Chang , Shuai Feng , Tao Shen Abstract : The emerging field of Vision-Language-Action (VLA) for humanoid robots faces several fundamental challenges, including the high cost of data acquisition, the lack of a standardized benchmark, and the significant gap between simulation and the real world. To overcome these obstacles, we propose RealMirror, a comprehensive, open-source embodied AI VLA platform. RealMirror builds an efficient, low-co… ▽ More The emerging field of Vision-Language-Action (VLA) for humanoid robots faces several fundamental challenges, including the high cost of data acquisition, the lack of a standardized benchmark, and the significant gap between simulation and the real world. To overcome these obstacles, we propose RealMirror, a comprehensive, open-source embodied AI VLA platform. RealMirror builds an efficient, low-cost data collection, model training, and inference system that enables end-to-end VLA research without requiring a real robot. To facilitate model evolution and fair comparison, we also introduce a dedicated VLA benchmark for humanoid robots, featuring multiple scenarios, extensive trajectories, and various VLA models. Furthermore, by integrating generative models and 3D Gaussian Splatting to reconstruct realistic environments and robot models, we successfully demonstrate zero-shot Sim2Real transfer, where models trained exclusively on simulation data can perform tasks on a real robot seamlessly, without any fine-tuning. In conclusion, with the unification of these critical components, RealMirror provides a robust framework that significantly accelerates the development of VLA models for humanoid robots. Project page: △ Less Submitted 18 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.14687 [ pdf , ps , other ] RealMirror: A Comprehensive, Open-Source Vision-Language-Action Platform for Embodied AI Authors: Cong Tai , Zhaoyu Zheng , Haixu Long , Hansheng Wu , Haodong Xiang , Zhengbin Long , Jun Xiong , Rong Shi , Shizhuang Zhang , Gang Qiu , He Wang , Ruifeng Li , Jun Huang , Bin Chang , Shuai Feng , Tao Shen Abstract : The emerging field of Vision-Language-Action (VLA) for humanoid robots faces several fundamental challenges, including the high cost of data acquisition, the lack of a standardized benchmark, and the significant gap between simulation and the real world. To overcome these obstacles, we propose RealMirror, a comprehensive, open-source embodied AI VLA platform. RealMirror builds an efficient, low-co… ▽ More The emerging field of Vision-Language-Action (VLA) for humanoid robots faces several fundamental challenges, including the high cost of data acquisition, the lack of a standardized benchmark, and the significant gap between simulation and the real world. To overcome these obstacles, we propose RealMirror, a comprehensive, open-source embodied AI VLA platform. RealMirror builds an efficient, low-cost data collection, model training, and inference system that enables end-to-end VLA research without requiring a real robot. To facilitate model evolution and fair comparison, we also introduce a dedicated VLA benchmark for humanoid robots, featuring multiple scenarios, extensive trajectories, and various VLA models. Furthermore, by integrating generative models and 3D Gaussian Splatting to reconstruct realistic environments and robot models, we successfully demonstrate zero-shot Sim2Real transfer, where models trained exclusively on simulation data can perform tasks on a real robot seamlessly, without any fine-tuning. In conclusion, with the unification of these critical components, RealMirror provides a robust framework that significantly accelerates the development of VLA models for humanoid robots. Project page: △ Less Submitted 18 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.13754 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV doi 10.1145/3786798 Cross-modal Full-mode Fine-grained Alignment for Text-to-Image Person Retrieval Authors: Hao Yin , Xin Man , Feiyu Chen , Jie Shao , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Text-to-Image Person Retrieval (TIPR) is a cross-modal matching task designed to identify the person images that best correspond to a given textual description. The key difficulty in TIPR is to realize robust correspondence between the textual and visual modalities within a unified latent representation space. To address this challenge, prior approaches incorporate attention mechanisms for implici… ▽ More Text-to-Image Person Retrieval (TIPR) is a cross-modal matching task designed to identify the person images that best correspond to a given textual description. The key difficulty in TIPR is to realize robust correspondence between the textual and visual modalities within a unified latent representation space. To address this challenge, prior approaches incorporate attention mechanisms for implicit cross-modal local alignment. However, they lack the ability to verify whether all local features are correctly aligned. Moreover, existing methods tend to emphasize the utilization of hard negative samples during model optimization to strengthen discrimination between positive and negative pairs, often neglecting incorrectly matched positive pairs. To mitigate these problems, we propose FMFA, a cross-modal Full-Mode Fine-grained Alignment framework, which enhances global matching through explicit fine-grained alignment and existing implicit relational reasoning -- hence the term ``full-mode'' -- without introducing extra supervisory signals. In particular, we propose an Adaptive Similarity Distribution Matching (A-SDM) module to rectify unmatched positive sample pairs. A-SDM adaptively pulls the unmatched positive pairs closer in the joint embedding space, thereby achieving more precise global alignment. Additionally, we introduce an Explicit Fine-grained Alignment (EFA) module, which makes up for the lack of verification capability of implicit relational reasoning. EFA strengthens explicit cross-modal fine-grained interactions by sparsifying the similarity matrix and employs a hard coding method for local alignment. We evaluate our method on three public datasets, where it attains state-of-the-art results among all global matching methods. The code for our method is publicly accessible at △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: accepted by ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing Communications and Applications in December 2025 Journal ref: ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing Communications and Applications, 2026 arXiv:2509.13754 [ pdf , ps , other ] Cross-modal Full-mode Fine-grained Alignment for Text-to-Image Person Retrieval Authors: Hao Yin , Xin Man , Feiyu Chen , Jie Shao , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Text-to-Image Person Retrieval (TIPR) is a cross-modal matching task designed to identify the person images that best correspond to a given textual description. The key difficulty in TIPR is to realize robust correspondence between the textual and visual modalities within a unified latent representation space. To address this challenge, prior approaches incorporate attention mechanisms for implici… ▽ More Text-to-Image Person Retrieval (TIPR) is a cross-modal matching task designed to identify the person images that best correspond to a given textual description. The key difficulty in TIPR is to realize robust correspondence between the textual and visual modalities within a unified latent representation space. To address this challenge, prior approaches incorporate attention mechanisms for implicit cross-modal local alignment. However, they lack the ability to verify whether all local features are correctly aligned. Moreover, existing methods tend to emphasize the utilization of hard negative samples during model optimization to strengthen discrimination between positive and negative pairs, often neglecting incorrectly matched positive pairs. To mitigate these problems, we propose FMFA, a cross-modal Full-Mode Fine-grained Alignment framework, which enhances global matching through explicit fine-grained alignment and existing implicit relational reasoning -- hence the term ``full-mode'' -- without introducing extra supervisory signals. In particular, we propose an Adaptive Similarity Distribution Matching (A-SDM) module to rectify unmatched positive sample pairs. A-SDM adaptively pulls the unmatched positive pairs closer in the joint embedding space, thereby achieving more precise global alignment. Additionally, we introduce an Explicit Fine-grained Alignment (EFA) module, which makes up for the lack of verification capability of implicit relational reasoning. EFA strengthens explicit cross-modal fine-grained interactions by sparsifying the similarity matrix and employs a hard coding method for local alignment. We evaluate our method on three public datasets, where it attains state-of-the-art results among all global matching methods. The code for our method is publicly accessible at △ Less Submitted 28 December, 2025; v1 submitted 17 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: accepted by ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing Communications and Applications in December 2025 Journal ref: ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing Communications and Applications, 2026 arXiv:2509.13375 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI An Empirical Analysis of VLM-based OOD Detection: Mechanisms, Advantages, and Sensitivity Authors: Yuxiao Lee , Xiaofeng Cao , Wei Ye , Jiangchao Yao , Jingkuan Song , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as CLIP, have demonstrated remarkable zero-shot out-of-distribution (OOD) detection capabilities, vital for reliable AI systems. Despite this promising capability, a comprehensive understanding of (1) why they work so effectively, (2) what advantages do they have over single-modal methods, and (3) how is their behavioral robustness -- remains notably incomplete… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as CLIP, have demonstrated remarkable zero-shot out-of-distribution (OOD) detection capabilities, vital for reliable AI systems. Despite this promising capability, a comprehensive understanding of (1) why they work so effectively, (2) what advantages do they have over single-modal methods, and (3) how is their behavioral robustness -- remains notably incomplete within the research community. This paper presents a systematic empirical analysis of VLM-based OOD detection using in-distribution (ID) and OOD prompts. (1) Mechanisms: We systematically characterize and formalize key operational properties within the VLM embedding space that facilitate zero-shot OOD detection. (2) Advantages: We empirically quantify the superiority of these models over established single-modal approaches, attributing this distinct advantage to the VLM's capacity to leverage rich semantic novelty. (3) Sensitivity: We uncovers a significant and previously under-explored asymmetry in their robustness profile: while exhibiting resilience to common image noise, these VLM-based methods are highly sensitive to prompt phrasing. Our findings contribute a more structured understanding of the strengths and critical vulnerabilities inherent in VLM-based OOD detection, offering crucial, empirically-grounded guidance for developing more robust and reliable future designs. △ Less Submitted 16 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.13375 [ pdf , ps , other ] An Empirical Analysis of VLM-based OOD Detection: Mechanisms, Advantages, and Sensitivity Authors: Yuxiao Lee , Xiaofeng Cao , Wei Ye , Jiangchao Yao , Jingkuan Song , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as CLIP, have demonstrated remarkable zero-shot out-of-distribution (OOD) detection capabilities, vital for reliable AI systems. Despite this promising capability, a comprehensive understanding of (1) why they work so effectively, (2) what advantages do they have over single-modal methods, and (3) how is their behavioral robustness -- remains notably incomplete… ▽ More Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as CLIP, have demonstrated remarkable zero-shot out-of-distribution (OOD) detection capabilities, vital for reliable AI systems. Despite this promising capability, a comprehensive understanding of (1) why they work so effectively, (2) what advantages do they have over single-modal methods, and (3) how is their behavioral robustness -- remains notably incomplete within the research community. This paper presents a systematic empirical analysis of VLM-based OOD detection using in-distribution (ID) and OOD prompts. (1) Mechanisms: We systematically characterize and formalize key operational properties within the VLM embedding space that facilitate zero-shot OOD detection. (2) Advantages: We empirically quantify the superiority of these models over established single-modal approaches, attributing this distinct advantage to the VLM's capacity to leverage rich semantic novelty. (3) Sensitivity: We uncovers a significant and previously under-explored asymmetry in their robustness profile: while exhibiting resilience to common image noise, these VLM-based methods are highly sensitive to prompt phrasing. Our findings contribute a more structured understanding of the strengths and critical vulnerabilities inherent in VLM-based OOD detection, offering crucial, empirically-grounded guidance for developing more robust and reliable future designs. △ Less Submitted 16 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. arXiv:2509.12046 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.AI Layout-Conditioned Autoregressive Text-to-Image Generation via Structured Masking Authors: Zirui Zheng , Takashi Isobe , Tong Shen , Xu Jia , Jianbin Zhao , Xiaomin Li , Mengmeng Ge , Baolu Li , Qinghe Wang , Dong Li , Dong Zhou , Yunzhi Zhuge , Huchuan Lu , Emad Barsoum Abstract : While autoregressive (AR) models have demonstrated remarkable success in image generation, extending them to layout-conditioned generation remains challenging due to the sparse nature of layout conditions and the risk of feature entanglement. We present Structured Masking for AR-based Layout-to-Image (SMARLI), a novel framework for layoutto-image generation that effectively integrates spatial layo… ▽ More While autoregressive (AR) models have demonstrated remarkable success in image generation, extending them to layout-conditioned generation remains challenging due to the sparse nature of layout conditions and the risk of feature entanglement. We present Structured Masking for AR-based Layout-to-Image (SMARLI), a novel framework for layoutto-image generation that effectively integrates spatial layout constraints into AR-based image generation. To equip AR model with layout control, a specially designed structured masking strategy is applied to attention computation to govern the interaction among the global prompt, layout, and image tokens. This design prevents mis-association between different regions and their descriptions while enabling sufficient injection of layout constraints into the generation process. To further enhance generation quality and layout accuracy, we incorporate Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) based post-training scheme with specially designed layout reward functions for next-set-based AR models. Experimental results demonstrate that SMARLI is able to seamlessly integrate layout tokens with text and image tokens without compromising generation quality. It achieves superior layoutaware control while maintaining the structural simplicity and generation efficiency of AR models. △ Less Submitted 15 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2509.12046 [ pdf , ps , other ] Layout-Conditioned Autoregressive Text-to-Image Generation via Structured Masking Authors: Zirui Zheng , Takashi Isobe , Tong Shen , Xu Jia , Jianbin Zhao , Xiaomin Li , Mengmeng Ge , Baolu Li , Qinghe Wang , Dong Li , Dong Zhou , Yunzhi Zhuge , Huchuan Lu , Emad Barsoum Abstract : While autoregressive (AR) models have demonstrated remarkable success in image generation, extending them to layout-conditioned generation remains challenging due to the sparse nature of layout conditions and the risk of feature entanglement. We present Structured Masking for AR-based Layout-to-Image (SMARLI), a novel framework for layoutto-image generation that effectively integrates spatial layo… ▽ More While autoregressive (AR) models have demonstrated remarkable success in image generation, extending them to layout-conditioned generation remains challenging due to the sparse nature of layout conditions and the risk of feature entanglement. We present Structured Masking for AR-based Layout-to-Image (SMARLI), a novel framework for layoutto-image generation that effectively integrates spatial layout constraints into AR-based image generation. To equip AR model with layout control, a specially designed structured masking strategy is applied to attention computation to govern the interaction among the global prompt, layout, and image tokens. This design prevents mis-association between different regions and their descriptions while enabling sufficient injection of layout constraints into the generation process. To further enhance generation quality and layout accuracy, we incorporate Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) based post-training scheme with specially designed layout reward functions for next-set-based AR models. Experimental results demonstrate that SMARLI is able to seamlessly integrate layout tokens with text and image tokens without compromising generation quality. It achieves superior layoutaware control while maintaining the structural simplicity and generation efficiency of AR models. △ Less Submitted 15 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 10 pages, 3 figures arXiv:2509.10058 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV doi 10.1145/3746027.3755385 Color Me Correctly: Bridging Perceptual Color Spaces and Text Embeddings for Improved Diffusion Generation Authors: Sung-Lin Tsai , Bo-Lun Huang , Yu Ting Shen , Cheng Yu Yeo , Chiang Tseng , Bo-Kai Ruan , Wen-Sheng Lien , Hong-Han Shuai Abstract : Accurate color alignment in text-to-image (T2I) generation is critical for applications such as fashion, product visualization, and interior design, yet current diffusion models struggle with nuanced and compound color terms (e.g., Tiffany blue, lime green, hot pink), often producing images that are misaligned with human intent. Existing approaches rely on cross-attention manipulation, reference i… ▽ More Accurate color alignment in text-to-image (T2I) generation is critical for applications such as fashion, product visualization, and interior design, yet current diffusion models struggle with nuanced and compound color terms (e.g., Tiffany blue, lime green, hot pink), often producing images that are misaligned with human intent. Existing approaches rely on cross-attention manipulation, reference images, or fine-tuning but fail to systematically resolve ambiguous color descriptions. To precisely render colors under prompt ambiguity, we propose a training-free framework that enhances color fidelity by leveraging a large language model (LLM) to disambiguate color-related prompts and guiding color blending operations directly in the text embedding space. Our method first employs a large language model (LLM) to resolve ambiguous color terms in the text prompt, and then refines the text embeddings based on the spatial relationships of the resulting color terms in the CIELAB color space. Unlike prior methods, our approach improves color accuracy without requiring additional training or external reference images. Experimental results demonstrate that our framework improves color alignment without compromising image quality, bridging the gap between text semantics and visual generation. △ Less Submitted 12 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted to ACM Multimedia 2025 (MM '25) arXiv:2509.10058 [ pdf , ps , other ] Color Me Correctly: Bridging Perceptual Color Spaces and Text Embeddings for Improved Diffusion Generation Authors: Sung-Lin Tsai , Bo-Lun Huang , Yu Ting Shen , Cheng Yu Yeo , Chiang Tseng , Bo-Kai Ruan , Wen-Sheng Lien , Hong-Han Shuai Abstract : Accurate color alignment in text-to-image (T2I) generation is critical for applications such as fashion, product visualization, and interior design, yet current diffusion models struggle with nuanced and compound color terms (e.g., Tiffany blue, lime green, hot pink), often producing images that are misaligned with human intent. Existing approaches rely on cross-attention manipulation, reference i… ▽ More Accurate color alignment in text-to-image (T2I) generation is critical for applications such as fashion, product visualization, and interior design, yet current diffusion models struggle with nuanced and compound color terms (e.g., Tiffany blue, lime green, hot pink), often producing images that are misaligned with human intent. Existing approaches rely on cross-attention manipulation, reference images, or fine-tuning but fail to systematically resolve ambiguous color descriptions. To precisely render colors under prompt ambiguity, we propose a training-free framework that enhances color fidelity by leveraging a large language model (LLM) to disambiguate color-related prompts and guiding color blending operations directly in the text embedding space. Our method first employs a large language model (LLM) to resolve ambiguous color terms in the text prompt, and then refines the text embeddings based on the spatial relationships of the resulting color terms in the CIELAB color space. Unlike prior methods, our approach improves color accuracy without requiring additional training or external reference images. Experimental results demonstrate that our framework improves color alignment without compromising image quality, bridging the gap between text semantics and visual generation. △ Less Submitted 12 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: Accepted to ACM Multimedia 2025 (MM '25) arXiv:2509.08395 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB SINDI: an Efficient Index for Approximate Maximum Inner Product Search on Sparse Vectors Authors: Ruoxuan Li , Xiaoyao Zhong , Jiabao Jin , Peng Cheng , Wangze Ni , Lei Chen , Zhitao Shen , Wei Jia , Xiangyu Wang , Xuemin Lin , Heng Tao Shen , Jingkuan Song Abstract : Sparse vector Maximum Inner Product Search (MIPS) is crucial in multi-path retrieval for Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). Recent inverted index-based and graph-based algorithms have achieved high search accuracy with practical efficiency. However, their performance in production environments is often limited by redundant distance computations and frequent random memory accesses. Furthermore,… ▽ More Sparse vector Maximum Inner Product Search (MIPS) is crucial in multi-path retrieval for Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). Recent inverted index-based and graph-based algorithms have achieved high search accuracy with practical efficiency. However, their performance in production environments is often limited by redundant distance computations and frequent random memory accesses. Furthermore, the compressed storage format of sparse vectors hinders the use of SIMD acceleration. In this paper, we propose the sparse inverted non-redundant distance index (SINDI), which incorporates three key optimizations: (i) Efficient Inner Product Computation: SINDI leverages SIMD acceleration and eliminates redundant identifier lookups, enabling batched inner product computation; (ii) Memory-Friendly Design: SINDI replaces random memory accesses to original vectors with sequential accesses to inverted lists, substantially reducing memory-bound latency. (iii) Vector Pruning: SINDI retains only the high-magnitude non-zero entries of vectors, improving query throughput while maintaining accuracy. We evaluate SINDI on multiple real-world datasets. Experimental results show that SINDI achieves state-of-the-art performance across datasets of varying scales, languages, and models. On the MsMarco dataset, when Recall@50 exceeds 99%, SINDI delivers single-thread query-per-second (QPS) improvements ranging from 4.2 to 26.4 times compared with SEISMIC and PyANNs. Notably, SINDI has been integrated into Ant Group's open-source vector search library, VSAG. △ Less Submitted 12 September, 2025; v1 submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 13 pages, submitted to VLDB 2026 arXiv:2509.08395 [ pdf , ps , other ] SINDI: an Efficient Index for Approximate Maximum Inner Product Search on Sparse Vectors Authors: Ruoxuan Li , Xiaoyao Zhong , Jiabao Jin , Peng Cheng , Wangze Ni , Lei Chen , Zhitao Shen , Wei Jia , Xiangyu Wang , Xuemin Lin , Heng Tao Shen , Jingkuan Song Abstract : Sparse vector Maximum Inner Product Search (MIPS) is crucial in multi-path retrieval for Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). Recent inverted index-based and graph-based algorithms have achieved high search accuracy with practical efficiency. However, their performance in production environments is often limited by redundant distance computations and frequent random memory accesses. Furthermore,… ▽ More Sparse vector Maximum Inner Product Search (MIPS) is crucial in multi-path retrieval for Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). Recent inverted index-based and graph-based algorithms have achieved high search accuracy with practical efficiency. However, their performance in production environments is often limited by redundant distance computations and frequent random memory accesses. Furthermore, the compressed storage format of sparse vectors hinders the use of SIMD acceleration. In this paper, we propose the sparse inverted non-redundant distance index (SINDI), which incorporates three key optimizations: (i) Efficient Inner Product Computation: SINDI leverages SIMD acceleration and eliminates redundant identifier lookups, enabling batched inner product computation; (ii) Memory-Friendly Design: SINDI replaces random memory accesses to original vectors with sequential accesses to inverted lists, substantially reducing memory-bound latency. (iii) Vector Pruning: SINDI retains only the high-magnitude non-zero entries of vectors, improving query throughput while maintaining accuracy. We evaluate SINDI on multiple real-world datasets. Experimental results show that SINDI achieves state-of-the-art performance across datasets of varying scales, languages, and models. On the MsMarco dataset, when Recall@50 exceeds 99%, SINDI delivers single-thread query-per-second (QPS) improvements ranging from 4.2 to 26.4 times compared with SEISMIC and PyANNs. Notably, SINDI has been integrated into Ant Group's open-source vector search library, VSAG. △ Less Submitted 12 September, 2025; v1 submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 13 pages, submitted to VLDB 2026 arXiv:2509.08387 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.DB doi 10.14778/3725688.3725715 Infinite Stream Estimation under Personalized $w$-Event Privacy Authors: Leilei Du , Peng Cheng , Lei Chen , Heng Tao Shen , Xuemin Lin , Wei Xi Abstract : Streaming data collection is indispensable for stream data analysis, such as event monitoring. However, publishing these data directly leads to privacy leaks. $w$-event privacy is a valuable tool to protect individual privacy within a given time window while maintaining high accuracy in data collection. Most existing $w$-event privacy studies on infinite data stream only focus on homogeneous priva… ▽ More Streaming data collection is indispensable for stream data analysis, such as event monitoring. However, publishing these data directly leads to privacy leaks. $w$-event privacy is a valuable tool to protect individual privacy within a given time window while maintaining high accuracy in data collection. Most existing $w$-event privacy studies on infinite data stream only focus on homogeneous privacy requirements for all users. In this paper, we propose personalized $w$-event privacy protection that allows different users to have different privacy requirements in private data stream estimation. Specifically, we design a mechanism that allows users to maintain constant privacy requirements at each time slot, namely Personalized Window Size Mechanism (PWSM). Then, we propose two solutions to accurately estimate stream data statistics while achieving $w$-event level $ε$ personalized differential privacy ( ($w$, $ε$)-EPDP), namely Personalized Budget Distribution (PBD) and Peronalized Budget Absorption (PBA). PBD always provides at least the same privacy budget for the next time step as the amount consumed in the previous release. PBA fully absorbs the privacy budget from the previous $k$ time slots, while also borrowing from the privacy budget of the next $k$ time slots, to increase the privacy budget for the current time slot. We prove that both PBD and PBA outperform the state-of-the-art private stream estimation methods while satisfying the privacy requirements of all users. We demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of our PBD and PBA on both real and synthetic data sets, compared with the recent uniformity $w$-event approaches, Budget Distribution (BD) and Budget Absorption (BA). Our PBD achieves 68% less error than BD on average on real data sets. Besides, our PBA achieves 24.9% less error than BA on average on synthetic data sets. △ Less Submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 15 pages Journal ref: Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment 18, no. 6 (2025): 1905-1918 arXiv:2509.08387 [ pdf , ps , other ] Infinite Stream Estimation under Personalized $w$-Event Privacy Authors: Leilei Du , Peng Cheng , Lei Chen , Heng Tao Shen , Xuemin Lin , Wei Xi Abstract : Streaming data collection is indispensable for stream data analysis, such as event monitoring. However, publishing these data directly leads to privacy leaks. $w$-event privacy is a valuable tool to protect individual privacy within a given time window while maintaining high accuracy in data collection. Most existing $w$-event privacy studies on infinite data stream only focus on homogeneous priva… ▽ More Streaming data collection is indispensable for stream data analysis, such as event monitoring. However, publishing these data directly leads to privacy leaks. $w$-event privacy is a valuable tool to protect individual privacy within a given time window while maintaining high accuracy in data collection. Most existing $w$-event privacy studies on infinite data stream only focus on homogeneous privacy requirements for all users. In this paper, we propose personalized $w$-event privacy protection that allows different users to have different privacy requirements in private data stream estimation. Specifically, we design a mechanism that allows users to maintain constant privacy requirements at each time slot, namely Personalized Window Size Mechanism (PWSM). Then, we propose two solutions to accurately estimate stream data statistics while achieving $w$-event level $ε$ personalized differential privacy ( ($w$, $ε$)-EPDP), namely Personalized Budget Distribution (PBD) and Peronalized Budget Absorption (PBA). PBD always provides at least the same privacy budget for the next time step as the amount consumed in the previous release. PBA fully absorbs the privacy budget from the previous $k$ time slots, while also borrowing from the privacy budget of the next $k$ time slots, to increase the privacy budget for the current time slot. We prove that both PBD and PBA outperform the state-of-the-art private stream estimation methods while satisfying the privacy requirements of all users. We demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of our PBD and PBA on both real and synthetic data sets, compared with the recent uniformity $w$-event approaches, Budget Distribution (BD) and Budget Absorption (BA). Our PBD achieves 68% less error than BD on average on real data sets. Besides, our PBA achieves 24.9% less error than BA on average on synthetic data sets. △ Less Submitted 10 September, 2025; originally announced September 2025. Comments: 15 pages Journal ref: Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment 18, no. 6 (2025): 1905-1918 arXiv:2508.14539 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.LG cs.DC FedEve: On Bridging the Client Drift and Period Drift for Cross-device Federated Learning Authors: Tao Shen , Zexi Li , Didi Zhu , Ziyu Zhao , Chao Wu , Fei Wu Abstract : Federated learning (FL) is a machine learning paradigm that allows multiple clients to collaboratively train a shared model without exposing their private data. Data heterogeneity is a fundamental challenge in FL, which can result in poor convergence and performance degradation. Client drift has been recognized as one of the factors contributing to this issue resulting from the multiple local upda… ▽ More Federated learning (FL) is a machine learning paradigm that allows multiple clients to collaboratively train a shared model without exposing their private data. Data heterogeneity is a fundamental challenge in FL, which can result in poor convergence and performance degradation. Client drift has been recognized as one of the factors contributing to this issue resulting from the multiple local updates in FedAvg. However, in cross-device FL, a different form of drift arises due to the partial client participation, but it has not been studied well. This drift, we referred as period drift, occurs as participating clients at each communication round may exhibit distinct data distribution that deviates from that of all clients. It could be more harmful than client drift since the optimization objective shifts with every round. In this paper, we investigate the interaction between period drift and client drift, finding that period drift can have a particularly detrimental effect on cross-device FL as the degree of data heterogeneity increases. To tackle these issues, we propose a predict-observe framework and present an instantiated method, FedEve, where these two types of drift can compensate each other to mitigate their overall impact. We provide theoretical evidence that our approach can reduce the variance of model updates. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method outperforms alternatives on non-iid data in cross-device settings. △ Less Submitted 20 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.14539 [ pdf , ps , other ] FedEve: On Bridging the Client Drift and Period Drift for Cross-device Federated Learning Authors: Tao Shen , Zexi Li , Didi Zhu , Ziyu Zhao , Chao Wu , Fei Wu Abstract : Federated learning (FL) is a machine learning paradigm that allows multiple clients to collaboratively train a shared model without exposing their private data. Data heterogeneity is a fundamental challenge in FL, which can result in poor convergence and performance degradation. Client drift has been recognized as one of the factors contributing to this issue resulting from the multiple local upda… ▽ More Federated learning (FL) is a machine learning paradigm that allows multiple clients to collaboratively train a shared model without exposing their private data. Data heterogeneity is a fundamental challenge in FL, which can result in poor convergence and performance degradation. Client drift has been recognized as one of the factors contributing to this issue resulting from the multiple local updates in FedAvg. However, in cross-device FL, a different form of drift arises due to the partial client participation, but it has not been studied well. This drift, we referred as period drift, occurs as participating clients at each communication round may exhibit distinct data distribution that deviates from that of all clients. It could be more harmful than client drift since the optimization objective shifts with every round. In this paper, we investigate the interaction between period drift and client drift, finding that period drift can have a particularly detrimental effect on cross-device FL as the degree of data heterogeneity increases. To tackle these issues, we propose a predict-observe framework and present an instantiated method, FedEve, where these two types of drift can compensate each other to mitigate their overall impact. We provide theoretical evidence that our approach can reduce the variance of model updates. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our method outperforms alternatives on non-iid data in cross-device settings. △ Less Submitted 20 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. arXiv:2508.10934 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV cs.GR cs.RO eess.IV ViPE: Video Pose Engine for 3D Geometric Perception Authors: Jiahui Huang , Qunjie Zhou , Hesam Rabeti , Aleksandr Korovko , Huan Ling , Xuanchi Ren , Tianchang Shen , Jun Gao , Dmitry Slepichev , Chen-Hsuan Lin , Jiawei Ren , Kevin Xie , Joydeep Biswas , Laura Leal-Taixe , Sanja Fidler Abstract : Accurate 3D geometric perception is an important prerequisite for a wide range of spatial AI systems. While state-of-the-art methods depend on large-scale training data, acquiring consistent and precise 3D annotations from in-the-wild videos remains a key challenge. In this work, we introduce ViPE, a handy and versatile video processing engine designed to bridge this gap. ViPE efficiently estimate… ▽ More Accurate 3D geometric perception is an important prerequisite for a wide range of spatial AI systems. While state-of-the-art methods depend on large-scale training data, acquiring consistent and precise 3D annotations from in-the-wild videos remains a key challenge. In this work, we introduce ViPE, a handy and versatile video processing engine designed to bridge this gap. ViPE efficiently estimates camera intrinsics, camera motion, and dense, near-metric depth maps from unconstrained raw videos. It is robust to diverse scenarios, including dynamic selfie videos, cinematic shots, or dashcams, and supports various camera models such as pinhole, wide-angle, and 360° panoramas. We have benchmarked ViPE on multiple benchmarks. Notably, it outperforms existing uncalibrated pose estimation baselines by 18%/50% on TUM/KITTI sequences, and runs at 3-5FPS on a single GPU for standard input resolutions. We use ViPE to annotate a large-scale collection of videos. This collection includes around 100K real-world internet videos, 1M high-quality AI-generated videos, and 2K panoramic videos, totaling approximately 96M frames -- all annotated with accurate camera poses and dense depth maps. We open-source ViPE and the annotated dataset with the hope of accelerating the development of spatial AI systems. △ Less Submitted 12 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Paper website: arXiv:2508.10934 [ pdf , ps , other ] ViPE: Video Pose Engine for 3D Geometric Perception Authors: Jiahui Huang , Qunjie Zhou , Hesam Rabeti , Aleksandr Korovko , Huan Ling , Xuanchi Ren , Tianchang Shen , Jun Gao , Dmitry Slepichev , Chen-Hsuan Lin , Jiawei Ren , Kevin Xie , Joydeep Biswas , Laura Leal-Taixe , Sanja Fidler Abstract : Accurate 3D geometric perception is an important prerequisite for a wide range of spatial AI systems. While state-of-the-art methods depend on large-scale training data, acquiring consistent and precise 3D annotations from in-the-wild videos remains a key challenge. In this work, we introduce ViPE, a handy and versatile video processing engine designed to bridge this gap. ViPE efficiently estimate… ▽ More Accurate 3D geometric perception is an important prerequisite for a wide range of spatial AI systems. While state-of-the-art methods depend on large-scale training data, acquiring consistent and precise 3D annotations from in-the-wild videos remains a key challenge. In this work, we introduce ViPE, a handy and versatile video processing engine designed to bridge this gap. ViPE efficiently estimates camera intrinsics, camera motion, and dense, near-metric depth maps from unconstrained raw videos. It is robust to diverse scenarios, including dynamic selfie videos, cinematic shots, or dashcams, and supports various camera models such as pinhole, wide-angle, and 360° panoramas. We have benchmarked ViPE on multiple benchmarks. Notably, it outperforms existing uncalibrated pose estimation baselines by 18%/50% on TUM/KITTI sequences, and runs at 3-5FPS on a single GPU for standard input resolutions. We use ViPE to annotate a large-scale collection of videos. This collection includes around 100K real-world internet videos, 1M high-quality AI-generated videos, and 2K panoramic videos, totaling approximately 96M frames -- all annotated with accurate camera poses and dense depth maps. We open-source ViPE and the annotated dataset with the hope of accelerating the development of spatial AI systems. △ Less Submitted 12 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Paper website: arXiv:2508.04987 [ pdf , ps , other ] cs.CV Unified modality separation: A vision-language framework for unsupervised domain adaptation Authors: Xinyao Li , Jingjing Li , Zhekai Du , Lei Zhu , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables models trained on a labeled source domain to handle new unlabeled domains. Recently, pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) have demonstrated promising zero-shot performance by leveraging semantic information to facilitate target tasks. By aligning vision and text embeddings, VLMs have shown notable success in bridging domain gaps. However, inherent… ▽ More Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables models trained on a labeled source domain to handle new unlabeled domains. Recently, pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) have demonstrated promising zero-shot performance by leveraging semantic information to facilitate target tasks. By aligning vision and text embeddings, VLMs have shown notable success in bridging domain gaps. However, inherent differences naturally exist between modalities, which is known as modality gap. Our findings reveal that direct UDA with the presence of modality gap only transfers modality-invariant knowledge, leading to suboptimal target performance. To address this limitation, we propose a unified modality separation framework that accommodates both modality-specific and modality-invariant components. During training, different modality components are disentangled from VLM features then handled separately in a unified manner. At test time, modality-adaptive ensemble weights are automatically determined to maximize the synergy of different components. To evaluate instance-level modality characteristics, we design a modality discrepancy metric to categorize samples into modality-invariant, modality-specific, and uncertain ones. The modality-invariant samples are exploited to facilitate cross-modal alignment, while uncertain ones are annotated to enhance model capabilities. Building upon prompt tuning techniques, our methods achieve up to 9% performance gain with 9 times of computational efficiencies. Extensive experiments and analysis across various backbones, baselines, datasets and adaptation settings demonstrate the efficacy of our design. △ Less Submitted 6 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Accepted to TPAMI arXiv:2508.04987 [ pdf , ps , other ] Unified modality separation: A vision-language framework for unsupervised domain adaptation Authors: Xinyao Li , Jingjing Li , Zhekai Du , Lei Zhu , Heng Tao Shen Abstract : Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables models trained on a labeled source domain to handle new unlabeled domains. Recently, pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) have demonstrated promising zero-shot performance by leveraging semantic information to facilitate target tasks. By aligning vision and text embeddings, VLMs have shown notable success in bridging domain gaps. However, inherent… ▽ More Unsupervised domain adaptation (UDA) enables models trained on a labeled source domain to handle new unlabeled domains. Recently, pre-trained vision-language models (VLMs) have demonstrated promising zero-shot performance by leveraging semantic information to facilitate target tasks. By aligning vision and text embeddings, VLMs have shown notable success in bridging domain gaps. However, inherent differences naturally exist between modalities, which is known as modality gap. Our findings reveal that direct UDA with the presence of modality gap only transfers modality-invariant knowledge, leading to suboptimal target performance. To address this limitation, we propose a unified modality separation framework that accommodates both modality-specific and modality-invariant components. During training, different modality components are disentangled from VLM features then handled separately in a unified manner. At test time, modality-adaptive ensemble weights are automatically determined to maximize the synergy of different components. To evaluate instance-level modality characteristics, we design a modality discrepancy metric to categorize samples into modality-invariant, modality-specific, and uncertain ones. The modality-invariant samples are exploited to facilitate cross-modal alignment, while uncertain ones are annotated to enhance model capabilities. Building upon prompt tuning techniques, our methods achieve up to 9% performance gain with 9 times of computational efficiencies. Extensive experiments and analysis across various backbones, baselines, datasets and adaptation settings demonstrate the efficacy of our design. △ Less Submitted 6 August, 2025; originally announced August 2025. Comments: Accepted to TPAMI 1 2 3 4 5 … About Help contact arXiv Click here to contact arXiv Contact subscribe to arXiv mailings Click here to subscribe Subscribe Copyright Privacy Policy Web Accessibility Assistance arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack arXiv Operational Status Get status notifications via email or slack
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https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&query=Shen,+T
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History Toggle History subsection 1.1 Spanish colonial era 1.2 American colonial era 1.2.1 Philippine-American War 1.2.2 Balangiga Massacre 1.2.3 Pacification of Samar 1.3 Japanese occupation 1.4 Philippine independence 1.4.1 Foundation 1.5 Contemporary 1.1 Spanish colonial era 1.2 American colonial era 1.2.1 Philippine-American War 1.2.2 Balangiga Massacre 1.2.3 Pacification of Samar 1.2.1 Philippine-American War 1.2.2 Balangiga Massacre 1.2.3 Pacification of Samar 1.3 Japanese occupation 1.4 Philippine independence 1.4.1 Foundation 1.4.1 Foundation 1.5 Contemporary 2 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 2.1 Administrative divisions 2.1 Administrative divisions 3 Demographics Toggle Demographics subsection 3.1 Religion 3.1.1 Catholicism 3.1.2 Others 3.1 Religion 3.1.1 Catholicism 3.1.2 Others 3.1.1 Catholicism 3.1.2 Others 4 Transportation 5 Economy 6 Notable people 7 References 8 External links Eastern Samar Acèh العربية تۆرکجه 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Bikol Central Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Chavacano de Zamboanga Deutsch Español Esperanto فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Ilokano Bahasa Indonesia Italiano Kapampangan ქართული Latviešu Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Pangasinan Polski Português Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage Wikidata item Eastern Samar Silangang Samar ( Filipino ) Province (from top: left to right) Port section of the Guiuan Integrated Transport Terminal , Baybay Boulevard in Borongan , Balangiga Church , Church of San Julian , Homonhon and Olot Beach . .mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols{text-align:center;display:table;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-row{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-cell{display:table-cell;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-settlement-cols-cellt{display:table-cell;vertical-align:top} Flag Seal Location in the Philippines Interactive map of Eastern Samar Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 11°40′N 125°25′E / 11.67°N 125.42°E / 11.67; 125.42 Country Philippines Region Eastern Visayas Founded June 19, 1965 Capital .mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} and largest city Borongan Government • Governor Ralph Vincent M. Evardone ( PFP ) • Vice Governor Maria Caridad S. Goteesan ( PFP ) • Legislature Eastern Samar Provincial Board Area [ 1 ] • Total 4,660.47 km 2 (1,799.42 sq mi) • Rank 24th out of 82 Highest elevation ( Mount Mactaon ) 673 m (2,208 ft) Population (2024 census) [ 2 ] • Total 472,683 • Rank 60th out of 82 • Density 101.424/km 2 (262.687/sq mi) • Rank 69th out of 82 Divisions • Independent cities 0 • Component cities 1 Borongan Borongan • Municipalities 22 Arteche Balangiga Balangkayan Can-avid Dolores General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Jipapad Lawaan Llorente Maslog Maydolong Mercedes Oras Quinapondan Salcedo San Julian San Policarpo Sulat Taft Arteche Balangiga Balangkayan Can-avid Dolores General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Jipapad Lawaan Llorente Maslog Maydolong Mercedes Oras Quinapondan Salcedo San Julian San Policarpo Sulat Taft • Barangays 597 • Districts Legislative districts of Eastern Samar Time zone UTC+8 ( PHT ) IDD : area code +63 (0)55 ISO 3166 code PH-EAS Spoken languages .mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:"\a0 · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "} Waray Cebuano Tagalog English Waray Cebuano Tagalog English Highway routes Website www .easternsamar .gov .ph Eastern Samar ( Waray-Waray : Sinirangan Samar ; Tagalog : Silangang Samar [ 3 ] ), officially the Province of Eastern Samar , is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region . Its capital is the city of Borongan , which is the most populous. Eastern Samar occupies the eastern portion of the island of Samar . Bordering the province to the north is the province of Northern Samar and to the west is Samar province . To the east lies the Philippine Sea , part of the vast Pacific Ocean , while to the south lies Leyte Gulf . History Spanish colonial era During his circumnavigation of the globe, Ferdinand Magellan had set foot on the tiny island of Homonhon in the southern part of the province. On March 16, 1521, the area of what is now Eastern Samar is said to be the first Philippine landmass spotted by Magellan and his crew. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In 1596, many names, such as Samal, Ibabao, and Tandaya, were given to Samar Island prior to the coming of the Spaniards in 1596. During the early days of Spanish occupation, Samar was under the jurisdiction of Cebu . Samar and Leyte were later separated from Cebu in 1735. They were split in 1747 but was reversed in 1762 with the approval of the King of Spain , following complaints from the Jesuits . The province of Samar was later established as a distinct province in 1768 after it got separated from the province of Leyte . [ 7 ] In 1777, Samar and Leyte split for the last time when it was approved in Madrid in 1786 and had been effective in 1799. American colonial era Philippine-American War Maj. Eugenio Daza Area Commander of General Lukbán's forces for Southeastern Samar Balangiga Massacre Pacification of Samar Japanese occupation In 1944, combined Filipino-American troops involved in the liberation of the Philippines from Japan built in the town of Guiuan the largest military base in the Pacific. In the same town in 1949, approximately 5,000 Russian refugees escaping from communist China temporarily settled on Tubabao Island until 1951, when they were transferred to Australia and the United States . [ 5 ] Philippine independence Foundation Eastern Samar, as a province, was created from Samar province through Republic Act No. 4221 on June 19, 1965. [ 8 ] Approved by Congress in 1963, it was authored by Samar congressmen Eladio T. Balite ( 1st district ), Fernando R. Veloso ( 2nd district ), and Felipe J. Abrigo ( 3rd district ). The law, ratified in a plebiscite on June 19, 1965, divided Samar into three: Northern Samar , Eastern Samar and (Western) Samar . The first provincial officials of Eastern Samar, aside from the lone district representative, were elected on November 14, 1967, and on January 1, 1968, they officially assumed office. Contemporary The capital town of Borongan became a component city by virtue of Republic Act No. 9394 which sought to convert the municipality into a city. The law was ratified on June 21, 2007. [ 9 ] However, the cityhood status was lost twice in the years 2008 and 2010 after the LCP questioned the validity of the cityhood law. The cityhood status was reaffirmed after the court finalized its ruling on February 15, 2011, declaring the cityhood law constitutional. [ 10 ] Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) , one of the strongest typhoons ever recorded, made its first landfall in the coastal town of Guiuan in November 2013. [ 11 ] Geography Eastern Samar covers a total area of 4,660.47 square kilometers (1,799.42 sq mi) [ 12 ] occupying the eastern section and majority of southern Samar's coast of Samar Island in the Eastern Visayas region. The province is bordered to the north by Northern Samar and to the west by Samar . To the east lies the Philippine Sea , part of the vast Pacific Ocean , while to the south lies Leyte Gulf . Because it faces the Philippine Sea of the Pacific Ocean, Eastern Samar suffers heavily from powerful typhoons . [ 4 ] Administrative divisions Eastern Samar comprises 22 municipalities and one city , all encompassed by an lone congressional district and two provincial districts that elect a representative and provincial board members, respectively. City or municipality [ i ] Population ±% p.a. Area [ 12 ] Density Barangay (2020) [ 2 ] (2015) [ 13 ] km 2 sq mi /km 2 /sq mi 12°16′09″N 125°22′16″E / 12.2693°N 125.3712°E / 12.2693; 125.3712 ( Arteche ) Arteche 3.4% 16,360 16,026 +0.39% 138.81 53.59 120 310 20 11°06′27″N 125°23′15″E / 11.1074°N 125.3874°E / 11.1074; 125.3874 ( Balangiga ) Balangiga 3.0% 14,341 14,085 +0.34% 190.05 73.38 75 190 13 11°28′22″N 125°30′37″E / 11.4727°N 125.5104°E / 11.4727; 125.5104 ( Balangkayan ) Balangkayan 2.1% 10,185 10,125 +0.11% 207.05 79.94 49 130 15 11°36′41″N 125°25′59″E / 11.6115°N 125.4331°E / 11.6115; 125.4331 ( Borongan ) Borongan City † 15.1% 71,961 69,297 +0.72% 475.00 183.40 150 390 61 11°59′48″N 125°26′55″E / 11.9968°N 125.4485°E / 11.9968; 125.4485 ( Can-avid ) Can-avid 4.5% 21,682 21,015 +0.60% 288.70 111.47 75 190 28 12°02′15″N 125°28′57″E / 12.0374°N 125.4825°E / 12.0374; 125.4825 ( Dolores ) Dolores 9.4% 44,626 42,866 +0.77% 308.58 119.14 140 360 46 11°14′42″N 125°32′21″E / 11.2450°N 125.5393°E / 11.2450; 125.5393 ( General MacArthur ) General MacArthur 3.0% 14,411 14,550 −0.18% 117.29 45.29 120 310 30 11°07′16″N 125°26′56″E / 11.1210°N 125.4489°E / 11.1210; 125.4489 ( Giporlos ) Giporlos 2.7% 13,117 13,308 −0.27% 97.51 37.65 130 340 18 11°01′56″N 125°43′28″E / 11.0323°N 125.7245°E / 11.0323; 125.7245 ( Guiuan ) Guiuan 11.2% 53,361 52,991 +0.13% 175.49 67.76 300 780 60 11°19′24″N 125°37′09″E / 11.3233°N 125.6192°E / 11.3233; 125.6192 ( Hernani ) Hernani 1.8% 8,531 8,573 −0.09% 49.42 19.08 170 440 13 12°17′10″N 125°14′07″E / 12.2860°N 125.2352°E / 12.2860; 125.2352 ( Jipapad ) Jipapad 1.8% 8,439 7,885 +1.30% 234.80 90.66 36 93 13 11°08′25″N 125°18′03″E / 11.1403°N 125.3009°E / 11.1403; 125.3009 ( Lawaan ) Lawaan 2.7% 13,003 12,742 +0.39% 162.56 62.76 80 210 16 11°24′41″N 125°32′45″E / 11.4114°N 125.5459°E / 11.4114; 125.5459 ( Llorente ) Llorente 4.5% 21,459 20,149 +1.21% 496.07 191.53 43 110 33 12°09′28″N 125°14′50″E / 12.1578°N 125.2471°E / 12.1578; 125.2471 ( Maslog ) Maslog 1.1% 5,463 5,407 +0.20% 249.80 96.45 22 57 12 11°30′04″N 125°30′07″E / 11.5010°N 125.5019°E / 11.5010; 125.5019 ( Maydolong ) Maydolong 3.2% 15,314 14,743 +0.73% 399.63 154.30 38 98 20 11°05′55″N 125°42′37″E / 11.0986°N 125.7103°E / 11.0986; 125.7103 ( Mercedes ) Mercedes 1.3% 6,112 6,070 +0.13% 23.32 9.00 260 670 16 12°08′28″N 125°26′27″E / 12.1410°N 125.4408°E / 12.1410; 125.4408 ( Oras ) Oras 7.8% 37,451 36,540 +0.47% 188.70 72.86 200 520 42 11°09′27″N 125°31′15″E / 11.1574°N 125.5209°E / 11.1574; 125.5209 ( Quinapondan ) Quinapondan 3.0% 14,507 14,779 −0.35% 83.24 32.14 170 440 25 11°08′56″N 125°39′45″E / 11.1488°N 125.6626°E / 11.1488; 125.6626 ( Salcedo ) Salcedo 4.6% 22,136 22,532 −0.34% 113.80 43.94 190 490 41 11°45′15″N 125°27′16″E / 11.7542°N 125.4544°E / 11.7542; 125.4544 ( San Julian ) San Julian 3.1% 14,800 14,498 +0.39% 150.62 58.15 98 250 16 12°10′46″N 125°30′31″E / 12.1795°N 125.5087°E / 12.1795; 125.5087 ( San Policarpo ) San Policarpo 3.2% 15,365 14,687 +0.86% 65.70 25.37 230 600 17 11°48′44″N 125°27′08″E / 11.8122°N 125.4522°E / 11.8122; 125.4522 ( Sulat ) Sulat 3.3% 15,758 15,377 +0.47% 169.75 65.54 93 240 18 11°54′18″N 125°24′59″E / 11.9049°N 125.4164°E / 11.9049; 125.4164 ( Taft ) Taft 3.9% 18,786 18,915 −0.13% 231.27 89.29 81 210 24 Total 477,168 467,160 +0.40% 4,617.16 1,782.70 100 260 597 .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} † Provincial capital and component city Municipality .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:27em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:22.5em}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-alpha]{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-roman]{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-alpha]{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-greek]{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-roman]{list-style-type:lower-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-alpha .references{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-roman .references{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-alpha .references{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-greek .references{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-roman .references{list-style-type:lower-roman} ^ The globe icon marks the city/town center . City or municipality [ i ] Population ±% p.a. Area [ 12 ] Density Barangay (2020) [ 2 ] (2015) [ 13 ] km 2 sq mi /km 2 /sq mi 12°16′09″N 125°22′16″E / 12.2693°N 125.3712°E / 12.2693; 125.3712 ( Arteche ) Arteche 3.4% 16,360 16,026 +0.39% 138.81 53.59 120 310 20 11°06′27″N 125°23′15″E / 11.1074°N 125.3874°E / 11.1074; 125.3874 ( Balangiga ) Balangiga 3.0% 14,341 14,085 +0.34% 190.05 73.38 75 190 13 11°28′22″N 125°30′37″E / 11.4727°N 125.5104°E / 11.4727; 125.5104 ( Balangkayan ) Balangkayan 2.1% 10,185 10,125 +0.11% 207.05 79.94 49 130 15 11°36′41″N 125°25′59″E / 11.6115°N 125.4331°E / 11.6115; 125.4331 ( Borongan ) Borongan City † 15.1% 71,961 69,297 +0.72% 475.00 183.40 150 390 61 11°59′48″N 125°26′55″E / 11.9968°N 125.4485°E / 11.9968; 125.4485 ( Can-avid ) Can-avid 4.5% 21,682 21,015 +0.60% 288.70 111.47 75 190 28 12°02′15″N 125°28′57″E / 12.0374°N 125.4825°E / 12.0374; 125.4825 ( Dolores ) Dolores 9.4% 44,626 42,866 +0.77% 308.58 119.14 140 360 46 11°14′42″N 125°32′21″E / 11.2450°N 125.5393°E / 11.2450; 125.5393 ( General MacArthur ) General MacArthur 3.0% 14,411 14,550 −0.18% 117.29 45.29 120 310 30 11°07′16″N 125°26′56″E / 11.1210°N 125.4489°E / 11.1210; 125.4489 ( Giporlos ) Giporlos 2.7% 13,117 13,308 −0.27% 97.51 37.65 130 340 18 11°01′56″N 125°43′28″E / 11.0323°N 125.7245°E / 11.0323; 125.7245 ( Guiuan ) Guiuan 11.2% 53,361 52,991 +0.13% 175.49 67.76 300 780 60 11°19′24″N 125°37′09″E / 11.3233°N 125.6192°E / 11.3233; 125.6192 ( Hernani ) Hernani 1.8% 8,531 8,573 −0.09% 49.42 19.08 170 440 13 12°17′10″N 125°14′07″E / 12.2860°N 125.2352°E / 12.2860; 125.2352 ( Jipapad ) Jipapad 1.8% 8,439 7,885 +1.30% 234.80 90.66 36 93 13 11°08′25″N 125°18′03″E / 11.1403°N 125.3009°E / 11.1403; 125.3009 ( Lawaan ) Lawaan 2.7% 13,003 12,742 +0.39% 162.56 62.76 80 210 16 11°24′41″N 125°32′45″E / 11.4114°N 125.5459°E / 11.4114; 125.5459 ( Llorente ) Llorente 4.5% 21,459 20,149 +1.21% 496.07 191.53 43 110 33 12°09′28″N 125°14′50″E / 12.1578°N 125.2471°E / 12.1578; 125.2471 ( Maslog ) Maslog 1.1% 5,463 5,407 +0.20% 249.80 96.45 22 57 12 11°30′04″N 125°30′07″E / 11.5010°N 125.5019°E / 11.5010; 125.5019 ( Maydolong ) Maydolong 3.2% 15,314 14,743 +0.73% 399.63 154.30 38 98 20 11°05′55″N 125°42′37″E / 11.0986°N 125.7103°E / 11.0986; 125.7103 ( Mercedes ) Mercedes 1.3% 6,112 6,070 +0.13% 23.32 9.00 260 670 16 12°08′28″N 125°26′27″E / 12.1410°N 125.4408°E / 12.1410; 125.4408 ( Oras ) Oras 7.8% 37,451 36,540 +0.47% 188.70 72.86 200 520 42 11°09′27″N 125°31′15″E / 11.1574°N 125.5209°E / 11.1574; 125.5209 ( Quinapondan ) Quinapondan 3.0% 14,507 14,779 −0.35% 83.24 32.14 170 440 25 11°08′56″N 125°39′45″E / 11.1488°N 125.6626°E / 11.1488; 125.6626 ( Salcedo ) Salcedo 4.6% 22,136 22,532 −0.34% 113.80 43.94 190 490 41 11°45′15″N 125°27′16″E / 11.7542°N 125.4544°E / 11.7542; 125.4544 ( San Julian ) San Julian 3.1% 14,800 14,498 +0.39% 150.62 58.15 98 250 16 12°10′46″N 125°30′31″E / 12.1795°N 125.5087°E / 12.1795; 125.5087 ( San Policarpo ) San Policarpo 3.2% 15,365 14,687 +0.86% 65.70 25.37 230 600 17 11°48′44″N 125°27′08″E / 11.8122°N 125.4522°E / 11.8122; 125.4522 ( Sulat ) Sulat 3.3% 15,758 15,377 +0.47% 169.75 65.54 93 240 18 11°54′18″N 125°24′59″E / 11.9049°N 125.4164°E / 11.9049; 125.4164 ( Taft ) Taft 3.9% 18,786 18,915 −0.13% 231.27 89.29 81 210 24 Total 477,168 467,160 +0.40% 4,617.16 1,782.70 100 260 597 .mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{} † Provincial capital and component city Municipality .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:27em}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:22.5em}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-alpha]{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=upper-roman]{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-alpha]{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-greek]{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .references[data-mw-group=lower-roman]{list-style-type:lower-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-alpha .references{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-upper-roman .references{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-alpha .references{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-greek .references{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output div.reflist-liststyle-lower-roman .references{list-style-type:lower-roman} ^ The globe icon marks the city/town center . ^ The globe icon marks the city/town center . Demographics Year Pop. ±% p.a. 1903 79,645 — 1918 117,348 +2.62% 1939 154,347 +1.31% 1948 197,734 +2.79% 1960 237,747 +1.55% 1970 271,000 +1.32% 1975 287,149 +1.17% 1980 320,637 +2.23% 1990 329,335 +0.27% 1995 362,324 +1.80% 2000 375,822 +0.79% 2007 405,114 +1.04% 2010 428,877 +2.10% 2015 467,160 +1.64% 2020 477,168 +0.45% 2024 472,683 −0.23% Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 14 ] The population of Eastern Samar in the 2020 census was 477,168 people, [ 2 ] with a density of 100 inhabitants per square kilometre or 260 inhabitants per square mile. The predominant language is Waray [ 6 ] and it is the main lingua franca of the entire island of Samar . [ citation needed ] In the 2000 Census, Warays comprised 97.78% (366,787) of the total provincial population of 375,124 at that time. Kapampangan came second at 0.55% (2,067), Bisaya / Binisaya 0.43% (1,613), Cebuano at 0.18% (680), and Tagalog at 0.17% (621). [ 15 ] Ethnicity Number Waray 366,787 ( 97.78%) Kapampangan 2,067 ( 0.55%) Bisaya / Binisaya 1,613 ( 0.43%) Cebuano 680 ( 0.18%) Tagalog 621 ( 0.17%) Others 2,510 ( 0.67%) Not Reported 846 ( 0.23%) Religion Catholicism The people of the province are devoted Catholics where a majority adhere to Roman Catholicism . [ 6 ] The dominant Catholic faith influences the events of the provincial education, politics and social functions of the people. Others Other Christians usually form the remaining groups of believers such as the Born-again Christians , Protestants, Iglesia Filipina Independiente or Aglipayan church, Jehovah's Witnesses , Iglesia ni Cristo , Baptists , Methodists , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , and Seventh-day Adventists . Non Christians (mostly Muslims ) are also found. Transportation The province has one operational airport; Borongan Airport located in the capital city. Currently, only Leascor operates out of Borongan Airport with flights weekly to serve locals and tourists to and from Cebu . By land, mini buses and vans ply from the regional center in Tacloban , Catbalogan , and Calbayog in Samar province and to some towns in Eastern Samar. From Borongan , buses ply to Metro Manila . Motorized boats plies through Leyte Gulf ferrying passengers going to Tacloban City seaport. Economy Poverty incidence of Eastern Samar Source: Philippine Statistics Authority [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] Commercial activities in the province are centered on the provincial capital of Borongan while tourism activities are centered in Guiuan town where Calicoan Island and the historical Homonhon Island are located. [ 6 ] Generally, the province's major economic resource is fishery and agriculture which include production of coconut, copra, corn, rice, sugar, and vegetables. [ 6 ] Tourism potential is untapped on the northern part of the province. Notable people Boy Abunda - television host, publicist, talent manager and celebrity endorser. Maria Fe Abunda - politician; Eastern Samar's representative in the House of Representatives of the Philippines . 8th and 19th Congress. Aster Amoyo - entertainment writer, television host, and talent manager. Gabrielle Camille Basiano - model and beauty pageant titleholder, Binibining Pilipinas Intercontinental 2022 . K Brosas - actress, comedienne and singer. Eugenio Daza - Area Commander Southeastern Samar during the Philippine-American War . Organizer of the Balangiga Encounter . Rep. of Samar's 3rd District to the First Philippine Legislature . Gabriel Daza - Knight Commander with Star of the Order of St. Sylvester , knighted by Pope Pius XII . Co-founder Boy Scouts of the Philippines . R-Ji Lim - singer, actor and model; member of P-pop group Alamat . Jewel Ponferada - PBA professional basketball player, currently playing for Rain or Shine Elasto Painters . Art Ramasasa - singer, songwriter and musician in the Waray-Waray language . Mastermind - dance group, made popular in their performance in Pilipinas Got Talent season 5 . They finally settled for 4th place in the Grand Finals. Freddie Abuda - retired professional basketball player, currently serving as an assistant coach to the San Beda Red Lions (NCAA). Lutgardo Barbo - Former governor of Eastern Samar, Candidate for the 2022 Senate Elections. Marcelino Libanan - Filipino politician. Minority Leader 19th and 20th Congress. 4P's Partylist Representative Ben Evardone - Congressman of Eastern Samar and 6th Governor of Eastern Samar . RV Evardone - Governor, Province of Eastern Samar. Former President of the Eastern Samar chapter of the Philippine Councilors League , Sheen Gonzales - Two-term mayor of Guiuan, Representative, Lone District of Eastern Samar. Assistant Minority Leader of the 2oth Congress. Andres Pagaran - poet and songwriter [ 24 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "List of Provinces" . PSGC Interactive . Makati, Philippines: National Statistical Coordination Board. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013 . Retrieved 13 April 2013 . ^ a b c Census of Population (2020). "Region VIII (Eastern Visayas)" . Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved 8 July 2021 . ^ "Mapa ng mga Wika (Rehiyon) - Rehiyon VIII" (in Filipino). Commission on the Filipino Language . Archived from the original on 23 September 2021 . Retrieved 23 September 2021 . ^ a b Lancion, Conrado M. Jr. (1995). "The Provinces; Eastern Samar". Fast Facts about Philippine Provinces . cartography by de Guzman, Rey (The 2000 Millenium ed.). Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines: Tahanan Books. p. 72. ISBN 971-630-037-9 . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . ^ a b Labro, Vicente S. (11 June 2011). "Guiuan's treasure chest of history, natural wonders" . Philippine Daily Inquirer . Retrieved 24 April 2016 . ^ a b c d e "The Province of Eastern Samar" . National Statistical Coordination Board . Archived from the original on 6 December 2014 . Retrieved 24 April 2016 . ^ "Samar History and Information" . lgu-ph.com . Retrieved October 15, 2024 . ^ Republic Act No. 4221 (June 19, 1965), An Act Creating the Provinces of Northern Samar, Eastern Samar and Western Samar , retrieved December 19, 2015 ^ Republic Act No. 9394 (March 16, 2007), An Act Converting the Municipality of Borongan in the Province of Eastern Samar Into a Component City to Be Known as the City of Borongan , retrieved October 27, 2024 ^ Punay, Edu (April 13, 2011). "SC affirms cityhood ruling" . Philstar.com . Retrieved October 27, 2024 . ^ Baylis, Paul; Te-Ping Chen (22 November 2013). "How One Philippine Town Avoided Calamity" . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved 20 December 2015 . ^ a b "Province: Eastern Samar" . PSGC Interactive . Quezon City, Philippines: Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved 8 January 2016 . ^ a b Census of Population (2015). "Region VIII (Eastern Visayas)" . Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved 20 June 2016 . ^ a b Census of Population and Housing (2010). "Region VIII (Eastern Visayas)" (PDF) . Total Population by Province, City, Municipality and Barangay . National Statistics Office . Retrieved 29 June 2016 . ^ a b "Eastern Samar: Home of the Warays; Table 4. Household Population by Ethnicity and Sex: Eastern Samar, 2000" . Philippine Statistics Authority . 7 June 2002. Archived from the original on 16 November 2013 . Retrieved 25 July 2016 . ^ "Poverty incidence (PI):" . Philippine Statistics Authority . Retrieved December 28, 2020 . ^ "Estimation of Local Poverty in the Philippines" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority. 29 November 2005. ^ "2009 Official Poverty Statistics of the Philippines" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority. 8 February 2011. ^ "Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population, by Region and Province: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015" . Philippine Statistics Authority. 27 August 2016. ^ "Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population, by Region and Province: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015" . Philippine Statistics Authority. 27 August 2016. ^ "Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population, by Region and Province: 1991, 2006, 2009, 2012 and 2015" . Philippine Statistics Authority. 27 August 2016. ^ "Updated Annual Per Capita Poverty Threshold, Poverty Incidence and Magnitude of Poor Population with Measures of Precision, by Region and Province: 2015 and 2018" . Philippine Statistics Authority. 4 June 2020. ^ "2021 Full Year Official Poverty Statistics of the Philippines" (PDF) . Philippine Statistics Authority. 15 August 2022 . Retrieved 28 April 2024 . ^ Sugbo, Victor, ed. (1995). Tinipigan: An Anthology of Waray Literature . Manila , Philippines: National Commission for Culture and the Arts. p. 272. OCLC 645852700 . Retrieved 27 September 2019 . External links Download coordinates as KML Download coordinates as: KML GPX (all coordinates) GPX (primary coordinates) GPX (secondary coordinates) @media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-inline-image img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{filter:invert(1)brightness(55%)contrast(250%)hue-rotate(180deg)}} Eastern Samar travel guide from Wikivoyage Media related to Eastern Samar at Wikimedia Commons Geographic data related to Eastern Samar at OpenStreetMap Philippine Standard Geographic Code Local Governance Performance Management System Places adjacent to Eastern Samar Northern Samar Samar Eastern Samar Philippine Sea Leyte Gulf Dinagat Islands Northern Samar Samar Eastern Samar Philippine Sea Leyte Gulf Dinagat Islands .mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Province of Eastern Samar v t e Borongan (capital and largest city) Municipalities Arteche Balangiga Balangkayan Can-avid Dolores General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Jipapad Lawaan Llorente Maslog Maydolong Mercedes Oras Quinapondan Salcedo San Julian San Policarpo Sulat Taft Arteche Balangiga Balangkayan Can-avid Dolores General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Jipapad Lawaan Llorente Maslog Maydolong Mercedes Oras Quinapondan Salcedo San Julian San Policarpo Sulat Taft Component city Borongan Borongan Articles related to Eastern Samar v t e Eastern Visayas (Region VIII) Regional center Tacloban Provinces Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Highly urbanized city Tacloban Independent component city Ormoc Component cities Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Provincial capitals Borongan Catarman Catbalogan Maasin Naval Tacloban Municipalities Abuyog Alangalang Albuera Allen Almagro Almeria Anahawan Arteche Babatngon Balangiga Balangkayan Barugo Basey Bato Biliran Biri Bobon Bontoc Burauen Cabucgayan Caibiran Calbiga Calubian Can-avid Capoocan Capul Carigara Catarman Catubig Culaba Dagami Daram Dolores Dulag Gamay Gandara General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Hilongos Hinabangan Hindang Hinunangan Hinundayan Inopacan Isabel Jaro Javier Jiabong Jipapad Julita Kananga Kawayan La Paz Laoang Lapinig Las Navas Lavezares Lawaan Leyte Libagon Liloan Limasawa Llorente Lope de Vega MacArthur Macrohon Mahaplag Malitbog Mapanas Marabut Maripipi Maslog Matag-ob Matalom Matuguinao Maydolong Mayorga Mercedes Merida Mondragon Motiong Naval Oras Padre Burgos Pagsanghan Palapag Palo Palompon Pambujan Paranas Pastrana Pinabacdao Pintuyan Quinapondan Rosario Saint Bernard Salcedo San Antonio San Francisco San Isidro (Leyte) San Isidro (Northern Samar) San Jorge San Jose San Jose de Buan San Juan San Julian San Miguel San Policarpo San Ricardo San Roque San Sebastian San Vicente Santa Fe Santa Margarita Santa Rita Santo Niño Silago Silvino Lobos Sogod Sulat Tabango Tabontabon Taft Tagapul-an Talalora Tanauan Tarangnan Tolosa Tomas Oppus Tunga Victoria Villaba Villareal Zumarraga Visayas , Republic of the Philippines v t e Provinces of the Philippines Abra Agusan del Norte Agusan del Sur Aklan Albay Antique Apayao Aurora Basilan Bataan Batanes Batangas Benguet Biliran Bohol Bukidnon Bulacan Cagayan Camarines Norte Camarines Sur Camiguin Capiz Catanduanes Cavite Cebu Cotabato Davao de Oro Davao del Norte Davao del Sur Davao Occidental Davao Oriental Dinagat Islands Eastern Samar Guimaras Ifugao Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur Iloilo Isabela Kalinga La Union Laguna Lanao del Norte Lanao del Sur Leyte Maguindanao del Norte Maguindanao del Sur Marinduque Masbate Misamis Occidental Misamis Oriental Mountain Province Negros Occidental Negros Oriental Northern Samar Nueva Ecija Nueva Vizcaya Occidental Mindoro Oriental Mindoro Palawan Pampanga Pangasinan Quezon Quirino Rizal Romblon Samar Sarangani Siquijor Sorsogon South Cotabato Southern Leyte Sultan Kudarat Sulu Surigao del Norte Surigao del Sur Tarlac Tawi-Tawi Zambales Zamboanga del Norte Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga Sibugay v t e Philippines articles History Overviews Archaeology Economy Military Political Chronology Prehistory Pre-colonial era Colonial era Spanish period American period Japanese occupation Postcolonial era Third Republic Marcos presidency Fifth Republic Geography Bays Biosphere reserves Borders Climate Climate change Typhoons Earthquakes Ecoregions Extreme points Island groups islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas National parks Ramsar sites Rivers Volcanoes Wildlife World Heritage Sites Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Human rights LGBTQ Legal codes Political families Political parties Government Executive Cabinet lists Executive departments Executive office Law enforcement President Legislative Senate House of Representatives Judicial Supreme Court Court of Appeals Regional Trial Court Armed Forces Air Force Army Navy Marine Corps Coast Guard Economy Agriculture Automotive Business process outsourcing Census Central bank Child labor Energy Fiscal policy National debt Labor Peso Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Telephone numbers Tourism Tourist attractions Transportation Water and sanitation ZIP codes Society Abortion Censorship Corruption Crime Demographics Divorce Education Higher education Environmental issues Climate change Deforestation Ethnic groups Indigenous peoples Genetic and anthropology studies Health Human trafficking Sex trafficking Immigration Income inequality Kinship Languages Overseas workers Poverty Prostitution Refugees Religion Sexuality Squatting Women Pinoy Culture Architecture Arts Cinema Cuisine Cultural properties Dance Fashion and clothing Historical markers Inventions Literature Media Music Mythology Name Public holidays Festivals Psychology Sports Traditional games Value system Symbols Anthem Bird Coat of arms Flag Flower Gem Great Seal Language Motto Sign language Sport and martial art Tree Outline Bibliography Philippines portal Category v t e Eastern Visayas (Region VIII) v t e Regional center Tacloban Tacloban Provinces Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Biliran Eastern Samar Leyte Northern Samar Samar Southern Leyte Highly urbanized city Tacloban Tacloban Independent component city Ormoc Ormoc Component cities Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Baybay Borongan Calbayog Catbalogan Maasin Provincial capitals Borongan Catarman Catbalogan Maasin Naval Tacloban Borongan Catarman Catbalogan Maasin Naval Tacloban Municipalities Abuyog Alangalang Albuera Allen Almagro Almeria Anahawan Arteche Babatngon Balangiga Balangkayan Barugo Basey Bato Biliran Biri Bobon Bontoc Burauen Cabucgayan Caibiran Calbiga Calubian Can-avid Capoocan Capul Carigara Catarman Catubig Culaba Dagami Daram Dolores Dulag Gamay Gandara General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Hilongos Hinabangan Hindang Hinunangan Hinundayan Inopacan Isabel Jaro Javier Jiabong Jipapad Julita Kananga Kawayan La Paz Laoang Lapinig Las Navas Lavezares Lawaan Leyte Libagon Liloan Limasawa Llorente Lope de Vega MacArthur Macrohon Mahaplag Malitbog Mapanas Marabut Maripipi Maslog Matag-ob Matalom Matuguinao Maydolong Mayorga Mercedes Merida Mondragon Motiong Naval Oras Padre Burgos Pagsanghan Palapag Palo Palompon Pambujan Paranas Pastrana Pinabacdao Pintuyan Quinapondan Rosario Saint Bernard Salcedo San Antonio San Francisco San Isidro (Leyte) San Isidro (Northern Samar) San Jorge San Jose San Jose de Buan San Juan San Julian San Miguel San Policarpo San Ricardo San Roque San Sebastian San Vicente Santa Fe Santa Margarita Santa Rita Santo Niño Silago Silvino Lobos Sogod Sulat Tabango Tabontabon Taft Tagapul-an Talalora Tanauan Tarangnan Tolosa Tomas Oppus Tunga Victoria Villaba Villareal Zumarraga Abuyog Alangalang Albuera Allen Almagro Almeria Anahawan Arteche Babatngon Balangiga Balangkayan Barugo Basey Bato Biliran Biri Bobon Bontoc Burauen Cabucgayan Caibiran Calbiga Calubian Can-avid Capoocan Capul Carigara Catarman Catubig Culaba Dagami Daram Dolores Dulag Gamay Gandara General MacArthur Giporlos Guiuan Hernani Hilongos Hinabangan Hindang Hinunangan Hinundayan Inopacan Isabel Jaro Javier Jiabong Jipapad Julita Kananga Kawayan La Paz Laoang Lapinig Las Navas Lavezares Lawaan Leyte Libagon Liloan Limasawa Llorente Lope de Vega MacArthur Macrohon Mahaplag Malitbog Mapanas Marabut Maripipi Maslog Matag-ob Matalom Matuguinao Maydolong Mayorga Mercedes Merida Mondragon Motiong Naval Oras Padre Burgos Pagsanghan Palapag Palo Palompon Pambujan Paranas Pastrana Pinabacdao Pintuyan Quinapondan Rosario Saint Bernard Salcedo San Antonio San Francisco San Isidro (Leyte) San Isidro (Northern Samar) San Jorge San Jose San Jose de Buan San Juan San Julian San Miguel San Policarpo San Ricardo San Roque San Sebastian San Vicente Santa Fe Santa Margarita Santa Rita Santo Niño Silago Silvino Lobos Sogod Sulat Tabango Tabontabon Taft Tagapul-an Talalora Tanauan Tarangnan Tolosa Tomas Oppus Tunga Victoria Villaba Villareal Zumarraga Visayas , Republic of the Philippines v t e Provinces of the Philippines v t e Abra Agusan del Norte Agusan del Sur Aklan Albay Antique Apayao Aurora Basilan Bataan Batanes Batangas Benguet Biliran Bohol Bukidnon Bulacan Cagayan Camarines Norte Camarines Sur Camiguin Capiz Catanduanes Cavite Cebu Cotabato Davao de Oro Davao del Norte Davao del Sur Davao Occidental Davao Oriental Dinagat Islands Eastern Samar Guimaras Ifugao Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur Iloilo Isabela Kalinga La Union Laguna Lanao del Norte Lanao del Sur Leyte Maguindanao del Norte Maguindanao del Sur Marinduque Masbate Misamis Occidental Misamis Oriental Mountain Province Negros Occidental Negros Oriental Northern Samar Nueva Ecija Nueva Vizcaya Occidental Mindoro Oriental Mindoro Palawan Pampanga Pangasinan Quezon Quirino Rizal Romblon Samar Sarangani Siquijor Sorsogon South Cotabato Southern Leyte Sultan Kudarat Sulu Surigao del Norte Surigao del Sur Tarlac Tawi-Tawi Zambales Zamboanga del Norte Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga Sibugay Abra Agusan del Norte Agusan del Sur Aklan Albay Antique Apayao Aurora Basilan Bataan Batanes Batangas Benguet Biliran Bohol Bukidnon Bulacan Cagayan Camarines Norte Camarines Sur Camiguin Capiz Catanduanes Cavite Cebu Cotabato Davao de Oro Davao del Norte Davao del Sur Davao Occidental Davao Oriental Dinagat Islands Eastern Samar Guimaras Ifugao Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur Iloilo Isabela Kalinga La Union Laguna Lanao del Norte Lanao del Sur Leyte Maguindanao del Norte Maguindanao del Sur Marinduque Masbate Misamis Occidental Misamis Oriental Mountain Province Negros Occidental Negros Oriental Northern Samar Nueva Ecija Nueva Vizcaya Occidental Mindoro Oriental Mindoro Palawan Pampanga Pangasinan Quezon Quirino Rizal Romblon Samar Sarangani Siquijor Sorsogon South Cotabato Southern Leyte Sultan Kudarat Sulu Surigao del Norte Surigao del Sur Tarlac Tawi-Tawi Zambales Zamboanga del Norte Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga Sibugay v t e Philippines articles v t e History Overviews Archaeology Economy Military Political Chronology Prehistory Pre-colonial era Colonial era Spanish period American period Japanese occupation Postcolonial era Third Republic Marcos presidency Fifth Republic Overviews Archaeology Economy Military Political Archaeology Economy Military Political Chronology Prehistory Pre-colonial era Colonial era Spanish period American period Japanese occupation Postcolonial era Third Republic Marcos presidency Fifth Republic Prehistory Pre-colonial era Colonial era Spanish period American period Spanish period American period Japanese occupation Postcolonial era Third Republic Marcos presidency Fifth Republic Third Republic Marcos presidency Fifth Republic Geography Bays Biosphere reserves Borders Climate Climate change Typhoons Earthquakes Ecoregions Extreme points Island groups islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas National parks Ramsar sites Rivers Volcanoes Wildlife World Heritage Sites Bays Biosphere reserves Borders Climate Climate change Typhoons Earthquakes Ecoregions Extreme points Island groups islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas National parks Ramsar sites Rivers Volcanoes Wildlife World Heritage Sites Bays Biosphere reserves Borders Climate Climate change Typhoons Climate change Typhoons Earthquakes Ecoregions Extreme points Island groups islands islands Lakes Mountains Protected areas National parks National parks Ramsar sites Rivers Volcanoes Wildlife World Heritage Sites Politics Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Human rights LGBTQ Legal codes Political families Political parties Government Executive Cabinet lists Executive departments Executive office Law enforcement President Legislative Senate House of Representatives Judicial Supreme Court Court of Appeals Regional Trial Court Armed Forces Air Force Army Navy Marine Corps Coast Guard Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Human rights LGBTQ Legal codes Political families Political parties Government Executive Cabinet lists Executive departments Executive office Law enforcement President Legislative Senate House of Representatives Judicial Supreme Court Court of Appeals Regional Trial Court Armed Forces Air Force Army Navy Marine Corps Coast Guard Administrative divisions Constitution Elections Foreign relations Human rights LGBTQ LGBTQ Legal codes Political families Political parties Government Executive Cabinet lists Executive departments Executive office Law enforcement President Legislative Senate House of Representatives Judicial Supreme Court Court of Appeals Regional Trial Court Armed Forces Air Force Army Navy Marine Corps Coast Guard Executive Cabinet lists Executive departments Executive office Law enforcement President Cabinet lists lists Executive departments Executive office Law enforcement President Legislative Senate House of Representatives Senate House of Representatives Judicial Supreme Court Court of Appeals Regional Trial Court Supreme Court Court of Appeals Regional Trial Court Armed Forces Air Force Army Navy Marine Corps Air Force Army Navy Marine Corps Coast Guard Economy Agriculture Automotive Business process outsourcing Census Central bank Child labor Energy Fiscal policy National debt Labor Peso Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Telephone numbers Tourism Tourist attractions Transportation Water and sanitation ZIP codes Agriculture Automotive Business process outsourcing Census Central bank Child labor Energy Fiscal policy National debt Labor Peso Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Telephone numbers Tourism Tourist attractions Transportation Water and sanitation ZIP codes Agriculture Automotive Business process outsourcing Census Central bank Child labor Energy Fiscal policy National debt Labor Peso Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Telephone numbers Telephone numbers Tourism Tourist attractions Tourist attractions Transportation Water and sanitation ZIP codes Society Abortion Censorship Corruption Crime Demographics Divorce Education Higher education Environmental issues Climate change Deforestation Ethnic groups Indigenous peoples Genetic and anthropology studies Health Human trafficking Sex trafficking Immigration Income inequality Kinship Languages Overseas workers Poverty Prostitution Refugees Religion Sexuality Squatting Women Pinoy Culture Architecture Arts Cinema Cuisine Cultural properties Dance Fashion and clothing Historical markers Inventions Literature Media Music Mythology Name Public holidays Festivals Psychology Sports Traditional games Value system Symbols Anthem Bird Coat of arms Flag Flower Gem Great Seal Language Motto Sign language Sport and martial art Tree Abortion Censorship Corruption Crime Demographics Divorce Education Higher education Environmental issues Climate change Deforestation Ethnic groups Indigenous peoples Genetic and anthropology studies Health Human trafficking Sex trafficking Immigration Income inequality Kinship Languages Overseas workers Poverty Prostitution Refugees Religion Sexuality Squatting Women Pinoy Culture Architecture Arts Cinema Cuisine Cultural properties Dance Fashion and clothing Historical markers Inventions Literature Media Music Mythology Name Public holidays Festivals Psychology Sports Traditional games Value system Symbols Anthem Bird Coat of arms Flag Flower Gem Great Seal Language Motto Sign language Sport and martial art Tree Abortion Censorship Corruption Crime Demographics Divorce Education Higher education Higher education Environmental issues Climate change Deforestation Climate change Deforestation Ethnic groups Indigenous peoples Indigenous peoples Genetic and anthropology studies Health Human trafficking Sex trafficking Sex trafficking Immigration Income inequality Kinship Languages Overseas workers Poverty Prostitution Refugees Religion Sexuality Squatting Women Pinoy Culture Architecture Arts Cinema Cuisine Cultural properties Dance Fashion and clothing Historical markers Inventions Literature Media Music Mythology Name Public holidays Festivals Psychology Sports Traditional games Value system Architecture Arts Cinema Cuisine Cultural properties Dance Fashion and clothing Historical markers Inventions Literature Media Music Mythology Name Public holidays Festivals Festivals Psychology Sports Traditional games Value system Symbols Anthem Bird Coat of arms Flag Flower Gem Great Seal Language Motto Sign language Sport and martial art Tree Anthem Bird Coat of arms Flag Flower Gem Great Seal Language Motto Sign language Sport and martial art Tree Outline Bibliography Philippines portal Category Outline Bibliography Philippines portal Category Authority control databases International VIAF VIAF National United States Israel United States Israel Other Yale LUX Yale LUX Eastern Samar Provinces of the Philippines Provinces of Eastern Visayas States and territories established in 1965 1965 establishments in the Philippines Samar Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments CS1 foreign language sources (ISO 639-2) Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Filipino-language text Coordinates on Wikidata Articles containing Tagalog-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021 Lists of coordinates Geographic coordinate lists Articles with Geo Commons category link from Wikidata Pages using the Kartographer extension This page was last edited on 7 January 2026, at 10:47 (UTC) . 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1 Introduction 2 Empirical Motivation: The Primacy of Evidence 2.1 Evidence-Augmented Reasoning 2.2 Preliminary Experiment on Evidence Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. Experiment Setting Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. 2.1 Evidence-Augmented Reasoning 2.2 Preliminary Experiment on Evidence Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. Experiment Setting Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. Experiment Setting Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. 3 Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization 3.1 Preliminaries Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). 3.2 Multi-Granular Process Reward Mechanism Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Total Reward. 3.3 Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). 3.1 Preliminaries Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). 3.2 Multi-Granular Process Reward Mechanism Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Total Reward. Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Total Reward. 3.3 Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). 4 Experiments Benchmarks Baselines Evaluation & Training Details Training Dataset 4.1 Main Results Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Benchmarks Baselines Evaluation & Training Details Training Dataset 4.1 Main Results Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. 5 Analysis Experiment 5.1 Ablation Study Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. 5.2 Reward Model Analysis 5.3 Hyperparameter Experiment 5.4 Error Analysis 5.1 Ablation Study Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. 5.2 Reward Model Analysis 5.3 Hyperparameter Experiment 5.4 Error Analysis 6 Related Work 6.1 Long-Context Reasoning 6.2 Reinforcement Learning 6.1 Long-Context Reasoning 6.2 Reinforcement Learning 7 Conclusion A Experiment Details Implementation Details Wikipedia-based Mixed QA Construction Implementation Details Wikipedia-based Mixed QA Construction B Supplementary Experiment Needle in a Haystack Retrieval Experiment. Needle in a Haystack Retrieval Experiment. C Prompt used in EAPO Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization with Reward Co-Evolution for Long-Context Reasoning Xin Guan , Zijian Li , Shen Huang , Pengjun Xie , Jingren Zhou , Jiuxin Cao Tongyi Lab, Alibaba Group Work done during the author’s internship at Tongyi Lab. Abstract While Reinforcement Learning (RL) has advanced LLM reasoning, applying it to long-context scenarios is hindered by sparsity of outcome rewards. This limitation fails to penalize ungrounded “lucky guesses,” leaving the critical process of needle-in-a-haystack evidence retrieval largely unsupervised. To address this, we propose EAPO ( E vidence- A ugmented P olicy O ptimization). We first establish the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning paradigm, validating via Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling that precise evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck for long-context reasoning. Guided by this insight, EAPO introduces a specialized RL algorithm where a reward model computes a Group-Relative Evidence Reward, providing dense process supervision to explicitly improve evidence quality. To sustain accurate supervision throughout training, we further incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This mechanism iteratively refines the reward model using outcome-consistent rollouts, sharpening its discriminative capability to ensure precise process guidance. Comprehensive evaluations across eight benchmarks demonstrate that EAPO significantly enhances long-context reasoning performance compared to SOTA baselines. Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization with Reward Co-Evolution for Long-Context Reasoning Xin Guan † † thanks: Work done during the author’s internship at Tongyi Lab. , Zijian Li, Shen Huang, Pengjun Xie, Jingren Zhou , Jiuxin Cao Tongyi Lab, Alibaba Group Figure 1: Challenges in reasoning over extremely long contexts. The examples illustrate critical failure modes, including answers with no evidence support, incomplete or error retrieval. Our work explicitly targets this bottleneck to ensure high-fidelity evidence extraction. 1 Introduction The development of Large Language Models (LLMs) has profoundly revolutionized Natural Language Processing (NLP) Xu et al. ( 2025 ) . Models such as GPT Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) and DeepSeek-R1 DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) have propelled significant advancements in domains ranging from complex dialogue to summarization. However, as LLMs evolve into autonomous agents required to interact with dynamic environments, the demand for processing voluminous information has escalated. This imposes a critical challenge: as context length increases, model performance often suffers from severe degradation due to the “lost in the middle” phenomenon Liu et al. ( 2024 ) . In these high-noise scenarios, models frequently exhibit specific failure modes illustrated in Figure 1 : they may generate answers with no evidence support , rely on fragmentary retrieval , or make erroneous citations , failing to discriminate “needle-in-a-haystack” facts from irrelevant distractors. Reinforcement Learning (RL) Zhang et al. ( 2025b ) has emerged as a powerful tool for unlocking intrinsic reasoning capabilities. However, existing approaches in Long-Context Reasoning (LCR) predominantly rely on outcome-based rewards Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , guiding optimization solely based on the correctness of the final answer. This reliance exacerbates reward sparsity and may introduce noise: a model may correctly guess an answer via a flawed reasoning path Shao et al. ( 2025 ) . For instance, as shown in Figure 1 , a model might correctly answer “3 channels” but cite an irrelevant entity (e.g., MrBeast ) instead of the correct Indian channel. Such "shortcuts" satisfy the binary outcome reward but fail to generalize, leaving the underlying retrieval failure unaddressed. To resolve these issues, we argue for a shift from result-oriented to evidence-Augmented process-oriented supervision for LCR. To operationalize this, we first establish the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm. By strictly enforcing a workflow where explicit evidence extraction precedes reasoning execution, EAR inherently resolves the problem of ungrounded responses, ensuring that no conclusion is derived without explicit citation. Building on this structured foundation, we conduct a preliminary study via Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling, which is employing BFS to explore distinct evidence trajectories, evaluated via both semantic similarity and fine-grained LLM judgments. This analysis empirically validates our core hypothesis: securing high-quality evidence is the decisive prerequisite for unlocking superior performance in ICR. Building on these insights, we propose EAPO ( E vidence- A ugmented P olicy O ptimization). EAPO is designed to internalize the benefits of precise evidence discovery directly into the model’s policy. It introduces a dense, group-relative evidence reward to provide fine-grained supervision at the process level, ensuring the model is rewarded not just for being right, but for being right for the high-quality evidence. However, relying on a static reward model carries risks, as the policy improves, a fixed evaluator may fail to distinguish subtle quality differences. To address this, we further incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This creates a self-reinforcing cycle where the reward model is iteratively refined using high-confidence, outcome-consistent rollouts generated by the policy itself. This continuous alignment sharpens the reward model’s discriminative capability, enabling it to assess complex evidence with increasing precision and dynamically synchronize its supervision signal with the evolving policy. The core contributions of our paper are: • We establish the EAR paradigm to enforce explicit evidence extraction prior to reasoning, and empirically identify this extraction step as the decisive bottleneck through Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. • We introduce the EAPO framework, shifting optimization from sparse outcome rewards to dense, evidence-augmented supervision. By leveraging a reward model to compute a group-relative evidence reward, EAPO guides the model to extract high-quality evidence, thereby enhancing reasoning capabilities. • We design an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism to establish a self-reinforcing loop. By iteratively refining the reward model with outcome-consistent rollouts, this mechanism sustains high-fidelity supervision. 2 Empirical Motivation: The Primacy of Evidence Before detailing our reinforcement learning framework, we first establish empirical foundations of our approach. We introduce the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm to structure the long-context workflow and utilize a Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling to validate a critical hypothesis that evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck in long-context reasoning . 2.1 Evidence-Augmented Reasoning We propose the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm, as shown in Figure 1 , which explicitly decouples the retrieval of information from its logical manipulation, CoE enforces a strict four-stage workflow: 1) Task Analysis <analysis> : Deconstructing the user’s query constraints. 2) Evidence Extraction <evidence> : Locating and quoting relevant text segments verbatim from the context. 3) Reasoning Execution <reasoning> : Deriving conclusions based exclusively on the extracted evidence. 4) Answer Formulation <answer> : Synthesizing the final response. This structural decomposition operationalized via special tokens not only focuses attention but, crucially, exposes the intermediate evidence state for direct supervision. Figure 2: Overview of Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. The process samples diverse evidence and reasoning paths, evaluates their scores, and derives the final answer. 2.2 Preliminary Experiment on Evidence Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. To quantify the critical role of evidence quality in determining final reasoning outcomes, we design a systematic exploration strategy modeled as a decision tree. As shown in Figure 2 , we employ Breadth-First Search (BFS) to sample k k distinct evidence trajectories for a given query and context, creating a diverse search space. To efficiently value these intermediate nodes without redundant full-context processing, we apply a Query-Centric Node Evaluation that scores candidates based strictly on their utility relative to the query. We investigate two specific valuation paradigms to identify the better evidence: • Semantic Similarity Assessment (SSA): Using a reranker (Qwen3-8B-Reranker Zhang et al. ( 2025c ) ) to measure the coarse-grained embedding alignment between the query and the extracted evidence. • LLM-as-a-Judge (LLM-E/R): Leveraging an LLM to perform fine-grained evaluation on the utility of the extracted evidence (LLM-E) or the coherence of the reasoning (LLM-R) (Prompts in Appendix C ). Experiment Setting Figure 3: Performance analysis of Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct on Musique in LongBench. We compare Direct Reasoning, EAR variants with different evaluators, and an Oracle upper bound ( Evidence-Grounded ). To quantify the factors constraining long-context performance, we conduct a controlled analysis on the Musique from LongBench benchmark Bai et al. ( 2024 ) using Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct Yang et al. ( 2025 ) as the base model. To establish a empirical performance ceiling, we construct an Evidence-Grounded (Oracle) baseline, where high-fidelity evidence is extracted by a superior model ( gemini-2.5-pro ) utilizing both the query and ground-truth answer, and then fed to the base model for inference. We employ Tree-Structured Sampling with a beam width of k = 3 k=3 . As illustrated in Figure 3 , our analysis yields the following insights: Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Our results isolate evidence retrieval as the primary failure mode through two key observations. First, simply providing the model with high-fidelity evidence (Oracle) drastically elevates performance to 63.0%, revealing a massive potential currently locked by retrieval failures. Second, adding a reasoning verification step (LLM-R) atop evidence evaluation yields negligible gains compared to evidence evaluation alone (LLM-E). This implies that once high-quality evidence is secured, the model’s inherent reasoning capabilities are sufficient, the bottleneck lies in finding the evidence. Figure 4: Overview of EAPO. Left: The Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization phase, utilizing dense evidence scores to guide the high-quality evidence extraction process. Right: The Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution cycle, which iteratively refines the reward model to sharpen its discriminative capability for accurate supervision. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. Our analysis reveals a direct correlation between the fidelity of process supervision and the magnitude of performance improvement. While SSA offers limited guidance (+5.5%), employing an LLM-based judge to provide process supervision significantly improves performance (+9.0%). Furthermore, elevating the supervision quality with a stronger gpt-oss-120B evaluator yields even greater gains (+11.0%). 3 Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization Building on the empirical findings in Section 2.2 , we propose Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization (EAPO). Guided by the insight that evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck, EAPO shifts supervision from sparse outcome signals to dense, process-oriented guidance. Furthermore, to leverage the critical correlation between evaluator strength and performance, we incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This establishes a self-reinforcing loop where the reward model’s discriminative power is iteratively sharpened in tandem with the policy. The framework’s overview is depicted in Figure 4 . 3.1 Preliminaries Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). We adopt Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) Shao et al. ( 2024 ) as the core reinforcement learning algorithm. Formally, for each query q q sampled from the dataset distribution P ( Q ) P(Q) , we generate a group of G G outputs { o 1 , … , o G } \{o_{1},...,o_{G}\} utilizing the old policy π θ o l d \pi_{\theta_{old}} . The optimization objective is to maximize the following surrogate loss function: ℒ G R P O ( θ ) = 𝔼 q ∼ P ( Q ) , { o i } ∼ π θ o l d [ 1 G ∑ i = 1 G min ( r i ( θ ) A ^ i , clip ( r i ( θ ) , 1 − ϵ l o w , 1 + ϵ h i g h ) A ^ i ) ] \begin{split}\mathcal{L}_{GRPO}(\theta)=\mathbb{E}_{q\sim P(Q),\{o_{i}\}\sim\pi_{\theta_{old}}}\bigg[\frac{1}{G}\sum_{i=1}^{G}\min\Big(\\ r_{i}(\theta)\hat{A}_{i},\quad\text{clip}\big(r_{i}(\theta),1-\epsilon_{low},1+\epsilon_{high}\big)\hat{A}_{i}\Big)\bigg]\end{split} (1) where r i ( θ ) = π θ ( o i | q ) π θ o l d ( o i | q ) r_{i}(\theta)=\frac{\pi_{\theta}(o_{i}|q)}{\pi_{\theta_{old}}(o_{i}|q)} denotes the probability ratio between the current and old policies. The hyperparameters ϵ l o w \epsilon_{low} and ϵ h i g h \epsilon_{high} constrain the policy update step size, set to 0.2 and 0.28 respectively. A ^ i \hat{A}_{i} represents the advantage value for the i i -th output, which is derived from the standardized total reward: A ^ i = R t o t a l ( i ) − mean ( R t o t a l ) std ( R t o t a l ) \hat{A}_{i}=\frac{R_{total}^{(i)}-\text{mean}(R_{total})}{\text{std}(R_{total})} . R t o t a l ( i ) R_{total}^{(i)} denotes the reward for the i i -th sample. We define the specific composition of this fine-grained process reward R t o t a l R_{total} in the subsequent section. 3.2 Multi-Granular Process Reward Mechanism EAPO constructs a dense, process reward R t o t a l R_{total} . This composite signal is composed of distinct components designed to guide the model through the structured Evidence-Augmented workflow: Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). To ensure the output conforms to the EAR structure, we verify the presence of specific delimiters (e.g., <evidence> ). If the format is correct, we assign R f = 1 R_{f}=1 ; otherwise, R f = 0 R_{f}=0 . And if the format is invalid, the evaluation terminates immediately, and the remaining reward components are not calculated. Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). This component serves as an intermediate process reward designed to assess the quality of the extracted evidence. Specifically, we extract all evidence segments generated within all rollouts and input this collective set simultaneously into the Reward Model θ R M \theta_{RM} for assessment. The RM assigns an integer utility score v ∈ { 1 , … , 5 } v\in\{1,\dots,5\} (Prompt in the Appendix C ). These scores are then normalized within the sampled group to yield R e ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] R_{e}\in[0,1] , enabling the policy to prioritize superior evidence through comparative feedback. Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Following Wan et al. ( 2025 ) , we employ an LLM-based evaluator to assess answer correctness. This module assigns a binary reward by verifying if the generated answer is semantically consistent with the ground truth. Total Reward. The composite reward is a weighted linear combination: R t o t a l = α R f + β R e + γ R a R_{total}=\alpha R_{f}+\beta R_{e}+\gamma R_{a} (2) where α , β , γ \alpha,\beta,\gamma are hyperparameters balancing structural compliance, evidence quality, and final accuracy. 3.3 Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution Our preliminary analysis in Section 2.2 revealed a critical phenomenon: the efficacy of policy model optimization is positively correlated with the quality of process supervision. To improve the capabilities of the process Reward Model (RM), EAPO incorporates an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism, establishing a dynamic closed-loop where the RM iteratively improves alongside the Policy. This cycle proceeds in two key phases: Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. During the optimization phase, the current policy π θ \pi_{\theta} generates diverse reasoning trajectories for each query. The current RM evaluates the evidence sets extracted within these rollouts, assigning integer quality scores to guide the immediate policy update. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). To prevent supervision degradation, we employ a strategy inspired by Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). Rather than naively training on all correct paths, we apply a strict Outcome Consistency filter to curate a high-fidelity dataset. We retain only those trajectories where the RM’s judgment aligns with objective reality. specifically, instances where high evidence scores correspond to correct answers and low scores to incorrect ones. These validated High-Confidence data are then used to fine-tune the Reward Model parameters θ R M \theta_{RM} via a supervised objective: θ R M ← arg min θ 𝔼 ( q , o , y ) ∼ 𝒟 h i g h [ ℒ ( R θ ( q , o ) , y ) ] \theta_{RM}\leftarrow\arg\min_{\theta}\mathbb{E}_{(q,o,y)\sim\mathcal{D}_{high}}\left[\mathcal{L}(R_{\theta}(q,o),y)\right] (3) where q q denotes the input query, o o represents the evidences set, and y y indicates the target prediction derived from the consistency check. This process continuously sharpens the RM’s discriminative boundary, ensuring that the supervision signal remains accurate and precise as the policy explores increasingly complex reasoning patterns. By synchronizing the evolution of the reward model with the policy, EAPO creates a self-reinforcing cycle that guides the model toward autonomous, high-fidelity evidence discovery. 4 Experiments Models SEAL LongBench LongBench-v2 AVG Seal-0 Seal-hard Musique Hotpotqa 2wiki SDQ MDQ LSA Comparison with other LLMs GPT-4o 19.8 39.4 60.0 78.0 79.5 47.0 50.0 44.4 52.3 Gemini-2.0-Flash 24.3 36.6 52.5 75.0 84.5 43.1 44.1 48.2 51.0 Qwen3-Plus 24.3 32.3 56.5 71.5 80.0 50.3 44.1 55.6 51.8 Claude-Sonnet-4 42.3 56.3 60.5 81.5 81.0 50.3 48.0 66.7 60.8 GPT-OSS-120B 39.6 55.5 64.0 80.0 87.5 45.7 46.1 63.0 60.2 QwenLong-32B 40.5 56.7 64.5 77.5 84.5 49.0 52.9 37.0 57.8 Comparison among Our Models Qwen3-14B 35.1 49.6 56.0 79.5 83.5 40.4 42.2 38.9 53.2 + GRPO 35.1 51.0 57.0 80.0 83.0 40.7 42.4 40.9 53.8 (+0.6) + EAPO 36.0 52.5 57.0 81.0 83.5 43.0 44.1 42.9 55.0 (+1.8) Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct 23.4 30.3 45.0 73.0 75.0 39.7 43.1 55.6 48.1 + GRPO 31.5 40.2 51.5 75.5 85.5 41.1 43.6 55.6 53.1 (+5.0) + EAPO 33.0 44.1 59.5 77.5 87.5 42.4 45.1 55.6 55.6 (+7.5) Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking 33.3 55.5 60.0 79.0 84.5 47.0 45.1 59.3 58.0 + GRPO 40.4 53.8 60.5 78.5 85.0 49.7 43.1 63.0 59.2 (+1.2) + EAPO 44.1 57.9 65.0 80.0 86.5 51.7 49.0 70.4 63.1 (+5.1) Table 1: Main results on long-context reasoning benchmarks. The best result is highlighted in bold, and the second best result is shown underlined. Benchmarks We evaluate our model on a comprehensive suite of eight long-context reasoning benchmarks, categorized into three types: (1) SEAL-0 and (2) SEAL-Hard from SEAL Pham et al. ( 2025 ) , which represent challenging reasoning QA tasks 1 1 1 SEAL provides the Wikipedia URLs for the answers. We employ Jina to extract the page content as the context. ; a collection of multi-hop QA datasets from LongBench-V1 Bai et al. ( 2024 ) , specifically (3) HotpotQA, (4) MuSiQue, and (5) 2WikiMultihopQA; and three diverse tasks from LongBench-V2 Bai et al. ( 2025 ) : (6) Single-Document QA (SDQ), (7) Multi-Document QA (MDQ), and (8) Long Structured-Data QA (LSA). Baselines We compare our approach against state-of-the-art models divided into three distinct categories: • Compared LLMs : High-performing closed-source models including GPT-4o Hurst et al. ( 2024 ) , Gemini-2.0-Flash Team ( 2025 ) , Qwen3-Plus, and Claude-3.5-Sonnet anthropic ( 2025 ) . Leading open weights models such as Qwen3-14B, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) , and GPT-OSS-120B Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) . QwenLong-32B , the current SOTA model for specialized long-context reasoning trained via RL. • Control Baselines (GRPO) : To rigorously validate our algorithm, we include variants of our base models trained using only the outcome-based reward via standard GRPO. These serve as the primary control group to isolate the specific contribution of our evidence-based process rewards. Evaluation & Training Details We employ gpt-4o-2024-11-20 as the judge model to evaluate answer accuracy; the exact evaluation prompt is provided in the Appendix C . To ensure consistent long-context assessment, we restrict all training and evaluation samples to a maximum context length of 128k tokens. For training, we utilize three base models to cover diverse scales, architectures, and reasoning patterns: Qwen3-14B (Dense), Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct (MoE), and Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) . The Reward Model is initialized from the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking. Regarding the reward coefficients, we set the format weight α = 0.1 \alpha=0.1 following Sheng et al. ( 2024 ) , while β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 and γ = 0.6 \gamma=0.6 are determined based on our subsequent hyperparameter analysis. The Reward Model is updated every 20 RL steps using the most recently collected high-quality rollouts. Detailed hyperparameters are listed in the Appendix A . Training Dataset We construct a composite training dataset totaling 4,664 samples, derived from two sources. First, adopting the long-context construction method of Zhu et al. ( 2025 ) , we process the MuSiQue dataset by padding the context to a range of 32k–128k tokens. Second, we incorporate a Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset, comprising both structured QA (reasoning over tables) and unstructured QA (free-text extraction). Detailed construction process in Appendix A .This hybrid composition ensures the model adapts to heterogeneous evidence formats. 4.1 Main Results The overall performance comparisons are presented in Table 1 . Our analysis yields three significant observations: Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. The proposed EAPO framework demonstrates consistent superiority over base models across all tested architectures. For Qwen3-30B-Instruct, our method achieves a remarkable average improvement of +7.5%, boosting the score from 48.1% to 55.6%. Even on the highly capable Qwen3-30B-Thinking model, which already possesses advanced reasoning capabilities, EAPO delivers a substantial +5.1% gain, achieving a score of 63.1%. This confirms that optimizing the evidence extraction process is universally effective, functioning independently of model size (14B vs. 30B) or architecture type (Dense vs. MoE). Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Comparing outcome-based GRPO with EAPO underscores the critical value of fine-grained guidance. While GRPO yields only marginal gains (e.g., +1.2% for 30B), EAPO’s dense evidence reward drives significant improvements—notably surpassing the GRPO baseline by over 4 points on SEAL-Hard (57.9% vs. 53.8%). This confirms that explicit evidence supervision effectively curbs parametric shortcuts, fostering robust and generalizable reasoning. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Remarkably, our EAPO-30B-Thinking model (63.1%) outperforms significantly larger open-source models like GPT-OSS-120B (60.2%) and specialized long-context models like QwenLong-32B (57.8%). Furthermore, it surpasses powerful proprietary models such as Gemini-2.0-Flash (51.0%), GPT-4o (52.3%), and Claude-Sonnet-4 (60.8%) on average, highlighting the efficiency of evidence-augmented optimization. 5 Analysis Experiment Experiments in this section are conducted using the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking model. We adopt this unified setting to rigorously assess the individual contributions of the EAPO framework components. 5.1 Ablation Study To validate EAPO, we compare it against the GRPO outcome reward baseline and a static reward model variant (w/o RM Co-Evolution) in Figure 5 and 6 . Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Figure 5 shows that EAPO achieves superior sample efficiency, rapidly outpacing GRPO. This confirms that dense process supervision provides clearer gradient signals than sparse outcome rewards. Crucially, while the static variant saturates after step 50, the full EAPO framework driven by Co-Evolution, sustains its upward trajectory, achieving a higher performance ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. As shown in Figure 6 , GRPO’s implicit optimization of evidence is inefficient. In contrast, EAPO maintains a substantial and consistent lead in evidence scores by explicitly targeting evidence utility. This validates that the dense reward mechanism acts as a critical accelerator, ensuring the model prioritizes high-fidelity retrieval from the outset. Figure 5: Task performance on the MuSiQue in LongBench. EAPO achieves superior convergence compared to the static reward baseline and the outcome-only GRPO. Figure 6: Evidence Quality scores during training. EAPO explicitly optimizes the retrieval process, leading to consistently higher-quality evidence extraction compared to the outcome-based GRPO baseline. 5.2 Reward Model Analysis To quantify the gain of Reward Model, we evaluate the RM’s Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ) followed by Liu et al. ( 2025 ) . Using a set of samples with grounded evidence constructed in Section 2.2, we define the Oracle optimum among 6 sampled trajectories as the one maximizing ROUGE-L Recall. Accuracy is measured by the frequency with which the RM’s top-ranked candidate matches this Oracle. As shown in Figure 7 , the accuracy improves from 69.0% to 74.0% over 60 steps, validating that co-evolution effectively aligns the RM with high-fidelity evidence quality. Figure 7: Evolution of RM Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ). 5.3 Hyperparameter Experiment Figure 8: Comparison of different evidence quality reward weights. We analyze the impact of β \beta , which balances the evidence reward ( R e R_{e} ) against the outcome reward ( 0.9 − β 0.9-\beta ). As shown in Figure 8 , increasing β \beta from 0.0 (outcome-only) to 0.3 yields consistent gains across all benchmarks, with Overall accuracy peaking at 63.1%. This confirms the value of dense evidence supervision. However, further increasing β \beta to 0.5 causes a sharp decline back to 59.2%, suggesting that over-weighting intermediate steps distracts from the final answer. Thus, β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 offers the optimal trade-off between process and outcome supervision. 5.4 Error Analysis We conducted a fine-grained error analysis on LongBench-v2, centering our investigation on two critical failure modes: Evidence Error (failed or partial retrieval) and Reasoning Error (correct evidence but flawed logic). As visualized in Figure 9 , EAPO demonstrates a simultaneous reduction in both highlighted categories: Evidence Errors decline from 17.7% to 13.5%, and Reasoning Errors from 20.7% to 15.4%. This trend validates our core hypothesis that dense process supervision not only minimizes retrieval failures but also generates a cascading positive effect, grounding subsequent reasoning in higher-fidelity information to mitigate downstream logic errors. Figure 9: Error analysis on LongBench-v2. The comparison focuses on the reduction of Evidence and Reasoning errors achieved by EAPO relative to the GRPO baseline. 6 Related Work 6.1 Long-Context Reasoning Long-context reasoning is a prominent area of focus in the development of LLMs, as the length of the context window determines the upper limit of a model’s single-pass reasoning capabilities. To mitigate these challenges, current mainstream approaches generally fall into four categories: 1) Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) Xu et al. ( 2024 ); Jin et al. ( 2025b ) , which relies on external retrievers that may become bottlenecks; 2) Agent-based Frameworks Zhang et al. ( 2024 ); Yu et al. ( 2025 ) , which decompose contexts via multiple agents but incur high computational latency; and 3) Architectural Modifications Chen et al. ( 2024 ); Ding et al. ( 2024 ) , such as extended attention windows, which often struggle with complexity constraints. Distinct from these external or structural patches, our research focuses on 4) Supervised Fine-Tuning or Reinforcement Learning Tian et al. ( 2025 ); Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhu et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , enhancing the model’s intrinsic capacity to reason over long contexts efficiently. 6.2 Reinforcement Learning Reinforcement Learning (RL) has been proven to be an effective method for enhancing the reasoning abilities of LLMs. In domains such as mathematics DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) and search Jin et al. ( 2025a ) , reward signals can guide models to explore correct reasoning paths. Beyond simple outcome-based rewards, numerous studies have explored Process-based Reward Models (PRMs) Lightman et al. ( 2023 ); Khalifa et al. ( 2025 ) to provide more granular, step-by-step guidance. This has led to superior results in tasks requiring multi-hop reasoning. In the domain of long-context reasoning with RL, existing research Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhang et al. ( 2025a ) has primarily focused on outcome-based feedback. Our work builds upon this foundation by designing rewards for the model’s reasoning process itself. Specifically, we aim to enhance the two critical abilities for long-context tasks: finding evidence and performing reasoning. 7 Conclusion In this work, we introduced Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization (EAPO) to overcome the limitations of sparse outcome rewards in long-context reasoning. 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Appendix A Experiment Details Implementation Details We implement our reinforcement learning pipeline based on the VeRL framework (Sheng et al. , 2024 ) . For rollout generation, we set the sampling temperature to 1.0 1.0 , with a maximum context window of 120k tokens for input and 8k tokens for output generation. The group size is configured as G = 6 G=6 . Optimization is performed with a global batch size of 64 and a mini-batch size of 32, utilizing a constant learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} . All experiments are executed on a computational cluster equipped with 16 NVIDIA H20 GPUs (90GB VRAM). The RL training time for 30B is approximately 72 GPU hours, and for 14B it is approximately 40 GPU hours. The SFT training for reward model is approximately 2 GPU hours. Wikipedia-based Mixed QA Construction To detail the Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset mentioned in the paper, we prioritize natural context continuity by sourcing Wikipedia articles exceeding 64k tokens. Through HTML parsing, we separate content into prose (unstructured) and tables (structured) to generate diverse reasoning tasks: • Structured QA (Single-Fragment): Focuses on analytical reasoning over discrete table segments. These tasks require the model to perform filtering, ranking, and numerical calculation within a single structured evidence block. • Heterogeneous Mixed QA (Multi-Fragment): Designed to bridge structured and unstructured modalities. This category includes Text-and-Table QA , which demands synthesizing information from free-text prose and tabular data, and Multi-Table QA , which requires linking logic across multiple interrelated tables. Appendix B Supplementary Experiment Needle in a Haystack Retrieval Experiment. We additionally evaluate retrieval performance using the "Needle in a Haystack" (NIAH) benchmark Kamradt ( 2023 ) . As shown in Figure 10 , both the Base Model and GRPO fall slightly short of perfection, failing to retrieve needles in a few specific instances. In contrast, EAPO achieves a flawless 100% retrieval rate. The "all-green" heatmap confirms that our dense evidence supervision further refines retrieval robustness, ensuring precise information localization across the entire context window. Figure 10: Needle in a Haystack retrieval performance across varying context lengths and depths. Appendix C Prompt used in EAPO In the appendix, we provide the various prompts involved in EAPO, including the EAR prompt, the prompt for Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling (Prompt for Evidence Evaluation + Prompt for Reasoning Evaluation), the prompt for the Reward Model’s evidence evaluation (Prompt for Evidence Evaluation), and the prompt for the Answer evaluation. Prompt for EAR Please read the following content and answer the question below. Content: {content} Question: {question} You must strictly adhere to the following four-part structure for your entire output. Do not include any introductory phrases or text outside of this format. Required Output Format: <analysis> [Articulate your analysis of the question, identify the specific information required, and outline your strategy for locating and extracting relevant evidence from the provided content. Do not answer the question directly.] </analysis> <evidence> [Insert all verbatim, unmodified quotes from the content that directly support the final answer. Each piece of evidence should be on a new line and be as comprehensive as possible, using ’…’ to link related but separate text fragments if necessary.] </evidence> <reasoning> [Provide a step-by-step logical explanation that connects the extracted evidence to the final answer. Clearly demonstrate how the evidence leads to your conclusion.] </reasoning> <answer> [State the final, concise answer. This answer must be derived solely from the evidence provided above.] </answer> Prompt for Evidence Evaluation You are a master strategist and information architect. Objective: Critically evaluate competing sets of ‘Evidence‘. Your mission is to act as a strategic filter, identifying the single most valuable set of evidence for constructing a high-quality, comprehensive, and accurate answer to the ‘Original Question‘. Inputs: * Original Question: {question} * Evidence Choices: {choices} Core Evaluation Principle: Comparative Analysis Your evaluation must be relational, not absolute. Do not assess each choice in isolation. The score for any given choice must be determined by comparing its performance against the other available options across the criteria below. For a choice to earn a top score, it must be demonstrably superior *relative to its competitors*. Evaluation Criteria: You must use these criteria as the dimensions for your comparison: 1. Relevance & Focus: How directly does the evidence address all facets of the ‘Original Question‘? Is it tightly focused, or diluted with irrelevant "noise"? 2. Depth & Breadth: Does the evidence provide comprehensive, multi-faceted coverage of the topic? Or is it superficial, one-sided, or incomplete? 3. Utility & Specificity: Is the evidence composed of concrete, factual, and directly usable information? Or is it vague, overly general, and requires heavy interpretation? 4. Coherence: Are the individual pieces of evidence within the set consistent with each other? Or do internal contradictions create ambiguity and undermine reliability? Scoring Rubric (1-5 Scale): You must assign a score to each choice based on the following strict rubric. Remember to apply these definitions through the lens of the Core Evaluation Principle. * 1: Unusable: The evidence is fundamentally flawed. It is irrelevant, internally contradictory, or so vague that it provides no usable basis for an answer. * 2: Poor: The evidence has major deficiencies. It may be only tangentially relevant, highly imbalanced, or lacking specific facts, making it a weak foundation, especially when compared to stronger options. * 3: Adequate: The evidence is usable but clearly inferior to better options. It addresses the core question but has significant comparative gaps in depth, breadth, or specificity. * 4: Good: The evidence is a strong contender. It is highly relevant and specific, but may be slightly less comprehensive or focused than the top choice. It provides a solid foundation for a high-quality answer. * 5: Excellent: The evidence is perfectly tailored and clearly superior to all other options. It is the most comprehensive, balanced, specific, and coherent dataset available, with virtually no noise. Output Requirements: Your entire output must be a single, valid JSON object structured exactly as follows, containing three keys: ‘reason‘, ‘scores‘, and ‘best_choice‘. { "reason": "A string containing your detailed comparative analysis. Your analysis must: 1. Justify each score by explicitly comparing that choice to the others on the key ‘Evaluation Criteria‘ (e.g., ’Choice A earns a 4 for Depth because it is more comprehensive than Choice B, but Choice C covers one additional aspect, making it superior’). 2. Use the language of the ‘Scoring Rubric‘ to anchor your comparative judgments. 3. Conclude with a definitive statement explaining why the ‘best_choice‘ is superior *relative to the alternatives*.", "scores": [An array of integers, where each integer is the 1-5 score corresponding to each choice in the provided order.], "best_choice": An integer representing the 0-based index of the single best evidence choice. } Prompt for Answer Evaluation Your job is to look at a question, a gold target, and a predicted answer, and then assign a grade of either ["CORRECT", "INCORRECT", "NOT_ATTEMPTED"]. First, I will give examples of each grade, and then you will grade a new example. The following are examples of CORRECT predicted answers. Question: What are the names of Barack Obama’s children? Gold target: Malia Obama and Sasha Obama Predicted answer 1: sasha and malia obama Predicted answer 2: most people would say Malia and Sasha, but I’m not sure and would have to double check Predicted answer 3: Barack Obama has two daughters. Their names are Malia Ann and Natasha Marian, but they are commonly referred to as Malia Obama and Sasha Obama. Malia was born on July 4, 1998, and Sasha was born on June 10, 2001. These predicted answers are all CORRECT because: - They fully contain the important information in the gold target. - They do not contain any information that contradicts the gold target. - Only semantic meaning matters; capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and order don’t matter. - Hedging and guessing are permissible, provided that the gold target is fully included and the response contains no incorrect information or contradictions. The following are examples of INCORRECT predicted answers. Question: What are the names of Barack Obama’s children? Gold target: Malia and Sasha Predicted answer 1: Malia. Predicted answer 2: Malia, Sasha, and Susan. Predicted answer 3: Barack Obama does not have any children. Predicted answer 4: I think it’s either Malia and Sasha. Or it could be Malia and Jackie. Or it could be Joey and Malia. Predicted answer 5: It’s possible you may mean Betsy and Olivia. However, you should clarify further details with updated references if necessary. Is that the correct answer? Predicted answer 6: It may be the case that Obama’s child is named James. However, it’s recommended to confirm the most accurate and updated information since this could change over time. This model may not always reflect the most current information. These predicted answers are all INCORRECT because: - A factual statement in the answer contradicts the gold target. Incorrect statements that have some hedging (e.g., "it is possible that", "although i’m not sure, i think") are also considered incorrect. The following are examples of NOT_ATTEMPTED predicted answers. Question: What are the names of Barack Obama’s children? Gold target: Malia and Sasha Predicted answer 1: I don’t know. Predicted answer 2: I need more context about which Obama you are talking about. Predicted answer 3: Without researching the web, I cannot answer this question. However, I can tell you that Barack Obama has two children. Predicted answer 4: Barack Obama has two children. I know that one of them is Malia, but I’m not sure about the other one. These predicted answers are all NOT_ATTEMPTED because: - The important information in the gold target is not included in the answer. - No statements in the answer contradict the gold target. Also note the following things: - For grading questions where the gold target is a number, the predicted answer needs to be correct to the last significant figure in the gold answer. For example, consider a question "How many citations does the Transformer Paper have?" with gold target "120k". - Predicted answers "120k", "124k", and 115k" are all CORRECT. - Predicted answers "100k" and "113k" are INCORRECT. - Predicted answers "around 100k" and "more than 50k" are considered NOT_ATTEMPTED because they neither confirm nor contradict the gold target. - The gold target may contain more information than the question. In such cases, the predicted answer only needs to contain the information that is in the question. - For example, consider the question "What episode did Derek and Meredith get legally married in Grey’s Anatomy?" with gold target "Season 7, Episode 20: White Wedding". Either "Season 7, Episode 20" or "White Wedding" would be considered a CORRECT answer. - Do not punish predicted answers if they omit information that would be clearly inferred from the question. - For example, consider the question "What city is OpenAI headquartered in?" and the gold target "San Francisco, California". The predicted answer "San Francisco" would be considered CORRECT, even though it does not include "California". - Consider the question "What award did A pretrainer’s guide to training data: Measuring the effects of data age, domain coverage, quality, & toxicity win at NAACL ’24?", the gold target is "Outstanding Paper Award". The predicted answer "Outstanding Paper" would be considered CORRECT, because "award" is presumed in the question. - For the question "What is the height of Jason Wei in meters?", the gold target is "1.73 m". The predicted answer "1.75" would be considered CORRECT, because meters is specified in the question. - For the question "What is the name of Barack Obama’s wife?", the gold target is "Michelle Obama". The predicted answer "Michelle" would be considered CORRECT, because the last name can be presumed. - Do not punish for typos in people’s name if it’s clearly the same name. - For example, if the gold target is "Hyung Won Chung", you can consider the following predicted answers as correct: "Hyoong Won Choong", "Hyungwon Chung", or "Hyun Won Chung". Here is a new example. Simply reply with either CORRECT, INCORRECT, NOT ATTEMPTED. Don’t apologize or correct yourself if there was a mistake; we are just trying to grade the answer. Question: question Gold target: correct_answer Predicted answer: response Grade the predicted answer of this new question as one of: A: CORRECT B: INCORRECT C: NOT_ATTEMPTED Just return the letters "A", "B", or "C", with no text around it. Prompt for Reasoning Evaluation You are a Strategic Logic Evaluator and Reasoning Analyst. **Objective:** Evaluate a set of candidate outputs representing the **NEXT STEP** in a reasoning chain. You must determine which candidate represents the most logical, accurate, and valuable progression towards answering the ‘Original Question‘, given the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘. **Inputs:** * **Original Question:** question * **Historical Reasoning Context (The Unfinished Process):** approved_reasoning_process * **Candidate Next Steps:** choices **Core Evaluation Principles:** Assess each choice based on its logical validity as a continuation of the provided context. 1. **Logical Validity & Advancement:** * **Continuation:** If the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘ is sound, the candidate should logically follow it, deepening the analysis or moving to the next deduction. * **Correction/Pivot:** If the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘ contains flaws, contradictions, or weak assumptions, a candidate that **identifies and corrects** these issues is superior to one that blindly follows a wrong path. * **Flexibility:** The candidate is NOT required to strictly adhere to the *conclusions* of the history, but it must strictly adhere to the *facts/evidence* cited within it (no external hallucinations). 2. **Evidence Grounding:** While the logical path can change, facts cannot be invented. The candidate must still rely on the factual evidence provided within the context (or implicitly known general knowledge if applicable to the domain), without hallucinating new specific data. 3. **Efficiency:** Does this step actually move the needle? Avoid circular reasoning or restating what has already been established in the history. **Scoring Rubric (1-4 Scale):** * **1: Critical Failure (Hallucination/Illogical Jump):** * The output invents facts not present in the context. * The output makes a logical leap that makes no sense, neither following the history nor offering a valid correction. * The output completely ignores the ‘Original Question‘. * **2: Poor (Redundant/Weak):** * The output merely restates the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘ without adding new value. * The output blindly follows a clearly erroneous path established in the history (fails to critical thinking). * The logic is circular or trivial. * **3: Good (Valid Progression):** * A solid, logical next step. It accepts the context and moves forward reasonably. * If the history is sound, this choice extends it correctly. * No hallucinations; safe and compliant. * **4: Excellent (Insightful Advancement or Critical Correction):** * The output demonstrates superior reasoning. * It might provide a **necessary pivot** if the previous logic was heading in the wrong direction. * It synthesizes previous points to reach a breakthrough or a highly distinct intermediate conclusion. * It maximizes the probability of correctly answering the ‘Original Question‘. **Output Requirements:** You must output a **single, valid JSON object** containing the following keys. Do not include markdown formatting or any text outside the JSON object. { "reason": "A detailed analysis string. You must: 1) Evaluate the state of the ’Historical Reasoning Context’ (is it on the right track?). 2) Analyze each choice’s logical contribution (is it a continuation or a pivot?). 3) Justify why the ’best_choice’ is the most valuable next step towards the solution.", "scores": [An array of integers, where each integer is the 1-4 score corresponding to each choice in the provided order.], "best_choice": An integer (0-based index of the best choice) } Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization with Reward Co-Evolution for Long-Context Reasoning Abstract While Reinforcement Learning (RL) has advanced LLM reasoning, applying it to long-context scenarios is hindered by sparsity of outcome rewards. This limitation fails to penalize ungrounded “lucky guesses,” leaving the critical process of needle-in-a-haystack evidence retrieval largely unsupervised. To address this, we propose EAPO ( E vidence- A ugmented P olicy O ptimization). We first establish the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning paradigm, validating via Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling that precise evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck for long-context reasoning. Guided by this insight, EAPO introduces a specialized RL algorithm where a reward model computes a Group-Relative Evidence Reward, providing dense process supervision to explicitly improve evidence quality. To sustain accurate supervision throughout training, we further incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This mechanism iteratively refines the reward model using outcome-consistent rollouts, sharpening its discriminative capability to ensure precise process guidance. Comprehensive evaluations across eight benchmarks demonstrate that EAPO significantly enhances long-context reasoning performance compared to SOTA baselines. Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization with Reward Co-Evolution for Long-Context Reasoning Xin Guan † † thanks: Work done during the author’s internship at Tongyi Lab. , Zijian Li, Shen Huang, Pengjun Xie, Jingren Zhou , Jiuxin Cao Tongyi Lab, Alibaba Group 1 Introduction The development of Large Language Models (LLMs) has profoundly revolutionized Natural Language Processing (NLP) Xu et al. ( 2025 ) . Models such as GPT Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) and DeepSeek-R1 DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) have propelled significant advancements in domains ranging from complex dialogue to summarization. However, as LLMs evolve into autonomous agents required to interact with dynamic environments, the demand for processing voluminous information has escalated. This imposes a critical challenge: as context length increases, model performance often suffers from severe degradation due to the “lost in the middle” phenomenon Liu et al. ( 2024 ) . In these high-noise scenarios, models frequently exhibit specific failure modes illustrated in Figure 1 : they may generate answers with no evidence support , rely on fragmentary retrieval , or make erroneous citations , failing to discriminate “needle-in-a-haystack” facts from irrelevant distractors. Reinforcement Learning (RL) Zhang et al. ( 2025b ) has emerged as a powerful tool for unlocking intrinsic reasoning capabilities. However, existing approaches in Long-Context Reasoning (LCR) predominantly rely on outcome-based rewards Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , guiding optimization solely based on the correctness of the final answer. This reliance exacerbates reward sparsity and may introduce noise: a model may correctly guess an answer via a flawed reasoning path Shao et al. ( 2025 ) . For instance, as shown in Figure 1 , a model might correctly answer “3 channels” but cite an irrelevant entity (e.g., MrBeast ) instead of the correct Indian channel. Such "shortcuts" satisfy the binary outcome reward but fail to generalize, leaving the underlying retrieval failure unaddressed. To resolve these issues, we argue for a shift from result-oriented to evidence-Augmented process-oriented supervision for LCR. To operationalize this, we first establish the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm. By strictly enforcing a workflow where explicit evidence extraction precedes reasoning execution, EAR inherently resolves the problem of ungrounded responses, ensuring that no conclusion is derived without explicit citation. Building on this structured foundation, we conduct a preliminary study via Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling, which is employing BFS to explore distinct evidence trajectories, evaluated via both semantic similarity and fine-grained LLM judgments. This analysis empirically validates our core hypothesis: securing high-quality evidence is the decisive prerequisite for unlocking superior performance in ICR. Building on these insights, we propose EAPO ( E vidence- A ugmented P olicy O ptimization). EAPO is designed to internalize the benefits of precise evidence discovery directly into the model’s policy. It introduces a dense, group-relative evidence reward to provide fine-grained supervision at the process level, ensuring the model is rewarded not just for being right, but for being right for the high-quality evidence. However, relying on a static reward model carries risks, as the policy improves, a fixed evaluator may fail to distinguish subtle quality differences. To address this, we further incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This creates a self-reinforcing cycle where the reward model is iteratively refined using high-confidence, outcome-consistent rollouts generated by the policy itself. This continuous alignment sharpens the reward model’s discriminative capability, enabling it to assess complex evidence with increasing precision and dynamically synchronize its supervision signal with the evolving policy. The core contributions of our paper are: • We establish the EAR paradigm to enforce explicit evidence extraction prior to reasoning, and empirically identify this extraction step as the decisive bottleneck through Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. • We introduce the EAPO framework, shifting optimization from sparse outcome rewards to dense, evidence-augmented supervision. By leveraging a reward model to compute a group-relative evidence reward, EAPO guides the model to extract high-quality evidence, thereby enhancing reasoning capabilities. • We design an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism to establish a self-reinforcing loop. By iteratively refining the reward model with outcome-consistent rollouts, this mechanism sustains high-fidelity supervision. 1 Introduction The development of Large Language Models (LLMs) has profoundly revolutionized Natural Language Processing (NLP) Xu et al. ( 2025 ) . Models such as GPT Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) and DeepSeek-R1 DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) have propelled significant advancements in domains ranging from complex dialogue to summarization. However, as LLMs evolve into autonomous agents required to interact with dynamic environments, the demand for processing voluminous information has escalated. This imposes a critical challenge: as context length increases, model performance often suffers from severe degradation due to the “lost in the middle” phenomenon Liu et al. ( 2024 ) . In these high-noise scenarios, models frequently exhibit specific failure modes illustrated in Figure 1 : they may generate answers with no evidence support , rely on fragmentary retrieval , or make erroneous citations , failing to discriminate “needle-in-a-haystack” facts from irrelevant distractors. Reinforcement Learning (RL) Zhang et al. ( 2025b ) has emerged as a powerful tool for unlocking intrinsic reasoning capabilities. However, existing approaches in Long-Context Reasoning (LCR) predominantly rely on outcome-based rewards Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , guiding optimization solely based on the correctness of the final answer. This reliance exacerbates reward sparsity and may introduce noise: a model may correctly guess an answer via a flawed reasoning path Shao et al. ( 2025 ) . For instance, as shown in Figure 1 , a model might correctly answer “3 channels” but cite an irrelevant entity (e.g., MrBeast ) instead of the correct Indian channel. Such "shortcuts" satisfy the binary outcome reward but fail to generalize, leaving the underlying retrieval failure unaddressed. To resolve these issues, we argue for a shift from result-oriented to evidence-Augmented process-oriented supervision for LCR. To operationalize this, we first establish the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm. By strictly enforcing a workflow where explicit evidence extraction precedes reasoning execution, EAR inherently resolves the problem of ungrounded responses, ensuring that no conclusion is derived without explicit citation. Building on this structured foundation, we conduct a preliminary study via Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling, which is employing BFS to explore distinct evidence trajectories, evaluated via both semantic similarity and fine-grained LLM judgments. This analysis empirically validates our core hypothesis: securing high-quality evidence is the decisive prerequisite for unlocking superior performance in ICR. Building on these insights, we propose EAPO ( E vidence- A ugmented P olicy O ptimization). EAPO is designed to internalize the benefits of precise evidence discovery directly into the model’s policy. It introduces a dense, group-relative evidence reward to provide fine-grained supervision at the process level, ensuring the model is rewarded not just for being right, but for being right for the high-quality evidence. However, relying on a static reward model carries risks, as the policy improves, a fixed evaluator may fail to distinguish subtle quality differences. To address this, we further incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This creates a self-reinforcing cycle where the reward model is iteratively refined using high-confidence, outcome-consistent rollouts generated by the policy itself. This continuous alignment sharpens the reward model’s discriminative capability, enabling it to assess complex evidence with increasing precision and dynamically synchronize its supervision signal with the evolving policy. The core contributions of our paper are: • We establish the EAR paradigm to enforce explicit evidence extraction prior to reasoning, and empirically identify this extraction step as the decisive bottleneck through Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. We establish the EAR paradigm to enforce explicit evidence extraction prior to reasoning, and empirically identify this extraction step as the decisive bottleneck through Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. • We introduce the EAPO framework, shifting optimization from sparse outcome rewards to dense, evidence-augmented supervision. By leveraging a reward model to compute a group-relative evidence reward, EAPO guides the model to extract high-quality evidence, thereby enhancing reasoning capabilities. We introduce the EAPO framework, shifting optimization from sparse outcome rewards to dense, evidence-augmented supervision. By leveraging a reward model to compute a group-relative evidence reward, EAPO guides the model to extract high-quality evidence, thereby enhancing reasoning capabilities. • We design an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism to establish a self-reinforcing loop. By iteratively refining the reward model with outcome-consistent rollouts, this mechanism sustains high-fidelity supervision. We design an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism to establish a self-reinforcing loop. By iteratively refining the reward model with outcome-consistent rollouts, this mechanism sustains high-fidelity supervision. 2 Empirical Motivation: The Primacy of Evidence Before detailing our reinforcement learning framework, we first establish empirical foundations of our approach. We introduce the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm to structure the long-context workflow and utilize a Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling to validate a critical hypothesis that evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck in long-context reasoning . 2.1 Evidence-Augmented Reasoning We propose the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm, as shown in Figure 1 , which explicitly decouples the retrieval of information from its logical manipulation, CoE enforces a strict four-stage workflow: 1) Task Analysis <analysis> : Deconstructing the user’s query constraints. 2) Evidence Extraction <evidence> : Locating and quoting relevant text segments verbatim from the context. 3) Reasoning Execution <reasoning> : Deriving conclusions based exclusively on the extracted evidence. 4) Answer Formulation <answer> : Synthesizing the final response. This structural decomposition operationalized via special tokens not only focuses attention but, crucially, exposes the intermediate evidence state for direct supervision. Figure 2: Overview of Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. The process samples diverse evidence and reasoning paths, evaluates their scores, and derives the final answer. 2.2 Preliminary Experiment on Evidence Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. To quantify the critical role of evidence quality in determining final reasoning outcomes, we design a systematic exploration strategy modeled as a decision tree. As shown in Figure 2 , we employ Breadth-First Search (BFS) to sample k k distinct evidence trajectories for a given query and context, creating a diverse search space. To efficiently value these intermediate nodes without redundant full-context processing, we apply a Query-Centric Node Evaluation that scores candidates based strictly on their utility relative to the query. We investigate two specific valuation paradigms to identify the better evidence: • Semantic Similarity Assessment (SSA): Using a reranker (Qwen3-8B-Reranker Zhang et al. ( 2025c ) ) to measure the coarse-grained embedding alignment between the query and the extracted evidence. • LLM-as-a-Judge (LLM-E/R): Leveraging an LLM to perform fine-grained evaluation on the utility of the extracted evidence (LLM-E) or the coherence of the reasoning (LLM-R) (Prompts in Appendix C ). Experiment Setting Figure 3: Performance analysis of Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct on Musique in LongBench. We compare Direct Reasoning, EAR variants with different evaluators, and an Oracle upper bound ( Evidence-Grounded ). To quantify the factors constraining long-context performance, we conduct a controlled analysis on the Musique from LongBench benchmark Bai et al. ( 2024 ) using Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct Yang et al. ( 2025 ) as the base model. To establish a empirical performance ceiling, we construct an Evidence-Grounded (Oracle) baseline, where high-fidelity evidence is extracted by a superior model ( gemini-2.5-pro ) utilizing both the query and ground-truth answer, and then fed to the base model for inference. We employ Tree-Structured Sampling with a beam width of k = 3 k=3 . As illustrated in Figure 3 , our analysis yields the following insights: Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Our results isolate evidence retrieval as the primary failure mode through two key observations. First, simply providing the model with high-fidelity evidence (Oracle) drastically elevates performance to 63.0%, revealing a massive potential currently locked by retrieval failures. Second, adding a reasoning verification step (LLM-R) atop evidence evaluation yields negligible gains compared to evidence evaluation alone (LLM-E). This implies that once high-quality evidence is secured, the model’s inherent reasoning capabilities are sufficient, the bottleneck lies in finding the evidence. Figure 4: Overview of EAPO. Left: The Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization phase, utilizing dense evidence scores to guide the high-quality evidence extraction process. Right: The Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution cycle, which iteratively refines the reward model to sharpen its discriminative capability for accurate supervision. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. Our analysis reveals a direct correlation between the fidelity of process supervision and the magnitude of performance improvement. While SSA offers limited guidance (+5.5%), employing an LLM-based judge to provide process supervision significantly improves performance (+9.0%). Furthermore, elevating the supervision quality with a stronger gpt-oss-120B evaluator yields even greater gains (+11.0%). 2 Empirical Motivation: The Primacy of Evidence Before detailing our reinforcement learning framework, we first establish empirical foundations of our approach. We introduce the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm to structure the long-context workflow and utilize a Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling to validate a critical hypothesis that evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck in long-context reasoning . 2.1 Evidence-Augmented Reasoning We propose the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm, as shown in Figure 1 , which explicitly decouples the retrieval of information from its logical manipulation, CoE enforces a strict four-stage workflow: 1) Task Analysis <analysis> : Deconstructing the user’s query constraints. 2) Evidence Extraction <evidence> : Locating and quoting relevant text segments verbatim from the context. 3) Reasoning Execution <reasoning> : Deriving conclusions based exclusively on the extracted evidence. 4) Answer Formulation <answer> : Synthesizing the final response. This structural decomposition operationalized via special tokens not only focuses attention but, crucially, exposes the intermediate evidence state for direct supervision. Figure 2: Overview of Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. The process samples diverse evidence and reasoning paths, evaluates their scores, and derives the final answer. 2.1 Evidence-Augmented Reasoning We propose the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning (EAR) paradigm, as shown in Figure 1 , which explicitly decouples the retrieval of information from its logical manipulation, CoE enforces a strict four-stage workflow: 1) Task Analysis <analysis> : Deconstructing the user’s query constraints. 2) Evidence Extraction <evidence> : Locating and quoting relevant text segments verbatim from the context. 3) Reasoning Execution <reasoning> : Deriving conclusions based exclusively on the extracted evidence. 4) Answer Formulation <answer> : Synthesizing the final response. This structural decomposition operationalized via special tokens not only focuses attention but, crucially, exposes the intermediate evidence state for direct supervision. 2.2 Preliminary Experiment on Evidence Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. To quantify the critical role of evidence quality in determining final reasoning outcomes, we design a systematic exploration strategy modeled as a decision tree. As shown in Figure 2 , we employ Breadth-First Search (BFS) to sample k k distinct evidence trajectories for a given query and context, creating a diverse search space. To efficiently value these intermediate nodes without redundant full-context processing, we apply a Query-Centric Node Evaluation that scores candidates based strictly on their utility relative to the query. We investigate two specific valuation paradigms to identify the better evidence: • Semantic Similarity Assessment (SSA): Using a reranker (Qwen3-8B-Reranker Zhang et al. ( 2025c ) ) to measure the coarse-grained embedding alignment between the query and the extracted evidence. • LLM-as-a-Judge (LLM-E/R): Leveraging an LLM to perform fine-grained evaluation on the utility of the extracted evidence (LLM-E) or the coherence of the reasoning (LLM-R) (Prompts in Appendix C ). Experiment Setting Figure 3: Performance analysis of Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct on Musique in LongBench. We compare Direct Reasoning, EAR variants with different evaluators, and an Oracle upper bound ( Evidence-Grounded ). To quantify the factors constraining long-context performance, we conduct a controlled analysis on the Musique from LongBench benchmark Bai et al. ( 2024 ) using Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct Yang et al. ( 2025 ) as the base model. To establish a empirical performance ceiling, we construct an Evidence-Grounded (Oracle) baseline, where high-fidelity evidence is extracted by a superior model ( gemini-2.5-pro ) utilizing both the query and ground-truth answer, and then fed to the base model for inference. We employ Tree-Structured Sampling with a beam width of k = 3 k=3 . As illustrated in Figure 3 , our analysis yields the following insights: Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Our results isolate evidence retrieval as the primary failure mode through two key observations. First, simply providing the model with high-fidelity evidence (Oracle) drastically elevates performance to 63.0%, revealing a massive potential currently locked by retrieval failures. Second, adding a reasoning verification step (LLM-R) atop evidence evaluation yields negligible gains compared to evidence evaluation alone (LLM-E). This implies that once high-quality evidence is secured, the model’s inherent reasoning capabilities are sufficient, the bottleneck lies in finding the evidence. Figure 4: Overview of EAPO. Left: The Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization phase, utilizing dense evidence scores to guide the high-quality evidence extraction process. Right: The Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution cycle, which iteratively refines the reward model to sharpen its discriminative capability for accurate supervision. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. Our analysis reveals a direct correlation between the fidelity of process supervision and the magnitude of performance improvement. While SSA offers limited guidance (+5.5%), employing an LLM-based judge to provide process supervision significantly improves performance (+9.0%). Furthermore, elevating the supervision quality with a stronger gpt-oss-120B evaluator yields even greater gains (+11.0%). 2.2 Preliminary Experiment on Evidence Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. To quantify the critical role of evidence quality in determining final reasoning outcomes, we design a systematic exploration strategy modeled as a decision tree. As shown in Figure 2 , we employ Breadth-First Search (BFS) to sample k k distinct evidence trajectories for a given query and context, creating a diverse search space. To efficiently value these intermediate nodes without redundant full-context processing, we apply a Query-Centric Node Evaluation that scores candidates based strictly on their utility relative to the query. We investigate two specific valuation paradigms to identify the better evidence: • Semantic Similarity Assessment (SSA): Using a reranker (Qwen3-8B-Reranker Zhang et al. ( 2025c ) ) to measure the coarse-grained embedding alignment between the query and the extracted evidence. • LLM-as-a-Judge (LLM-E/R): Leveraging an LLM to perform fine-grained evaluation on the utility of the extracted evidence (LLM-E) or the coherence of the reasoning (LLM-R) (Prompts in Appendix C ). Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling. To quantify the critical role of evidence quality in determining final reasoning outcomes, we design a systematic exploration strategy modeled as a decision tree. As shown in Figure 2 , we employ Breadth-First Search (BFS) to sample k k distinct evidence trajectories for a given query and context, creating a diverse search space. To efficiently value these intermediate nodes without redundant full-context processing, we apply a Query-Centric Node Evaluation that scores candidates based strictly on their utility relative to the query. We investigate two specific valuation paradigms to identify the better evidence: • Semantic Similarity Assessment (SSA): Using a reranker (Qwen3-8B-Reranker Zhang et al. ( 2025c ) ) to measure the coarse-grained embedding alignment between the query and the extracted evidence. Semantic Similarity Assessment (SSA): Using a reranker (Qwen3-8B-Reranker Zhang et al. ( 2025c ) ) to measure the coarse-grained embedding alignment between the query and the extracted evidence. • LLM-as-a-Judge (LLM-E/R): Leveraging an LLM to perform fine-grained evaluation on the utility of the extracted evidence (LLM-E) or the coherence of the reasoning (LLM-R) (Prompts in Appendix C ). LLM-as-a-Judge (LLM-E/R): Leveraging an LLM to perform fine-grained evaluation on the utility of the extracted evidence (LLM-E) or the coherence of the reasoning (LLM-R) (Prompts in Appendix C ). Experiment Setting Figure 3: Performance analysis of Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct on Musique in LongBench. We compare Direct Reasoning, EAR variants with different evaluators, and an Oracle upper bound ( Evidence-Grounded ). To quantify the factors constraining long-context performance, we conduct a controlled analysis on the Musique from LongBench benchmark Bai et al. ( 2024 ) using Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct Yang et al. ( 2025 ) as the base model. To establish a empirical performance ceiling, we construct an Evidence-Grounded (Oracle) baseline, where high-fidelity evidence is extracted by a superior model ( gemini-2.5-pro ) utilizing both the query and ground-truth answer, and then fed to the base model for inference. We employ Tree-Structured Sampling with a beam width of k = 3 k=3 . As illustrated in Figure 3 , our analysis yields the following insights: Experiment Setting To quantify the factors constraining long-context performance, we conduct a controlled analysis on the Musique from LongBench benchmark Bai et al. ( 2024 ) using Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct Yang et al. ( 2025 ) as the base model. To establish a empirical performance ceiling, we construct an Evidence-Grounded (Oracle) baseline, where high-fidelity evidence is extracted by a superior model ( gemini-2.5-pro ) utilizing both the query and ground-truth answer, and then fed to the base model for inference. We employ Tree-Structured Sampling with a beam width of k = 3 k=3 . As illustrated in Figure 3 , our analysis yields the following insights: Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Our results isolate evidence retrieval as the primary failure mode through two key observations. First, simply providing the model with high-fidelity evidence (Oracle) drastically elevates performance to 63.0%, revealing a massive potential currently locked by retrieval failures. Second, adding a reasoning verification step (LLM-R) atop evidence evaluation yields negligible gains compared to evidence evaluation alone (LLM-E). This implies that once high-quality evidence is secured, the model’s inherent reasoning capabilities are sufficient, the bottleneck lies in finding the evidence. Figure 4: Overview of EAPO. Left: The Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization phase, utilizing dense evidence scores to guide the high-quality evidence extraction process. Right: The Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution cycle, which iteratively refines the reward model to sharpen its discriminative capability for accurate supervision. Evidence Extraction is the Decisive Bottleneck. Our results isolate evidence retrieval as the primary failure mode through two key observations. First, simply providing the model with high-fidelity evidence (Oracle) drastically elevates performance to 63.0%, revealing a massive potential currently locked by retrieval failures. Second, adding a reasoning verification step (LLM-R) atop evidence evaluation yields negligible gains compared to evidence evaluation alone (LLM-E). This implies that once high-quality evidence is secured, the model’s inherent reasoning capabilities are sufficient, the bottleneck lies in finding the evidence. Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. Our analysis reveals a direct correlation between the fidelity of process supervision and the magnitude of performance improvement. While SSA offers limited guidance (+5.5%), employing an LLM-based judge to provide process supervision significantly improves performance (+9.0%). Furthermore, elevating the supervision quality with a stronger gpt-oss-120B evaluator yields even greater gains (+11.0%). Superior Process Supervision Drives Greater Performance Gains. Our analysis reveals a direct correlation between the fidelity of process supervision and the magnitude of performance improvement. While SSA offers limited guidance (+5.5%), employing an LLM-based judge to provide process supervision significantly improves performance (+9.0%). Furthermore, elevating the supervision quality with a stronger gpt-oss-120B evaluator yields even greater gains (+11.0%). 3 Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization Building on the empirical findings in Section 2.2 , we propose Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization (EAPO). Guided by the insight that evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck, EAPO shifts supervision from sparse outcome signals to dense, process-oriented guidance. Furthermore, to leverage the critical correlation between evaluator strength and performance, we incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This establishes a self-reinforcing loop where the reward model’s discriminative power is iteratively sharpened in tandem with the policy. The framework’s overview is depicted in Figure 4 . 3.1 Preliminaries Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). We adopt Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) Shao et al. ( 2024 ) as the core reinforcement learning algorithm. Formally, for each query q q sampled from the dataset distribution P ( Q ) P(Q) , we generate a group of G G outputs { o 1 , … , o G } \{o_{1},...,o_{G}\} utilizing the old policy π θ o l d \pi_{\theta_{old}} . The optimization objective is to maximize the following surrogate loss function: ℒ G R P O ( θ ) = 𝔼 q ∼ P ( Q ) , { o i } ∼ π θ o l d [ 1 G ∑ i = 1 G min ( r i ( θ ) A ^ i , clip ( r i ( θ ) , 1 − ϵ l o w , 1 + ϵ h i g h ) A ^ i ) ] \begin{split}\mathcal{L}_{GRPO}(\theta)=\mathbb{E}_{q\sim P(Q),\{o_{i}\}\sim\pi_{\theta_{old}}}\bigg[\frac{1}{G}\sum_{i=1}^{G}\min\Big(\\ r_{i}(\theta)\hat{A}_{i},\quad\text{clip}\big(r_{i}(\theta),1-\epsilon_{low},1+\epsilon_{high}\big)\hat{A}_{i}\Big)\bigg]\end{split} (1) where r i ( θ ) = π θ ( o i | q ) π θ o l d ( o i | q ) r_{i}(\theta)=\frac{\pi_{\theta}(o_{i}|q)}{\pi_{\theta_{old}}(o_{i}|q)} denotes the probability ratio between the current and old policies. The hyperparameters ϵ l o w \epsilon_{low} and ϵ h i g h \epsilon_{high} constrain the policy update step size, set to 0.2 and 0.28 respectively. A ^ i \hat{A}_{i} represents the advantage value for the i i -th output, which is derived from the standardized total reward: A ^ i = R t o t a l ( i ) − mean ( R t o t a l ) std ( R t o t a l ) \hat{A}_{i}=\frac{R_{total}^{(i)}-\text{mean}(R_{total})}{\text{std}(R_{total})} . R t o t a l ( i ) R_{total}^{(i)} denotes the reward for the i i -th sample. We define the specific composition of this fine-grained process reward R t o t a l R_{total} in the subsequent section. 3.2 Multi-Granular Process Reward Mechanism EAPO constructs a dense, process reward R t o t a l R_{total} . This composite signal is composed of distinct components designed to guide the model through the structured Evidence-Augmented workflow: Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). To ensure the output conforms to the EAR structure, we verify the presence of specific delimiters (e.g., <evidence> ). If the format is correct, we assign R f = 1 R_{f}=1 ; otherwise, R f = 0 R_{f}=0 . And if the format is invalid, the evaluation terminates immediately, and the remaining reward components are not calculated. Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). This component serves as an intermediate process reward designed to assess the quality of the extracted evidence. Specifically, we extract all evidence segments generated within all rollouts and input this collective set simultaneously into the Reward Model θ R M \theta_{RM} for assessment. The RM assigns an integer utility score v ∈ { 1 , … , 5 } v\in\{1,\dots,5\} (Prompt in the Appendix C ). These scores are then normalized within the sampled group to yield R e ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] R_{e}\in[0,1] , enabling the policy to prioritize superior evidence through comparative feedback. Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Following Wan et al. ( 2025 ) , we employ an LLM-based evaluator to assess answer correctness. This module assigns a binary reward by verifying if the generated answer is semantically consistent with the ground truth. Total Reward. The composite reward is a weighted linear combination: R t o t a l = α R f + β R e + γ R a R_{total}=\alpha R_{f}+\beta R_{e}+\gamma R_{a} (2) where α , β , γ \alpha,\beta,\gamma are hyperparameters balancing structural compliance, evidence quality, and final accuracy. 3.3 Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution Our preliminary analysis in Section 2.2 revealed a critical phenomenon: the efficacy of policy model optimization is positively correlated with the quality of process supervision. To improve the capabilities of the process Reward Model (RM), EAPO incorporates an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism, establishing a dynamic closed-loop where the RM iteratively improves alongside the Policy. This cycle proceeds in two key phases: Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. During the optimization phase, the current policy π θ \pi_{\theta} generates diverse reasoning trajectories for each query. The current RM evaluates the evidence sets extracted within these rollouts, assigning integer quality scores to guide the immediate policy update. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). To prevent supervision degradation, we employ a strategy inspired by Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). Rather than naively training on all correct paths, we apply a strict Outcome Consistency filter to curate a high-fidelity dataset. We retain only those trajectories where the RM’s judgment aligns with objective reality. specifically, instances where high evidence scores correspond to correct answers and low scores to incorrect ones. These validated High-Confidence data are then used to fine-tune the Reward Model parameters θ R M \theta_{RM} via a supervised objective: θ R M ← arg min θ 𝔼 ( q , o , y ) ∼ 𝒟 h i g h [ ℒ ( R θ ( q , o ) , y ) ] \theta_{RM}\leftarrow\arg\min_{\theta}\mathbb{E}_{(q,o,y)\sim\mathcal{D}_{high}}\left[\mathcal{L}(R_{\theta}(q,o),y)\right] (3) where q q denotes the input query, o o represents the evidences set, and y y indicates the target prediction derived from the consistency check. This process continuously sharpens the RM’s discriminative boundary, ensuring that the supervision signal remains accurate and precise as the policy explores increasingly complex reasoning patterns. By synchronizing the evolution of the reward model with the policy, EAPO creates a self-reinforcing cycle that guides the model toward autonomous, high-fidelity evidence discovery. 3 Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization Building on the empirical findings in Section 2.2 , we propose Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization (EAPO). Guided by the insight that evidence extraction is the decisive bottleneck, EAPO shifts supervision from sparse outcome signals to dense, process-oriented guidance. Furthermore, to leverage the critical correlation between evaluator strength and performance, we incorporate an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism. This establishes a self-reinforcing loop where the reward model’s discriminative power is iteratively sharpened in tandem with the policy. The framework’s overview is depicted in Figure 4 . 3.1 Preliminaries Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). We adopt Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) Shao et al. ( 2024 ) as the core reinforcement learning algorithm. Formally, for each query q q sampled from the dataset distribution P ( Q ) P(Q) , we generate a group of G G outputs { o 1 , … , o G } \{o_{1},...,o_{G}\} utilizing the old policy π θ o l d \pi_{\theta_{old}} . The optimization objective is to maximize the following surrogate loss function: ℒ G R P O ( θ ) = 𝔼 q ∼ P ( Q ) , { o i } ∼ π θ o l d [ 1 G ∑ i = 1 G min ( r i ( θ ) A ^ i , clip ( r i ( θ ) , 1 − ϵ l o w , 1 + ϵ h i g h ) A ^ i ) ] \begin{split}\mathcal{L}_{GRPO}(\theta)=\mathbb{E}_{q\sim P(Q),\{o_{i}\}\sim\pi_{\theta_{old}}}\bigg[\frac{1}{G}\sum_{i=1}^{G}\min\Big(\\ r_{i}(\theta)\hat{A}_{i},\quad\text{clip}\big(r_{i}(\theta),1-\epsilon_{low},1+\epsilon_{high}\big)\hat{A}_{i}\Big)\bigg]\end{split} (1) where r i ( θ ) = π θ ( o i | q ) π θ o l d ( o i | q ) r_{i}(\theta)=\frac{\pi_{\theta}(o_{i}|q)}{\pi_{\theta_{old}}(o_{i}|q)} denotes the probability ratio between the current and old policies. The hyperparameters ϵ l o w \epsilon_{low} and ϵ h i g h \epsilon_{high} constrain the policy update step size, set to 0.2 and 0.28 respectively. A ^ i \hat{A}_{i} represents the advantage value for the i i -th output, which is derived from the standardized total reward: A ^ i = R t o t a l ( i ) − mean ( R t o t a l ) std ( R t o t a l ) \hat{A}_{i}=\frac{R_{total}^{(i)}-\text{mean}(R_{total})}{\text{std}(R_{total})} . R t o t a l ( i ) R_{total}^{(i)} denotes the reward for the i i -th sample. We define the specific composition of this fine-grained process reward R t o t a l R_{total} in the subsequent section. 3.1 Preliminaries Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). We adopt Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) Shao et al. ( 2024 ) as the core reinforcement learning algorithm. Formally, for each query q q sampled from the dataset distribution P ( Q ) P(Q) , we generate a group of G G outputs { o 1 , … , o G } \{o_{1},...,o_{G}\} utilizing the old policy π θ o l d \pi_{\theta_{old}} . The optimization objective is to maximize the following surrogate loss function: ℒ G R P O ( θ ) = 𝔼 q ∼ P ( Q ) , { o i } ∼ π θ o l d [ 1 G ∑ i = 1 G min ( r i ( θ ) A ^ i , clip ( r i ( θ ) , 1 − ϵ l o w , 1 + ϵ h i g h ) A ^ i ) ] \begin{split}\mathcal{L}_{GRPO}(\theta)=\mathbb{E}_{q\sim P(Q),\{o_{i}\}\sim\pi_{\theta_{old}}}\bigg[\frac{1}{G}\sum_{i=1}^{G}\min\Big(\\ r_{i}(\theta)\hat{A}_{i},\quad\text{clip}\big(r_{i}(\theta),1-\epsilon_{low},1+\epsilon_{high}\big)\hat{A}_{i}\Big)\bigg]\end{split} (1) where r i ( θ ) = π θ ( o i | q ) π θ o l d ( o i | q ) r_{i}(\theta)=\frac{\pi_{\theta}(o_{i}|q)}{\pi_{\theta_{old}}(o_{i}|q)} denotes the probability ratio between the current and old policies. The hyperparameters ϵ l o w \epsilon_{low} and ϵ h i g h \epsilon_{high} constrain the policy update step size, set to 0.2 and 0.28 respectively. A ^ i \hat{A}_{i} represents the advantage value for the i i -th output, which is derived from the standardized total reward: A ^ i = R t o t a l ( i ) − mean ( R t o t a l ) std ( R t o t a l ) \hat{A}_{i}=\frac{R_{total}^{(i)}-\text{mean}(R_{total})}{\text{std}(R_{total})} . R t o t a l ( i ) R_{total}^{(i)} denotes the reward for the i i -th sample. We define the specific composition of this fine-grained process reward R t o t a l R_{total} in the subsequent section. Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO). We adopt Group Relative Policy Optimization (GRPO) Shao et al. ( 2024 ) as the core reinforcement learning algorithm. Formally, for each query q q sampled from the dataset distribution P ( Q ) P(Q) , we generate a group of G G outputs { o 1 , … , o G } \{o_{1},...,o_{G}\} utilizing the old policy π θ o l d \pi_{\theta_{old}} . The optimization objective is to maximize the following surrogate loss function: ℒ G R P O ( θ ) = 𝔼 q ∼ P ( Q ) , { o i } ∼ π θ o l d [ 1 G ∑ i = 1 G min ( r i ( θ ) A ^ i , clip ( r i ( θ ) , 1 − ϵ l o w , 1 + ϵ h i g h ) A ^ i ) ] \begin{split}\mathcal{L}_{GRPO}(\theta)=\mathbb{E}_{q\sim P(Q),\{o_{i}\}\sim\pi_{\theta_{old}}}\bigg[\frac{1}{G}\sum_{i=1}^{G}\min\Big(\\ r_{i}(\theta)\hat{A}_{i},\quad\text{clip}\big(r_{i}(\theta),1-\epsilon_{low},1+\epsilon_{high}\big)\hat{A}_{i}\Big)\bigg]\end{split} (1) where r i ( θ ) = π θ ( o i | q ) π θ o l d ( o i | q ) r_{i}(\theta)=\frac{\pi_{\theta}(o_{i}|q)}{\pi_{\theta_{old}}(o_{i}|q)} denotes the probability ratio between the current and old policies. The hyperparameters ϵ l o w \epsilon_{low} and ϵ h i g h \epsilon_{high} constrain the policy update step size, set to 0.2 and 0.28 respectively. A ^ i \hat{A}_{i} represents the advantage value for the i i -th output, which is derived from the standardized total reward: A ^ i = R t o t a l ( i ) − mean ( R t o t a l ) std ( R t o t a l ) \hat{A}_{i}=\frac{R_{total}^{(i)}-\text{mean}(R_{total})}{\text{std}(R_{total})} . R t o t a l ( i ) R_{total}^{(i)} denotes the reward for the i i -th sample. We define the specific composition of this fine-grained process reward R t o t a l R_{total} in the subsequent section. 3.2 Multi-Granular Process Reward Mechanism EAPO constructs a dense, process reward R t o t a l R_{total} . This composite signal is composed of distinct components designed to guide the model through the structured Evidence-Augmented workflow: Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). To ensure the output conforms to the EAR structure, we verify the presence of specific delimiters (e.g., <evidence> ). If the format is correct, we assign R f = 1 R_{f}=1 ; otherwise, R f = 0 R_{f}=0 . And if the format is invalid, the evaluation terminates immediately, and the remaining reward components are not calculated. Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). This component serves as an intermediate process reward designed to assess the quality of the extracted evidence. Specifically, we extract all evidence segments generated within all rollouts and input this collective set simultaneously into the Reward Model θ R M \theta_{RM} for assessment. The RM assigns an integer utility score v ∈ { 1 , … , 5 } v\in\{1,\dots,5\} (Prompt in the Appendix C ). These scores are then normalized within the sampled group to yield R e ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] R_{e}\in[0,1] , enabling the policy to prioritize superior evidence through comparative feedback. Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Following Wan et al. ( 2025 ) , we employ an LLM-based evaluator to assess answer correctness. This module assigns a binary reward by verifying if the generated answer is semantically consistent with the ground truth. Total Reward. The composite reward is a weighted linear combination: R t o t a l = α R f + β R e + γ R a R_{total}=\alpha R_{f}+\beta R_{e}+\gamma R_{a} (2) where α , β , γ \alpha,\beta,\gamma are hyperparameters balancing structural compliance, evidence quality, and final accuracy. 3.2 Multi-Granular Process Reward Mechanism EAPO constructs a dense, process reward R t o t a l R_{total} . This composite signal is composed of distinct components designed to guide the model through the structured Evidence-Augmented workflow: Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). To ensure the output conforms to the EAR structure, we verify the presence of specific delimiters (e.g., <evidence> ). If the format is correct, we assign R f = 1 R_{f}=1 ; otherwise, R f = 0 R_{f}=0 . And if the format is invalid, the evaluation terminates immediately, and the remaining reward components are not calculated. Format Adherence ( R f R_{f} ). To ensure the output conforms to the EAR structure, we verify the presence of specific delimiters (e.g., <evidence> ). If the format is correct, we assign R f = 1 R_{f}=1 ; otherwise, R f = 0 R_{f}=0 . And if the format is invalid, the evaluation terminates immediately, and the remaining reward components are not calculated. Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). This component serves as an intermediate process reward designed to assess the quality of the extracted evidence. Specifically, we extract all evidence segments generated within all rollouts and input this collective set simultaneously into the Reward Model θ R M \theta_{RM} for assessment. The RM assigns an integer utility score v ∈ { 1 , … , 5 } v\in\{1,\dots,5\} (Prompt in the Appendix C ). These scores are then normalized within the sampled group to yield R e ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] R_{e}\in[0,1] , enabling the policy to prioritize superior evidence through comparative feedback. Group-Relative Evidence Quality ( R e R_{e} ). This component serves as an intermediate process reward designed to assess the quality of the extracted evidence. Specifically, we extract all evidence segments generated within all rollouts and input this collective set simultaneously into the Reward Model θ R M \theta_{RM} for assessment. The RM assigns an integer utility score v ∈ { 1 , … , 5 } v\in\{1,\dots,5\} (Prompt in the Appendix C ). These scores are then normalized within the sampled group to yield R e ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] R_{e}\in[0,1] , enabling the policy to prioritize superior evidence through comparative feedback. Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Following Wan et al. ( 2025 ) , we employ an LLM-based evaluator to assess answer correctness. This module assigns a binary reward by verifying if the generated answer is semantically consistent with the ground truth. Outcome Accuracy ( R a R_{a} ). Following Wan et al. ( 2025 ) , we employ an LLM-based evaluator to assess answer correctness. This module assigns a binary reward by verifying if the generated answer is semantically consistent with the ground truth. Total Reward. The composite reward is a weighted linear combination: R t o t a l = α R f + β R e + γ R a R_{total}=\alpha R_{f}+\beta R_{e}+\gamma R_{a} (2) where α , β , γ \alpha,\beta,\gamma are hyperparameters balancing structural compliance, evidence quality, and final accuracy. Total Reward. The composite reward is a weighted linear combination: R t o t a l = α R f + β R e + γ R a R_{total}=\alpha R_{f}+\beta R_{e}+\gamma R_{a} (2) where α , β , γ \alpha,\beta,\gamma are hyperparameters balancing structural compliance, evidence quality, and final accuracy. 3.3 Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution Our preliminary analysis in Section 2.2 revealed a critical phenomenon: the efficacy of policy model optimization is positively correlated with the quality of process supervision. To improve the capabilities of the process Reward Model (RM), EAPO incorporates an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism, establishing a dynamic closed-loop where the RM iteratively improves alongside the Policy. This cycle proceeds in two key phases: Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. During the optimization phase, the current policy π θ \pi_{\theta} generates diverse reasoning trajectories for each query. The current RM evaluates the evidence sets extracted within these rollouts, assigning integer quality scores to guide the immediate policy update. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). To prevent supervision degradation, we employ a strategy inspired by Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). Rather than naively training on all correct paths, we apply a strict Outcome Consistency filter to curate a high-fidelity dataset. We retain only those trajectories where the RM’s judgment aligns with objective reality. specifically, instances where high evidence scores correspond to correct answers and low scores to incorrect ones. These validated High-Confidence data are then used to fine-tune the Reward Model parameters θ R M \theta_{RM} via a supervised objective: θ R M ← arg min θ 𝔼 ( q , o , y ) ∼ 𝒟 h i g h [ ℒ ( R θ ( q , o ) , y ) ] \theta_{RM}\leftarrow\arg\min_{\theta}\mathbb{E}_{(q,o,y)\sim\mathcal{D}_{high}}\left[\mathcal{L}(R_{\theta}(q,o),y)\right] (3) where q q denotes the input query, o o represents the evidences set, and y y indicates the target prediction derived from the consistency check. This process continuously sharpens the RM’s discriminative boundary, ensuring that the supervision signal remains accurate and precise as the policy explores increasingly complex reasoning patterns. By synchronizing the evolution of the reward model with the policy, EAPO creates a self-reinforcing cycle that guides the model toward autonomous, high-fidelity evidence discovery. 3.3 Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution Our preliminary analysis in Section 2.2 revealed a critical phenomenon: the efficacy of policy model optimization is positively correlated with the quality of process supervision. To improve the capabilities of the process Reward Model (RM), EAPO incorporates an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism, establishing a dynamic closed-loop where the RM iteratively improves alongside the Policy. This cycle proceeds in two key phases: Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. During the optimization phase, the current policy π θ \pi_{\theta} generates diverse reasoning trajectories for each query. The current RM evaluates the evidence sets extracted within these rollouts, assigning integer quality scores to guide the immediate policy update. Exploratory Rollout and Scoring. During the optimization phase, the current policy π θ \pi_{\theta} generates diverse reasoning trajectories for each query. The current RM evaluates the evidence sets extracted within these rollouts, assigning integer quality scores to guide the immediate policy update. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). To prevent supervision degradation, we employ a strategy inspired by Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). Rather than naively training on all correct paths, we apply a strict Outcome Consistency filter to curate a high-fidelity dataset. We retain only those trajectories where the RM’s judgment aligns with objective reality. specifically, instances where high evidence scores correspond to correct answers and low scores to incorrect ones. These validated High-Confidence data are then used to fine-tune the Reward Model parameters θ R M \theta_{RM} via a supervised objective: θ R M ← arg min θ 𝔼 ( q , o , y ) ∼ 𝒟 h i g h [ ℒ ( R θ ( q , o ) , y ) ] \theta_{RM}\leftarrow\arg\min_{\theta}\mathbb{E}_{(q,o,y)\sim\mathcal{D}_{high}}\left[\mathcal{L}(R_{\theta}(q,o),y)\right] (3) where q q denotes the input query, o o represents the evidences set, and y y indicates the target prediction derived from the consistency check. This process continuously sharpens the RM’s discriminative boundary, ensuring that the supervision signal remains accurate and precise as the policy explores increasingly complex reasoning patterns. By synchronizing the evolution of the reward model with the policy, EAPO creates a self-reinforcing cycle that guides the model toward autonomous, high-fidelity evidence discovery. Outcome-Consistent Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). To prevent supervision degradation, we employ a strategy inspired by Rejection Fine-Tuning (RFT). Rather than naively training on all correct paths, we apply a strict Outcome Consistency filter to curate a high-fidelity dataset. We retain only those trajectories where the RM’s judgment aligns with objective reality. specifically, instances where high evidence scores correspond to correct answers and low scores to incorrect ones. These validated High-Confidence data are then used to fine-tune the Reward Model parameters θ R M \theta_{RM} via a supervised objective: θ R M ← arg min θ 𝔼 ( q , o , y ) ∼ 𝒟 h i g h [ ℒ ( R θ ( q , o ) , y ) ] \theta_{RM}\leftarrow\arg\min_{\theta}\mathbb{E}_{(q,o,y)\sim\mathcal{D}_{high}}\left[\mathcal{L}(R_{\theta}(q,o),y)\right] (3) where q q denotes the input query, o o represents the evidences set, and y y indicates the target prediction derived from the consistency check. This process continuously sharpens the RM’s discriminative boundary, ensuring that the supervision signal remains accurate and precise as the policy explores increasingly complex reasoning patterns. By synchronizing the evolution of the reward model with the policy, EAPO creates a self-reinforcing cycle that guides the model toward autonomous, high-fidelity evidence discovery. 4 Experiments Models SEAL LongBench LongBench-v2 AVG Seal-0 Seal-hard Musique Hotpotqa 2wiki SDQ MDQ LSA Comparison with other LLMs GPT-4o 19.8 39.4 60.0 78.0 79.5 47.0 50.0 44.4 52.3 Gemini-2.0-Flash 24.3 36.6 52.5 75.0 84.5 43.1 44.1 48.2 51.0 Qwen3-Plus 24.3 32.3 56.5 71.5 80.0 50.3 44.1 55.6 51.8 Claude-Sonnet-4 42.3 56.3 60.5 81.5 81.0 50.3 48.0 66.7 60.8 GPT-OSS-120B 39.6 55.5 64.0 80.0 87.5 45.7 46.1 63.0 60.2 QwenLong-32B 40.5 56.7 64.5 77.5 84.5 49.0 52.9 37.0 57.8 Comparison among Our Models Qwen3-14B 35.1 49.6 56.0 79.5 83.5 40.4 42.2 38.9 53.2 + GRPO 35.1 51.0 57.0 80.0 83.0 40.7 42.4 40.9 53.8 (+0.6) + EAPO 36.0 52.5 57.0 81.0 83.5 43.0 44.1 42.9 55.0 (+1.8) Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct 23.4 30.3 45.0 73.0 75.0 39.7 43.1 55.6 48.1 + GRPO 31.5 40.2 51.5 75.5 85.5 41.1 43.6 55.6 53.1 (+5.0) + EAPO 33.0 44.1 59.5 77.5 87.5 42.4 45.1 55.6 55.6 (+7.5) Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking 33.3 55.5 60.0 79.0 84.5 47.0 45.1 59.3 58.0 + GRPO 40.4 53.8 60.5 78.5 85.0 49.7 43.1 63.0 59.2 (+1.2) + EAPO 44.1 57.9 65.0 80.0 86.5 51.7 49.0 70.4 63.1 (+5.1) Table 1: Main results on long-context reasoning benchmarks. The best result is highlighted in bold, and the second best result is shown underlined. Benchmarks We evaluate our model on a comprehensive suite of eight long-context reasoning benchmarks, categorized into three types: (1) SEAL-0 and (2) SEAL-Hard from SEAL Pham et al. ( 2025 ) , which represent challenging reasoning QA tasks 1 1 1 SEAL provides the Wikipedia URLs for the answers. We employ Jina to extract the page content as the context. ; a collection of multi-hop QA datasets from LongBench-V1 Bai et al. ( 2024 ) , specifically (3) HotpotQA, (4) MuSiQue, and (5) 2WikiMultihopQA; and three diverse tasks from LongBench-V2 Bai et al. ( 2025 ) : (6) Single-Document QA (SDQ), (7) Multi-Document QA (MDQ), and (8) Long Structured-Data QA (LSA). Baselines We compare our approach against state-of-the-art models divided into three distinct categories: • Compared LLMs : High-performing closed-source models including GPT-4o Hurst et al. ( 2024 ) , Gemini-2.0-Flash Team ( 2025 ) , Qwen3-Plus, and Claude-3.5-Sonnet anthropic ( 2025 ) . Leading open weights models such as Qwen3-14B, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) , and GPT-OSS-120B Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) . QwenLong-32B , the current SOTA model for specialized long-context reasoning trained via RL. • Control Baselines (GRPO) : To rigorously validate our algorithm, we include variants of our base models trained using only the outcome-based reward via standard GRPO. These serve as the primary control group to isolate the specific contribution of our evidence-based process rewards. Evaluation & Training Details We employ gpt-4o-2024-11-20 as the judge model to evaluate answer accuracy; the exact evaluation prompt is provided in the Appendix C . To ensure consistent long-context assessment, we restrict all training and evaluation samples to a maximum context length of 128k tokens. For training, we utilize three base models to cover diverse scales, architectures, and reasoning patterns: Qwen3-14B (Dense), Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct (MoE), and Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) . The Reward Model is initialized from the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking. Regarding the reward coefficients, we set the format weight α = 0.1 \alpha=0.1 following Sheng et al. ( 2024 ) , while β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 and γ = 0.6 \gamma=0.6 are determined based on our subsequent hyperparameter analysis. The Reward Model is updated every 20 RL steps using the most recently collected high-quality rollouts. Detailed hyperparameters are listed in the Appendix A . Training Dataset We construct a composite training dataset totaling 4,664 samples, derived from two sources. First, adopting the long-context construction method of Zhu et al. ( 2025 ) , we process the MuSiQue dataset by padding the context to a range of 32k–128k tokens. Second, we incorporate a Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset, comprising both structured QA (reasoning over tables) and unstructured QA (free-text extraction). Detailed construction process in Appendix A .This hybrid composition ensures the model adapts to heterogeneous evidence formats. 4.1 Main Results The overall performance comparisons are presented in Table 1 . Our analysis yields three significant observations: Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. The proposed EAPO framework demonstrates consistent superiority over base models across all tested architectures. For Qwen3-30B-Instruct, our method achieves a remarkable average improvement of +7.5%, boosting the score from 48.1% to 55.6%. Even on the highly capable Qwen3-30B-Thinking model, which already possesses advanced reasoning capabilities, EAPO delivers a substantial +5.1% gain, achieving a score of 63.1%. This confirms that optimizing the evidence extraction process is universally effective, functioning independently of model size (14B vs. 30B) or architecture type (Dense vs. MoE). Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Comparing outcome-based GRPO with EAPO underscores the critical value of fine-grained guidance. While GRPO yields only marginal gains (e.g., +1.2% for 30B), EAPO’s dense evidence reward drives significant improvements—notably surpassing the GRPO baseline by over 4 points on SEAL-Hard (57.9% vs. 53.8%). This confirms that explicit evidence supervision effectively curbs parametric shortcuts, fostering robust and generalizable reasoning. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Remarkably, our EAPO-30B-Thinking model (63.1%) outperforms significantly larger open-source models like GPT-OSS-120B (60.2%) and specialized long-context models like QwenLong-32B (57.8%). Furthermore, it surpasses powerful proprietary models such as Gemini-2.0-Flash (51.0%), GPT-4o (52.3%), and Claude-Sonnet-4 (60.8%) on average, highlighting the efficiency of evidence-augmented optimization. 4 Experiments Models SEAL LongBench LongBench-v2 AVG Seal-0 Seal-hard Musique Hotpotqa 2wiki SDQ MDQ LSA Comparison with other LLMs GPT-4o 19.8 39.4 60.0 78.0 79.5 47.0 50.0 44.4 52.3 Gemini-2.0-Flash 24.3 36.6 52.5 75.0 84.5 43.1 44.1 48.2 51.0 Qwen3-Plus 24.3 32.3 56.5 71.5 80.0 50.3 44.1 55.6 51.8 Claude-Sonnet-4 42.3 56.3 60.5 81.5 81.0 50.3 48.0 66.7 60.8 GPT-OSS-120B 39.6 55.5 64.0 80.0 87.5 45.7 46.1 63.0 60.2 QwenLong-32B 40.5 56.7 64.5 77.5 84.5 49.0 52.9 37.0 57.8 Comparison among Our Models Qwen3-14B 35.1 49.6 56.0 79.5 83.5 40.4 42.2 38.9 53.2 + GRPO 35.1 51.0 57.0 80.0 83.0 40.7 42.4 40.9 53.8 (+0.6) + EAPO 36.0 52.5 57.0 81.0 83.5 43.0 44.1 42.9 55.0 (+1.8) Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct 23.4 30.3 45.0 73.0 75.0 39.7 43.1 55.6 48.1 + GRPO 31.5 40.2 51.5 75.5 85.5 41.1 43.6 55.6 53.1 (+5.0) + EAPO 33.0 44.1 59.5 77.5 87.5 42.4 45.1 55.6 55.6 (+7.5) Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking 33.3 55.5 60.0 79.0 84.5 47.0 45.1 59.3 58.0 + GRPO 40.4 53.8 60.5 78.5 85.0 49.7 43.1 63.0 59.2 (+1.2) + EAPO 44.1 57.9 65.0 80.0 86.5 51.7 49.0 70.4 63.1 (+5.1) Benchmarks We evaluate our model on a comprehensive suite of eight long-context reasoning benchmarks, categorized into three types: (1) SEAL-0 and (2) SEAL-Hard from SEAL Pham et al. ( 2025 ) , which represent challenging reasoning QA tasks 1 1 1 SEAL provides the Wikipedia URLs for the answers. We employ Jina to extract the page content as the context. ; a collection of multi-hop QA datasets from LongBench-V1 Bai et al. ( 2024 ) , specifically (3) HotpotQA, (4) MuSiQue, and (5) 2WikiMultihopQA; and three diverse tasks from LongBench-V2 Bai et al. ( 2025 ) : (6) Single-Document QA (SDQ), (7) Multi-Document QA (MDQ), and (8) Long Structured-Data QA (LSA). Benchmarks We evaluate our model on a comprehensive suite of eight long-context reasoning benchmarks, categorized into three types: (1) SEAL-0 and (2) SEAL-Hard from SEAL Pham et al. ( 2025 ) , which represent challenging reasoning QA tasks 1 1 1 SEAL provides the Wikipedia URLs for the answers. We employ Jina to extract the page content as the context. ; a collection of multi-hop QA datasets from LongBench-V1 Bai et al. ( 2024 ) , specifically (3) HotpotQA, (4) MuSiQue, and (5) 2WikiMultihopQA; and three diverse tasks from LongBench-V2 Bai et al. ( 2025 ) : (6) Single-Document QA (SDQ), (7) Multi-Document QA (MDQ), and (8) Long Structured-Data QA (LSA). Baselines We compare our approach against state-of-the-art models divided into three distinct categories: • Compared LLMs : High-performing closed-source models including GPT-4o Hurst et al. ( 2024 ) , Gemini-2.0-Flash Team ( 2025 ) , Qwen3-Plus, and Claude-3.5-Sonnet anthropic ( 2025 ) . Leading open weights models such as Qwen3-14B, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) , and GPT-OSS-120B Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) . QwenLong-32B , the current SOTA model for specialized long-context reasoning trained via RL. • Control Baselines (GRPO) : To rigorously validate our algorithm, we include variants of our base models trained using only the outcome-based reward via standard GRPO. These serve as the primary control group to isolate the specific contribution of our evidence-based process rewards. Baselines We compare our approach against state-of-the-art models divided into three distinct categories: • Compared LLMs : High-performing closed-source models including GPT-4o Hurst et al. ( 2024 ) , Gemini-2.0-Flash Team ( 2025 ) , Qwen3-Plus, and Claude-3.5-Sonnet anthropic ( 2025 ) . Leading open weights models such as Qwen3-14B, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) , and GPT-OSS-120B Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) . QwenLong-32B , the current SOTA model for specialized long-context reasoning trained via RL. Compared LLMs : High-performing closed-source models including GPT-4o Hurst et al. ( 2024 ) , Gemini-2.0-Flash Team ( 2025 ) , Qwen3-Plus, and Claude-3.5-Sonnet anthropic ( 2025 ) . Leading open weights models such as Qwen3-14B, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct, Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) , and GPT-OSS-120B Agarwal et al. ( 2025 ) . QwenLong-32B , the current SOTA model for specialized long-context reasoning trained via RL. • Control Baselines (GRPO) : To rigorously validate our algorithm, we include variants of our base models trained using only the outcome-based reward via standard GRPO. These serve as the primary control group to isolate the specific contribution of our evidence-based process rewards. Control Baselines (GRPO) : To rigorously validate our algorithm, we include variants of our base models trained using only the outcome-based reward via standard GRPO. These serve as the primary control group to isolate the specific contribution of our evidence-based process rewards. Evaluation & Training Details We employ gpt-4o-2024-11-20 as the judge model to evaluate answer accuracy; the exact evaluation prompt is provided in the Appendix C . To ensure consistent long-context assessment, we restrict all training and evaluation samples to a maximum context length of 128k tokens. For training, we utilize three base models to cover diverse scales, architectures, and reasoning patterns: Qwen3-14B (Dense), Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct (MoE), and Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) . The Reward Model is initialized from the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking. Regarding the reward coefficients, we set the format weight α = 0.1 \alpha=0.1 following Sheng et al. ( 2024 ) , while β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 and γ = 0.6 \gamma=0.6 are determined based on our subsequent hyperparameter analysis. The Reward Model is updated every 20 RL steps using the most recently collected high-quality rollouts. Detailed hyperparameters are listed in the Appendix A . Evaluation & Training Details We employ gpt-4o-2024-11-20 as the judge model to evaluate answer accuracy; the exact evaluation prompt is provided in the Appendix C . To ensure consistent long-context assessment, we restrict all training and evaluation samples to a maximum context length of 128k tokens. For training, we utilize three base models to cover diverse scales, architectures, and reasoning patterns: Qwen3-14B (Dense), Qwen3-30B-A3B-Instruct (MoE), and Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking Yang et al. ( 2025 ) . The Reward Model is initialized from the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking. Regarding the reward coefficients, we set the format weight α = 0.1 \alpha=0.1 following Sheng et al. ( 2024 ) , while β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 and γ = 0.6 \gamma=0.6 are determined based on our subsequent hyperparameter analysis. The Reward Model is updated every 20 RL steps using the most recently collected high-quality rollouts. Detailed hyperparameters are listed in the Appendix A . Training Dataset We construct a composite training dataset totaling 4,664 samples, derived from two sources. First, adopting the long-context construction method of Zhu et al. ( 2025 ) , we process the MuSiQue dataset by padding the context to a range of 32k–128k tokens. Second, we incorporate a Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset, comprising both structured QA (reasoning over tables) and unstructured QA (free-text extraction). Detailed construction process in Appendix A .This hybrid composition ensures the model adapts to heterogeneous evidence formats. Training Dataset We construct a composite training dataset totaling 4,664 samples, derived from two sources. First, adopting the long-context construction method of Zhu et al. ( 2025 ) , we process the MuSiQue dataset by padding the context to a range of 32k–128k tokens. Second, we incorporate a Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset, comprising both structured QA (reasoning over tables) and unstructured QA (free-text extraction). Detailed construction process in Appendix A .This hybrid composition ensures the model adapts to heterogeneous evidence formats. 4.1 Main Results The overall performance comparisons are presented in Table 1 . Our analysis yields three significant observations: Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. The proposed EAPO framework demonstrates consistent superiority over base models across all tested architectures. For Qwen3-30B-Instruct, our method achieves a remarkable average improvement of +7.5%, boosting the score from 48.1% to 55.6%. Even on the highly capable Qwen3-30B-Thinking model, which already possesses advanced reasoning capabilities, EAPO delivers a substantial +5.1% gain, achieving a score of 63.1%. This confirms that optimizing the evidence extraction process is universally effective, functioning independently of model size (14B vs. 30B) or architecture type (Dense vs. MoE). Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Comparing outcome-based GRPO with EAPO underscores the critical value of fine-grained guidance. While GRPO yields only marginal gains (e.g., +1.2% for 30B), EAPO’s dense evidence reward drives significant improvements—notably surpassing the GRPO baseline by over 4 points on SEAL-Hard (57.9% vs. 53.8%). This confirms that explicit evidence supervision effectively curbs parametric shortcuts, fostering robust and generalizable reasoning. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Remarkably, our EAPO-30B-Thinking model (63.1%) outperforms significantly larger open-source models like GPT-OSS-120B (60.2%) and specialized long-context models like QwenLong-32B (57.8%). Furthermore, it surpasses powerful proprietary models such as Gemini-2.0-Flash (51.0%), GPT-4o (52.3%), and Claude-Sonnet-4 (60.8%) on average, highlighting the efficiency of evidence-augmented optimization. 4.1 Main Results The overall performance comparisons are presented in Table 1 . Our analysis yields three significant observations: Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. The proposed EAPO framework demonstrates consistent superiority over base models across all tested architectures. For Qwen3-30B-Instruct, our method achieves a remarkable average improvement of +7.5%, boosting the score from 48.1% to 55.6%. Even on the highly capable Qwen3-30B-Thinking model, which already possesses advanced reasoning capabilities, EAPO delivers a substantial +5.1% gain, achieving a score of 63.1%. This confirms that optimizing the evidence extraction process is universally effective, functioning independently of model size (14B vs. 30B) or architecture type (Dense vs. MoE). Robust Improvements Across Diverse LLMs. The proposed EAPO framework demonstrates consistent superiority over base models across all tested architectures. For Qwen3-30B-Instruct, our method achieves a remarkable average improvement of +7.5%, boosting the score from 48.1% to 55.6%. Even on the highly capable Qwen3-30B-Thinking model, which already possesses advanced reasoning capabilities, EAPO delivers a substantial +5.1% gain, achieving a score of 63.1%. This confirms that optimizing the evidence extraction process is universally effective, functioning independently of model size (14B vs. 30B) or architecture type (Dense vs. MoE). Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Comparing outcome-based GRPO with EAPO underscores the critical value of fine-grained guidance. While GRPO yields only marginal gains (e.g., +1.2% for 30B), EAPO’s dense evidence reward drives significant improvements—notably surpassing the GRPO baseline by over 4 points on SEAL-Hard (57.9% vs. 53.8%). This confirms that explicit evidence supervision effectively curbs parametric shortcuts, fostering robust and generalizable reasoning. Efficacy of Evidence-Augmented Supervision. Comparing outcome-based GRPO with EAPO underscores the critical value of fine-grained guidance. While GRPO yields only marginal gains (e.g., +1.2% for 30B), EAPO’s dense evidence reward drives significant improvements—notably surpassing the GRPO baseline by over 4 points on SEAL-Hard (57.9% vs. 53.8%). This confirms that explicit evidence supervision effectively curbs parametric shortcuts, fostering robust and generalizable reasoning. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Remarkably, our EAPO-30B-Thinking model (63.1%) outperforms significantly larger open-source models like GPT-OSS-120B (60.2%) and specialized long-context models like QwenLong-32B (57.8%). Furthermore, it surpasses powerful proprietary models such as Gemini-2.0-Flash (51.0%), GPT-4o (52.3%), and Claude-Sonnet-4 (60.8%) on average, highlighting the efficiency of evidence-augmented optimization. Competitiveness with Larger and Proprietary Models. Remarkably, our EAPO-30B-Thinking model (63.1%) outperforms significantly larger open-source models like GPT-OSS-120B (60.2%) and specialized long-context models like QwenLong-32B (57.8%). Furthermore, it surpasses powerful proprietary models such as Gemini-2.0-Flash (51.0%), GPT-4o (52.3%), and Claude-Sonnet-4 (60.8%) on average, highlighting the efficiency of evidence-augmented optimization. 5 Analysis Experiment Experiments in this section are conducted using the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking model. We adopt this unified setting to rigorously assess the individual contributions of the EAPO framework components. 5.1 Ablation Study To validate EAPO, we compare it against the GRPO outcome reward baseline and a static reward model variant (w/o RM Co-Evolution) in Figure 5 and 6 . Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Figure 5 shows that EAPO achieves superior sample efficiency, rapidly outpacing GRPO. This confirms that dense process supervision provides clearer gradient signals than sparse outcome rewards. Crucially, while the static variant saturates after step 50, the full EAPO framework driven by Co-Evolution, sustains its upward trajectory, achieving a higher performance ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. As shown in Figure 6 , GRPO’s implicit optimization of evidence is inefficient. In contrast, EAPO maintains a substantial and consistent lead in evidence scores by explicitly targeting evidence utility. This validates that the dense reward mechanism acts as a critical accelerator, ensuring the model prioritizes high-fidelity retrieval from the outset. Figure 5: Task performance on the MuSiQue in LongBench. EAPO achieves superior convergence compared to the static reward baseline and the outcome-only GRPO. Figure 6: Evidence Quality scores during training. EAPO explicitly optimizes the retrieval process, leading to consistently higher-quality evidence extraction compared to the outcome-based GRPO baseline. 5.2 Reward Model Analysis To quantify the gain of Reward Model, we evaluate the RM’s Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ) followed by Liu et al. ( 2025 ) . Using a set of samples with grounded evidence constructed in Section 2.2, we define the Oracle optimum among 6 sampled trajectories as the one maximizing ROUGE-L Recall. Accuracy is measured by the frequency with which the RM’s top-ranked candidate matches this Oracle. As shown in Figure 7 , the accuracy improves from 69.0% to 74.0% over 60 steps, validating that co-evolution effectively aligns the RM with high-fidelity evidence quality. Figure 7: Evolution of RM Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ). 5.3 Hyperparameter Experiment Figure 8: Comparison of different evidence quality reward weights. We analyze the impact of β \beta , which balances the evidence reward ( R e R_{e} ) against the outcome reward ( 0.9 − β 0.9-\beta ). As shown in Figure 8 , increasing β \beta from 0.0 (outcome-only) to 0.3 yields consistent gains across all benchmarks, with Overall accuracy peaking at 63.1%. This confirms the value of dense evidence supervision. However, further increasing β \beta to 0.5 causes a sharp decline back to 59.2%, suggesting that over-weighting intermediate steps distracts from the final answer. Thus, β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 offers the optimal trade-off between process and outcome supervision. 5.4 Error Analysis We conducted a fine-grained error analysis on LongBench-v2, centering our investigation on two critical failure modes: Evidence Error (failed or partial retrieval) and Reasoning Error (correct evidence but flawed logic). As visualized in Figure 9 , EAPO demonstrates a simultaneous reduction in both highlighted categories: Evidence Errors decline from 17.7% to 13.5%, and Reasoning Errors from 20.7% to 15.4%. This trend validates our core hypothesis that dense process supervision not only minimizes retrieval failures but also generates a cascading positive effect, grounding subsequent reasoning in higher-fidelity information to mitigate downstream logic errors. Figure 9: Error analysis on LongBench-v2. The comparison focuses on the reduction of Evidence and Reasoning errors achieved by EAPO relative to the GRPO baseline. 5 Analysis Experiment Experiments in this section are conducted using the Qwen3-30B-A3B-Thinking model. We adopt this unified setting to rigorously assess the individual contributions of the EAPO framework components. 5.1 Ablation Study To validate EAPO, we compare it against the GRPO outcome reward baseline and a static reward model variant (w/o RM Co-Evolution) in Figure 5 and 6 . Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Figure 5 shows that EAPO achieves superior sample efficiency, rapidly outpacing GRPO. This confirms that dense process supervision provides clearer gradient signals than sparse outcome rewards. Crucially, while the static variant saturates after step 50, the full EAPO framework driven by Co-Evolution, sustains its upward trajectory, achieving a higher performance ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. As shown in Figure 6 , GRPO’s implicit optimization of evidence is inefficient. In contrast, EAPO maintains a substantial and consistent lead in evidence scores by explicitly targeting evidence utility. This validates that the dense reward mechanism acts as a critical accelerator, ensuring the model prioritizes high-fidelity retrieval from the outset. Figure 5: Task performance on the MuSiQue in LongBench. EAPO achieves superior convergence compared to the static reward baseline and the outcome-only GRPO. Figure 6: Evidence Quality scores during training. EAPO explicitly optimizes the retrieval process, leading to consistently higher-quality evidence extraction compared to the outcome-based GRPO baseline. 5.1 Ablation Study To validate EAPO, we compare it against the GRPO outcome reward baseline and a static reward model variant (w/o RM Co-Evolution) in Figure 5 and 6 . Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Figure 5 shows that EAPO achieves superior sample efficiency, rapidly outpacing GRPO. This confirms that dense process supervision provides clearer gradient signals than sparse outcome rewards. Crucially, while the static variant saturates after step 50, the full EAPO framework driven by Co-Evolution, sustains its upward trajectory, achieving a higher performance ceiling. Faster Convergence and Higher Ceiling. Figure 5 shows that EAPO achieves superior sample efficiency, rapidly outpacing GRPO. This confirms that dense process supervision provides clearer gradient signals than sparse outcome rewards. Crucially, while the static variant saturates after step 50, the full EAPO framework driven by Co-Evolution, sustains its upward trajectory, achieving a higher performance ceiling. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. As shown in Figure 6 , GRPO’s implicit optimization of evidence is inefficient. In contrast, EAPO maintains a substantial and consistent lead in evidence scores by explicitly targeting evidence utility. This validates that the dense reward mechanism acts as a critical accelerator, ensuring the model prioritizes high-fidelity retrieval from the outset. Figure 5: Task performance on the MuSiQue in LongBench. EAPO achieves superior convergence compared to the static reward baseline and the outcome-only GRPO. Figure 6: Evidence Quality scores during training. EAPO explicitly optimizes the retrieval process, leading to consistently higher-quality evidence extraction compared to the outcome-based GRPO baseline. Evidence Supervision Enhances Retrieval. As shown in Figure 6 , GRPO’s implicit optimization of evidence is inefficient. In contrast, EAPO maintains a substantial and consistent lead in evidence scores by explicitly targeting evidence utility. This validates that the dense reward mechanism acts as a critical accelerator, ensuring the model prioritizes high-fidelity retrieval from the outset. 5.2 Reward Model Analysis To quantify the gain of Reward Model, we evaluate the RM’s Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ) followed by Liu et al. ( 2025 ) . Using a set of samples with grounded evidence constructed in Section 2.2, we define the Oracle optimum among 6 sampled trajectories as the one maximizing ROUGE-L Recall. Accuracy is measured by the frequency with which the RM’s top-ranked candidate matches this Oracle. As shown in Figure 7 , the accuracy improves from 69.0% to 74.0% over 60 steps, validating that co-evolution effectively aligns the RM with high-fidelity evidence quality. Figure 7: Evolution of RM Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ). 5.2 Reward Model Analysis To quantify the gain of Reward Model, we evaluate the RM’s Best-of-N Selection Accuracy ( N = 6 N=6 ) followed by Liu et al. ( 2025 ) . Using a set of samples with grounded evidence constructed in Section 2.2, we define the Oracle optimum among 6 sampled trajectories as the one maximizing ROUGE-L Recall. Accuracy is measured by the frequency with which the RM’s top-ranked candidate matches this Oracle. As shown in Figure 7 , the accuracy improves from 69.0% to 74.0% over 60 steps, validating that co-evolution effectively aligns the RM with high-fidelity evidence quality. 5.3 Hyperparameter Experiment Figure 8: Comparison of different evidence quality reward weights. We analyze the impact of β \beta , which balances the evidence reward ( R e R_{e} ) against the outcome reward ( 0.9 − β 0.9-\beta ). As shown in Figure 8 , increasing β \beta from 0.0 (outcome-only) to 0.3 yields consistent gains across all benchmarks, with Overall accuracy peaking at 63.1%. This confirms the value of dense evidence supervision. However, further increasing β \beta to 0.5 causes a sharp decline back to 59.2%, suggesting that over-weighting intermediate steps distracts from the final answer. Thus, β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 offers the optimal trade-off between process and outcome supervision. 5.3 Hyperparameter Experiment We analyze the impact of β \beta , which balances the evidence reward ( R e R_{e} ) against the outcome reward ( 0.9 − β 0.9-\beta ). As shown in Figure 8 , increasing β \beta from 0.0 (outcome-only) to 0.3 yields consistent gains across all benchmarks, with Overall accuracy peaking at 63.1%. This confirms the value of dense evidence supervision. However, further increasing β \beta to 0.5 causes a sharp decline back to 59.2%, suggesting that over-weighting intermediate steps distracts from the final answer. Thus, β = 0.3 \beta=0.3 offers the optimal trade-off between process and outcome supervision. 5.4 Error Analysis We conducted a fine-grained error analysis on LongBench-v2, centering our investigation on two critical failure modes: Evidence Error (failed or partial retrieval) and Reasoning Error (correct evidence but flawed logic). As visualized in Figure 9 , EAPO demonstrates a simultaneous reduction in both highlighted categories: Evidence Errors decline from 17.7% to 13.5%, and Reasoning Errors from 20.7% to 15.4%. This trend validates our core hypothesis that dense process supervision not only minimizes retrieval failures but also generates a cascading positive effect, grounding subsequent reasoning in higher-fidelity information to mitigate downstream logic errors. Figure 9: Error analysis on LongBench-v2. The comparison focuses on the reduction of Evidence and Reasoning errors achieved by EAPO relative to the GRPO baseline. 5.4 Error Analysis We conducted a fine-grained error analysis on LongBench-v2, centering our investigation on two critical failure modes: Evidence Error (failed or partial retrieval) and Reasoning Error (correct evidence but flawed logic). As visualized in Figure 9 , EAPO demonstrates a simultaneous reduction in both highlighted categories: Evidence Errors decline from 17.7% to 13.5%, and Reasoning Errors from 20.7% to 15.4%. This trend validates our core hypothesis that dense process supervision not only minimizes retrieval failures but also generates a cascading positive effect, grounding subsequent reasoning in higher-fidelity information to mitigate downstream logic errors. 6 Related Work 6.1 Long-Context Reasoning Long-context reasoning is a prominent area of focus in the development of LLMs, as the length of the context window determines the upper limit of a model’s single-pass reasoning capabilities. To mitigate these challenges, current mainstream approaches generally fall into four categories: 1) Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) Xu et al. ( 2024 ); Jin et al. ( 2025b ) , which relies on external retrievers that may become bottlenecks; 2) Agent-based Frameworks Zhang et al. ( 2024 ); Yu et al. ( 2025 ) , which decompose contexts via multiple agents but incur high computational latency; and 3) Architectural Modifications Chen et al. ( 2024 ); Ding et al. ( 2024 ) , such as extended attention windows, which often struggle with complexity constraints. Distinct from these external or structural patches, our research focuses on 4) Supervised Fine-Tuning or Reinforcement Learning Tian et al. ( 2025 ); Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhu et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , enhancing the model’s intrinsic capacity to reason over long contexts efficiently. 6.2 Reinforcement Learning Reinforcement Learning (RL) has been proven to be an effective method for enhancing the reasoning abilities of LLMs. In domains such as mathematics DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) and search Jin et al. ( 2025a ) , reward signals can guide models to explore correct reasoning paths. Beyond simple outcome-based rewards, numerous studies have explored Process-based Reward Models (PRMs) Lightman et al. ( 2023 ); Khalifa et al. ( 2025 ) to provide more granular, step-by-step guidance. This has led to superior results in tasks requiring multi-hop reasoning. In the domain of long-context reasoning with RL, existing research Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhang et al. ( 2025a ) has primarily focused on outcome-based feedback. Our work builds upon this foundation by designing rewards for the model’s reasoning process itself. Specifically, we aim to enhance the two critical abilities for long-context tasks: finding evidence and performing reasoning. 6 Related Work 6.1 Long-Context Reasoning Long-context reasoning is a prominent area of focus in the development of LLMs, as the length of the context window determines the upper limit of a model’s single-pass reasoning capabilities. To mitigate these challenges, current mainstream approaches generally fall into four categories: 1) Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) Xu et al. ( 2024 ); Jin et al. ( 2025b ) , which relies on external retrievers that may become bottlenecks; 2) Agent-based Frameworks Zhang et al. ( 2024 ); Yu et al. ( 2025 ) , which decompose contexts via multiple agents but incur high computational latency; and 3) Architectural Modifications Chen et al. ( 2024 ); Ding et al. ( 2024 ) , such as extended attention windows, which often struggle with complexity constraints. Distinct from these external or structural patches, our research focuses on 4) Supervised Fine-Tuning or Reinforcement Learning Tian et al. ( 2025 ); Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhu et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , enhancing the model’s intrinsic capacity to reason over long contexts efficiently. 6.1 Long-Context Reasoning Long-context reasoning is a prominent area of focus in the development of LLMs, as the length of the context window determines the upper limit of a model’s single-pass reasoning capabilities. To mitigate these challenges, current mainstream approaches generally fall into four categories: 1) Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) Xu et al. ( 2024 ); Jin et al. ( 2025b ) , which relies on external retrievers that may become bottlenecks; 2) Agent-based Frameworks Zhang et al. ( 2024 ); Yu et al. ( 2025 ) , which decompose contexts via multiple agents but incur high computational latency; and 3) Architectural Modifications Chen et al. ( 2024 ); Ding et al. ( 2024 ) , such as extended attention windows, which often struggle with complexity constraints. Distinct from these external or structural patches, our research focuses on 4) Supervised Fine-Tuning or Reinforcement Learning Tian et al. ( 2025 ); Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhu et al. ( 2025 ); Wang et al. ( 2025 ) , enhancing the model’s intrinsic capacity to reason over long contexts efficiently. 6.2 Reinforcement Learning Reinforcement Learning (RL) has been proven to be an effective method for enhancing the reasoning abilities of LLMs. In domains such as mathematics DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) and search Jin et al. ( 2025a ) , reward signals can guide models to explore correct reasoning paths. Beyond simple outcome-based rewards, numerous studies have explored Process-based Reward Models (PRMs) Lightman et al. ( 2023 ); Khalifa et al. ( 2025 ) to provide more granular, step-by-step guidance. This has led to superior results in tasks requiring multi-hop reasoning. In the domain of long-context reasoning with RL, existing research Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhang et al. ( 2025a ) has primarily focused on outcome-based feedback. Our work builds upon this foundation by designing rewards for the model’s reasoning process itself. Specifically, we aim to enhance the two critical abilities for long-context tasks: finding evidence and performing reasoning. 6.2 Reinforcement Learning Reinforcement Learning (RL) has been proven to be an effective method for enhancing the reasoning abilities of LLMs. In domains such as mathematics DeepSeek-AI et al. ( 2025 ) and search Jin et al. ( 2025a ) , reward signals can guide models to explore correct reasoning paths. Beyond simple outcome-based rewards, numerous studies have explored Process-based Reward Models (PRMs) Lightman et al. ( 2023 ); Khalifa et al. ( 2025 ) to provide more granular, step-by-step guidance. This has led to superior results in tasks requiring multi-hop reasoning. In the domain of long-context reasoning with RL, existing research Wan et al. ( 2025 ); Zhang et al. ( 2025a ) has primarily focused on outcome-based feedback. Our work builds upon this foundation by designing rewards for the model’s reasoning process itself. Specifically, we aim to enhance the two critical abilities for long-context tasks: finding evidence and performing reasoning. 7 Conclusion In this work, we introduced Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization (EAPO) to overcome the limitations of sparse outcome rewards in long-context reasoning. Anchored in the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning paradigm, EAPO shifts the optimization focus from final results to process quality, utilizing a Reward Model to provide dense Group-Relative Evidence Rewards. Crucially, to sustain rigorous supervision, we integrated an Adaptive Reward-Policy Co-Evolution mechanism, which iteratively sharpens the reward model’s discriminative capability in tandem with the policy. Extensive evaluations demonstrate that EAPO significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines, paving the way for trustworthy, precision-centric autonomous agents. 7 Conclusion In this work, we introduced Evidence-Augmented Policy Optimization (EAPO) to overcome the limitations of sparse outcome rewards in long-context reasoning. Anchored in the Evidence-Augmented Reasoning paradigm, EAPO shifts the optimization focus from final results to process quality, utilizing a Reward Model to provide dense Group-Relative Evidence Rewards. 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In Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), ACL 2025, Vienna, Austria, July 27 - August 1, 2025 , W. Che, J. Nabende, E. Shutova, and M. T. Pilehvar (Eds.) , pp. 3502–3520 . External Links: Link Cited by: §6.1 . G. Kamradt (2023) Needle in a haystack - pressure testing llms. . External Links: Link Cited by: Appendix B . M. Khalifa, R. Agarwal, L. Logeswaran, J. Kim, H. Peng, M. Lee, H. Lee, and L. Wang (2025) Process reward models that think . CoRR abs/2504.16828 . External Links: Link , Document , 2504.16828 Cited by: §6.2 . H. Lightman, V. Kosaraju, Y. Burda, H. Edwards, B. Baker, T. Lee, J. Leike, J. Schulman, I. Sutskever, and K. Cobbe (2023) Let’s verify step by step . CoRR abs/2305.20050 . External Links: Link , Document , 2305.20050 Cited by: §6.2 . N. F. Liu, K. Lin, J. Hewitt, A. Paranjape, M. Bevilacqua, F. Petroni, and P. Liang (2024) Lost in the middle: how language models use long contexts . Trans. 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Arik (2024) Chain of agents: large language models collaborating on long-context tasks . In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 38: Annual Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems 2024, NeurIPS 2024, Vancouver, BC, Canada, December 10 - 15, 2024 , A. Globersons, L. Mackey, D. Belgrave, A. Fan, U. Paquet, J. M. Tomczak, and C. Zhang (Eds.) , External Links: Link Cited by: §6.1 . D. Zhu, X. Wei, G. Zhao, W. Wu, H. Zou, J. Ran, X. Wang, L. Sun, X. Zhang, and S. Li (2025) Chain-of-thought matters: improving long-context language models with reasoning path supervision . CoRR abs/2502.20790 . External Links: Link , Document , 2502.20790 Cited by: §4 , §6.1 . Appendix A Experiment Details Implementation Details We implement our reinforcement learning pipeline based on the VeRL framework (Sheng et al. , 2024 ) . For rollout generation, we set the sampling temperature to 1.0 1.0 , with a maximum context window of 120k tokens for input and 8k tokens for output generation. The group size is configured as G = 6 G=6 . Optimization is performed with a global batch size of 64 and a mini-batch size of 32, utilizing a constant learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} . All experiments are executed on a computational cluster equipped with 16 NVIDIA H20 GPUs (90GB VRAM). The RL training time for 30B is approximately 72 GPU hours, and for 14B it is approximately 40 GPU hours. The SFT training for reward model is approximately 2 GPU hours. Wikipedia-based Mixed QA Construction To detail the Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset mentioned in the paper, we prioritize natural context continuity by sourcing Wikipedia articles exceeding 64k tokens. Through HTML parsing, we separate content into prose (unstructured) and tables (structured) to generate diverse reasoning tasks: • Structured QA (Single-Fragment): Focuses on analytical reasoning over discrete table segments. These tasks require the model to perform filtering, ranking, and numerical calculation within a single structured evidence block. • Heterogeneous Mixed QA (Multi-Fragment): Designed to bridge structured and unstructured modalities. This category includes Text-and-Table QA , which demands synthesizing information from free-text prose and tabular data, and Multi-Table QA , which requires linking logic across multiple interrelated tables. Appendix A Experiment Details Implementation Details We implement our reinforcement learning pipeline based on the VeRL framework (Sheng et al. , 2024 ) . For rollout generation, we set the sampling temperature to 1.0 1.0 , with a maximum context window of 120k tokens for input and 8k tokens for output generation. The group size is configured as G = 6 G=6 . Optimization is performed with a global batch size of 64 and a mini-batch size of 32, utilizing a constant learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} . All experiments are executed on a computational cluster equipped with 16 NVIDIA H20 GPUs (90GB VRAM). The RL training time for 30B is approximately 72 GPU hours, and for 14B it is approximately 40 GPU hours. The SFT training for reward model is approximately 2 GPU hours. Implementation Details We implement our reinforcement learning pipeline based on the VeRL framework (Sheng et al. , 2024 ) . For rollout generation, we set the sampling temperature to 1.0 1.0 , with a maximum context window of 120k tokens for input and 8k tokens for output generation. The group size is configured as G = 6 G=6 . Optimization is performed with a global batch size of 64 and a mini-batch size of 32, utilizing a constant learning rate of 2 × 10 − 6 2\times 10^{-6} . All experiments are executed on a computational cluster equipped with 16 NVIDIA H20 GPUs (90GB VRAM). The RL training time for 30B is approximately 72 GPU hours, and for 14B it is approximately 40 GPU hours. The SFT training for reward model is approximately 2 GPU hours. Wikipedia-based Mixed QA Construction To detail the Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset mentioned in the paper, we prioritize natural context continuity by sourcing Wikipedia articles exceeding 64k tokens. Through HTML parsing, we separate content into prose (unstructured) and tables (structured) to generate diverse reasoning tasks: • Structured QA (Single-Fragment): Focuses on analytical reasoning over discrete table segments. These tasks require the model to perform filtering, ranking, and numerical calculation within a single structured evidence block. • Heterogeneous Mixed QA (Multi-Fragment): Designed to bridge structured and unstructured modalities. This category includes Text-and-Table QA , which demands synthesizing information from free-text prose and tabular data, and Multi-Table QA , which requires linking logic across multiple interrelated tables. Wikipedia-based Mixed QA Construction To detail the Wikipedia-based Mixed QA subset mentioned in the paper, we prioritize natural context continuity by sourcing Wikipedia articles exceeding 64k tokens. Through HTML parsing, we separate content into prose (unstructured) and tables (structured) to generate diverse reasoning tasks: • Structured QA (Single-Fragment): Focuses on analytical reasoning over discrete table segments. These tasks require the model to perform filtering, ranking, and numerical calculation within a single structured evidence block. Structured QA (Single-Fragment): Focuses on analytical reasoning over discrete table segments. These tasks require the model to perform filtering, ranking, and numerical calculation within a single structured evidence block. • Heterogeneous Mixed QA (Multi-Fragment): Designed to bridge structured and unstructured modalities. This category includes Text-and-Table QA , which demands synthesizing information from free-text prose and tabular data, and Multi-Table QA , which requires linking logic across multiple interrelated tables. Heterogeneous Mixed QA (Multi-Fragment): Designed to bridge structured and unstructured modalities. This category includes Text-and-Table QA , which demands synthesizing information from free-text prose and tabular data, and Multi-Table QA , which requires linking logic across multiple interrelated tables. Appendix B Supplementary Experiment Needle in a Haystack Retrieval Experiment. We additionally evaluate retrieval performance using the "Needle in a Haystack" (NIAH) benchmark Kamradt ( 2023 ) . As shown in Figure 10 , both the Base Model and GRPO fall slightly short of perfection, failing to retrieve needles in a few specific instances. In contrast, EAPO achieves a flawless 100% retrieval rate. The "all-green" heatmap confirms that our dense evidence supervision further refines retrieval robustness, ensuring precise information localization across the entire context window. Figure 10: Needle in a Haystack retrieval performance across varying context lengths and depths. Appendix B Supplementary Experiment Needle in a Haystack Retrieval Experiment. We additionally evaluate retrieval performance using the "Needle in a Haystack" (NIAH) benchmark Kamradt ( 2023 ) . As shown in Figure 10 , both the Base Model and GRPO fall slightly short of perfection, failing to retrieve needles in a few specific instances. In contrast, EAPO achieves a flawless 100% retrieval rate. The "all-green" heatmap confirms that our dense evidence supervision further refines retrieval robustness, ensuring precise information localization across the entire context window. Figure 10: Needle in a Haystack retrieval performance across varying context lengths and depths. Needle in a Haystack Retrieval Experiment. We additionally evaluate retrieval performance using the "Needle in a Haystack" (NIAH) benchmark Kamradt ( 2023 ) . As shown in Figure 10 , both the Base Model and GRPO fall slightly short of perfection, failing to retrieve needles in a few specific instances. In contrast, EAPO achieves a flawless 100% retrieval rate. The "all-green" heatmap confirms that our dense evidence supervision further refines retrieval robustness, ensuring precise information localization across the entire context window. Appendix C Prompt used in EAPO In the appendix, we provide the various prompts involved in EAPO, including the EAR prompt, the prompt for Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling (Prompt for Evidence Evaluation + Prompt for Reasoning Evaluation), the prompt for the Reward Model’s evidence evaluation (Prompt for Evidence Evaluation), and the prompt for the Answer evaluation. Prompt for EAR Please read the following content and answer the question below. Content: {content} Question: {question} You must strictly adhere to the following four-part structure for your entire output. Do not include any introductory phrases or text outside of this format. Required Output Format: <analysis> [Articulate your analysis of the question, identify the specific information required, and outline your strategy for locating and extracting relevant evidence from the provided content. Do not answer the question directly.] </analysis> <evidence> [Insert all verbatim, unmodified quotes from the content that directly support the final answer. Each piece of evidence should be on a new line and be as comprehensive as possible, using ’…’ to link related but separate text fragments if necessary.] </evidence> <reasoning> [Provide a step-by-step logical explanation that connects the extracted evidence to the final answer. Clearly demonstrate how the evidence leads to your conclusion.] </reasoning> <answer> [State the final, concise answer. This answer must be derived solely from the evidence provided above.] </answer> Prompt for Evidence Evaluation You are a master strategist and information architect. Objective: Critically evaluate competing sets of ‘Evidence‘. Your mission is to act as a strategic filter, identifying the single most valuable set of evidence for constructing a high-quality, comprehensive, and accurate answer to the ‘Original Question‘. Inputs: * Original Question: {question} * Evidence Choices: {choices} Core Evaluation Principle: Comparative Analysis Your evaluation must be relational, not absolute. Do not assess each choice in isolation. The score for any given choice must be determined by comparing its performance against the other available options across the criteria below. For a choice to earn a top score, it must be demonstrably superior *relative to its competitors*. Evaluation Criteria: You must use these criteria as the dimensions for your comparison: 1. Relevance & Focus: How directly does the evidence address all facets of the ‘Original Question‘? Is it tightly focused, or diluted with irrelevant "noise"? 2. Depth & Breadth: Does the evidence provide comprehensive, multi-faceted coverage of the topic? Or is it superficial, one-sided, or incomplete? 3. Utility & Specificity: Is the evidence composed of concrete, factual, and directly usable information? Or is it vague, overly general, and requires heavy interpretation? 4. Coherence: Are the individual pieces of evidence within the set consistent with each other? Or do internal contradictions create ambiguity and undermine reliability? Scoring Rubric (1-5 Scale): You must assign a score to each choice based on the following strict rubric. Remember to apply these definitions through the lens of the Core Evaluation Principle. * 1: Unusable: The evidence is fundamentally flawed. It is irrelevant, internally contradictory, or so vague that it provides no usable basis for an answer. * 2: Poor: The evidence has major deficiencies. It may be only tangentially relevant, highly imbalanced, or lacking specific facts, making it a weak foundation, especially when compared to stronger options. * 3: Adequate: The evidence is usable but clearly inferior to better options. It addresses the core question but has significant comparative gaps in depth, breadth, or specificity. * 4: Good: The evidence is a strong contender. It is highly relevant and specific, but may be slightly less comprehensive or focused than the top choice. It provides a solid foundation for a high-quality answer. * 5: Excellent: The evidence is perfectly tailored and clearly superior to all other options. It is the most comprehensive, balanced, specific, and coherent dataset available, with virtually no noise. Output Requirements: Your entire output must be a single, valid JSON object structured exactly as follows, containing three keys: ‘reason‘, ‘scores‘, and ‘best_choice‘. { "reason": "A string containing your detailed comparative analysis. Your analysis must: 1. Justify each score by explicitly comparing that choice to the others on the key ‘Evaluation Criteria‘ (e.g., ’Choice A earns a 4 for Depth because it is more comprehensive than Choice B, but Choice C covers one additional aspect, making it superior’). 2. Use the language of the ‘Scoring Rubric‘ to anchor your comparative judgments. 3. Conclude with a definitive statement explaining why the ‘best_choice‘ is superior *relative to the alternatives*.", "scores": [An array of integers, where each integer is the 1-5 score corresponding to each choice in the provided order.], "best_choice": An integer representing the 0-based index of the single best evidence choice. } Prompt for Answer Evaluation Your job is to look at a question, a gold target, and a predicted answer, and then assign a grade of either ["CORRECT", "INCORRECT", "NOT_ATTEMPTED"]. First, I will give examples of each grade, and then you will grade a new example. The following are examples of CORRECT predicted answers. Question: What are the names of Barack Obama’s children? Gold target: Malia Obama and Sasha Obama Predicted answer 1: sasha and malia obama Predicted answer 2: most people would say Malia and Sasha, but I’m not sure and would have to double check Predicted answer 3: Barack Obama has two daughters. Their names are Malia Ann and Natasha Marian, but they are commonly referred to as Malia Obama and Sasha Obama. Malia was born on July 4, 1998, and Sasha was born on June 10, 2001. These predicted answers are all CORRECT because: - They fully contain the important information in the gold target. - They do not contain any information that contradicts the gold target. - Only semantic meaning matters; capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and order don’t matter. - Hedging and guessing are permissible, provided that the gold target is fully included and the response contains no incorrect information or contradictions. The following are examples of INCORRECT predicted answers. Question: What are the names of Barack Obama’s children? Gold target: Malia and Sasha Predicted answer 1: Malia. Predicted answer 2: Malia, Sasha, and Susan. Predicted answer 3: Barack Obama does not have any children. Predicted answer 4: I think it’s either Malia and Sasha. Or it could be Malia and Jackie. Or it could be Joey and Malia. Predicted answer 5: It’s possible you may mean Betsy and Olivia. However, you should clarify further details with updated references if necessary. Is that the correct answer? Predicted answer 6: It may be the case that Obama’s child is named James. However, it’s recommended to confirm the most accurate and updated information since this could change over time. This model may not always reflect the most current information. These predicted answers are all INCORRECT because: - A factual statement in the answer contradicts the gold target. Incorrect statements that have some hedging (e.g., "it is possible that", "although i’m not sure, i think") are also considered incorrect. The following are examples of NOT_ATTEMPTED predicted answers. Question: What are the names of Barack Obama’s children? Gold target: Malia and Sasha Predicted answer 1: I don’t know. Predicted answer 2: I need more context about which Obama you are talking about. Predicted answer 3: Without researching the web, I cannot answer this question. However, I can tell you that Barack Obama has two children. Predicted answer 4: Barack Obama has two children. I know that one of them is Malia, but I’m not sure about the other one. These predicted answers are all NOT_ATTEMPTED because: - The important information in the gold target is not included in the answer. - No statements in the answer contradict the gold target. Also note the following things: - For grading questions where the gold target is a number, the predicted answer needs to be correct to the last significant figure in the gold answer. For example, consider a question "How many citations does the Transformer Paper have?" with gold target "120k". - Predicted answers "120k", "124k", and 115k" are all CORRECT. - Predicted answers "100k" and "113k" are INCORRECT. - Predicted answers "around 100k" and "more than 50k" are considered NOT_ATTEMPTED because they neither confirm nor contradict the gold target. - The gold target may contain more information than the question. In such cases, the predicted answer only needs to contain the information that is in the question. - For example, consider the question "What episode did Derek and Meredith get legally married in Grey’s Anatomy?" with gold target "Season 7, Episode 20: White Wedding". Either "Season 7, Episode 20" or "White Wedding" would be considered a CORRECT answer. - Do not punish predicted answers if they omit information that would be clearly inferred from the question. - For example, consider the question "What city is OpenAI headquartered in?" and the gold target "San Francisco, California". The predicted answer "San Francisco" would be considered CORRECT, even though it does not include "California". - Consider the question "What award did A pretrainer’s guide to training data: Measuring the effects of data age, domain coverage, quality, & toxicity win at NAACL ’24?", the gold target is "Outstanding Paper Award". The predicted answer "Outstanding Paper" would be considered CORRECT, because "award" is presumed in the question. - For the question "What is the height of Jason Wei in meters?", the gold target is "1.73 m". The predicted answer "1.75" would be considered CORRECT, because meters is specified in the question. - For the question "What is the name of Barack Obama’s wife?", the gold target is "Michelle Obama". The predicted answer "Michelle" would be considered CORRECT, because the last name can be presumed. - Do not punish for typos in people’s name if it’s clearly the same name. - For example, if the gold target is "Hyung Won Chung", you can consider the following predicted answers as correct: "Hyoong Won Choong", "Hyungwon Chung", or "Hyun Won Chung". Here is a new example. Simply reply with either CORRECT, INCORRECT, NOT ATTEMPTED. Don’t apologize or correct yourself if there was a mistake; we are just trying to grade the answer. Question: question Gold target: correct_answer Predicted answer: response Grade the predicted answer of this new question as one of: A: CORRECT B: INCORRECT C: NOT_ATTEMPTED Just return the letters "A", "B", or "C", with no text around it. Prompt for Reasoning Evaluation You are a Strategic Logic Evaluator and Reasoning Analyst. **Objective:** Evaluate a set of candidate outputs representing the **NEXT STEP** in a reasoning chain. You must determine which candidate represents the most logical, accurate, and valuable progression towards answering the ‘Original Question‘, given the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘. **Inputs:** * **Original Question:** question * **Historical Reasoning Context (The Unfinished Process):** approved_reasoning_process * **Candidate Next Steps:** choices **Core Evaluation Principles:** Assess each choice based on its logical validity as a continuation of the provided context. 1. **Logical Validity & Advancement:** * **Continuation:** If the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘ is sound, the candidate should logically follow it, deepening the analysis or moving to the next deduction. * **Correction/Pivot:** If the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘ contains flaws, contradictions, or weak assumptions, a candidate that **identifies and corrects** these issues is superior to one that blindly follows a wrong path. * **Flexibility:** The candidate is NOT required to strictly adhere to the *conclusions* of the history, but it must strictly adhere to the *facts/evidence* cited within it (no external hallucinations). 2. **Evidence Grounding:** While the logical path can change, facts cannot be invented. The candidate must still rely on the factual evidence provided within the context (or implicitly known general knowledge if applicable to the domain), without hallucinating new specific data. 3. **Efficiency:** Does this step actually move the needle? Avoid circular reasoning or restating what has already been established in the history. **Scoring Rubric (1-4 Scale):** * **1: Critical Failure (Hallucination/Illogical Jump):** * The output invents facts not present in the context. * The output makes a logical leap that makes no sense, neither following the history nor offering a valid correction. * The output completely ignores the ‘Original Question‘. * **2: Poor (Redundant/Weak):** * The output merely restates the ‘Historical Reasoning Context‘ without adding new value. * The output blindly follows a clearly erroneous path established in the history (fails to critical thinking). * The logic is circular or trivial. * **3: Good (Valid Progression):** * A solid, logical next step. It accepts the context and moves forward reasonably. * If the history is sound, this choice extends it correctly. * No hallucinations; safe and compliant. * **4: Excellent (Insightful Advancement or Critical Correction):** * The output demonstrates superior reasoning. * It might provide a **necessary pivot** if the previous logic was heading in the wrong direction. * It synthesizes previous points to reach a breakthrough or a highly distinct intermediate conclusion. * It maximizes the probability of correctly answering the ‘Original Question‘. **Output Requirements:** You must output a **single, valid JSON object** containing the following keys. Do not include markdown formatting or any text outside the JSON object. { "reason": "A detailed analysis string. You must: 1) Evaluate the state of the ’Historical Reasoning Context’ (is it on the right track?). 2) Analyze each choice’s logical contribution (is it a continuation or a pivot?). 3) Justify why the ’best_choice’ is the most valuable next step towards the solution.", "scores": [An array of integers, where each integer is the 1-4 score corresponding to each choice in the provided order.], "best_choice": An integer (0-based index of the best choice) } Appendix C Prompt used in EAPO In the appendix, we provide the various prompts involved in EAPO, including the EAR prompt, the prompt for Tree-Structured Evidence Sampling (Prompt for Evidence Evaluation + Prompt for Reasoning Evaluation), the prompt for the Reward Model’s evidence evaluation (Prompt for Evidence Evaluation), and the prompt for the Answer evaluation.
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https://arxiv.org/html/2601.10306v1
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Address edits, not editors Toggle Address edits, not editors subsection 1.1 Yes, really: address edits, not editors 1.1 Yes, really: address edits, not editors 2 Stop framing things in terms of victory and defeat 3 Don't be arrogant 4 Ask more; state and demand less 5 Tone it down 6 Sarcastic false civility fools no one, including admins 7 Don't post in the heat of the moment 8 Stop the runaway train 9 You cannot argue Wikipedia into capitulation 10 See also 11 References Wikipedia : Advice for hotheads Српски / srpski Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikidata item This is an essay on civility . It contains the advice or opinions of one or more Wikipedia contributors. This page is not an encyclopedia article or a Wikipedia policy , as it has not been reviewed by the community and may reflect various opinions. .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} WP:HOTHEADS WP:HOTHEADS WP:HOTHEAD WP:HOTHEAD WP:HOTHEADED WP:HOTHEADED WP:HOTHEADS WP:HOTHEADS WP:HOTHEAD WP:HOTHEAD WP:HOTHEADED WP:HOTHEADED This page in a nutshell: "Hothead" editors have a disproportionate tendency to be sanctioned (even when correct about the underlying dispute). Here are some means of avoiding that result if you think you exhibit those sorts of personality traits. This essay consists of some basic advice for editors who recognize themselves as argumentative, cantankerous, or curmudgeonly – those prone to often finding themselves in prolonged, rancorous disputes that usually seem to escalate. Hopefully these tips will help keep you out of administrative and community trouble and sanctions, and help you better integrate into the Wikipedia mode of discussion. Even non-debatory editors have hotheaded moments, and should consider these tips when needed. This essay should not be used as a way to label other people. Per this page's own advice, never write "Quit being a WP:HOTHEAD !" at someone. Try instead something like: "If you're a dyed-in-the-wool curmudgeon like so many of us, the lighthearted advice at WP:HOTHEADS may be helpful to you. " Address edits, not editors "People who encounter rude behavior from co-workers are more likely to act rudely in later interactions, according to a recent University of Florida study. Mistreated people are also more likely to feel as if others are treating them rudely, to which they respond with more rudeness, passing on negative emotions like a virus." "People who encounter rude behavior from co-workers are more likely to act rudely in later interactions, according to a recent University of Florida study. Mistreated people are also more likely to feel as if others are treating them rudely, to which they respond with more rudeness, passing on negative emotions like a virus." Never ever project negative mental assumptions about someone you're in a disagreement with. Focus exclusively on statements/content (on their own merits) and, if necessary to address editorial behavior, on provable patterns of edits. The fastest route to trouble is to say something like: "You're irrational!" "You're only saying that because you have an agenda." (= "That's just a bunch of [mention political faction here] crap" , "Only a [nationality/religion/etc. label here] would say that" , and many other variants.) "This is just more typical [username here] nonsense." These are all ad hominem fallacies laced with argument to emotion as well – a.k.a. demonization. Focus instead on what was said, not who said it or why you imagine they did so: "That argument is unsound because [insert demonstrable logic and facts]." "That view seems to side unduly with [whatever off-WP third-party interest it seems to reflect, and why]." "That unhelpful edit fits a long-term behavior pattern: [insert diffs that prove it]". One particular feature of this approach to dispute is couching things in terms of one's own perception , not projection of imagined Platonic, objective truths about someone else, and especially not hypocritical psychological projection of one's own faults, failings, and behaviors onto others. Taking this careful approach is basically a way to be more polite and self-honest in a dispute if it is not likely to evaporate, and perhaps more importantly to the debatory personality, a way to be taken more seriously rather than being dismissed as a disruptive ranter. Yes, really: address edits, not editors The style described above also takes cues from both E-prime and nonviolent communication (fancy ways of saying "not arguing like a holier-than-thou, know-it-all douchebag"): Avoid the " to be of identity" and anything that smacks of it, in reference to another editor. Confrontational and likely to be interpreted as a personal attack: "You are [something negative]." "You are being [something negative]." "You are doing [something negative]." "Your statement is [something negative]." Instead, couch things in terms of your own subjective perception, and about the content rather than the editor when possible: "This comes across as [something frustrating that is not just a personal insult or value judgment] to me." "That approach does not seem conducive to [collaboration, resolution, sourcing, etc.]." "How is that any different from [something undesirable in the context, and not a personalized jab]?" "That statement has [problems you clearly identify, with policy or sources to back it up]." The use of hedging terms can notably soften a statement without changing the gist of the message: "It seems that these edits may ..." or "I find that statement somewhat ...". Stop framing things in terms of victory and defeat In a similar vein, one of the fastest ways to reduce a perception of "battleground" behavior is to avoid wording that suggests a focus on "winning" . Wikipedia is not a contest. Use: Y The proposal, with which I agree, was accepted by consensus. Not: N I won on that. Use: Y I've already pointed out why that view doesn't apply to this case; please see [link here]. Not: N I already defeated your argument. Use: Y That request for page protection was declined for a clearly explained reason. Not: N Your lame attempt to lock the page down was beaten. Use: Y Good luck at RfA, but you should probably closely read WP:RFAADVICE . Not: N Your RfA will go down in flames, because you're clueless. Use: Y Thank you for clarifying. Not: N Glad I forced you into making some sense. See the difference? Don't be arrogant Assuming that any giving of advice, any criticism of your reasoning or behavior, or any attempt at dispute resolution is a some kind of attack on you and your honor is arrogance. Assuming that you alone decide that you are knowledgable enough about Wikipedia and must be doing things right is arrogance. Trying to "educate" an admin, or other long-term editor with much greater experience than you here, about Wikipedia policy is arrogance. Treating anyone who disagrees with you like an idiot because you are sure you know a lot about the topic is arrogance (and on this largely anonymous system, you have no idea what anyone's expertise is in the first place). Wasting copious amounts of other editors' valuable volunteer time making circular arguments in an argumentum ad nauseam attempt to get them to give up and let you have your way is arrogance. Acting like you are always right is the dictionary definition of arrogance. Ask more; state and demand less Many " how to win friends and influence people " and "how to win arguments" writers advise to frequently turn debate points into questions for the other party/parties to try to answer convincingly, rather than just making definitive statements or demands of your own that others can challenge (perhaps with difficult questions for you to wrestle with). Reformulating statements into clever questions is more work, but it does have a tendency to reduce conflict, by leading the other party to defend their assertion with actual facts and reasoning (i.e., improving the quality of the discussion and speeding resolution of the issue), rather than responding with a counter-attack against what they perceive as a verbal attack on their person, intelligence, or motives. When it's important to state something firmly, do so only if your statement is grounded in demonstrable facts (what the reliable sources say, what Wikipedia policy says), not supposition or assumption, personal conviction or anecdote, "everyone knows ..." and other red-herring fallacies , or desire for what "should" be. If you can't prove it, don't say it. If you're convinced that it's necessary to state something firm about another editor's behaviors, be damned sure that you have diffs to back up any claims you make about their editing patterns, and strongly consider saving such complaints for user talk page discussion, or (if it rises to that level) some form of Wikipedia dispute resolution . Whether your debate opponent has a habit of calling people Nazis or giving undue favor to sources from Botswana really has nothing to do with the purpose of, say, Talk:Doctor Who , so avoid digging into personal, off-topic arguments in such a venue. If you've already started, it's unlikely anyone will object if you refactor that material to user talk or close and collapse the extraneous material and resume the discussion in user talk. A word of warning, though: If you habitually make everything a question, you will annoy other editors, because it looks like a WP:POINTy or sarcastic attempt to waste their time. Even if you're polite, it can also come across instead as uncertainty or cluelessness, as if you have no clearly formulated input for the discussion. Tone it down WP:TONEITDOWN WP:TONEITDOWN If you're using vulgarities, you're almost certainly making a mistake. Especially if you're responding to someone else who already did – you'll be missing an opportunity to take the discursive high ground. Swearing is strong seasoning in this environment, and its impact is squandered when it's done frequently. People are apt to think "Who is this full-of-shit asshole who keeps calling everyone 'assholes' and 'full of shit'?". Avoid hyperbole, and look for adjectives of characterization and exaggeration that you can remove from what you're writing (or by self-moderating something you already posted). "This has clear logic problems, like [example], and is contradicted by policy, at [cite]" is actually a much stronger statement than "This has amazingly ridiculous logic problems, like some idiot on crack wrote it, and it totally flies in the face of cherished Wikipedia policy traditions like [cite] that we're all expected to uphold or get the hell off the system!" . The latter is what sounds like the idiot on crack. If you've included some dismissive "gesture" like "Go screw yourself" , "Why don't you just quit Wikipedia and go troll somewhere else?" , "Don't you ever post on my talk page again!" , "BTW, please familiarize yourself with WP:JERK " , etc., just delete it . It adds nothing, makes you look like the problem, and no one will take it seriously anyway. If you think there's a real problem to address, there are noticeboards for that. If you think there's a correctable attitude issue at play and something really, really needs to be said, be calm and distant about it if you can't muster a cheerful response, e.g.: "Talk pages are for collaboration and communication to improve the encyclopedia, not for personalized venting. Please refrain from posting on my talk page further unless it's toward constructive goals." This level of distant, chiding formalism tends to stop ranters in their tracks. If you really must, you actually can get away with mentioning WP:JERK if you explicitly acknowledge the long-standing canard that one is violating the rule by the very act of citing it, e.g.: "I bet this discussion would be lot more productive if we both took a step away from the WP:JERK cliff." Remember that humor can go a long way to defusing tension, as can mingling some self-criticism into a critique of someone else, to make it less one-sided. Pro tip : Assume that your post will be used as evidence at WP:ANI , WP:AE , WP:RFARB , or some other noticeboard . Are you sure you still want to click "Publish changes"? In a dispute, you want other editors to focus on the content or behavior you've objected to, not your own behavior. Sarcastic false civility fools no one, including admins WP:FALSECIV WP:FALSECIV A weak personal attack is still wrong . If you make a habit of using faux -civility, dripping with sarcasm and irony , to make a point about your dim view of your debate opponents, no one is going to interpret this as actual civility, but simply as a form of gaming the system (specifically "sanction gaming" and "civil PoV-pushing" ). If you habitually use language manipulation to strongly imply instead of quite state outright that other editors are stupid, crazy, liars, or up to evil deeds this will still eventually result in you being sanctioned, just as if you'd called them names, if you keep it up. Don't post in the heat of the moment If you're a "ranty-pants" type, go ahead and write your spur-of-the-moment, bombastic reaction in a debate, to get it out of your system, but don't post it yet . Go have a snack or watch funny pet videos for 15 minutes, come back, and re-edit it to follow the above advice before posting it. There are various other posting contra-indications , like drunkenness, lack of sleep, depression, etc. How much about what you're planning to post in response to someone reflects the facts versus your own mood? Stop the runaway train If you just posted a comment you regret, and no one has replied, it's not too late to delete it . If someone replies suggesting mutual withdrawal , consider it a golden opportunity to nip things in the bud. If you think someone else should take back something they said, you can also suggest mutual withdrawal. You cannot argue Wikipedia into capitulation WP:CAPITULATE WP:CAPITULATE Wikipedia's administrative processes are entirely geared to protecting project stability , not toward individual " justice ", a "fair hearing", or "proving who is technically in the right". This is a marked difference from the approach taken by Western, democratic legal systems, especially common law systems. It's a collectivist approach that supports the principle that the needs of the many outweigh the desires of the one. Consequently, anyone who approaches Wikipedia administration and dispute resolution from a "justice" perspective will be disappointed and may make their circumstances worse , quite quickly, and sometimes irreparably . This is especially true of venues entirely controlled by admins, such as WP:AN , WP:AE , WP:RFARB , and WP:ARCA , versus the more everyone-gets-a-say forum of WP:ANI . Numerous generally-productive editors who have been sanctioned one or more times in the past will maintain that their statements and arguments were correct, but feel that they still got railroaded solely because of the disagreeableness of their attitude. They feel that they were punished simply for "being uppity". This perception is, in fact, entirely correct. You will be sanctioned for habitually badgering others to satisfy your petty demands, being excessively individualistic at the expense of others, excuse-making or finger-pointing at others, nit-picking , clearly trying to just "win" at all costs, stubbornly "not getting it" , dragging out conflict just to make a point , or waging a petty "righting great wrongs" micro-crusade for personal honor that no one else cares about . Those who really are here to build an encyclopedia have one expectation of disputes: that they quickly resolve (or dissolve) with a result that is acceptable to the consensus of the editorial community so that collegial collaboration resumes. If you are here for advocacy or activism – for outing The Truth – then you are making a mistake and will be ejected when others realize it. Administrative enforcement on WP necessarily takes this approach to recalcitrant hotheads, because the very act of arguing ad nauseam , to defy the collective peer pressure of the editorial community telling one to change one's ways, is considered disruptive in and of itself. The community, and in particular the administrative and arbitration corps, care primarily about the functioning of the Wikipedia "organs", like content creation and source checking; any individual cell (i.e., you) causing inflammation, for whatever reason, is a cancer to be removed. It can take a long time for some editors to internalize this and adjust, especially if they're used to rancorous debate on online forums. Some never do, and get indefinitely blocked or site-banned , or get in so much perennial trouble (repeated short-term blocks, topic- and interaction-bans, etc.) that they " quit in disgust ". Inability to recognize that Wikipedia is not the Internet and is not academia or any other fully public sphere, but is akin to a closed game with a specific set of player-conduct rules, is in the end a working-with-others competence failure . Either one gets it, eventually, or one is shown the door. For the temperamental and uncollaborative, walking away from Wikipedia (at least for a while ) is a real option, and not necessarily a bad one . See also Wikipedia:Assume good faith – guideline, on not projecting negative assumptions about other editors Wikipedia:Civility – policy, on comportment in discourse Wikipedia:Dispute resolution § Focus on content - policy, on not personalizing disputes Wikipedia:No personal attacks – policy, taking the above ones to their logical conclusion Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not – policy, including that Wikipedia is not a: debate forum, soapbox, blog, anarchy, bureaucracy, or battleground Wikipedia:Disruptive editing – guideline, on engaging in asinine antics Wikipedia:Casting aspersions – information page on how the Arbitration Committee addresses personalized denigration of other editors (hint: harshly) Wikipedia:Competence is required – essay bordering on a guideline; inability to get along is in fact a form of temperamental incompetence in a collaborative environment Wikipedia:No angry mastodons – essay, a more humorous take on hotheads Wikipedia:Old-fashioned Wikipedian values – four ways to help keep Wikipedia civil Wikipedia:There is no justice – essay, about "honor" quests that frequently get hotheaded editors into trouble Wikipedia:Don't take the bait – essay, on what is probably the no. 2 hothead blunder Wikipedia:Unblock perspectives – essay of advice for those who have been blocked and whose attempts to get unblocked seem to make things worse for them Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not therapy – essay, about WP and people with emotional/temperament/socialization issues Wikipedia:Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you – humor essay making similar points to this one in a sarcastic way User:Ash/Passive aggressive – user essay, on the "accusation loop" traps of the passive-aggressive User:Gamaliel/Tips – user essay: "Tips for the angry new user" Category:Wikipedia essays about civility – a wealth of essays on editorial behavior, most of which are spot-on References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Foulk, T; Woolum, A; Erez, A (January 2016). "Catching rudeness is like catching a cold: The contagion effects of low-intensity negative behaviors". The Journal of applied psychology . 101 (1): 50– 67. doi : 10.1037/apl0000037 . PMID 26121091 . .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Wikipedia essays (?) v t e Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on building, editing, and deleting content Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Philosophy Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Articles are more important than policy Articles must be written All Five Pillars are equally important Avoid vague introductions Civil POV pushing Cohesion Competence is required Concede lost arguments Dissent is not disloyalty Don't lie Don't search for objections Duty to comply Editing Wikipedia is like visiting a foreign country Editors will sometimes be wrong Eight simple rules for editing our encyclopedia Explanationism External criticism of Wikipedia Five pillars Here to build an encyclopedia Large language models Leave it to the experienced Levels of competence Levels of consensus Most ideas are bad Need Not broken is ugly Not editing because of Wikipedia restriction Not every article can be a Featured Article The one question Oversimplification Paradoxes Paraphrasing POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Process is important Product, process, policy Purpose Reasonability rule Systemic bias There is no seniority Ten Simple Rules for Editing Wikipedia Tendentious editing The role of policies in collaborative anarchy The rules are principles Trifecta We are absolutely here to right great wrongs Wikipedia in brief Wikipedia is an encyclopedia Wikipedia is a community Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Article construction 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles 100K featured articles Abandoned stubs Acronym overkill Adding images improves the encyclopedia Advanced text formatting Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to the "Expand" template Amnesia test A navbox on every page An unfinished house is a real problem Archive your sources Article revisions Articles have a half-life Autosizing images Avoid mission statements Be neutral in form Beef up that first revision Blind men and an elephant BOLD, revert, discuss cycle Build content to endure Cherrypicking Chesterton's fence Children's lit, adult new readers, & large-print books Citation overkill Citation underkill Common-style fallacy Concept cloud Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Dictionaries as sources Don't cite Wikipedia on Wikipedia Don't demolish the house while it's still being built Don't get hung up on minor details Don't hope the house will build itself Don't panic Don't "teach the controversy" Editing on mobile devices Editors are not mindreaders Encourage the newcomers Endorsements (commercial) Featured articles may have problems Formatting bilateral relations articles Formatting bilateral relations templates Fruit of the poisonous tree Give an article a chance How to write a featured article Identifying and using independent sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources History sources Law sources Primary sources Science sources Style guides Tertiary sources Ignore STRONGNAT for date formats Introduction to structurism Link rot Mine a source Merge Test Minors and persons judged incompetent "Murder of" articles Not every story/event/disaster needs a biography Not everything needs a navbox Not everything needs a template Nothing is in stone Obtain peer review comments Organizing disambiguation pages by subject area Permastub Potential, not just current state Presentism Principle of Some Astonishment The problem with elegant variation Pro and con lists Printability Publicists Put a little effort into it Restoring part of a reverted edit Robotic editing Sham consensus Source your plot summaries Specialized-style fallacy Stublet Stub Makers Run an edit-a-thon Temporary versions of articles Tertiary-source fallacy There are no shortcuts to neutrality There is no deadline There is a deadline The deadline is now Try not to leave it a stub What is a reliable source Understanding Wikipedia's content standards Walled garden What an article should not include Wikipedia is a work in progress Wikipedia is not being written in an organized fashion The world will not end tomorrow Write the article first Writing better articles Writing article content Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Avoid thread mode Copyediting reception sections Coup Don't throw more litter onto the pile Gender-neutral language Myth vs fiction Proseline Reading in a flow state Turning biology research into a Wikipedia article Use our own words We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions Write the article first Writing about women Writing better articles Removing or deleting content Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Adjectives in your recommendations AfD is not a war zone Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Arguments to avoid in deletion reviews Arguments to avoid in image deletion discussions Arguments to make in deletion discussions Avoid repeated arguments Before commenting in a deletion discussion But there must be sources! Confusing arguments mean nothing Content removal Counting and sorting are not original research Delete or merge Delete the junk Deletion is not cleanup Does deletion help? Don't attack the nominator Don't confuse stub status with non-notability Don't overuse shortcuts to policy and guidelines to win your argument Emptying categories out of process Follow the leader How the presumption of notability works How to save an article nominated for deletion I just don't like it Identifying blatant advertising Identifying test edits Immunity Keep it concise Liar liar pants on fire No Encyclopedic Use Nothing Nothing is clear Overzealous deletion Relisting can be abusive Relist bias The Heymann Standard Unopposed AFD discussion Wikipedia is not Whack-A-Mole Why was the page I created deleted? What to do if your article gets tagged for speedy deletion When in doubt, hide it in the woodwork Zombie page Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on civility The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace The basics Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Accepting other users Apology Autistic editors Being right isn't enough Contributing to complicated discussions Divisiveness Don't retaliate Editors' pronouns Edit at your own pace Encouraging the newcomers Enjoy yourself Expect no thanks How to be civil Maintaining a friendly space Negotiation Obsessive–compulsive disorder editors Please say please Relationships with academic editors Thank you Too long; didn't read Truce Unblock perspectives We are all Wikipedians here You have a right to remain silent Philosophy A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent A thank you never hurts A weak personal attack is still wrong Advice for hotheads An uncivil environment is a poor environment Be the glue Beware of the tigers! Civility warnings Deletion as revenge Duty to comply Failure Forgive and forget It's not the end of the world Nobody cares Most people who disagree with you on content are not vandals On Wikipedia no one knows I'm a dog Old-fashioned Wikipedian values Profanity, civility, and discussions Revert notification opt-out Shadowless Fists of Death! Staying cool when the editing gets hot The grey zone The last word There is no Divine Right of Editors Most ideas are bad Nothing is clear Reader The rules of polite discourse There is no common sense Two wrongs don't make a right Wikipedia clichés Wikipedia is not about winning Wikipedia should not be a monopoly Writing for the opponent Dos Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Assume good faith Assume the assumption of good faith Assume no clue Avoid personal remarks Avoid the word "vandal" Be excellent to one another Be pragmatic Beyond civility Call a spade a spade Candor Deny recognition Desist Discussing cruft Drop the stick and back slowly away from the horse carcass Encourage full discussions Get over it How to lose Imagine others complexly Just drop it Keep it concise Keep it down to earth Mind your own business Say "MOBY" Mutual withdrawal Read before commenting Read the room Settle the process first You can search, too Don'ts Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE Wikipedia:Because I can Civil POV pushing Cyberbullying Don't accuse someone of a personal attack for accusing of a personal attack Don't be a fanatic Don't be a jerk Don't be an ostrich Don't be ashamed Don't be a WikiBigot Don't be high-maintenance Don't be inconsiderate Don't be obnoxious Don't be prejudiced Don't be rude Don't be the Fun Police Don't bludgeon the process Don't call a spade a spade Don't call people by their real name Don't call the kettle black Don't call things cruft Don't come down like a ton of bricks Don't cry COI Don't demand that editors solve the problems they identify Don't eat the troll's food Don't fight fire with fire Don't give a fuck Don't help too much Don't ignore community consensus Don't knit beside the guillotine Don't make a smarmy valediction part of your signature Don't remind others of past misdeeds Don't shout Don't spite your face Don't take the bait Don't template the regulars Don't throw your toys out of the pram Do not insult the vandals Griefing Hate is disruptive Nationalist editing No angry mastodons just madmen just madmen No ableism No Nazis No racists No Confederates No queerphobia No, you can't have a pony Passive aggression POV railroad Superhatting There are no oracles There's no need to guess someone's preferred pronouns You can't squeeze blood from a turnip UPPERCASE WikiRelations WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace WikiBullying WikiCrime WikiHarassment WikiHate WikiLawyering WikiLove WikiPeace Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on neutrality Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Academic bias Activist Advocacy Avoid thread mode Be neutral in form Blind men and an elephant Cherrypicking Civil POV pushing Coatrack Controversial articles Creating controversial content Criticisms of society may be consistent with NPOV and reliability Criticism Describing points of view Don't "teach the controversy" Endorsements Let the reader decide Inaccuracy Myth vs fiction NPOV dispute Neutral and proportionate point of view Not Wikipedia's fault POV and OR from editors, sources, and fields Partisans Partisanship Presentism Pro and con lists Systemic bias Tendentious editing There are no shortcuts to neutrality Wikipedia:Truth We are absolutely here to right great wrongs We shouldn't be able to figure out your opinions What is fringe? Why Wikipedia cannot claim the Earth is not flat Wikipedia is not RationalWiki Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Essays on notability Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Advanced source searching All high schools can be notable Alternative outlets Arguments to avoid in deletion discussions Articles with a single source Avoid template creep Bare notability Big events make key participants notable Businesses with a single location But it's true! Common sourcing mistakes Clones Coatrack Discriminate vs indiscriminate information Drafts are not checked for notability or sanity Every snowflake is unique Existence ≠ Notability Existence does not prove notability Extracting the meaning of significant coverage Google searches and numbers How the presumption of notability works High schools Historical/Policy/Notability/Arguments Inclusion is not an indicator of notability Independent sources Inherent notability Insignificant Just because BFDI has an article doesn't mean you can add fancruft about it Masking the lack of notability Make stubs Minimum coverage News coverage does not decrease notability No amount of editing can overcome a lack of notability No one cares about your garage band No one really cares Notability and tornadoes Notability cannot be purchased Notability comparison test Notability is not a level playing field Notability is not a matter of opinion Notability is not relevance or reliability Notability means impact Notabilitymandering Not all Vocaloid songs deserve their own article Not every single thing Donald Trump does deserves an article Obscurity ≠ Lack of notability Offline sources One sentence does not an article make Other stuff exists Overreliance upon Google Perennial websites Popularity ≠ Notability Read the source Red flags of non-notability Reducing consensus to an algorithm Run-of-the-mill Solutions are mixtures and nothing else Significance is not a formula Source content comes first! Sources must be out-of-universe Subjective importance Third-party sources Trivial mentions Video links Vanispamcruftisement What BLP1E is not What is and is not routine coverage What notability is not What to include Why was BFDI not on Wikipedia? Wikipedia is not Crunchbase Wikipedia is not here to tell the world about your noble cause Wikipedia is not the place to post your résumé Two prongs of merit Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Humorous essays Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! Yes, falsely Yes legal threats Yes personal attacks You don't have to be mad to work here, but You should not write meaningless lists Adminitis Ain't no rules says a dog can't play basketball Akin's Laws of Article Writing Alternatives to edit warring ANI flu Anti-Wikipedian Anti-Wikipedianism Articlecountitis Asshole John rule Assume bad faith Assume faith Assume good wraith Assume stupidity Assume that everyone's assuming good faith, assuming that you are assuming good faith Avoid using the preview button Avoid using wikilinks Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense Barnstaritis Before they were notable Be the fun police BOLD, revert, revert, revert cycle Boston Tea Party Butterfly effect CaPiTaLiZaTiOn MuCh? Case against LLM-generated articles Complete bollocks Counting forks Counting juntas Crap Delete the main page Diffusing conflict Don't stuff beans up your nose Don't-give-a-fuckism Don't abbreviate "Wikipedia" as "Wiki"! Don't delete the main page Editcountitis Edits Per Day Editsummarisis Editing under the influence Embrace Stop Signs Emerson Fart Five Fs of Wikipedia Seven Ages of Editor, by Will E. Spear-Shake Go ahead, vandalize How many Wikipedians does it take to change a lightbulb? How to get away with UPE How to put up a straight pole by pushing it at an angle How to vandalize correctly How to win a citation war Ignore all essays Ignore all user warnings Ignore every single rule Is that even an essay? Keep beating the horse List of really, really, really stupid article ideas that you really, really, really should not create Mess with the templates My local pond Newcomers are delicious, so go ahead and bite them Legal vandalism List of jokes about Wikipedia LTTAUTMAOK No climbing the Reichstag dressed as Spider-Man No episcopal threats No one cares about your garage band No one really cares No, really No self attacks Notability is not eternal Oops Defense Play the game Please be a giant dick, so we can ban you Please bite the newbies Please do not murder the newcomers Pledge of Tranquility Project S.C.R.A.M. R-e-s-p-e-c-t Requests for medication Requirements for adminship Rouge admin Rouge editor Sarcasm is really helpful Sausages for tasting Spaling Muich? Template madness The Night Before Wikimas The first rule of Wikipedia The Five Pillars of Untruth Things that should not be surprising The WikiBible Watchlistitis We are deletionist! Why is BFDI on Wikipedia? Why you shouldn't write articles with ChatGPT, according to ChatGPT Wikipedia is an MMORPG WTF? OMG! TMD TLA. ARG! 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 January Toggle January subsection 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 1.1 17 1.2 16 1.3 15 1.4 14 1.5 13 1.6 12 1.7 11 1.8 10 1.9 9 1.10 8 1.11 7 1.12 6 1.13 5 1.14 4 1.15 3 1.16 2 1.17 1 2 References 3 External links Deaths in 2026 العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Italiano کٲشُر Magyar Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو 中文 Article Talk Read View source View history Read View source View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item The following notable deaths occurred in 2026. Names are reported under the date of death, in alphabetical order. A typical entry reports information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent nationality (if applicable), what subject was noted for, cause of death (if known), and a reference. January 17 16 Olena Grechanina , 90, Ukrainian scientist. [ 1 ] Ratbek hadji Nysanbayev , 85, Kazakh religious figure, supreme mufti of Kazakhstan (1990–2000). [ 2 ] (death announced on this date) 15 Abdullahi Abubakar , 90, Nigerian Islamic cleric and humanitarian. [ 3 ] Ante Grgurević , 50, Croatian basketball player ( Split , Lugano Tigers ) and coach (Split). [ 4 ] Rafael Gvaladze , 78, Azerbaijani jurist, judge of the Constitutional Court (1998–2025). [ 5 ] Princess Irene of Greece and Denmark , 83, Greek-Spanish royal. [ 6 ] Kim Sin-yong , 80, South Korean writer. [ 7 ] Mutumwa Mawere , 66, Zimbabwean-South African mining industry executive. [ 8 ] Kenny Morris , 68, English drummer ( Siouxsie and the Banshees ). [ 9 ] (death announced on this date) Edgar Salvé , 79, Belgian Olympic middle-distance runner ( 1968 , 1972 ). [ 10 ] Ajay Varma , 62, Indian cricketer ( Bengal ). [ 11 ] Gagik Yeganyan , 69, Armenian politician. [ 12 ] 14 Layonel Adams , 31, Russian footballer ( Banants , Cerceda , Isloch Minsk Raion ), fall. [ 13 ] Dmitri Akimov , 45, Russian footballer ( Metallurg Lipetsk , Sibir Novosibirsk , Rostov ). [ 14 ] Aroha Awarau , 49, New Zealand playwright and journalist. [ 15 ] Namirembe Bitamazire , 84, Ugandan academic and politician, MP (2001–2011). [ 16 ] Alfonso Castellanos , 91, Colombian radio broadcaster and journalist. [ 17 ] Jean-Hugues Colonna , 91, French politician, deputy (1981–1988). [ 18 ] (death announced on this date) Valeria Fedeli , 76, Italian politician, minister of education (2016–2018) and senator (2013–2022). [ 19 ] Oleksandr Kabanov , 52, Ukrainian politician, deputy (since 2019). [ 20 ] Kim Min-jae , 53, South Korean baseball player ( Lotte Giants , Hanwha Eagles ) and coach ( Doosan Bears ), cancer. [ 21 ] Rick Link , 66, American professional wrestler, trainer and promoter. [ 22 ] Nie Weiping , 73, Chinese Go player. [ 23 ] Melania Pérez [ es ] , 76, Argentine singer. [ 24 ] Ricard Pérez Casado , 80, Spanish politician, mayor of Valencia (1979–1988) and deputy (2000–2004). [ 25 ] Seppo Reijonen , 81, Finnish Olympic ski jumper ( 1968 ). [ 26 ] Jean Rossier , 81, Belgian biologist and academic. [ 27 ] (death announced on this date) Ernestine Russell , 87, Canadian Olympic gymnast ( 1956 , 1960 ). [ 28 ] Ado Schlier , 90, German radio personality ( Radio Salzburg , Bayerischer Rundfunk ). [ 29 ] Vera Valdez , 89, Brazilian model. [ 30 ] Quemil Yambay , 87, Paraguayan musician and composer. [ 31 ] Igor Zolotovitskiy , 64, Russian actor ( Taxi Blues , Luna Park , Composition for Victory Day ), academic and television director, cancer. [ 32 ] 13 Scott Adams , 68, American cartoonist ( Dilbert ), prostate cancer. [ 33 ] Iqbal Athas , 81, Sri Lankan journalist ( The Sunday Times , Jane's Defence Weekly ). [ 34 ] Lina Bernardi [ it ] , 87, Italian actress ( The Story of Piera , The Last Kiss , The Embalmer ). [ 35 ] Alfred Blumstein , 95, American scientist. [ 36 ] Mark Brnovich , 59, American politician and attorney, Arizona attorney general (2015–2023), heart attack. [ 37 ] Paola Cardia [ it ] , 73, Italian footballer ( national team ). [ 38 ] David Collier , 70, English sports administrator, chief executive of the England and Wales Cricket Board (2004–2014). [ 39 ] Claudette Colvin , 86, American civil rights activist ( Browder v. Gayle ). [ 40 ] Indira Devi Dhanrajgir , 95, Indian poet and socialite. [ 41 ] Catherine Duprat , 89, French historian. [ 42 ] Barbara Eustachiewicz , 87, Polish Olympic gymnast ( 1960 , 1964 ). [ 43 ] Jesse Flis , 92, Canadian politician, MP (1979–1984, 1988–1997). [ 44 ] Bir Bhadra Hagjer , 75, Indian politician, Assam MLA (2016–2021). [ 45 ] Ali Hassan , 61, Mozambican footballer ( Sporting , Vitória de Setúbal , national team ), cancer. [ 46 ] Hun Yuan , 81, Taiwanese religious leader, founder of Weixinism . [ 47 ] Heiki Kranich , 64, Estonian politician, twice MP , minister of finance (1994) and environment (1999–2003). [ 48 ] Jason Lafreniere , 59, Canadian ice hockey player ( Quebec Nordiques , Tampa Bay Lightning , New York Rangers ). [ 49 ] (death announced on this date) Blanche Marvin , 100, American-born British theatre critic, producer and writer. [ 50 ] Doug McConnell , 80, American television journalist. [ 51 ] Bruce McLeod , 96, Canadian clergyman, moderator of the United Church of Canada (1972–1974). [ 52 ] Rolando Nannicini , 79, Italian politician, deputy (2001–2013). [ 53 ] Seán Ó Sé , 89, Irish tenor singer. [ 54 ] Ivan Onufriyev , 58, Russian footballer ( Geolog Tyumen , MTsOP-Metallurg Verkhnyaya Pyshma , Dynamo Stavropol ). [ 55 ] Annemarie Prins , 93, Dutch actress ( Accused , Memory Lane ), director and writer. [ 56 ] Renzo Ragonesi [ it ] , 82, Italian footballer ( Venezia , Reggiana , Modena ). [ 57 ] Jean-Loup Trassard , 92, French photographer. [ 58 ] (death announced on this date) Rudolf Urc [ sk ] , 88, Slovak director of documentary and animated films and academic. [ 59 ] George Vassiliou , 94, Cypriot politician, president (1988–1993) and MP (1996–2001), respiratory infection. [ 60 ] David Webb , 60, British-born Hong Kong activist investor, prostate cancer. [ 61 ] Hans Wiktorsson [ sv ] , 75, Swedish actor ( The Painter , Kurt Olssons julkalender ), complications from a brain injury. [ 62 ] Brian Wilshire , 81, Australian radio broadcaster ( 2GB ). [ 63 ] Razmik Zohrabyan , 75, Armenian politician, MP (2007–2017). [ 64 ] 12 Oba C. D. Akran , 89, Nigerian politician and traditional ruler. [ 65 ] Mahmoud Al-Astal , Palestinian police chief, shot. [ 66 ] Sheila Bernette , 94, English singer ( The Good Old Days , The Black and White Minstrel Show ) and actress ( The Magnificent Seven Deadly Sins ). [ 67 ] Paul Clauson , 76, Australian politician, Queensland MP (1985–1989), attorney-general (1986–1989). [ 68 ] Rolland Courbis , 72, French football player ( Monaco ) and manager ( Bordeaux , Marseille ). [ 69 ] Bill Courtney , 55, American college basketball coach ( Cornell Big Red , Miami Hurricanes , Temple Owls ). [ 70 ] Mochammad Djamhari , 82, Indonesian military officer and politician, Regent of Bekasi Regency (1993–1998). [ 71 ] John Forté , 50, American rapper ( Refugee Camp All-Stars ) and producer ( The Score ). [ 72 ] Rick Garcia , 69, American LGBTQ activist. [ 73 ] Mohammad Ilyas , 79, Pakistani cricketer ( Lahore , Pakistan International Airlines , national team ), cancer. [ 74 ] Asda Jayanama , 84, Thai diplomat. [ 75 ] Robert Jensen , 52, Dutch television personality ( Jensen! ), cardiac arrest. [ 76 ] Jayashree Kabir , 73, Indian actress ( Pratidwandi , Simana Periye , Rupali Saikate ). [ 77 ] Robert V. Kohn , 72, American mathematician, cancer. [ 78 ] Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin , 26, British guitarist ( Black Midi ). [ 79 ] (death announced on this date) Jan Mårtenson , 92, Swedish author and diplomat, ambassador to Switzerland and Liechtenstein (1993–1995). [ 80 ] Eddie McCreadie , 85, Scottish football player ( Chelsea , national team ) and manager (Chelsea). [ 81 ] Luigi Nicolais , 83, Italian engineer and politician, minister for public administration (2006–2008), deputy (2008–2012), and president of the National Research Council (2012–2016). [ 82 ] Alain Orsoni , 71, French politician, Corsican independence militant ( FLNC ) and football executive ( AC Ajaccio ), shot. [ 83 ] Mario Rigutti , 99, Italian astronomer. [ 84 ] Roland Riz , 98, Italian politician, deputy (1958–1963, 1968–1987), senator (1987–1996). [ 85 ] Catherine Samie , 92, French actress ( Lovers of Paris , The Old Maid , They Came Back ). [ 86 ] Michel Tombereau , 80, French painter, complications from influenza. [ 87 ] Karen Vold , 86, American Hall of Fame trick rider. [ 88 ] Martin Willich , 80, German politician, member of the Hamburg Parliament (1974–1995). [ 89 ] Isaac Witz , 91, Austrian-born Israeli immunologist. [ 90 ] Benjaminas Zelkevičius , 81, Lithuanian football player ( Žalgiris Vilnius , Shakhtar Donetsk ) and manager ( national team ). [ 91 ] 11 Pavel Akishev , 42, Russian baseball player ( national team ). [ 92 ] (death announced on this date) Gabriel Barkay , 81, Israeli archaeologist. [ 93 ] Alberto Benzoni , 90, Italian journalist and politician. [ 94 ] Louis E. Brus , 82, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (2023). [ 95 ] Thomas Causey , 76, American sound engineer ( Dick Tracy , Star Trek Generations , Escape from New York ). [ 96 ] Giancarlo Cauteruccio , 69, Italian theatre actor and director. [ 97 ] Richard Codey , 79, American politician, governor of New Jersey (2004–2006), member of the New Jersey Senate (1982–2024). [ 98 ] Marcus Gilbert , 67, British actor ( Army of Darkness , The Masks of Death , Rambo III ), throat cancer. [ 99 ] Dave Giusti , 86, American baseball player ( Houston Astros , Pittsburgh Pirates ), World Series champion ( 1971 ). [ 100 ] Robert Hopkins , 64, English footballer ( Birmingham City , West Bromwich Albion , Shrewsbury Town ). [ 101 ] Bennie Carlton Keel , 91, American archaeologist. [ 102 ] Ueli Kestenholz , 50, Swiss snowboarder, Olympic bronze medallist ( 1998 ), avalanche. [ 103 ] Mukharby Kirzhinov , 77, Russian weightlifter, Olympic champion ( 1972 ). [ 104 ] Kōtarō Kodama , 91, Japanese politician, mayor of Akitakata (1980–2008). [ 105 ] Nelson Manrique , 78, Peruvian historian and sociologist. [ 106 ] Titina Medeiros , 48, Brazilian actress ( Cheias de Charme , A Lei do Amor , Now Generation ), pancreatic cancer. [ 107 ] Ahmad Melli , 76–77, Syrian actor. [ 108 ] Miquel Naudí , 77, Andorran politician, member of the General Council (1981–1983). [ 109 ] Takashi Ono , 97, Japanese-born American mathematician. [ 110 ] Park Soon-yong , 81, South Korean lawyer, prosecutor general (1999–2001). [ 111 ] Miroslava Pešíková , 79, Czech dancer and ballet master. [ 112 ] Clarence Pierce , 97, American politician, member of the Mississippi House of Representatives (1952–1984). [ 113 ] Eugen Pojoni , 84, Romanian footballer ( Viitorul București , Crișul Oradea , UTA Arad ). [ 114 ] Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell , Samoan politician, MLA (2021–2025). [ 115 ] Samir Putatundu , 73, Indian politician. [ 116 ] Nasser bin Radan Al Rashid Al Wadaei , Saudi longevity claimant. [ 117 ] Grete Salomonsen , 74, Norwegian film director ( Kamilla and the Thief , Yohan: The Child Wanderer ). [ 118 ] Robert G. Shulman , 101, American biophysicist. [ 119 ] Aniceto Sobrepeña , 77, Filipino banker and public servant. [ 120 ] Prashant Tamang , 43, Indian singer ( Indian Idol ) and actor ( Paatal Lok ), cardiac arrest. [ 121 ] Sergio Tarquinio , 100, Italian painter. [ 122 ] Trevor A. Toussaint , 65, British actor ( Hollyoaks ). [ 123 ] John Wallace , 76, Scottish trumpeter, composer and arts educator. [ 124 ] Herman Wouters , 85, Belgian politician, mayor of Grobbendonk (1989–1997). [ 125 ] 10 Sturla Böðvarsson , 80, Icelandic politician, minister of communications and transportation (1999–2007), president of the Althing (2007–2009). [ 126 ] Manoel Carlos , 92, Brazilian television writer ( Por Amor , Laços de Família , Mulheres Apaixonadas ). [ 127 ] Daniel Colson , 82, French sociologist and academic. [ 128 ] Yolande Viviane Compaoré , Burkinabe politician, governor of Nord Region . [ 129 ] Erich von Däniken , 90, Swiss author and ufologist ( Chariots of the Gods? ). [ 130 ] Distorted Humor , 32, American Thoroughbred racehorse and sire, euthanized. [ 131 ] Sergey Galkov , 60, Russian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 1988 ). [ 132 ] Richard Hynes , 81, British biologist. [ 133 ] (death announced on this date) Jim Hartung , 65, American gymnast, Olympic champion ( 1984 ), and coach. [ 134 ] Mario Jacquet [ es ] , 79, Paraguayan footballer ( Cerro Porteño , Real Oviedo , Real Valladolid ). [ 135 ] Włodzimierz Jakubowski , 86, Polish football player ( Lech Poznań ) and manager ( Mieszko Gniezno , Bałtyk Gdynia ). [ 136 ] Kathy Javner , 52, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (since 2018), breast cancer. [ 137 ] Yeison Jiménez , 34, Colombian singer, plane crash . [ 138 ] Václav Klučka , 72, Czech politician, deputy (1992–1996, 2006–2017). [ 139 ] Robert Kostelka , 92, American politician, member of the Louisiana State Senate (2003–2016). [ 140 ] Derek Martin , 92, British actor ( Law & Order , Eldorado , EastEnders ). [ 141 ] Marco Proaño Maya , 80, Ecuadorian politician, three-time deputy . [ 142 ] Davinder Singh , 73, Indian field hockey player, Olympic champion ( 1980 ). [ 143 ] Ivan Štampach , 79, Czech religionist and theologian. [ 144 ] Thierry Steimetz , 42, French footballer ( Amnéville , Metz , Homburg ), cancer. [ 145 ] Orazio Svelto , 89, Italian physicist. [ 146 ] Isabel Veloso , 19, Brazilian social media influencer, complications from bone marrow transplant. [ 147 ] Manolo Villaverde , 91, Cuban-American actor ( ¿Qué Pasa, USA? , Taina , Wiseguy ). [ 148 ] Prawase Wasi , 93, Thai hematologist. [ 149 ] Bob Weir , 78, American Hall of Fame musician ( Grateful Dead ) and songwriter (" Sugar Magnolia ", " One More Saturday Night "), complications from cancer. [ 150 ] Robert Wolgemuth , 77, American author, chairman of the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association . [ 151 ] 9 Ai , 49, Japanese Western chimpanzee , subject of cognition studies, multiple organ failure. [ 152 ] Zeno Bianu , 75, French writer. [ 153 ] Andrés Caniulef , 48, Chilean journalist, heart attack. [ 154 ] T. K. Carter , 69, American actor ( The Thing , Punky Brewster , Runaway Train ). [ 155 ] Robert Croft , 91, American freediver. [ 156 ] Jean-Louis Duplat , 88, Belgian magistrate. [ 157 ] Beatriz González , 93, Colombian painter, sculptor and art historian. [ 158 ] Ulf Granberg , 80, Swedish comics creator and editor ( The Phantom ). [ 159 ] Jitka Gruntová , 80, Czech politician, deputy (2002–2006). [ 160 ] Hans Herrmann , 97, German racing driver ( Formula One ). [ 161 ] Sandra Hester , 68, American socio-political activist. [ 162 ] Pirkko Ikonen , 98, Finnish politician, MP (1983–1991). [ 163 ] Heber Jentzsch , 90, American Scientology executive ( Church of Scientology International ), actor and journalist ( Los Angeles Free Press ). [ 164 ] (death announced on this date) Manfred Kuhmichel , 82, German politician, member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia (1990–2012). [ 165 ] Lê Văn Dũng , 80, Vietnamese military officer and politician, chief of the general staff (1998–2001). [ 166 ] Khawlhring Lalremruata , 38, Indian cricketer ( Mizoram ), heart attack. [ 167 ] Diane Munday , 94, British political activist, co-founder of the British Pregnancy Advisory Service . [ 168 ] Valery Noskov [ ru ] , 59, Russian biathlete. [ 169 ] Tina Packer , 87, British actress ( David Copperfield , Doctor Who ) and stage director, co-founder of Shakespeare & Company . [ 170 ] Zelico Petrovic [ it ] , 77, Yugoslav-born Italian footballer ( Taranto , Rimini , Catania ). [ 171 ] Larry Snook , 84, American politician. [ 172 ] Terry Sullivan , 87, British drummer ( Renaissance ). [ 173 ] Josep Maria Triginer , 82, Spanish politician. [ 174 ] Eleni Varikas , 76, Greek-born French political philosopher and academic, lung cancer. [ 175 ] Yao Chiang-lin [ zh ] , 75, Taiwanese politician. [ 176 ] Vincenzo Zarri , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Bologna (1976–1988) and bishop of Forlì-Bertinoro (1988–2005). [ 177 ] 8 Dolores Ashcroft-Nowicki , 96, British occult writer. [ 178 ] Musa Gibril Bala Gaye , 79, Gambian economist and politician, minister of finance (2003–2009) and foreign affairs (2005). [ 179 ] Murat Bisembin , 53, Kazakh actor, cancer. [ 180 ] Loraine Braham , 87, Australian politician, member (1994–2008) and speaker (1997–1999, 2001–2005) of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly . [ 181 ] Günther Brendel , 95, German painter, graphic artist and academic. [ 182 ] Heloísa de Carvalho , 56, Brazilian writer and political activist. [ 183 ] Václav Cigler , 96, Czech sculptor and visual artist. [ 184 ] Conrado Corsalette , 47, Brazilian journalist. [ 185 ] Mieczysław Czerniawski , 77, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991, 1993–2005). [ 186 ] Nelly Chatué Diop , 41, Cameroonian computer scientist. [ 187 ] Jean-Luc Domenach , 80, French historian, sinologist and political scientist. [ 188 ] Jim Furlong , 85, Canadian football player ( Calgary Stampeders ). [ 189 ] Sergio Goizauskas , 69, Argentine-born French cartoonist. [ 190 ] Vijay Singh Gond , 68, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (1980–2007, since 2024), kidney failure. [ 191 ] Dave Hitchcock , 76, English record producer ( In the Land of Grey and Pink , Foxtrot , The Snow Goose ) and accountant. [ 192 ] Jian Shuisheng [ zh ] , 96, Chinese academic. [ 193 ] Philippe Junot , 85, French venture capitalist and property developer. [ 194 ] Madalitso Kazombo , 46, Malawian politician, first deputy speaker of the National Assembly (2019–2025), asthma attack. [ 195 ] Dieudonné Larose , 80, Haitian singer. [ 196 ] Rhoda Levine , 93, American opera director and choreographer. [ 197 ] (death announced on this date) Elisa Lisboa [ pt ] , 81, Portuguese actress ( Sabor da Paixão , Morangos com Açúcar , A Impostora ). [ 198 ] Evgeny Lyubivyi , 51, Russian politician. [ 199 ] Antonino Mangano [ it ] , 75, Italian marathon and middle-distance runner. [ 200 ] Guy Moon , 63, American composer ( The Fairly OddParents , Big Time Rush , Danny Phantom ), traffic collision. [ 201 ] Jafar Nainggolan , 79, Indonesian politician, MP (2009–2014). [ 202 ] Hiroshi Nakamura , 93, Japanese surrealist painter, pancreatic cancer. [ 203 ] Álvaro Peña-Rojas , 82, Chilean-German singer and songwriter. [ 204 ] Howard Riley , 87, English footballer ( Leicester City , Walsall , Barrow ). [ 205 ] Astrid Roemer , 78, Surinamese-Dutch writer and teacher. [ 206 ] Kjersti Scheen , 82, Norwegian journalist and writer. [ 207 ] Uljana Semjonova , 73, Latvian basketball player, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1980 ). [ 208 ] Sir Tim Shadbolt , 78, New Zealand politician, mayor of Waitemata City (1983–1989) and Invercargill (1993–1995, 1998–2022). [ 209 ] Meinam Bhorot Singh , 75, Indian politician, Manipur MLA (2002–2007). [ 210 ] Mojtaba Tarshiz , 47, Iranian footballer ( Shahr Khodro F.C. , Sanat Mes Kerman F.C. , Gostaresh Foulad F.C. ), shot . [ 211 ] Matthew Taylor , 57–58, American musician ( Bellini ) and artist, heart attack. [ 212 ] Wim Van Belleghem , 62, Belgian Olympic rower ( 1988 , 1992 ), world champion ( 1987 ). [ 213 ] Paul Calvin Visser , 89, American politician, mayor of Flint, Michigan (1973–1975). [ 214 ] Terry Yorath , 75, Welsh football player ( Leeds United , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 215 ] 7 Ali Ardestani , Iranian convicted spy, execution by hanging. [ 216 ] Madjoulba Batocfetou , Togolese agronomic engineer. [ 217 ] James Bernard , American music journalist and magazine editor ( The Source , XXL ). [ 218 ] (death announced on this date) Ihor Blazhkov , 89, Ukrainian conductor. [ 219 ] Albert Bourgi , 90, French jurist. [ 220 ] Raffaella Bragazzi , 66, Italian television presenter and radio host. [ 221 ] Frank S. Cerveny , 92, American Episcopalian clergyman, bishop of Florida (1974–1992). [ 222 ] Camilo Isaac Chavarría , 27, Panamanian model ( Mister Panamá ) and reality show contestant ( Calle 7 ), heart attack. [ 223 ] Martin Chivers , 80, English footballer ( Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur , national team ). [ 224 ] Ángel Coerezza , 92, Argentine football referee ( AFA ). [ 225 ] John W. Derr , 84, American politician, member of the Maryland Senate (1983–1999), cancer. [ 226 ] Hiroya Ebina , 67, Japanese politician, mayor of Kushiro (2008–2024), member of the Hokkaido Legislative Assembly (1999–2008), cardiac arrest. [ 227 ] Tony Field , 79, English footballer ( Blackburn Rovers , Southport , Memphis Rogues ). [ 228 ] Vera Frances , 95, English actress ( Back-Room Boy , King Arthur Was a Gentleman , It's That Man Again ). [ 229 ] Madhav Gadgil , 83, Indian ecologist. [ 230 ] Renee Good , 37, American poet and writer, shot . [ 231 ] Domenico Graziani , 81, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Cassano all'Jonio (1999–2006) and archbishop of Crotone-Santa Severina (2006–2019). [ 232 ] Glenn Hall , 94, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Chicago Black Hawks , Detroit Red Wings , St. Louis Blues ), Stanley Cup champion ( 1952 , 1961 ). [ 233 ] Sidney de Jong , 46, Dutch Olympic baseball player ( 2004 , 2008 ). [ 234 ] Rebecca Kilgore , 76, American jazz vocalist. [ 235 ] Jon Lindsay , 90, American politician, member of the Texas Senate (1997–2007). [ 236 ] Uri Lupolianski , 74, Israeli politician, mayor of Jerusalem (2003–2008) and founder of Yad Sarah . [ 237 ] Ian McCrae , 84, Scottish rugby union player ( Gordonians , national team ). [ 238 ] Randy McMillan , 67, American football player ( Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts ). [ 239 ] Roberto Mondragón , 85, American politician, lieutenant governor of New Mexico (1971–1975, 1979–1983). [ 240 ] Kabindra Purkayastha , 94, Indian politician, MP (1991–2014). [ 241 ] Howard Sanderford , 90, American politician, member of the Alabama House of Representatives (1989–2022). [ 242 ] Dietrich Stratmann , 88, German politician, member of the Landtag of Lower Saxony (1982–2003). [ 243 ] Seydou Madani Sy , 92, Senegalese jurist and politician, minister of justice (1986–1990). [ 244 ] Kim Thorson , 93, Canadian politician, Saskatchewan MLA (1956–1960, 1971–1975). [ 245 ] Billy Truax , 82, American football player ( Los Angeles Rams , Dallas Cowboys ). [ 246 ] Chiara Valentini , 84, Italian journalist and writer. [ 247 ] Murad Wahba , 99, Egyptian writer, philosopher and academic. [ 248 ] Athol Webb , 90, Australian footballer ( Melbourne ). [ 249 ] 6 Ang Ziming [ zh ] , 65, Chinese academic. [ 250 ] Joe Arlooktoo , 86, Canadian visual artist and politician, Northwest Territories MLA (1979–1991). [ 251 ] (death announced on this date) Odette Bergoffen , 101, French resistance fighter. [ 252 ] Andrzej Bogusławski , 94, Polish philologist and semanticist. [ 253 ] Ron Boswell , 85, Australian politician, senator (1983–2014). [ 254 ] John Cunningham , 93, American actor ( Titanic , Company , Mystic Pizza ). [ 255 ] Dick Dull , 80, American athletic director ( Maryland Terrapins ). [ 256 ] V. K. Ebrahimkunju , 73, Indian politician, Kerala MLA (2011–2021). [ 257 ] Anna Eder [ de ] , 75, German politician, mayor of Deggendorf (2000–2012). [ 258 ] Johannes Fabian , 88, German anthropologist. [ 259 ] Alex Felipe , 32, Brazilian futsal player ( Sporting CP , Norilsk Nickel , national team ). [ 260 ] Angella D. Ferguson , 100, American pediatrician. [ 261 ] Edith M. Flanigen , 96, American chemist. [ 262 ] Robert Goebbels , 81, Luxembourgish politician, minister for the economy (1989–1999) and energy (1994–1999), signatory of the Schengen Agreement . [ 263 ] Suresh Kalmadi , 81, Indian politician and sports administrator, MP (1982–2014) and president of the IOA (1996–2011). [ 264 ] Doug LaMalfa , 65, American politician, member of the U.S. House of Representatives (since 2013), heart attack. [ 265 ] József Láyer , 70, Hungarian politician, MP (1998–2006). [ 266 ] Jim McBride , 78, American country music songwriter (" Chasing That Neon Rainbow ", " (Who Says) You Can't Have It All ", " Chattahoochee "). [ 267 ] Jack McGregor , 91, American politician and sports team owner, member of the Pennsylvania State Senate (1963–1970) and founder of the Pittsburgh Penguins . [ 268 ] Kathleen Muxel , 54, German politician, member of the Landtag of Brandenburg (since 2019). [ 269 ] Raffaele Nogaro , 92, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of Sessa Aurunca (1982–1990) and of Caserta (1990–2009). [ 270 ] James E. O'Grady , 96, American law enforcement officer, Cook County sheriff (1986–1990). [ 271 ] Saeid Pirdoost , 85, Iranian actor ( Snake Fang , Son of Adam, Daughter of Eve , Great Award ), cancer. [ 272 ] Claude Pivi , 66, Guinean military officer, complications from diabetes. [ 273 ] Jaap Pop , 84, Dutch politician, mayor of Haarlem (1995–2006). [ 274 ] David Quail , 88, South African politician and educator, member of the Gauteng Provincial Legislature (1999–2009). [ 275 ] Nihal Seneviratne , 91, Sri Lankan civil servant, secretary general of the Parliament of Sri Lanka (1981–1994). [ 276 ] Baghir Suleimanov , 66, Azerbaijani petroleum scientist. [ 277 ] Béla Tarr , 70, Hungarian film director ( Sátántangó , Werckmeister Harmonies , The Turin Horse ). [ 278 ] Jerry Thomas , 90, American baseball player ( Minnesota Golden Gophers ). [ 279 ] Gianpaolo Tosel [ it ] , 85, Italian magistrate. [ 280 ] Robert Vicot , 94, French football player ( SC Toulon ) and manager ( Paris Saint-Germain FC , Gabon national team ). [ 281 ] Anatoly Yevtushenko , 91, Russian handball coach, Olympic champion ( 1976 , 1988 ). [ 282 ] Zhang Shaokang [ zh ] , 90, Chinese scholar. [ 283 ] Zhou Liwei [ zh ] , 94, Chinese electro-optics professor. [ 284 ] 5 Ahn Sung-ki , 74, South Korean actor ( Silmido , Two Cops , Radio Star ), blood cancer. [ 285 ] Aldrich Ames , 84, American counterintelligence officer ( CIA ) and convicted Soviet-era spy. [ 286 ] Bonifacio Ávila , 75, Colombian Olympic boxer ( 1972 ). [ 287 ] Herbert Beck , 84, German art historian. [ 288 ] Andrew Bodnar , 71, English bass guitarist ( The Rumour ) and songwriter (" I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass "). [ 289 ] (death announced on this date) Andrew Carter , 86, English composer ( Benedicite ) and conductor. [ 290 ] Tom Cherones , 86, American television director ( Seinfeld , NewsRadio , Ellen ), complications from Alzheimer's disease. [ 291 ] Beatriz de Lenclós [ es ] , 102, Spanish dancer. [ 292 ] Jim Dennison , 87, American football coach ( Akron Zips , Walsh Cavaliers ). [ 293 ] Marian Diamond , 89, English actress ( Subterfuge , Goodbye Gemini , The Lord of the Rings ). [ 294 ] Miklós Dudás , 34, Hungarian Olympic sprint canoeist ( 2012 ), world champion ( 2014 ). [ 295 ] Mike Embro , 63, Canadian drummer ( Razor ). [ 296 ] (death announced on this date) Aoi Fujino , 27, Japanese gravure idol , rhabdomyosarcoma . [ 297 ] Paolo Gillet , 96, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Albano (1993–2005). [ 298 ] Pier Francesco Guarguaglini , 88, Italian defense industry executive, chairman of Finmeccanica (2002–2011). [ 299 ] Bruce Hammock , 78, American entomologist. [ 300 ] Ad van Kempen , 81, Dutch actor ( 1-900 , 'n Beetje Verliefd , Winter in Wartime ), prostate cancer. [ 301 ] Wiktor Kinecki , 96, Polish politician, MP (1976–1980). [ 302 ] José Mingorance , 87, Spanish football player ( Espanyol , national team ) and manager ( Granada ). [ 303 ] Reza Moradi Abdolvand , 18, Iranian protester, shot. [ 304 ] Jawann Oldham , 68, American basketball player ( Chicago Bulls , Houston Rockets , New York Knicks ). [ 305 ] Induratana Paribatra , 103, Thai royal. [ 306 ] Molly Parkin , 93, Welsh painter, novelist and journalist. [ 307 ] Christos Politis [ el ] , 83, Greek actor ( Lampsi ). [ 308 ] Bob Pulford , 89, Canadian Hall of Fame ice hockey player ( Toronto Maple Leafs , Los Angeles Kings ), coach ( Chicago Blackhawks ), and executive, NHLPA president (1967–1972), four-time Stanley Cup champion. [ 309 ] Cosimo Scaglioso , 89, Italian politician, senator (1994–1996). [ 310 ] Elle Simone , 49, American chef ( America's Test Kitchen ) and food stylist. [ 311 ] Miroslav Stárek [ cs ] , 77, Czech footballer ( Sparta Prague , Slavia Prague , Mladá Boleslav ). [ 312 ] Elsje de Wijn , 82, Dutch actress ( De stille Oceaan , For a Lost Soldier , Het 14e kippetje ) and singer. [ 313 ] Ken Wilcock , 91, British sprinter. [ 314 ] (death announced on this date) Mike Wilson , 66, British kart racer, six-time world champion . [ 315 ] Jiří Witzany [ cs ] , 84, Czech academic and rector of ČVUT (2000–2006). [ 316 ] Wu Lintao [ zh ] , 105, Chinese politician. [ 317 ] 4 Forest Able , 93, American basketball player ( Syracuse Nationals ). [ 318 ] Ali Abu al-Ragheb , 79, Jordanian politician, prime minister (2000–2003). [ 319 ] Fazl-ur-Raheem Ashrafi , 81, Pakistani Islamic scholar, patron of Wifaq-ul-Madaris al-Arabia . [ 320 ] Céline Bellot , 55, Canadian criminologist and academic, breast cancer. [ 321 ] Mario Blasone [ it ] , 85, Italian basketball player. [ 322 ] Bob Boyer , 93, Canadian professional wrestler. [ 323 ] David Branch , 77, Canadian ice hockey administrator, commissioner of the OHL (1979–2024) and president of the CHL (1996–2019). [ 324 ] Calbo , 52, French rapper ( Ärsenik ). [ 325 ] Germaine Cousin-Zermatten , 100, Swiss herbalist. [ 326 ] Kamiel Dierckx [ nl ] , 84, Belgian basketball player ( Belgian Lions ). [ 327 ] Frank Dunlop , 98, British theatre director. [ 328 ] Manuel Fernández Ilarraza , 85, Spanish gynaecologist and politician, president of the Parliament of La Rioja (1987–1988). [ 329 ] Miloslav Fiala , 97, Czech Roman Catholic priest. [ 330 ] Andy Friendly , 74, American television producer ( Entertainment Tonight ). [ 331 ] L. Ganesan , 91, Indian politician, MP (1980–1986, 2004–2009). [ 332 ] Anne-Claire Goulon , 51, French businesswoman, breast cancer. [ 333 ] Vicki L. Gregory , 75, American academic and librarian. [ 334 ] Michel Griffon , 77, French agronomist. [ 335 ] Roger Guesnerie , 82–83, French economist and academic. [ 336 ] Denise Harlow , 55, American politician, member of the Maine House of Representatives (2010–2018), cancer. [ 337 ] Bobby Holmes , 93, Scottish footballer ( St Mirren ). [ 338 ] (death announced on this date) Nora Ikstena , 56, Latvian writer and cultural manager. [ 339 ] Klaus Keitel , 86, German politician, member (1990–2002) and president (1990–1998) of the Landtag of Saxony-Anhalt . [ 340 ] Kim Young-in [ ko ] , 85, South Korean actor ( Dachimawa Lee , No Blood No Tears , Arahan ). [ 341 ] Milorad Kosanović , 75, Serbian football player ( Proleter Zrenjanin , Vojvodina ) and manager ( Malta national team ). [ 342 ] Bernard Lemoux , 83, French businessman, president of Stade Rennais FC (1973–1977). [ 343 ] George C. Lodge , 98, American politician. [ 344 ] Oscar Lofton , 87, American football player ( Boston Patriots ) and coach ( Southeastern Louisiana Lions ). [ 345 ] Naser Toure Mahama , 60, Ghanaian politician, MP (since 2012). [ 346 ] Miloslav Masopust , 101, Czech general. [ 347 ] Giorgos Papadakis [ el ] , 74, Greek journalist and television presenter, heart attack. [ 348 ] Daniel Pelletti , 77, Belgian painter. [ 349 ] Jules Radich , 71, New Zealand politician, mayor of Dunedin (2022–2025), heart attack. [ 350 ] Michael Reagan , 80, American political commentator. [ 351 ] Marissa Sanchez , 69, Filipino tennis player. [ 352 ] Jacqueline Schaeffer , 91, French psychoanalyst. [ 353 ] Steve Sheetz , 77, American convenience store operator, CEO and president of Sheetz, Inc. (1984–1995). [ 354 ] Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo , 79, Indian historian and archaeologist. [ 355 ] Ralph L. Thomas , 86, Brazilian-born Canadian film director ( The Terry Fox Story , Apprentice to Murder , Ticket to Heaven ) and screenwriter, complications from heart disease. [ 356 ] Horacio Usandizaga , 85, Argentine politician, senator (1995–2003) and mayor of Rosario (1983–1989), complications from multiple strokes. [ 357 ] Mary White , 81, Irish businesswoman and politician, senator (2002–2016). [ 358 ] Xiao Zhuang , 92–93, Chinese photographer. [ 359 ] Teresa Zalewska , 83, Polish politician, MP (1989–1991). [ 360 ] 3 Hushang Ansary , 98, Iranian-American diplomat and politician, minister of finance (1974–1977) and information (1971–1974), ambassador to the United States (1967–1969), cardiac arrest. [ 361 ] Joan Costa Armengol [ es ] , 91, Spanish journalist. [ 362 ] Jamil Azar , 89, Jordanian journalist and broadcaster, founder of Al Jazeera . [ 363 ] Dietmar Bachmann , 91, Austrian politician, member of the Landtag of Tyrol (1965–1994). [ 364 ] Claude-Inga Barbey , 64, Swiss comedian, writer, and actress ( The Death of Mario Ricci ). [ 365 ] Stephen E. Braude , 80, American philosopher. [ 366 ] Natale Carlotto , 94, Italian politician, senator (1987–1994) and deputy (1976–1987). [ 367 ] Francesco Paolo Casavola , 94, Italian jurist, president of the Constitutional Court (1992–1995). [ 368 ] Frédéric Cerdal , 81, French actor and stage director. [ 369 ] Maria Eugènia Cuenca , 78, Spanish politician, member of the Catalan parliament (1999–2006) and the Congress of Deputies (1986–1992). [ 370 ] Tony Dennis , 63, Canadian football player ( Saskatchewan Roughriders ), multiple organ failure. [ 371 ] Dong Xiaoping [ zh ] , 75, Chinese folklorist. [ 372 ] Gerry Gable , 88, British political activist and magazine editor ( Searchlight ). [ 373 ] Bret Hanna-Shuford , 46, American actor ( Paramour , Amazing Grace , The Wolf of Wall Street ), cancer. [ 374 ] Franz Herre , 99, German journalist and biographer. [ 375 ] Marvalene Hughes , 88, American educator and academic administrator. [ 376 ] Mesut İktu , 78, Turkish operatic baritone. [ 377 ] Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo , 89, Colombian Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Pereira (1984–1987), bishop of Málaga–Soatá (1987–2001) and of Buga (2001–2012). [ 378 ] Nalani Kanakaʻole , 79, American kumu hula . [ 379 ] Latif Karimi , Iranian protester, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps brigadier general, shot . [ 380 ] Michael Kemner , 72, German bass guitarist ( Fehlfarben ), cancer. [ 381 ] David M. Maddox , 87, American army general. [ 382 ] Guðmundur Oddur Magnússon , 70, Icelandic artist and academic. [ 383 ] Sir Graham McCamley , 93, Australian beef producer. [ 384 ] John Meredith , 85, English footballer ( Doncaster Rovers , Chesterfield , Gillingham ). [ 385 ] Errol Moorcroft , 85, South African politician, member of the House of Assembly (1981–1987, 1989–1994) and National Assembly (1999–2004). [ 386 ] Dastagir Hossain Nira , 60, Bangladeshi footballer ( Dhaka Abahani , Mohammedan , national team ), cardiac arrest. [ 387 ] Pa O'Dwyer , 40, Irish strongman. [ 388 ] Sverre Anker Ousdal , 81, Norwegian actor ( Insomnia , Flight of the Eagle , The Last Place on Earth ). [ 389 ] Andrzej Paczkowski , 87, Polish historian. [ 390 ] Dimitar Penev , 80, Bulgarian football player ( CSKA Sofia , national team ) and manager (national team). [ 391 ] Jenny Plocki , 100, French women's rights activist. [ 392 ] Rolf Riehm , 88, German composer ( Sirenen ), oboist and academic ( Musikhochschule Frankfurt ). [ 393 ] Randy Riley , 63, American librarian. [ 394 ] Eva Schloss , 96, Austrian-British Holocaust survivor and memoirist. [ 395 ] Robert K. Tanenbaum , 83, American trial attorney and novelist, mayor of Beverly Hills, California (1988–1989, 1992–1993), cancer. [ 396 ] Nam Singh Thapa , 79, Nepali Olympic boxer ( 1964 ), cancer. [ 397 ] Samuel O. Thier , 88, American doctor and academic, president of Brandeis University (1991–1994). [ 398 ] Ivan Varshavsky , 87, Russian engineer and railway track foreman. [ 399 ] Wang Zheng , 64, Chinese vice admiral. [ 400 ] Terry Wharton , 83, English footballer ( Wolverhampton Wanderers , Bolton Wanderers , Crystal Palace ). [ 401 ] William H. Yohn Jr. , 90, American jurist and politician, judge of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania (since 1991), member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives (1968–1980). [ 402 ] Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi , 76, Indonesian Muslim scholar. [ 403 ] Mirosław Zdanowicz [ pl ] , 88, Polish social activist. [ 404 ] Zhang Kerang [ zh ] , 78, Chinese Peking opera actor. [ 405 ] 2 Ritva Auvinen , 93, Finnish opera singer. [ 406 ] Ian Balding , 87, British horse trainer. [ 407 ] Sukumar Barua , 87, Bangladeshi poet. [ 408 ] Shyam Bihari Lal , 60, Indian politician, Uttar Pradesh MLA (since 2017), heart attack. [ 409 ] Carmen Arnold Biucchi , Swiss numismatist and archaeologist. [ 410 ] Dominique Bucchini , 82, French politician, MEP (1979–1984) and mayor of Sartène (1977–2001). [ 411 ] Tony Carr , 98, Maltese session drummer and percussionist ( CCS , Hot Chocolate ). [ 412 ] Jean-Max Causse , 85, French actor ( I Stand Alone ). [ 413 ] Bohdan Chufus , 75, Ukrainian journalist, actor and singer. [ 414 ] Jenny Collins , 83, English radio presenter ( BBC Radio Merseyside ). [ 415 ] (death announced on this date) Miquel Contestí , 92, Spanish football executive, president of RCD Mallorca (1978–1992). [ 416 ] Sir Patrick Duffy , 105, British politician, MP (1963–1966, 1970–1992) and president of the NATO Assembly (1988–1990). [ 417 ] Toshio Fujii , 83, Japanese politician, member of the House of Councillors (1998–2004), heart failure. [ 418 ] Francis Grant , 101, British marine and World War II veteran. [ 419 ] Stephen E. Haggerty , 87, American geophysicist. [ 420 ] Evan Hammond , 45, Canadian radio host and sports broadcaster ( CJAV-FM ), stroke. [ 421 ] Sidney Kibrick , 97, American actor ( Our Gang ). [ 422 ] Kristi Kiick , 58, American academic. [ 423 ] Elbert Kimbrough , 87, American football player ( San Francisco 49ers , Los Angeles Rams , New Orleans Saints ). [ 424 ] Anna Kurek , 96, Polish nurse and Warsaw Uprising participant. [ 425 ] Paul C. Lambert , 97, American diplomat, ambassador to Ecuador (1990–1992). [ 426 ] Johnny Legend , 77, American rockabilly musician, film producer and wrestling manager, stroke and heart failure. [ 427 ] Vladimir Lukić , 92, Bosnian Serb politician, prime minister of Republika Srpska (1993–1994). [ 428 ] Ashok Gajanan Modak , 85, Indian politician and academic, Maharashtra MLC (1994–2006). [ 429 ] Con Pederson , 91, American visual effects artist ( 2001: A Space Odyssey , Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back , Garfield: The Movie ). [ 430 ] Valery Fyodorovich Plotnikov , 82, Russian photographer. [ 431 ] Tim Robertson , 81, English-born Australian actor ( Chances , Australia You're Standing In It , Stingers ). [ 432 ] (death announced on this date) Lajos Rovátkay , 92, Hungarian-born German harpsichordist and musicologist. [ 433 ] Saleh Rusheidat , 80, Jordanian politician, member of the House of Representatives (1993–1997) and Senate (since 2009). [ 434 ] Edith Renfrow Smith , 111, American supercentenarian. [ 435 ] Phoenix Spicer , 23, Australian footballer ( North Melbourne ). [ 436 ] Ivanne Trebbi , 97, Italian partisan and politician, deputy (1979–1987). [ 437 ] Jim Willis , 98, American baseball player ( Chicago Cubs ). [ 438 ] Robert Wolski , 43, Polish Olympic high jumper ( 2004 ), traffic collision. [ 439 ] Nellie Wong , 91, American poet. [ 440 ] 1 Marat Amankulov , 55, Kyrgyz politician, MP (2015–2021). [ 441 ] Yvan Aumont , 87, French engineer and journalist ( Lys rouge ). [ 442 ] Alan Baker , 81, English footballer ( Aston Villa ). [ 443 ] Allyn Bromley , 97, American visual artist and art educator. [ 444 ] Xesús Cañedo [ es ] , 67, Spanish politician, co-founder of the Partíu Asturianista . [ 445 ] Lana Chornohorska , 26, Ukrainian soldier. [ 446 ] Diane Crump , 77, American jockey and horse trainer, glioblastoma. [ 447 ] Nexhat Daci , 81, Kosovan politician, acting president (2006) and chairman of the Assembly (2001–2006). [ 448 ] Brian Doyle , 90, Canadian writer. [ 449 ] Yehezkel Dror , 97, Austrian-born Israeli political scientist. [ 450 ] Imants Freibergs , 91, Latvian computer scientist, first gentleman (1999–2007). [ 451 ] James Grauerholz , 72, American writer, pneumonia. [ 452 ] Mohamed Harbi , 92, Algerian historian. [ 453 ] Huang Dongbi , 86, Chinese diplomat. [ 454 ] Jeon Jun-ho [ ko ] , 50, South Korean baseball player ( Hyundai Unicorns , Woori Heroes , SK Wyverns ), lung cancer. [ 455 ] Victoria Jones , 34, American actress. [ 456 ] Morris Kahn , 95, South African-born Israeli telecommunications industry executive, founder of Golden Pages , Amdocs and the Aurec Group . [ 457 ] Andrey Khoroshev [ ru ] , 66, Russian actor and screenwriter ( Engineering Red , 8 ½ $ , Admiral ). [ 458 ] Harvey C. Krautschun , 76, American politician, member of the South Dakota House of Representatives (1985–1996). [ 459 ] Hiroshi Kume , 81, Japanese television host, lung cancer. [ 460 ] John Langdon , 79, American typographer and graphic designer. [ 461 ] Arno Liiver , 71, Estonian actor ( Spring , Summer , Autumn ). [ 462 ] Lin Chaoqiang , 92, Chinese aerodynamicist. [ 463 ] Arnold Long , 85, British cricketer ( Sussex , MCC , Surrey ), cancer. [ 464 ] Volodymyr Marchenko , 103, Ukrainian mathematician ( Marchenko equation , Marchenko–Pastur distribution ). [ 465 ] Hélio Mauro , 83, Brazilian politician, deputy (1975–1978), mayor of Goiânia (1978–1979), cardiac arrest. [ 466 ] Paul McCullagh Jr. , 25, Northern Irish boxer, bone cancer. [ 467 ] Colin McDonald , 95, English footballer ( Burnley , Headington United , national team ). [ 468 ] Enric Mestre , 89, Spanish sculptor. [ 469 ] Mukhsin Mukhamadiev , 59, Tajik-Russian football player ( Tajikistan national team , Russia national team ) and manager (Tajikistan national team). [ 470 ] Sir James Munby , 77, English judge, president of the Family Division (2013–2018). [ 471 ] Hubertus von Pilgrim , 94, German sculptor. [ 472 ] Gregory de Polnay , 82, English actor ( Dixon of Dock Green , Doctor Who , Howards' Way ). [ 473 ] Dame Karen Poutasi , 76, New Zealand public health official, director general of health (1995–2006). [ 474 ] Candy Raymond , 75, Australian actress ( Don's Party , Number 96 , Prisoner ). [ 475 ] (death announced on this date) Amit Saar , 47, Israeli intelligence officer, head of the Military Intelligence Research Department (2020–2024), brain cancer. [ 476 ] Roland Schäfer , 76, German politician, mayor of Bergkamen (1998–2020). [ 477 ] Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo , 80, Angolan Roman Catholic prelate, auxiliary bishop of Luanda (1990–1992) and bishop of Mbanza Congo (1992–2008). [ 478 ] Margaret Anne Staggers , 79, American politician, member of the West Virginia House of Delegates (2007–2014). [ 479 ] Hessy Levinsons Taft , 91, German chemist and child model. [ 480 ] Ruben Yesayan , 79, Russian-Armenian test pilot. [ 481 ] Yuen Cheung-yan , 68, Hong Kong actor ( The Miracle Fighters , Drunken Tai Chi , Flying Dagger ), director, and martial arts choreographer. [ 482 ] Valentin Zakharov , 92, Russian figure skater. [ 483 ] References ^ На 91-му році життя померла фахівчиня у галузі медичної генетики Олена Гречаніна ^ First mufti of Kazakhstan passes away ^ Plateau Imam who shielded 262 Christians during attack is dead ^ Preminuo je Ante Grgurević (51), jedan od najomiljenijih splitskih košarkaša i trenera! Bio je sinonim za borbenost (in Croatian) ^ Rafael Qvaladze vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Muere Irene de Grecia, hermana y fiel escudera de la reina Sofía (in Spanish) ^ '한국의 장 주네' 김신용 시인 별세…향년 81세 (in Korean) ^ Zimbabwean Tycoon Mutumwa Mawere Dies in SA Days After 66th Birthday ^ Siouxsie And the Banshees Drummer Kenny Morris Has Died ^ Athlétisme : décès d’Edgar Salvé, ex-champion d’Europe indoor du 1.500 m (in French) ^ বাংলার প্রাক্তন ক্রিকেটার অজয় ভার্মা প্রয়াত, শোকের ছায়া ময়দানে (in Bengali) ^ Մահացել է Գագիկ Եգանյանը (in Armenian) ^ Воспитанник ЦСКА найден мертвым в Подмосковье (in Russian) ^ Умер Дмитрий Акимов (in Russian) ^ Queer Māori Playwright Aroha Awarau Passes Away Peacefully in Ponsonby ^ Uganda mourns loss of education pioneer Namirembe Bitamazire ^ Murió el periodista colombiano Alfonso Castellanos (in Spanish) ^ Ancien député et père d'Yvan Colonna, Jean-Hugues Colonna est mort (in French) ^ È morta Valeria Fedeli, ex ministra dell’Istruzione (in Italian) ^ Помер народний депутат від "Слуги народу" Олександр Кабанов: перші подробиці (in Ukrainian) ^ Former Lotte Coach Kim Min-jae, National Team Shortstop, Dies ^ Rick Link Passes Away ^ Chinese Go legend Nie Weiping passes away ^ Adiós a Melania Pérez, voz emblema de la música argentina y del Festival de Cosquín (in Spanish) ^ Fallece el exalcalde de València Ricard Pérez Casado a los 80 años (in Spanish) ^ Jyväskylässä vaikuttanut olympiaurheilija Seppo Reijonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Décès de Jean Rossier, président de Parole et Musique (in French) ^ Ernestine Russell Weaver, two-time Canadian Olympian and legendary U.S. coach, passes away at age 87 ^ Radio-Legende Ado Schlier mit 90 Jahren in Würzburg gestorben (in German) ^ Morre a atriz e modelo Vera Barreto Leite Valdez aos 89 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Fallece el músico Quemil Yambay, ícono del folclore paraguayo (in Spanish) ^ Умер Игорь Золотовицкий (in Russian) ^ Scott Adams, Creator of the ‘Dilbert’ Comic Strip, Dies at 68 ^ Veteran journalist Iqbal Athas passes away ^ Addio a Lina Bernardi, l’attrice di Latina aveva lavorato con i più grandi registi (in Italian) ^ Alfred Blumstein ^ Former Arizona Attorney General Mark Brnovich dies at age 59 ^ Capoterra, addio alla calciatrice Paola Cardia, 74 anni, nota Paoletta: il centrocampo era il suo mondo (in Italian) ^ Former ECB chief executive David Collier dies aged 70 ^ Claudette Colvin, US civil rights pioneer, dies at 86 ^ Regal Nizam-era Socialite Indira Devi Passes Away ^ Mort de Catherine Duprat, historienne de la Révolution française (in French) ^ Nie żyje Barbara Eustachiewicz-Kowal, wybitna polska gimnastyczka sportowa (in Polish) ^ Odszedł Jesse Philip Flis (1933–2026) – rozmowa z 2018 r. (in Polish) ^ Assam: Retired IAS officer Bir Bhadra Hagjer passes away at 75 ^ Mozambique: Footballer Ali Hassan passes away at 61 ^ 混元禪師圓寂!曾腎臟萎縮病危、長期糖尿病 醫示警6徵兆快就醫 (in Chinese) ^ Suri endine poliitik Heiki Kranich (in Estonian) ^ 97 Play Off Champion Jason Lafreniere Passes Away, aged 59 ^ Theatre world pays tribute to Blanche Marvin, who has died aged 100 ^ Doug McConnell, longtime host of OpenRoad with Doug McConnell and Friends, dies ^ Bruce McLeod, 25th Moderator of The United Church of Canada, Dies at Age 97 ^ Addio a Rolando Nannicini, il cordoglio del mondo politico (in Italian) ^ Renowned Cork singer Seán Ó Sé dies aged 89 ^ Ушёл из жизни бывший футболист тюменского «Геолога» Иван Онуфриев (in Russian) ^ Voor theatermaker Annemarie Prins was maatschappijkritiek en engagement tweede natuur (in Dutch) ^ Lutto nel calcio, si è spento l'ex calciatore della Spal: vinse un campionato di Serie C (in Italian) ^ « Écrivain de l’agriculture » et photographe, le Mayennais Jean-Loup Trassard est décédé (in French) ^ Zomrel režisér, dramaturg a publicista Rudolf Urc, významná osobnosť slovenskej kinematografie (in Slovak) ^ Former Cyprus President George Vassiliou, who put the country on the path to EU membership, has died ^ Hong Kong corporate governance activist David Webb dies at 60 ^ ”Arne” i Kurt Olsson död (in Swedish) ^ Veteran 2GB radio announcer Bruce Wilshire has died aged 81 ^ Մահացել է հայ քաղաքական գործիչ, ՀՀԿ առանցքային ներկայացուցիչ Ռազմիկ Զոհրաբյանը (in Armenian) ^ Oba Babatunde Akran of Badagry dies at 89 ^ Israeli-backed group kills a senior Hamas police officer in Gaza, threatens more attacks ^ BBC's Good Old Days and Coronation Street star and singer Sheila Bernette dies aged 94 ^ Clauson, Paul John ^ Entraîneur français emblématique, Rolland Courbis est mort (in French) ^ George Mason Athletics Mourns The Loss of Longtime Assistant Bill Courtney ^ Mantan Bupati Bekasi Mochammad Djamhari Tutup Usia di Bandung (in Indonesian) ^ John Forté, celebrated recording artist, dies suddenly at 50 ^ Rick Garcia, activist and leader in Chicago's LGBTQ+ civil rights movement, dies at 69 ^ Ex-cricketer Mohammad Ilyas passes away in Lahore ^ สิ้น “อัษฎา ชัยนาม” อดีตเอกอัครราชทูตและผู้แทนถาวรไทยประจำUN ถึงแก่อนิจกรรม (in Thai) ^ Presentator Robert Jensen (52) overleden aan hartstilstand (in Dutch) ^ Renowned actress Jayasree Kabir passes away in London ^ Professor Emeritus Robert Kohn (1953-2026) ^ Black Midi Co-Founder Matt Kwasniewski-Kelvin Dies at 26 ^ Author Jan Mårtenson dies at 92 ^ Eddie McCreadie – 1940-2026 ^ Morto Luigi Nicolais, è stato presidente della fondazione Reggia di Carditello (in Italian) ^ Alain Orsoni, ancien dirigeant nationaliste, abattu lors des obsèques de sa mère en Corse (in French) ^ Mario Rigutti (in Italian) ^ Südtirol trauert um Roland Riz (in German) ^ Décès de Catherine Samie, pilier de la Comédie-Française (in French) ^ e peintre nîmois Michel Tombereau est mort (in French) ^ Hall of Fame Trick Rider and Wife of Hall of Fame Stock Contractor Passes Away ^ „Einer der besten Debattenredner": Martin Willich ist tot (in German) ^ הפקולטה למדעי החיים מרכינה ראשה בצער על פטירתו של פרופ' יצחק (איציק) ויץ ז"ל (in Hebrew) ^ Mirė legendinis Lietuvos futbolo treneris Benjaminas Zelkevičius (in Lithuanian) ^ Умер бывший бейсболист сборной России Павел Акишев (in Russian) ^ The Passing of Dr. Gabriel Barkay ^ Addio Alberto Benzoni. Socialista di valore dallo sguardo acuto (in Italian) ^ Brus, Rice alumnus and Nobel laureate, passes away at 82 ^ Thomas Causey, Sound Mixer on ‘Dick Tracy,’ ‘Broadcast News’ and ‘Defending Your Life,’ Dies at 76 ^ [1] (in Italian) ^ Richard Codey, former governor of New Jersey, dies at 79 ^ Marcus Gilbert 1958 - 2026 RIP ^ Pirates World Series champion Dave Giusti dies at age 86 ^ Clubs pay tribute to former player Hopkins ^ Bernie Carlton Keel ^ Ueli Kestenholz, snowboarder e sportivo estremo svizzero, è morto travolto da una valanga (in Italian) ^ Ушел из жизни олимпийский чемпион по тяжелой атлетике (in Russian) ^ 児玉更太郎さん(こだま・こうたろう=元安芸高田市長) (in Japanese) (subscription required) ^ Falleció el huancaíno Nelson Manrique, referente de las ciencias sociales del Perú (in Spanish) ^ Morre a atriz Titina Medeiros, aos 48 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Veteran Syrian Actor Ahmad Melli dies at 80 ^ Mor als 77 anys Miquel Naudí, qui va ser conseller general entre 1981 i 1983 i conseller comunal de Canillo (in Catalan) ^ Takashi Ono, 1928–2026 ^ 박순용(전 검찰총장)씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Zemřela Miroslava Pešíková, osobnost našeho baletu a sólistka Národního divadla (in Czech) ^ Clarence Pierce ^ Doliu la UTA Arad » Eugen Pojoni, dublu campion al României, a murit la 84 de ani (in Romanian) ^ Laumatiamanu Ringo Purcell passes away ^ Veteran Left leader Samir Putatundu dies following prolonged illness ^ Saudi Arabia’s oldest man dies at 142, leaves 134 children and grandchildren ^ Filmskaper Grete Salomonsen Hynnekleiv er død (in Norwegian) ^ Robert G. Shulman, Yale biophysicist and pioneer of spectroscopy ^ Aniceto “Chito” Sobrepeña, veteran public servant and corporate leader, dies at 77 ^ Singer-actor Prashant Tamang passes away at 43 in Delhi ^ Addio a Sergio Tarquinio, una vita lunga un secolo tra fumetto e arte (in Italian) ^ ‘Enigmatic’ Hollyoaks star Trevor A Toussaint dies aged 65 ^ Tributes paid to 'extraordinary musician' John Wallace ^ Oud-burgemeester van Grobbendonk Herman Wouters overleden in ziekenhuis (in Dutch) ^ Andlát: Sturla Böðvarsson (in Icelandic) ^ Manoel Carlos, autor de grandes novelas da TV brasileira, morre aos 92 anos no Rio (in Portuguese) ^ Daniel Colson (1943-2026) ^ Former Burkinabe minister Viviane Compaoré found murdered ^ Schweizer Autor und Publizist Erich von Däniken ist gestorben (in German) ^ Leading Sire Distorted Humor Dies at 33 ^ Умер призер чемпионатов мира по гребле на байдарках Сергей Галков (in Russian) ^ In Memoriam: Richard Hynes ^ Husker Legend Jim Hartung Passes Away ^ Fallece el exblanquivioleta Mario Jacquet a los 79 años (in Spanish) ^ Zmarł Włodzimierz Jakubowski (in Polish) ^ Sitting Maine representative Kathy Javner dies of cancer ^ Atención: en accidente de avioneta esta tarde en Paipa (Boyacá) muere el cantante Yeison Jiménez y sus músicos (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel opavský politik, bývalý poslanec Václav Klučka (in Czech) ^ Former Louisiana State Senator Robert Kostelka dies at 92 ^ EastEnders actor Derek Martin dies aged 92 ^ Fallece Marco Proaño Maya, exvicepresidente del Congreso Nacional (in Spanish) ^ Hockey Olympian Davinder Singh Garcha passes away ^ Zemřel religionista Ivan Štampach. Spojoval křesťanství s otevřeností a dialogem (in Czech) ^ Monsieur Thierry STEINMETZ footballeur professionnel (in French) ^ Addio a Orazio Svelto, pioniere della ricerca sui laser in Italia (in Italian) ^ Isabel Veloso Dead: Influencer Dies at Age 19 After Battling Hodgkin’s Lymphoma ^ Fallece el actor cubano Manolo Villaverde, el querido Pepe en "¿Qué pasa USA? (in Spanish) ^ Honoured health reformer Prawase dies aged 93 ^ Bob Weir, co-founder of rock group the Grateful Dead, dies at age 78 ^ Robert Wolgemuth, Best-Selling Christian Author and Husband of Nancy DeMoss, Dies at 77 ^ Genius Chimpanzee Ai Dies at Age 49, Primate Known for Enthusiastic Role in Research on Learning, Memory ^ Zéno Bianu (1950-2025) (in French) ^ Muere el periodista Andrés Caniulef a los 48 años de edad - Chilevisión (in Spanish) ^ 'The Thing' Actor T.K. Carter Dead at 69 ^ Father of American Freediving Bob Croft Dies Aged 91 ^ Décès de Jean-Louis Duplat, ancien président de la Commission bancaire (in French) ^ Murió la maestra Beatriz González, ícono del arte colombiano (in Spanish) ^ Serieskaparen Ulf Granberg död (in Swedish) ^ Zemřela PaedDr. Jitka Gruntová (in Czech) ^ Porsche mourns the loss of Hans Herrmann ^ Longtime New Orleans activist Sandra Wheeler Hester dies ^ Entinen keskisuomalainen kansanedustaja Pirkko Ikonen on kuollut (in Finnish) ^ Heber Jentzsch Dead at 90: Scientology's Longtime 'President' Dies Years After Being Transferred to a Nursing Home ^ CDU Essen trauert um Manfred Kuhmichel (in German) ^ Đại tướng, Anh hùng LLVT nhân dân Lê Văn Dũng – Một cuộc đời trọn vẹn với non sông (in Vietnamese) ^ Former Ranji Trophy Cricketer from Mizoram Dies After Collapsing During Match ^ Humanists UK mourns Diane Munday, leading campaigner for the Abortion Act (1931-2026) ^ Ушел из жизни Валерий Носков (in Russian) ^ Shakespeare and Company Founding Artistic Director Tina Packer dies ^ Ci lascia Zelico Petrovic, stagioni meravigliose a Taranto (in Italian) ^ Larry Snook ^ Renaissance drummer Terry Sullivan has died ^ Muere Josep Maria Triginer, fundador del PSC y firmante de los Pactos de la Moncloa (in Spanish) ^ Eleni Varikas: the years with the FI in Greece ^ 前中常委「姚董」姚江臨辭世 國民黨工感念:他永遠走在第一線 (in Chinese) ^ Bishop Vincenzo Zarri † ^ Farewell to a great lady ^ Celebrating the Life and Legacy of Musa Gibril Bala Gaye ^ Танымал қазақстандық актер Мұрат Бисенбин өмірден өтті (in Kazakh) ^ Loraine Braham, trailblazing Northern Territory politician dies, aged 87 ^ Maler Günther Brendel gestorben (in German) ^ Filha de Olavo de Carvalho é encontrada morta (in Portuguese) ^ Zemřel sochař Václav Cigler, bylo mu 96 let. Poprvé v historii použil optické sklo k tvorbě uměleckého díla (in Czech) ^ Jornalista Conrado Corsalette morre em São Paulo aos 47 anos (in Portuguese) ^ Nie żyje były poseł i prezydent Łomży. Mieczysław Czerniawski miał 77 lat (in Polish) ^ Nelly Chatue-Diop, pionnière de la crypto pour tous en Afrique, est morte (in French) ^ La disparition de Jean-Luc Domenach (in French) ^ Former all-star linebacker, Grey Cup champion with Stamps, Jim Furlong, dead at 85 ^ Serguei, dessinateur au « Monde » depuis quarante-cinq ans, est mort (in French) ^ Veteran SP Leader, Eight-Time MLA Vijay Singh Gond Passes Away at 68 ^ Foxtrot producer David Hitchcock has passed away ^ 痛别!简水生院士逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Mort de l’ex-mari de Caroline de Monaco, le déchirant message de sa fille Victoria Junot : "À mon papa légendaire…" (in French) ^ Malawi Mourns Former Deputy Speaker Madalitso Kazombo ^ Larose, whose signature voice helped shape Haitian music, dies at 80 ^ Obituary: Opera Director Rhoda Levine Dies at 93 ^ Atriz Elisa Lisboa morreu aos 81 anos (in Portuguese) ^ В Кургане погиб экс-глава Калининграда Евгений Любивый (in Russian) ^ Padova piange Antonino Mangano, il maestro dell’atletica veneta (in Italian) ^ Guy Moon Dies: Emmy-Nominated ‘Fairly OddParents’ Composer Was 63 ^ Politikus Demokrat dan Mantan Ketua Komisi IV DPR RI, Kolonel (Purn) Jafar Nainggolan Wafat (in Indonesian) ^ 画家・中村宏さん死去 砂川闘争描いた「ルポルタージュ絵画」:朝日新聞 (in Japanese) ^ El Punk está de luto: falleció el gran músico Álvaro Peña Rojas (1943-2026) (in Spanish) ^ Howard Riley: 1938–2026 ^ Schrijfster Astrid Roemer overleden (in Dutch) ^ Kjersti Scheen (in Norwegian) ^ Sēru vēsts: mūžībā devusies Latvijas un pasaules basketbola leģenda Uļjana Semjonova (in Latvian) ^ Sir Tim Shadbolt has died at age 78 ^ Manipur BJP leader Meinam Bhorot Singh dies after prolonged illness in Imphal ^ جمهوری اسلامی مجتبی ترشیز، بازیکن پیشین تراکتور و همسرش را به قتل رساند (in Persian) ^ Matthew Taylor RIP ^ Le sport belge en deuil : le rameur Wim Van Belleghem, le seul Belge champion du monde en aviron, est décédé (in French) ^ Paul Visser ^ Terry Yorath obituary ^ Iran executes a man convicted of spying for Israel's Mossad ^ Madjoulba Batocfetou, patron de l'ICAT s'est éteint (in French) ^ James Bernard, founding editor of ‘The Source’ and co-founder of ‘XXL,’ dies ^ Помер український композитор Блажков, Гордон, 8.1.2026, автор - Ельчін Садаєв (in Ukrainian) ^ Mort d'Albert Bourgi, professeur de droit et figure du socialisme en Afrique (in French) ^ È morta Raffaella Bragazzi, storica voce di «Ok, il prezzo è giusto», aveva 66 anni (in Italian) ^ Frank Stanley Cerveny ^ Muere "El Chiri", excompetidor de Calle y beisbolista chiricano (in Spanish) ^ Obituary | Martin Chivers ^ Falleció Ángel Coerezza, uno de los mejores árbitros argentinos y ejemplo de persona (in Spanish) ^ John Witt Derr ^ 北海道・前釧路市長の蝦名大也さん(67)死去 議員秘書や北海道議などを経て4期16年釧路市長 防災インフラの整備に尽力 関係者からも悼む声 (in Japanese) ^ Former Memphis Rogues soccer star Tony Field dies at 79 ^ Vera Frances dead: Child star dies surrounded by family as tributes pour in ^ Madhav Gadgil (1942-2026) ^ Woman killed by ICE in Minneapolis identified ^ Morto monsignor Domenico Graziani, fu vescovo di Cassano e arcivescovo di Crotone (in Italian) ^ Hall, ironman goaltender with record 502 consecutive starts, dies at 94 ^ Sidney de Jong ^ Rebecca, Becky, Roo: Missing Miss Kilgore ^ Jon Lindsay, the longest-serving Harris County judge, dies at 90 ^ Former Jerusalem mayor Uri Lupolianski dies at 74 ^ Obituary: Ian McCrae ^ Former Colts RB Randy McMillan dies at 67 ^ New Mexico remembers former lieutenant governor, musician ^ Kabindra Purkayastha, the Patriarch of Assam BJP Passes Away at 94 ^ Former State Rep. Howard Sanderford dies at 90 ^ Dietrich Stratmann (in German) ^ Death of Seydou Madani Sy, former Minister of Justice and first Senegalese rector of UCAD ^ Kim Thorson ^ Hall of Fame tight end Billy Truax dies at 82 ^ Muore a 84 anni la giornalista parmigiana Chiara Valentini, è stata la biografa di Berlinguer (in Italian) ^ وفاة المفكر والفيلسوف المصري مراد وهبة عن 100 عام (in Arabic) ^ Vale Athol Webb | Melbourne mourns premiership hero ^ 云南省民间文艺家协会第六届副主席昂自明逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Former MLA and mayor Joe Arlooktoo passes away at 86 ^ Elle avait risqué sa vie pour en sauver d'autres : Odette Bergoffen, Juste parmi les Nations, est morte à 101 ans (in French) ^ Odszedł Profesor Andrzej Bogusławski (in Polish) ^ Former Queensland senator Ron 'Bozzie' Boswell dies aged 85 ^ John Cunningham, Veteran Broadway Actor, Dies at 93 ^ Former Maryland AD Dick Dull Passes Away ^ V.K. Ebrahim Kunju, IUML leader and former Kerala Minister, passes away ^ Deggendorfs frühere Oberbürgermeisterin Anna Eder ist gestorben (in German) ^ Johannes Fabian (in Dutch) ^ В Ухте скончался 32-летний нападающий МФК «Норильский никель» Алекс Фелипе (in Russian) ^ Angella Ferguson ^ Edith Flanigen ^ Schengen signatory Robert Goebbels passes away at 81 ^ Former Union minister Suresh Kalmadi passes away at 81 after prolonged illness ^ Doug LaMalfa, California Republican congressman, dies aged 65 ^ Elhunyt Láyer József volt országgyűlési képviselő (in Hungarian) ^ Alabama Music Hall of Famer, Huntsville native Jim McBride, dies at 78 ^ Jack McGregor, original founder of Pittsburgh Penguins, dies at 91 ^ AfD-Landtagsabgeordnete Muxel gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Raffaele Nogaro † ^ James E. O'Grady ^ Veteran Iranian actor Saeid Pirdoost passes away ^ Guinea ex-security chief convicted over crimes against humanity dies ^ Oud-burgemeester Jaap Pop overleden (in Dutch) ^ DA Gauteng mourns passing of former MPL David Quail ^ Obituary: Nihal Seneviratne ^ Bağır Süleymanov vəfat etdi (in Azerbaijani) ^ Meghalt Tarr Béla (in Hungarian) ^ Jerry Thomas, MVP of 1956 College World Series with Gophers, dies at 90 ^ Morto Gianpaolo Tosel, è stato per anni giudice sportivo della Serie A: aveva 85 anni (in Italian) ^ Le PSG en deuil, une figure historique du club s'est éteinte (in French) ^ Не стало Анатолия Евтушенко (in Russian) ^ 著名文艺理论家、北大中文系教授张少康逝世 (in Chinese) ^ 周立伟院士逝世:他“创立了自己的科学学派” (in Chinese) ^ South Korean Film Legend Ahn Sung-ki Dies at 75 ^ Aldrich Ames, CIA officer convicted of spying for Russia, dies at age 84 ^ Luto en el boxeo colombiano por la muerte del legendario 'Bony' Ávila (in Spanish) ^ Mustergültiger Aufklärer (in German) ^ Bassist Andrew Bodnar (o.a. Graham Parker & The Rumour) overleden (in Dutch) ^ Andrew Carter - In Memoriam ^ Tom Cherones, Emmy-Winning ‘Seinfeld’ Director and Producer, Dies at 86 ^ Fallece Beatriz de Lenclós, la gran vedette vitoriana que marcó época (in Spanish) ^ Jim Dennison, winningest football coach at Akron and Walsh, dies ^ Marian Diamond: Miriam Margolyes pays tribute to 'dear friend' after Jackanory star's death aged 89 ^ Meghalt Dudás Miki (in Hungarian) ^ Razor – Former Drummer Mike Embro Dead At 63 ^ 元グラドル藤乃あおいさんが死去、27歳 親族が発表 23年に希少がんを公表 闘病続けていた (in Japanese) ^ Bishop Paolo Gillet † ^ Morto Pier Francesco Guarguaglini, Crosetto: uomo di intelligenza e visione (in Italian) ^ Bruce Hammock: 1947-2026 ^ Acteur Ad van Kempen overleden op 81-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Odszedł na Wieczną Wartę Druh harcmistrz Wiktor Kinecki (in Polish) ^ Fallece José Mingorance, leyenda de la época dorada del Córdoba CF en Primera División (in Spanish) ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن رضا مرادی عبدالوند ششمین جانباخته اعتراضات شهر ازنا (in Persian) ^ Jawann Oldham, a basketball star at Cleveland High, Seattle U, dies at 68 ^ “พระองค์หญิงอินทุรัตนา บริพัตร” (พระวรวงศ์เธอ พระองค์เจ้าอินทุรัตนา) สิ้นพระชนม์ สิริพระชันษา ๑๐๓ ปี (in Thai) ^ Artist and fashion writer Molly Parkin dies ^ Χρήστος Πολίτης: Πέθανε τη Δευτέρα και τον βρήκε ο αδελφός του νεκρό μια μέρα αργότερα (in Greek) ^ Pulford, 4-time Stanley Cup champion with Maple Leafs, dies at 89 ^ La città piange Cosimo Scaglioso. Fu docente emerito e senatore (in Italian) ^ Chef and food stylist Elle Simone Scott dies at 49 ^ Zemřel specialista na pokutové kopy. Brankář si zachytal za Slavii i Spartu (in Czech) ^ Karel-zangeres Elsje de Wijn overleden op 82-jarige leeftijd (in Dutch) ^ Tribute to Sutton Harrier Ken Wilcock, who has died aged 91 ^ Mike Wilson (1959-2026): The King of Karting takes his final bow ^ Po těžké nemoci zemřel bývalý rektor ČVUT Jiří Witzany, bylo mu 84 let (in Czech) ^ 105岁东北妇运工作开拓者之一、黑龙江省妇联原主任吴琳涛逝世 (in Chinese) ^ WKU Athletics Hall of Famer Forest "Frosty" Able Passes Away ^ رئيس الوزراء الأسبق علي ابو الراغب في ذمة الله (in Arabic) ^ Jamia Ashrafia head Maulana Ashrafi passes away ^ Pionnière du travail social sur l’itinérance et le profilage, la chercheuse Céline Bellot s’éteint (in French) ^ Ci ha lasciati coach Mario Blasone. Le condoglianze del presidente Petrucci. Disposto minuto di silenzio (in Italian) ^ Robert Gerald Boyer ^ OHL, CHL Mourn the Loss of David Branch, Transformative Commissioner and Hockey Visionary ^ Le rappeur Calbo, membre du duo emblématique Ärsenik, est mort à l’âge de 52 ans (in French) ^ Gardienne des remèdes d'antan, la Valaisanne Germaine Cousin-Zermatten s'est éteinte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Le magicien de bal Kamiel Dierckx est décédé à l’âge de 84 ans (in French) ^ Edinburgh's last star director has died, at 97 ^ Muere Manuel Fernández Ilarraza, expresidente del Parlamento (in Spanish) ^ Zemřel kněz Miloslav Fiala (in Czech) ^ Andy Friendly Dies: First ‘Entertainment Tonight’ Producer, Son Of Legendary CBS Newsman Fred Friendly Was 74 ^ Veteran Dravidian ideologue L. Ganesan no more ^ Anne-Claire Goulon, ex-dirigeante du groupe Livio, s'est éteinte à 51 ans (in French) ^ Vicki Gregory ^ Hommage à Michel Griffon (in French) ^ Hommage à Roger Guesnerie (in French) ^ Former Portland lawmaker Denise Harlow dies at 55 ^ Bobby Holmes ^ Mūžībā devusies rakstniece Nora Ikstena (in Latvian) ^ Erster Landtagspräsident von Sachsen-Anhalt ist verstorben (in German) ^ '원조 스턴트맨'…60년간 배우 활동한 김영인씨 별세 (in Korean) ^ Na svoj rođendan preminuo Milorad Kosanović (in Serbian) ^ Stade Rennais : l'ancien président du club Bernard Lemoux est décédé (in French) ^ George Lodge ^ Oscar Warren Lofton ^ Ayawaso East MP Mahama Naser Toure dies after short illness ^ Zemřel válečný veterán Miloslav Masopust (in Czech) ^ Έφυγε από τη ζωή ο Γιώργος Παπαδάκης ύστερα από έμφραγμα (in Greek) ^ La Louvière perd l'un de ses artistes emblématiques : Daniel Pelletti a tiré sa révérence à l'âge de 77 ans (in French) ^ Former mayor of Dunedin Jules Radich dies ^ Michael Reagan, Eldest Son Of Ronald Reagan, Has Died ^ ‘70s PHL tennis star Marissa Sanchez dies at 69 ^ Décès de Jacqueline Schaeffer (1934-2026) (in French) ^ Former Sheetz president and CEO Steve Sheetz dies at age 77 ^ Khadial King Jitamitra Prasad Singh Deo Passes Away at 80 ^ Ralph L. Thomas, ‘The Terry Fox Story’ Director and Journalist, Dies at 86 ^ Murió Horacio Usandizaga, histórico dirigente de la UCR y primer intendente de Rosario tras el regreso de la democracia (in Spanish) ^ ‘She was a force of nature’ – Mary White, former senator and founder of Lir Chocolates, dies aged 81 ^ 著名摄影家、新中国第一批女摄影记者晓庄逝世,享年94岁 (in Chinese) ^ Zmarła Pani Teresa Zalewska (in Polish) ^ Hushang Ansary (98) overleden (in Dutch) ^ S’ha mort el periodista Joan Armengol a 91 anys (in Catalan) ^ وفاة الإعلامي الأردني جميل عازر أحد مؤسسي قناة “الجزيرة” القطرية (in Arabic) ^ Langjähriger Tiroler ÖVP-Mandatar Bachmann 91-jährig verstorben (in German) ^ La comédienne genevoise Claude-Inga Barbey s'en est allée (in French) ^ Stephen Edward Braude ^ Morto a 94 anni l'ex senatore Natale Carlotto (in Italian) ^ Morto Francesco Paolo Casavola, il diritto come missione (in Italian) ^ Il prêtait sa voix à une légende du cinéma : le comédien français Frédéric Cerdal nous a quittés à l'âge de 81 ans (in French) ^ Mor Maria Eugènia Cuenca, la primera dona que va ser consellera de la Generalitat (in Catalan) ^ Obit: Former Windsor CFL receiver Tony Dennis dies after multiple organ failure ^ 著名民俗学家、教育家、北京师大教授董晓萍逝世,享年75岁 (in Chinese) ^ Gerry Gable (1937–2026) ^ Broadway Alum Bret Hanna-Shuford Passes Away at 46 ^ Franz Herre (in German) ^ Marvalene Hughes ^ Opera sanatçısı Prof. Dr. Mesut İktu vefat etti (in Turkish) ^ Bishop Hernán Giraldo Jaramillo † ^ Nālani Kanakaʻole, revered Kumu Hula and cultural matriarch, passes at 79 ^ گزارش ههنگاو از جانباختن لطیف کریمی با شلیک مستقیم نیروهای حکومتی/ تلاش حکومت برای مصادره و وارونهسازی واقعیت (in Persian) ^ Zum Tod des Fehlfarben-Bassisten Michael Kemner: Ohne Atempause Rockgeschichte gemacht (in German) ^ E-News — January 2026 ^ Goddur er látinn (in Icelandic) ^ Tributes flow for founding father of Australian beef industry, Sir Graham McCamley ^ John Meredith (1940 – 2026) ^ Former DA Federal Chairperson Errol Moorcroft Has Passed Away ^ Former Bangladesh footballer Golam Dostogir no more ^ Strongman turned hilarious Instagram star dies aged 40 ^ Sverre Anker Ousdal er død (in Norwegian) ^ Zmarł prof. Andrzej Paczkowski, jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich historyków (in Polish) ^ The great coach and football player Dimitar Penev has passed away ^ Jenny Plocki, rescapée de la rafle du Vél' d'Hiv et témoin du siècle, est morte à 100 ans (in French) ^ Komponist Rolf Riehm ist gestorben: Immer mit Einspruch (in German) ^ Randy Joseph Riley ^ In memoriam – Eva Schloss-Geiringer ^ Former Deputy Chief Counsel for the House Select Committee on Assassinations, Robert K. Tanenbaum, has died at the age of 83 ^ Nam Singh Thapa, Nepal's first Olympian, dies ^ Remembering Samuel O. Thier, IOM President (1985-1991) ^ В Тынде умер легендарный строитель БАМа Иван Варшавский (in Russian) ^ 海军原副政委王征中将逝世,享年64岁 (in Chinese) ^ Terry Wharton | 1942-2026 ^ Yohn, William Hendricks, Jr. ^ Pimpinan PMDG Gontor KH Amal Fathullah Zarkasyi wafat (in Indonesian) ^ Zmarł Mirosław Zdanowicz - przedsiębiorca i legenda sportu (in Polish) ^ 著名京剧表演艺术家、马连良先生入室弟子张克让逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Ihana ja ihmeellinen karjalainen, muistelee Sinikka Sokka tätiään Ritva Auvista (in Finnish) ^ Ian Balding, legendary trainer of Mill Reef, dies aged 87 ^ Rhymester Sukumar Barua passes away ^ Shyam Bihari Lal, BJP MLA, dies in Bareilly a day after celebrating his 60th birthday, CM Yogi expresses grief ^ In memoriam: Carmen Arnold-Biucchi, respected numismatist and educator ^ Ancien président de l'Assemblée de Corse et maire de Sartène, Dominique Bucchini est décédé (in French) ^ Tony Carr, Maltese jazz drummer to the stars, dies aged 98 ^ Jean-Max Causse, exploitant de cinémas et grand nom de la cinéphilie parisienne, est mort (in French) ^ Odesa reports the death of artist Bohdan Chufus ^ BBC Radio Merseyside founding member dies as tributes paid ^ Mor Miquel Contestí, històric expresident del RCE Mallorca (in Catalan) ^ Sir Patrick Duffy, Britain’s oldest living former MP, passes away at the age of 105 ^ 藤井俊男さん死去 元民主党参院議員 (in Japanese) ^ D-Day veteran who escorted allied troops landing in Normandy dies aged 101 ^ Diamond legend Steve Haggerty has died ^ 'He was awesome': Fans grieve death of beloved Island radio host ^ Sidney Kibrick, Last of the 'Our Gang' Kids, Dies at 97 ^ Kristi L. Kiick ^ Elbert Leon Kimbrough ^ Anna Kurek, medic of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, has died ^ Paul Lambert ’46, Former Trustee, Dies at 97 ^ Daily Update: NJPW Wrestle Kingdom 20, CMLL Sin Salida, Johnny Legend ^ Преминуо проф. Владимир Лукић (in Serbian) ^ Former MLC Ashok Modak passes away at 85 ^ Con Pederson, ‘2001: A Space Odyssey’ Special Effects Supervisor, Dies at 91 ^ В Петербурге умер снимавший Высоцкого фотограф Валерий Плотников (in Russian) ^ Vale: Tim Robertson ^ Rovátkay Lajostól búcsúzunk (in Hungarian) ^ PM Mourns Former Deputy Prime Minister, Minister Saleh Irshaidat ^ Edith Renfrow Smith, a 'memory keeper' and living link to history, dies at 111 ^ Former AFL player Phoenix Spicer dies as heartbroken family and football figures pay tribute ^ Ivonne Trebbi è morta, addio alla partigiana Bruna. Aveva 97 anni (in Italian) ^ James Gladden Willis ^ Tragiczna śmierć polskiego olimpijczyka. Robert Wolski nie żyje (in Polish) ^ Remembering Nellie Wong ^ Former Speaker of Bishkek City Council Marat Amankulov passes away ^ Communiqué d'Action française – Un camelot du roi exemplaire (in French) ^ Walsall confirm death of former Saddlers and Aston Villa creative favourite Alan Baker ^ Allyn Bromley-Baron ^ Fallece Xesús Cañedo, referente del asturianismo político y cultural (in Spanish) ^ "Це велика втрата": на фронті загинула операторка дронів і мисткиня Лана Чорногорська (in Ukrainian) ^ Diane Crump, the first female jockey to race in the Kentucky Derby, dies at 77 ^ Figura e shquar e politikës dhe shkencës - liderët politikë shprehin dhimbjen dhe mirënjohjen për Nexhat Dacin (in Albanian) ^ Brian Doyle, celebrated Ottawa author, dies at age 90 ^ פרופסור יחזקאל דרור, חתן פרס ישראל, מת בגיל 98 (in Hebrew) ^ Ex-president Vīķe-Freiberga's husband Imants Freibergs dies ^ Obituary #8: James Grauerholz ^ وفاة مؤرخ الثورة الجزائرية محمد حربي (in Arabic) ^ 中国驻瓦努阿图原大使、驻美国芝加哥原总领事黄东璧逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Hyundai Dynasty's 2006 Win Rate King Jeon Joon-ho Dies ^ Victoria Jones, daughter of Tommy Lee Jones, found dead in San Francisco ^ Billionaire philanthropist Morris Kahn dies at 95 ^ Умер известный телеведущий Андрей Хорошев (in Russian) ^ Harvey C. Krautschun ^ Famed TV presenter Hiroshi Kume passes away at 81 ^ Remembering John Langdon ^ Suri Arno Talit kehastanud näitleja Arno Liiver (in Estonian) ^ 我国空气动力学界先驱、西北工业大学资深教授林超强逝世 (in Chinese) ^ Arnold Long (1940-2026) - Obituary ^ З глибоким сумом сповіщаємо, що 1 січня ц.р. на 104-му році пішов із життя видатний український математик та організатор науки академік НАН України Володимир Олександрович Марченко (in Ukrainian) ^ Ex-prefeito de Goiânia na década de 1970, Hélio Mauro Umbelino Lobo morre em Anápolis (in Portuguese) ^ Paul McCullagh Jr: Boxer dies age 25 as father confirms heartbreaking cause of death ^ Burnley pay tribute to their former great and England goalkeeper Colin McDonald ^ Fallece a los 89 años Enric Mestre, referente mundial de la cerámica (in Spanish) ^ Умер бывший футболист "Спартака" Мухсин Мухамадиев (in Russian) ^ Death of Sir James Munby ^ Skulpteur der Erinnerung (in German) ^ Monsieur Gregory, Peter de Polnay ^ Dame Karen Poutasi, first female director-general of health, dies aged 76 ^ Tributes paid to Australian actor Candy Raymond who has died aged 75 ^ Amit Saar, top IDF intelligence officer on Oct. 7, dies of cancer at 47 ^ 31 Jahre für Bergkamen: Früherer Bürgermeister Roland Schäfer gestorben (in German) ^ Bishop Serafim Shyngo-Ya-Hombo, O.F.M. Cap. † ^ Former Fayette County delegate and physician Dr. Margaret Staggers has passed away ^ Jewish woman whose baby photo was chosen by Goebbels as Aryan exemplar dies at 91 ^ Умер заслуженный летчик-испытатель Рубен Есаян, критиковавший «Сухой суперджет» (in Russian) ^ 港星病逝!享壽69歲 妻證實噩耗 (in Chinese) ^ Ушел из жизни первый советский фигурист – участник чемпионатов Европы и мира Захаров Валентин Дмитриевич (in Russian) External links The Guardian (UK) obituaries The Telegraph (UK) obituaries The Irish Times obituaries Obituaries, Irish Examiner Obituaries, Chicago Tribune Obituaries, Los Angeles Times The New York Times , obituaries The Washington Post obituaries The Sydney Morning Herald (Australia) obituaries .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e 2020s deaths by month v t e 2026 Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2026 Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2026 Jan Jan 2025 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2024 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2023 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2022 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2021 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2000s ← 2010s ← Lists of deaths by year 2026 deaths Lists of deaths in 2026 Articles with Croatian-language sources (hr) Articles with Azerbaijani-language sources (az) Articles with Spanish-language sources (es) Articles with Korean-language sources (ko) Articles with French-language sources (fr) Articles with Bengali-language sources (bn) Articles with Armenian-language sources (hy) Articles with Russian-language sources (ru) Articles with Italian-language sources (it) Articles with Ukrainian-language sources (uk) Articles with Finnish-language sources (fi) Articles with German-language sources (de) Articles with Portuguese-language sources (pt) Articles with Polish-language sources (pl) Articles with Chinese-language sources (zh) Articles with Estonian-language sources (et) 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_in_2026#cite_note-130
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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Construction 2 Interwar period 3 World War II Toggle World War II subsection 3.1 New Guinea campaign 3.2 Aleutian Islands campaign 3.3 1943 operations 3.4 1944 3.5 1945 3.6 Transporting the atomic bomb 3.1 New Guinea campaign 3.2 Aleutian Islands campaign 3.3 1943 operations 3.4 1944 3.5 1945 3.6 Transporting the atomic bomb 4 Sinking Toggle Sinking subsection 4.1 Rescue 4.2 Navy failure to learn of the sinking 4.3 Court-martial of Captain McVay 4.4 McVay's record cleared 4.1 Rescue 4.2 Navy failure to learn of the sinking 4.3 Court-martial of Captain McVay 4.4 McVay's record cleared 5 Commanders 6 Awards 7 Wreck discovery 8 Reunions 9 Memorials 10 In popular culture 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References Toggle References subsection 13.1 Sources 13.2 Further reading 13.1 Sources 13.2 Further reading 14 External links USS Indianapolis (CA-35) العربية Azərbaycanca Български Català Čeština Deutsch Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Русский Simple English Slovenščina Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item USS Indianapolis , 27 September 1939 History United States Name Indianapolis Namesake City of Indianapolis , Indiana Ordered 13 February 1929 Awarded 15 August 1929 Builder New York Shipbuilding Corporation , Camden, New Jersey Cost $10,903,200 (contract price) Laid down 31 March 1930 Launched 7 November 1931 Sponsored by Lucy M. Taggart Commissioned 15 November 1932 Identification Hull symbol : CL-35 Hull symbol: CA-35 Code letters : NABD Hull symbol : CL-35 Hull symbol: CA-35 Code letters : NABD Nickname(s) "Indy" [ 1 ] Honors and awards 10 × battle stars Fate Torpedoed and sunk by Japanese submarine I-58 on 30 July 1945 General characteristics (as built) [ 2 ] Class & type Portland -class cruiser Displacement 9,950 long tons (10,110 t ) (standard) Length 610 ft 3 in (186.00 m) loa 584 ft (178 m) lwl 610 ft 3 in (186.00 m) loa 584 ft (178 m) lwl Beam 66 ft 1 in (20.14 m) Draft 17 ft 4 in (5.28 m) (mean) 24 ft (7.3 m) (max) 17 ft 4 in (5.28 m) (mean) 24 ft (7.3 m) (max) Installed power 8 × White-Forster boilers 107,000 shp (80,000 kW ) 8 × White-Forster boilers 107,000 shp (80,000 kW ) Propulsion 4 × Parsons reduction steam turbines 4 × screws 4 × Parsons reduction steam turbines 4 × screws Speed 32.7 kn (60.6 km/h; 37.6 mph) Range 13,000 nmi (15,000 mi; 24,000 km) at 15 kn (17 mph; 28 km/h) Complement 95 officers 857 enlisted (as designed) 1,269 officers and men (wartime) 1,195 crewmen at time of sinking 95 officers 857 enlisted (as designed) 1,269 officers and men (wartime) 1,195 crewmen at time of sinking Armament 9 × 8-inch (203mm)/55-caliber guns (3x3) 8 × 5-inch (127mm)/25-caliber anti-aircraft guns 2 × 3-pounder 47 mm (1.9 in) saluting guns 9 × 8-inch (203mm)/55-caliber guns (3x3) 8 × 5-inch (127mm)/25-caliber anti-aircraft guns 2 × 3-pounder 47 mm (1.9 in) saluting guns Armor Belt : .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 3 + 1 ⁄ 4 –5 in (83–127 mm) Deck : 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (64 mm) Barbettes : 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (38 mm) Turrets : 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 – 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (38–64 mm) Conning tower : 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 in (32 mm) Belt : .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 3 + 1 ⁄ 4 –5 in (83–127 mm) Deck : 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (64 mm) Barbettes : 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (38 mm) Turrets : 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 – 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (38–64 mm) Conning tower : 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 in (32 mm) Aircraft carried 4 × floatplanes Aviation facilities 2 × Amidship catapults General characteristics (1945) [ 3 ] Armament 9 × 8 in (203 mm)/55 caliber guns (3x3) 8 × 5 in (127 mm)/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns 2 × 3-pounder saluting guns 6 × quad 40 mm (1.57 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns 19 × single 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannons 9 × 8 in (203 mm)/55 caliber guns (3x3) 8 × 5 in (127 mm)/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns 2 × 3-pounder saluting guns 6 × quad 40 mm (1.57 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns 19 × single 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannons Aircraft carried 3 × floatplanes Aviation facilities 1 × Amidship catapults (starboard catapult removed in 1945) USS Indianapolis ( CL/CA-35 ) was a Portland -class heavy cruiser of the United States Navy , named for the city of Indianapolis , Indiana. Launched in 1931, she was the flagship of the commander of Scouting Force 1 for eight years, then flagship for Admiral Raymond Spruance from 1943 to 1945 while he commanded the Fifth Fleet in battles across the Central Pacific during World War II . In July 1945, Indianapolis completed a top-secret high-speed trip to deliver uranium and other components for " Little Boy ", the first nuclear weapon used in combat, to the Tinian Naval Base , and subsequently departed for the Philippines on training duty. At 0015 on 30 July, the ship was torpedoed by the Imperial Japanese Navy submarine I-58 , and sank in 12 minutes. Of 1,195 crewmen aboard, about 300 went down with the ship. The remaining 890 faced exposure , dehydration , saltwater poisoning , and shark attacks while stranded in the open ocean, with few lifeboats and almost no food or water. [ 4 ] The Navy learned of the sinking four days later, when survivors were spotted by the crew of a PV-1 Ventura on routine patrol. A U.S. Navy PBY flying boat crew landed to save those in the water. Only 316 survived. [ 4 ] No U.S. warship sunk at sea has lost more sailors. [ a ] On 19 August 2017, a search team financed by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen located the wreckage in the Philippine Sea at a depth of about 18,000 ft (5,500 m). [ 5 ] On 20 December 2018, the crew of Indianapolis was collectively awarded a Congressional Gold Medal . [ 6 ] Construction Indianapolis was the second of two ships in the Portland class, the third class of "treaty cruisers" constructed by the United States Navy following the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, after the two vessels of the Pensacola class , ordered in 1926, and the six of the Northampton class , ordered in 1927. [ 7 ] Ordered for the U.S. Navy in fiscal year 1930, Indianapolis was originally designated as a light cruiser because of her thin armor and given the hull classification symbol CL-35. She was reclassified a heavy cruiser , because of her 8-inch (203 mm) guns, with the symbol CA-35 on 1 July 1931, in accordance with the London Naval Treaty . [ 8 ] The Portland -class cruisers were designed for a standard displacement of 10,258 long tons (10,423 t ), and a full-load displacement of 12,755 long tons (12,960 t). [ 9 ] But Indianapolis did not reach this weight, displacing 9,950 long tons (10,110 t). [ 10 ] The ship had two distinctive raked funnels , a tripod foremast , and a small tower and pole mast aft. In 1943, light tripods were added forward of the second funnel on each ship, and a prominent naval director was installed aft. [ 10 ] The ship had four propeller shafts and four Parsons GT geared turbines and eight White-Forster boilers . The 107,000 shp (80,000 kW) gave a design speed of 32.7 kn (60.6 km/h; 37.6 mph). She was designed for a range of 10,000 nmi (19,000 km; 12,000 mi) at 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph). [ 10 ] She rolled badly until fitted with a bilge keel . [ 8 ] The cruiser had nine 8-inch/55-caliber Mark 9 guns in three triple mounts, a superfiring pair fore and one aft. For anti-aircraft defense, she had eight 5-inch/25-caliber guns and two QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns. In 1945, she received twenty-four 40 mm (1.57 in) Bofors guns, arrayed in six quad mounts. Both ships were upgraded with nineteen 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon cannons . [ 3 ] The ship did not have torpedo tubes . [ 11 ] The Portland -class cruisers originally had 1-inch (25 mm) armor for deck and side protection, but in construction [ 8 ] they were given belt armor between 5 in (127 mm) (around the magazines ) and 3.25 in (83 mm) in thickness. [ 11 ] Armor on the bulkheads was between 2 in (51 mm) and 5.75 in (146 mm); that on the deck was 2.5 in (64 mm), the barbettes 1.5 in (38 mm), the gun turrets 2.5 in, and the conning tower 1.25 in (32 mm). [ 10 ] Portland -class cruisers were outfitted as fleet flagships , with space for a flag officer and his staff. The class also had two aircraft catapults amidships. [ 10 ] They could carry four aircraft. The total crew varied, with a regular designed complement of 807 [ 9 ] and a wartime complement of 952, which could increase to 1,229 when the cruiser was a fleet flagship. [ 10 ] Indianapolis was laid down by New York Shipbuilding Corporation on 31 March 1930. [ 10 ] The hull and machinery were provided by the builder. [ 8 ] Indianapolis was launched on 7 November 1931, and commissioned on 15 November 1932. [ 10 ] She was the second ship named for the city of Indianapolis , following the cargo ship of the same name in 1918. She was sponsored by Lucy M. Taggart , daughter of former Mayor of Indianapolis Thomas Taggart . [ 12 ] Interwar period Under Captain John M. Smeallie, Indianapolis undertook her shakedown cruise through the Atlantic and into Guantánamo Bay , until 23 February 1932. Indianapolis then transited the Panama Canal for training off the Chilean coast. After overhaul at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard , she sailed to Maine to embark President Franklin D. Roosevelt at Campobello Island , New Brunswick, on 1 July 1933. [ 12 ] Getting underway the same day, Indianapolis arrived at Annapolis, Maryland , on 3 July. She hosted six members of the Cabinet , along with Roosevelt, during her stay there. After disembarking Roosevelt, she departed Annapolis on 4 July, and steamed for Philadelphia Navy Yard. [ 12 ] On 6 September, she embarked United States Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson , for an inspection of the Navy in the Pacific. Indianapolis toured the Canal Zone , Hawaii, and installations in San Pedro and San Diego . Swanson disembarked on 27 October. On 1 November 1933, she became the flagship of Scouting Fleet 1, and maneuvered with the force off Long Beach, California . She departed on 9 April 1934, and arrived at New York City, embarking Roosevelt for a second time, for a naval review . She returned to Long Beach on 9 November 1934 for more training with the Scouting Force. She remained flagship of Scouting Force 1 until 1941. On 18 November 1936, she embarked Roosevelt for a third time at Charleston, South Carolina , and conducted a goodwill cruise to South America with him. She visited Rio de Janeiro , Brazil, Buenos Aires , Argentina, and Montevideo , Uruguay, for state visits before returning to Charleston and disembarking Roosevelt's party on 15 December. [ 12 ] President Roosevelt underwent his crossing the line ceremony during this cruise on 26 November: an "intensive initiation lasting two days, but we have all survived and are now full-fledged Shellbacks". [ 13 ] World War II On 7 December 1941, Indianapolis , leading Task Force 3, ( Indianapolis and destroyer-minesweepers Dorsey , Elliot , and Lamberton from MineDiv 6, and Southard and Long from MineDiv 5 [ 14 ] ) was conducting a mock bombardment at Johnston Atoll during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . Indianapolis was absorbed into Task Force 12 and searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers responsible for the attack, though the force did not locate them. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 13 December and joined Task Force 11 . [ 12 ] New Guinea campaign With the task force, she steamed to the South Pacific , to 350 mi (560 km) south of Rabaul , New Britain , escorting the aircraft carrier Lexington . Late in the afternoon of 20 February 1942, the American ships were attacked by 18 Japanese aircraft. Of these, 16 were shot down by aircraft from Lexington and the other two were destroyed by anti-aircraft fire from the ships. [ 12 ] On 10 March, the task force, reinforced by another force centered on the carrier Yorktown , attacked Lae and Salamaua , New Guinea, where the Japanese were marshaling amphibious forces . Attacking from the south through the Owen Stanley mountain range , the US air forces surprised and inflicted heavy damage on Japanese warships and transports, losing few aircraft. Indianapolis returned to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for a refit before escorting a convoy to Australia. [ 12 ] Aleutian Islands campaign Indianapolis then headed for the North Pacific to support American units in the Battle of the Aleutian Islands . On 7 August, Indianapolis and the task force attacked Kiska Island , a Japanese staging area. Although fog hindered observation, Indianapolis and other ships fired their main guns into the bay. Floatplanes from the cruisers reported Japanese ships sunk in the harbor and damage to shore installations. After 15 minutes, Japanese shore batteries returned fire before being destroyed by the ships' main guns. Japanese submarines approaching the force were depth-charged by American destroyers and Japanese seaplanes made an ineffective bombing attack. In spite of a lack of information on the Japanese forces, the operation was considered a success. US forces later occupied Adak Island , providing a naval base farther from Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island . 1943 operations In January 1943, Indianapolis supported a landing and occupation on Amchitka , part of an Allied island hopping strategy in the Aleutian Islands . [ 12 ] On the evening of 19 February, Indianapolis led two destroyers on a patrol southwest of Attu Island , searching for Japanese ships trying to reinforce Kiska and Attu. She intercepted the Japanese 3,100-long-ton (3,150 t) cargo ship , Akagane Maru laden with troops, munitions, and supplies. The cargo ship tried to reply to the radio challenge but was shelled by Indianapolis . Akagane Maru exploded and sank with all hands. Through mid-1943, Indianapolis remained near the Aleutian Islands, escorting American convoys and providing shore bombardments supporting amphibious assaults. In May, the Allies captured Attu, then turned on Kiska, thought to be the final Japanese holdout in the Aleutians. Allied landings there began on 15 August, but the Japanese had already abandoned the Aleutian Islands, unbeknownst to the Allies. [ 12 ] After refitting at Mare Island, Indianapolis moved to Hawaii as flagship of Vice Admiral Raymond A. Spruance , commanding the 5th Fleet . She sortied from Pearl Harbor on 10 November, with the main body of the Southern Attack Force for Operation Galvanic , the invasion of the Gilbert Islands . On 19 November, Indianapolis bombarded Tarawa Atoll , and next day pounded Makin (see Battle of Makin ). The ship then returned to Tarawa as fire-support for the landings. Her guns shot down an enemy plane and shelled enemy strongpoints as landing parties fought Japanese defenders in the Battle of Tarawa . She continued this role until the island was secure three days later. The conquest of the Marshall Islands followed victory in the Gilberts. Indianapolis was again 5th Fleet flagship. 1944 This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( July 2020 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The cruiser met other ships of her task force at Tarawa, and on D-Day minus 1, 31 January 1944, she was one of the cruisers that bombarded the islands of Kwajalein Atoll . The shelling continued on D-Day, with Indianapolis suppressing two enemy shore batteries. Next day, she destroyed a blockhouse and other shore installations and supported advancing troops with a creeping barrage . The ship entered Kwajalein Lagoon, on 4 February, and remained until resistance disappeared (see Battle of Kwajalein ). In March and April, Indianapolis , still flagship of the 5th Fleet, attacked the Western Carolines . Carrier planes at the Palau Islands on 30–31 March, sank three destroyers, 17 freighters, five oilers and damaged 17 other ships. Airfields were bombed and surrounding water mined . Yap and Ulithi were struck on 31 March, and Woleai on 1 April. Japanese planes attacked but were driven off without damaging the American ships. Indianapolis shot down her second plane, a torpedo bomber, and the Japanese lost 160 planes, including 46 on the ground. These attacks prevented Japanese forces stationed in the Carolines from interfering with the US landings on New Guinea . In June, the 5th Fleet was busy with the assault on the Mariana Islands . Raids on Saipan began with carrier-based planes on 11 June, followed by surface bombardment, in which Indianapolis had a major role, from 13 June (see Battle of Saipan ). On D-Day, 15 June, Admiral Spruance heard that battleships , carriers, cruisers, and destroyers were headed south to relieve threatened garrisons in the Marianas. Since amphibious operations at Saipan had to be protected, Spruance could not withdraw too far. Consequently, a fast carrier force was sent to meet this threat while another force attacked Japanese air bases on Iwo Jima and Chichi Jima , in the Bonin and Volcano Islands , bases for potential enemy air attacks. A combined US fleet fought the Japanese on 19 June in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . Japanese carrier planes, which planned to use the airfields of Guam and Tinian to refuel and rearm, were met by carrier planes and the guns of the Allied escorting ships. That day, the U.S. Navy destroyed a reported 426 Japanese planes while losing 29. [ 15 ] Indianapolis shot down one torpedo plane. This day of aerial combat became known as the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". With Japanese air opposition wiped out, the US carrier planes sank Hiyō , two destroyers, and one tanker and damaged others. Two other carriers, Taihō and Shōkaku , were sunk by submarines. Indianapolis returned to Saipan on 23 June to resume fire support and six days later moved to Tinian to attack shore installations (see Battle of Tinian ). Meanwhile, Guam had been taken, and Indianapolis became the first ship to enter Apra Harbor since early in the war. The ship operated in the Marianas for the next few weeks, then moved to the Western Carolines, where further landings were planned. From 12 to 29 September, she bombarded Peleliu , in the Palau Group , before and after the landings (see Battle of Peleliu ). She then sailed to Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands , where she operated for 10 days before returning to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in California for refitting. 1945 This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( July 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) Overhauled, Indianapolis joined Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher 's fast carrier task force on 14 February 1945. Two days later, the task force launched an attack on Tokyo to cover the landings on Iwo Jima, scheduled for 19 February. This was the first carrier attack on mainland Japan since the Doolittle Raid . The mission was to destroy Japanese air facilities and other installations in the Home Islands . The fleet achieved complete tactical surprise by approaching the Japanese coast under cover of bad weather. The attacks were pressed home for two days. The U.S. Navy lost 49 carrier planes while claiming 499 enemy planes, a 10-to-1 kill/loss ratio. The task force also sank a carrier, nine coastal ships, a destroyer, two destroyer escorts , and a cargo ship. They destroyed hangars, shops, aircraft installations, factories, and other industrial targets. Immediately after the strikes, the task force raced to the Bonin Islands to support the landings on Iwo Jima . The ship remained there until 1 March, protecting the invasion ships and bombarding targets in support of the landings. Indianapolis returned to VADM Mitscher's task force in time to strike Tokyo, again on 25 February, and Hachijō , off the southern coast of Honshū , the following day. Although weather was extremely bad, the American force destroyed 158 planes and sank five small ships while pounding ground installations and destroying trains. The next target for the US forces was Okinawa , in the Ryukyu Islands , which were in range of aircraft from the Japanese mainland. The fast carrier force was tasked with attacking airfields in southern Japan until they were incapable of launching effective airborne opposition to the impending invasion. The fast carrier force departed for Japan from Ulithi on 14 March. On 18 March, she launched an attack from a position 100 mi (160 km) southeast of the island of Kyūshū . The attack targeted airfields on Kyūshū, as well as ships of the Japanese fleet in the harbors of Kobe and Kure , on southern Honshū. The Japanese located the American task force on 21 March, sending 48 planes to attack the ships. Twenty-four fighters from the task force intercepted and shot down all the Japanese aircraft. Indianapolis was assigned to Task Force 54 (TF 54) for the invasion of Okinawa . When TF 54 began pre-invasion bombardment of Okinawa on 24 March, Indianapolis spent seven days pouring 8-inch shells into the beach defenses. During this time, enemy aircraft repeatedly attacked the American ships. Indianapolis shot down six planes and damaged two others. On 31 March, the day before the Tenth Army (combined U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps) started its assault landings, the Indianapolis lookouts spotted a Japanese Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" fighter as it emerged from the morning twilight and dived vertically towards the bridge. The ship's 20 mm guns opened fire, but within 15 seconds the plane was over the ship. Tracers converged on it, causing it to swerve, but the pilot managed to release his bomb from a height of 25 ft (7.6 m), then crashing his plane into the sea near the port stern . The bomb plummeted through the deck, into the crew's mess hall , down through the berthing compartment, and through the fuel tanks before crashing through the keel and exploding in the water underneath. The concussion blew two gaping holes in the keel which flooded nearby compartments, killing nine crewmen. The ship's bulkheads prevented any progressive flooding. Indianapolis , settling slightly by the stern and listing to port, steamed to a salvage ship for emergency repairs. Here, inspection revealed that her propeller shafts were damaged, her fuel tanks ruptured, and her water-distilling equipment ruined. Indianapolis then steamed under her own power to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for repairs. Transporting the atomic bomb After major repairs and an overhaul, Indianapolis received orders to undertake a top-secret mission: transporting a "critical shipment" of material for the first atomic bomb to Tinian Island . In its hold was loaded the complete non-nuclear parts for a Little Boy gun-type atomic bomb unit (L-11) and several hundred pounds of scientific instruments and tools. Also on board was the bomb's enriched uranium "projectile", in the form of 38.5-kilogram (85 lb) discs, which were kept inside of a lead-lined steel container that was bolted and chained to the floor of Captain McVay 's quarters for the duration of the journey. Two representatives of the Manhattan Project , Major Robert R. Furman and Dr. James F. Nolan, accompanied them on the journey incognito. Nolan, the Chief Medical Officer for Project Y , was there to monitor the uranium's radioactivity. Nolan was frequently seasick on the journey, which he used as an excuse to surreptitiously monitor the container. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The Fat Man atomic bomb, used against Nagasaki, was transported by air to Tinian. Other equipment necessary for the atomic bomb mission, including "spare" non-nuclear assemblies, had been previously sent to Tinian on other surface ships. Ships were the preferred method for sending critical materials, when time allowed for it, because the risk of loss was considered smaller than going by air. While not particularly radioactive by itself, the amount of enriched uranium in the shipment was large-enough to pose a criticality risk under certain circumstances, such as being submerged in water (which acts as a neutron moderator , decreasing the critical mass ). [ 18 ] Indianapolis departed San Francisco's Hunters Point Naval Shipyard on 16 July 1945, within hours of the Trinity test in New Mexico. She set a speed record of 74 + 1 ⁄ 2 hours [ 19 ] from San Francisco to Pearl Harbor, an average speed of 29 kn (54 km/h; 33 mph). Arriving at Pearl Harbor on 19 July, [ 20 ] she raced on unaccompanied, [ 21 ] delivering the atomic bomb components to Tinian on 26 July. [ 22 ] On the same day that Indianapolis offloaded its cargo at Tinian, the remaining 25.6 kilograms (56 lb) of enriched uranium used for the "target" piece of the bomb was divided into three pieces and sent on three different C-54 cargo planes from Albuquerque, New Mexico . By 29 July, all three had arrived at Tinian and the next day the assembly of the L-11 atomic bomb unit began. [ 16 ] The weapon, which would be dropped on Hiroshima on the morning of 6 August, would be inscribed with numerous autographs and graffiti by ground crews who loaded it into the plane. One of them read: "Greetings to the Emperor from the men of the Indianapolis ". [ 23 ] Later General Groves learned that the ship was a "very poor choice" to carry the expensive bomb components, as she had "no underwater sound equipment, and was so designed that a single torpedo was able to sink her quickly". [ 17 ] After its stop at Tinian, Indianapolis then continued on its route to Guam, where a number of the crew who had completed their tours of duty were relieved by other sailors. Leaving Guam on 28 July, she began sailing toward Leyte , where her crew was to receive training before continuing on to Okinawa to join Vice Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf 's Task Force 95 . [ citation needed ] [ 24 ] Sinking At 00:15 on 30 July 1945, Indianapolis was struck on her starboard side by two Type 95 torpedoes , one in the bow and one amidships, from the Japanese submarine I-58 , [ 21 ] captained by Commander Mochitsura Hashimoto , who initially thought he had spotted the New Mexico -class battleship Idaho . [ 25 ] The explosions caused massive damage. Indianapolis took on a heavy list (the ship had a great deal of armament and gun-firing directors added as the war went on, and was therefore top-heavy) [ 26 ] and settled by the bow. Twelve minutes later, she rolled completely over, then her stern rose into the air and she sank. Some 300 of the 1,195 crewmen aboard went down with the ship. [ 4 ] With few lifeboats and many without life jackets, the remainder of the crew was set adrift. [ 27 ] Rescue Navy command did not know of the ship's sinking until survivors were spotted in the open ocean three and a half days later. At 11:25 on 2 August, a PV-1 Ventura flown by Lieutenant Wilbur "Chuck" Gwinn and his copilot, Lieutenant Warren Colwell, and a crew of three other men spotted the men adrift while on a routine patrol flight. [ 28 ] Gwinn reported his findings of up to 150 men back to his base at Peleliu. He immediately dropped a life raft, other life-saving equipment and radio transmitter. All air and surface units capable of rescue operations were dispatched to the scene at once. First to arrive was Gwinn's commanding officer, Lieutenant Richard Atteberry. He and his PV-1 crew relieved Gwinn's crew, ordering them to return to base because of very low fuel. Atteberry continued to circle the area and guided the arrival on scene by an amphibious PBY-5A Catalina patrol plane flown by Lieutenant Commander (USN) Robert Adrian Marks . Marks and his flight crew spotted the survivors and dropped life rafts; one raft was destroyed by the drop while others were too far away from the exhausted crew. Against standing orders not to land in the open ocean, Marks took a vote of his crew and decided to land the aircraft in twelve-foot (3.7 m) swells. He was able to maneuver his craft to pick up 56 survivors. Space in the plane was limited, so Marks had men lashed to the wing with parachute cord. His actions rendered the aircraft unflyable. After nightfall, the destroyer escort USS Cecil J. Doyle , the first of seven rescue ships, used its searchlight as a beacon and instilled hope in those still in the water. Cecil J. Doyle and six other ships picked up the remaining survivors. After the rescue, Marks' plane was sunk by Cecil J. Doyle as it could not be recovered. [ 29 ] Many of the survivors were injured. All suffered from lack of food and water (leading to dehydration and hypernatremia ; some found rations , such as Spam and crackers , among the flotsam of Indianapolis ), exposure to the elements (dehydration from the hot sun during the day and hypothermia at night, as well as severe desquamation due to continued exposure to saltwater and bunker oil), and shark attacks , while some killed themselves. Other survivors were found in various states of delirium or suffered from hallucinations . [ 30 ] [ 31 ] Only 316 of the 890 men set adrift after the sinking survived. [ 4 ] Two of the rescued survivors, Robert Lee Shipman and Frederick Harrison, died in August 1945. Hundreds of sharks were apparently drawn to the wreck. After picking off the dead and wounded, they began attacking survivors. The number of deaths attributed to sharks ranges from a few dozen to 150. [ 32 ] Ocean of Fear , a 2007 documentary film that was part of Discovery Channel 's Shark Week , states that the sinking of Indianapolis resulted in the most shark attacks on humans in history, attributing the attacks to the oceanic whitetip shark species. Tiger sharks may also have killed some sailors. The same show attributed most of the deaths on Indianapolis to exposure, salt poisoning, and thirst/dehydration, with the dead being dragged off by sharks. [ 33 ] Navy failure to learn of the sinking The Headquarters of Commander Marianas on Guam and of the Commander Philippine Sea Frontier on Leyte kept Operations plotting boards on which were plotted the positions of all vessels with which the headquarters were concerned. However, it was assumed that ships as large as Indianapolis would reach their destinations on time, unless reported otherwise. Therefore, their positions were based on predictions and not on reports. On 31 July, when she should have arrived at Leyte, Indianapolis was removed from the board in the headquarters of Commander Marianas. She was also recorded as having arrived at Leyte by the headquarters of Commander Philippine Sea Frontier. Lieutenant Stuart B. Gibson, the operations officer under the Port Director, Tacloban, was the officer blamed for not tracking the movements of Indianapolis . The vessel's failure to arrive on schedule was known at once to Gibson, who failed to investigate the matter and made no immediate report of the fact to his superiors. It was common for expected vessels to not arrive, and there was no directive for the port director to report the nonarrival of any ship. Gibson received a letter of reprimand in connection with the incident. The acting commander and operations officer of the Philippine Sea Frontier also received reprimands, while Gibson's immediate superior received a letter of admonition (a less severe military punishment than a reprimand). These letters were later withdrawn. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] In the first official statement, the Navy said that distress calls "were keyed by radio operators and possibly were actually transmitted" but that "no evidence has been developed that any distress message from the ship was received by any ship, aircraft or shore station". [ 35 ] Declassified records later showed that three stations received the signals but none acted upon the call. One commander was drunk, another had ordered his men not to disturb him, and a third thought it was a Japanese trap. [ 36 ] Immediately prior to the attack, the seas had been moderate, the visibility fluctuating but poor in general, and Indianapolis had been steaming at 17 kn (20 mph; 31 km/h). When the ship failed to reach Leyte on 31 July, as scheduled, no report was made that she was overdue. The Navy then created the Movement Report System to prevent such disasters in the future. [ 37 ] Court-martial of Captain McVay Captain Charles B. McVay III , who had commanded Indianapolis since November 1944 through several battles, survived the sinking, though he was one of the last to abandon ship, and was among those rescued days later. In November 1945, he was court-martialed on two charges: failing to order his men to abandon ship and hazarding the ship. Cleared of the charge of failing to order abandon ship, McVay was convicted of "hazarding his ship by failing to zigzag ". Several aspects of the court-martial were controversial. There was evidence that the Navy itself had placed the ship in harm's way. McVay's orders were to "zigzag at his discretion, weather permitting"; however, McVay was not informed that a Japanese submarine was operating in the vicinity of his route from Guam to Leyte. Further, Commander Mochitsura Hashimoto, commanding officer of I-58 , wrote in his testimony to Senator John Warner, chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, that zigzagging would have made no difference. [ 38 ] Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz remitted McVay's sentence and restored him to active duty. McVay retired in 1949 as a rear admiral . [ 39 ] While many of Indianapolis 's survivors said McVay was not to blame for the sinking, the families of some of the men who died thought otherwise: "Merry Christmas! Our family's holiday would be a lot merrier if you hadn't killed my son", read one piece of mail. [ 40 ] The guilt that was placed on his shoulders mounted until he killed himself in 1968, aged 70. [ 41 ] McVay's record cleared In 1996, sixth-grade student Hunter Scott began his research on the sinking of Indianapolis for a class history project. Scott's effort led to an increase in national publicity, [ 42 ] which got the attention of retired Congressional lobbyist Michael Monroney, who had been scheduled to be assigned to Indianapolis before she shipped out on her final voyage. Around the same time, Captain William J. Toti, USN , final commanding officer of the fast attack nuclear submarine USS Indianapolis (SSN-697) received an appeal from several Indianapolis survivors to assist with the exoneration effort. Toti then demonstrated through analysis that the tactic of zigzagging would not have spared the Indianapolis from at least one torpedo hit by the I-58 . [ 43 ] Monroney brought the matter to the attention of his son-in-law, who was on the staff of Senator Bob Smith (R, NH) and was able to get the issue in front of Smith. Smith convinced Senator John Warner (R, VA) to hold hearings on the Senate Armed Services Committee on 14 September 1999, in which several Indianapolis survivors testified. Also called to testify in the hearings were Vice Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Donald Pilling , Director of the Naval History Center Dr. William Dudley, and the Judge Advocate General of the Navy Rear Admiral John Hutson . The hearings were reported to sway Senator Warner into allowing a " Sense of Congress " resolution clearing Captain McVay's name to be passed to full Congress for a vote. In October 2000, the United States Congress passed a resolution that Captain McVay's record should state that "he is exonerated for the loss of Indianapolis ". President Bill Clinton also signed the resolution. [ 44 ] The resolution noted that, although several hundred ships of the U.S. Navy were lost in combat during World War II, McVay was the only captain to be court-martialed for the loss of his ship due to enemy action in combat. [ 45 ] In July 2001, United States Secretary of the Navy Gordon England directed Captain Toti to enter the Congressional language into McVay's official Navy service record, clearing him of all wrongdoing. [ 46 ] [ 47 ] Commanders Commanders of USS Indianapolis : [ 48 ] Rank Name Date Captain John M. Smeallie 15 November 1932 – 10 December 1934 Captain William S. McClintic 10 December 1934 – 16 March 1936 Captain Henry Kent Hewitt 16 March 1936 – 5 June 1937 Captain Thomas C. Kinkaid 5 June 1937 – 1 July 1938 Captain John F. Shafroth Jr. 1 July 1938 – 1 October 1941 Captain Edward Hanson 1 October 1941 – 11 July 1942 Captain Morton L. Deyo 11 July 1942 – 12 January 1943 Captain Nicholas Vytlacil 12 January 1943 – 30 July 1943 Captain Einar R. Johnson 30 July 1943 – 18 November 1944 Captain Charles B. McVay III 18 November 1944 – 30 July 1945 Awards Combat Action Ribbon American Defense Service Medal with fleet clasp Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with ten battle stars [ 49 ] American Campaign Medal World War II Victory Medal Wreck discovery The wreck of Indianapolis is in the Philippine Sea. [ 50 ] In July–August 2001, an expedition sought to find the wreckage through the use of side-scan sonar and underwater cameras mounted on a remotely operated vehicle . Four Indianapolis survivors accompanied the expedition, which was not successful. In June 2005, a second expedition was mounted to find the wreck. National Geographic covered the story and released it in July. Submersibles were launched to find any sign of wreckage, although they only located pieces of metal that were not proven conclusively to be from the ship. In July 2016, new information emerged regarding the possible location of Indianapolis when naval records were discovered indicating that the tank landing ship LST-779 recorded passing by Indianapolis 11 hours before the torpedoes struck. This information allowed researchers to determine that Indianapolis had been moving faster and was therefore farther west than previously assumed, as well as slightly off the route taken. Using this information, National Geographic planned to mount an expedition to search for the wreck in the summer of 2017. [ 51 ] Reports estimated that Indianapolis was actually 25 miles (40 km) west of the reported sinking position, in water over three miles (4,800 m) deep, and likely on the side of an underwater mountain. [ 52 ] A year after the discovery of the records, the wreck was located by Paul Allen 's "USS Indianapolis Project" aboard the research vessel Petrel [ 53 ] on 19 August 2017, at a depth of 18,000 ft (5,500 m). [ 54 ] The wreck was revealed to the public on 13 September 2017, in a live TV show on PBS titled "USS Indianapolis , Live from the Deep", starring Miles O'Brien and also including now-retired Captain William Toti. [ 55 ] The wreck is well-preserved due to the great depth at which Indianapolis rests, among the rocky mountain ranges of the North Philippine Sea. [ 56 ] In September 2017, a map detailing the wreckage was released. The main part of the wreck lies in an enormous impact crater; her bow, which broke off before the ship sank, lies 1.5 miles (2.4 km) east. The two forward 8-inch gun turrets, which also broke off on the surface and mark the ship's last position on the surface, lie 0.5 miles (0.80 km) east of the main wreck. The bridge, which broke off the ship due to the torpedoes, lies in a debris field near the forward guns. The single 8-inch gun turret on the stern remains in place, though the stern's roof collapsed over itself. Airplane wreckage from the ship lies about 0.6 miles (0.97 km) north of the main part of the wreck. [ 57 ] The full exposition of the method by which the wreck was located and documented was released in another PBS documentary on 8 January 2019 titled USS Indianapolis: The Final Chapter . [ 58 ] Reunions Since 1960, surviving crew members met for reunions in Indianapolis. Fourteen of the thirty-two remaining survivors attended the 70th reunion, held 23–26 July 2015. Held only sporadically at first, then biannually, the reunions were later held annually. By 2015 most of the survivors were in their nineties, voted every year whether to continue. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] [ 61 ] Seven out of twenty remaining survivors attended the 2017 reunion. [ 62 ] With the death of Cleatus Lebow on 29 September 2022, [ 63 ] there is only one crew member still alive, Harold Bray . [ 64 ] Memorials The USS Indianapolis Museum had its grand opening on 7 July 2007, with its gallery in the Indiana War Memorial Museum at the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza . [ 65 ] The USS Indianapolis National Memorial was dedicated on 2 August 1995. It is located in Indianapolis , Indiana, in the city's Canal and White River State Park cultural district. [ 66 ] The heavy cruiser is depicted in limestone and granite and sits adjacent to the downtown canal. The crewmembers' names are listed on the monument, with special notations for those who died. [ 67 ] It was designated a national memorial by Congress in 1993. [ 68 ] In May 2011, the I-465 beltway around Indianapolis was named the USS Indianapolis Memorial Highway. [ 69 ] USS Indianapolis is the name of the Navy's combat training pool, located at RTC Great Lakes . This facility is used during Navy boot camp to test recruit swimming ability, and to instruct recruits who lack those skills. The building was dedicated to those who lost their lives at sea, with the intent of providing training to recruits on how to survive until a rescue is made. Some material relating to Indianapolis is held by the Indiana State Museum . Her bell and a commissioning pennant were formerly located at Heslar Naval Armory but currently reside at the Indiana War Memorial Museum . [ 70 ] [ 71 ] In popular culture In a scene in the 1975 movie Jaws , one of the main characters, Quint, who is a survivor of Indianapolis , recounts the sinking and shark attacks. This scene brought Indianapolis , and her sinking, into a much wider public spotlight 30 years after the events occurred. [ 72 ] [ 73 ] The 2019 play The Shark Is Broken , which opened on Broadway in 2023, both explores Robert Shaw (Quint's actor) rewriting the dialogue to the scene, as well as doing a full rendition of the famous scene at the end. [ 74 ] The sinking is the subject of the 1991 made-for-TV film Mission of the Shark: The Saga of the U.S.S. Indianapolis , starring Stacy Keach . The 2014 novel Shark , by English writer Will Self , is based on the sinking of Indianapolis . The 2016 film USS Indianapolis: Men of Courage , directed by Mario Van Peebles and starring Nicolas Cage , is based on the sinking. See also Indiana portal USS Juneau (CL-52) , another U.S. Navy cruiser sunk during World War II with substantial loss of life attributed to delayed rescue efforts List of U.S. Navy losses in World War II List of ships sunk by submarines by death toll List of United States Navy cruisers List of national memorials of the United States Notes ^ While the loss of Indianapolis is the worst-ever loss of life from a single ship sinking at sea for the U.S. Navy, it is not the worst naval disaster for the U.S. Navy nor the United States military as a whole. Earlier in World War II, the battleship USS Arizona and the troopship HMT Rohna were lost with more American lives, but Arizona was in port at Pearl Harbor when sunk and Rohna was primarily carrying United States Army personnel, not U.S. Navy personnel, when it was sunk at sea. The complement of the aircraft carrier USS Franklin would also suffer upwards of 900 killed at sea throughout the war, although Franklin was not sunk. Additionally, the accidental loss of the steamboat Sultana , which exploded on the Mississippi River while carrying Union soldiers in the immediate aftermath of the American Civil War , was the worst maritime disaster in U.S. history. The 1,700 U.S. military prisoners of war from the Philippines (out of a total of 1,773 Allied troops missing and killed) who died on the sunken Japanese hell ship Arisan Maru from a torpedo launched by the submarine USS Shark was the greatest loss of life from a single ship in U.S. military history. References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Ship Nicknames" . zuzuray.com. 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The New York Times . Retrieved 29 October 2023 . This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships . The entry can be found here . Sources Bauer, Karl Jack; Roberts, Stephen S. (1991). Register of Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1775–1990: Major Combatants . Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood Press . ISBN 978-0313262029 . Cook, Blanche (1999). Eleanor Roosevelt: Vol. 2 – The Defining Years, 1933–1938 . New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0140178944 . Retrieved 8 August 2021 . "Indianapolis II" . Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships . Navy Department , Naval History and Heritage Command . 24 June 2020 . Retrieved 8 August 2021 . Groves, Leslie R. (1983) [1962]. Now it can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project . Boston; Massachusetts: Da Capo Press; Perseus Group. ISBN 0-306-80189-2 . paperback reprint, with December 1982 introduction by Edward Teller Marks, R. Adrian (April 1981). "America Was Well Represented". Proceedings . United States Naval Institute . Miller, David M. O. (2001). Illustrated Directory of Warships of the World . New York: Zenith Press . ISBN 978-0760311271 . Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb . Simon & Schuster. Silverstone, Paul (2007). The Navy of World War II, 1922–1947 . New York: Routledge . ISBN 978-0415978989 . Stille, Mark (2009). USN Cruiser vs IJN Cruiser: Guadalcanal 1942 . Oxford, UK : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978-1846034664 . Further reading Croft, Sebastian (2024). "Bomb Voyage: The USS Indianapolis Disaster in American Cinema, National Memory, and Jaws (1975)" . Film & History . 54 : 35– 51. doi : 10.1353/flm.2024.a933221 . ISSN 1548-9922 . Fahey, James C. (1941). The Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, Two-Ocean Fleet Edition . Ships and Aircraft. Harrell, David (2005). Out of the Depths . As told by Edgar Harrell. Out of the Depths. ISBN 1597811661 . Hashimoto, Mochitsura (2010) [1954]. Sunk: The Story of the Japanese Submarine Fleet, 1941–1945 (Reprint ed.). New York: Progressive Press. ISBN 978-1615775811 . Loynd, Ray (1978). The Jaws 2 Log . London: W. H. Allen. ISBN 0426188683 . Lech, Raymond B. (1982). All the Drowned Sailors . Jove Books . Newcomb, Richard (2000) [1958]. Abandon Ship!: The Saga of the USS Indianapolis , the Navy's Greatest Sea Disaster . HarperCollins. ISBN 006018471X . Stanton, Doug (2003). In Harm's Way: The Sinking of the USS Indianapolis and the Extraordinary Story of Its Survivors . New York: Owl Books. ISBN 978-0805073669 . Publishers Weekly Notable Book Award ; Massachusetts Book Award Taylor, Theodore (1954). The Magnificent Mitscher . United States Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1591148502 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) Vincent, Lynn ; Vladic, Sara (2018). Indianapolis: The True Story of the Worst Sea Disaster in U.S. Naval History and the Fifty-Year Fight to Exonerate an Innocent Man . Simon & Schuster . . External links USS Indianapolis Museum official website USS Indianapolis Survivors Organization Another USS Indianapolis Survivors Organization Maritime Quest Indianapolis Pictures 1945 Kamikaze Damage Report – filed by Mare Island Naval Shipyard Allied Warships: USS Indianapolis (CA 35), Heavy cruiser of the Portland -class "USS Indianapolis Collection, 1898–1991 (Bulk 1945–1946 and 1984–1991), Collection Guide" . Indiana Historical Society. 13 October 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2016 . Retrieved 2 November 2012 . IndySurvivor.com – website and book by survivor Edgar Harrell, USMC Announcement of the Father Thomas Conway Memorial (June 2006). (At USS Indianapolis Museum official website, in the left-hand column, click on "2006 Museum Activities".) BBC Magazine Photo gallery of USS Indianapolis at NavSource Naval History .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap} 12°2′N 134°48′E / 12.033°N 134.800°E / 12.033; 134.800 ( Approximate location of the wreck of the USS Indianapolis (CA-35) ) USS Indianapolis (decked in flags) and the passenger liner Aquitania at the Statue of Liberty Mission of the Shark: The Saga of the U.S.S. Indianapolis (1991) on YouTube Missing The USS Indianapolis on YouTube , a History Channel documentary Roll of Honor .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Portland -class cruisers v t e Portland Indianapolis Portland Indianapolis Preceded by: Northampton class Followed by: New Orleans class Preceded by: Northampton class Followed by: New Orleans class List of cruisers of the United States Navy List of cruisers of the United States Navy v t e Shipwrecks and maritime incidents in July 1945 v t e Shipwrecks 2 Jul: Empire Fal 3 Jul: Hoei Maru 4 Jul: Bahia 8 Jul: HNLMS O 19 10 Jul: Sakura Maru 11 Jul: Sakura 14 Jul: Hakuhō Maru , Tachibana 15 Jul: Francis Preston Blair , I-351 , HMS Ludlow , HMS Maori , Walter L M Russ 16 Jul: USS Gamble , I-13 , Nankai 17 Jul: HMS Athlete , John H. Hammond 18 Jul: Decommissioned Destroyer No. 18 , I-372 , Kasuga , Yakaze 20 Jul: Kiyokawa Maru 23 Jul: Cha-117 24 Jul: Aoba , Amagi , Hyūga , Iwate , Settsu , HMS Squirrel , Tone , USS Underhill 25 Jul: Kotobuki Maru , PB-2 26 Jul: HMS Vestal 28 Jul: USS Callaghan , Haruna , Ise , Izumo , Ōyodo 30 Jul: Hatsushimo , USS Indianapolis , Okinawa Unknown date: HMCS St. Francis 2 Jul: Empire Fal 3 Jul: Hoei Maru 4 Jul: Bahia 8 Jul: HNLMS O 19 10 Jul: Sakura Maru 11 Jul: Sakura 14 Jul: Hakuhō Maru , Tachibana 15 Jul: Francis Preston Blair , I-351 , HMS Ludlow , HMS Maori , Walter L M Russ 16 Jul: USS Gamble , I-13 , Nankai 17 Jul: HMS Athlete , John H. Hammond 18 Jul: Decommissioned Destroyer No. 18 , I-372 , Kasuga , Yakaze 20 Jul: Kiyokawa Maru 23 Jul: Cha-117 24 Jul: Aoba , Amagi , Hyūga , Iwate , Settsu , HMS Squirrel , Tone , USS Underhill 25 Jul: Kotobuki Maru , PB-2 26 Jul: HMS Vestal 28 Jul: USS Callaghan , Haruna , Ise , Izumo , Ōyodo 30 Jul: Hatsushimo , USS Indianapolis , Okinawa Unknown date: HMCS St. Francis Other incidents 18 Jul: USS Gabilan , USS Hank , USS Wallace L. Lind 24 Jul: USS Colahan , USS Toro 25 Jul: SS Howard M. Hanna Jr. 26 Jul: USS Marlin 18 Jul: USS Gabilan , USS Hank , USS Wallace L. Lind 24 Jul: USS Colahan , USS Toro 25 Jul: SS Howard M. Hanna Jr. 26 Jul: USS Marlin 1944 1945 1946 June 1945 August 1945 Portland-class cruisers Ships built by New York Shipbuilding Corporation 1931 ships World War II cruisers of the United States History of the Manhattan Project Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Ships sunk by Japanese submarines Cruisers sunk by submarines Shark attacks World War II shipwrecks in the Philippine Sea World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean Maritime incidents in July 1945 Congressional Gold Medal recipients Monuments and memorials in Indianapolis National memorials of the United States Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen 2017 archaeological discoveries Harv and Sfn no-target errors Webarchive template wayback links Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Use American English from April 2014 All Wikipedia articles written in American English Use dmy dates from June 2020 Articles needing additional references from July 2020 All articles needing additional references Articles needing additional references from July 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019 Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships CS1 errors: ISBN date Commons category link is on Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata This page was last edited on 12 January 2026, at 23:46 (UTC) . 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Orthography and formatting Toggle Orthography and formatting subsection 1.1 Use of special characters 1.2 Italics 1.1 Use of special characters 1.2 Italics 2 Article names 3 Sources Toggle Sources subsection 3.1 Hawaiian sources 3.2 Translations 3.1 Hawaiian sources 3.2 Translations 4 'Hawaiian' and 'Hawaii' 5 Geography Toggle Geography subsection 5.1 Honolulu 5.2 Roads 5.1 Honolulu 5.2 Roads 6 Census data 7 Biography Toggle Biography subsection 7.1 Dates 7.2 Ancient names 7.3 Hawaiian monarchs 7.1 Dates 7.2 Ancient names 7.3 Hawaiian monarchs 8 Notes 9 References Wikipedia : Manual of Style/Hawaii-related articles Project page Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style . Editors should generally follow it, though exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus . .mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain{float:right;margin:0 0 0 1em;border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);background-color:var(--background-color-base,#fff);padding:0.3em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;text-align:center;font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxleft{float:left;margin:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutlist{display:inline-block;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);margin-bottom:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutboxplain ul{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .module-shortcutanchordiv{position:relative;top:-3em}.mw-parser-output li .module-shortcutanchordiv{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mbox-imageright .module-shortcutboxplain{padding:0.4em 1em;line-height:1.3;margin:0;float:initial} Shortcuts .mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0} MOS:HAWAII MOS:HAWAII WP:MOSHAWAII WP:MOSHAWAII MOS:HAWAII MOS:HAWAII WP:MOSHAWAII WP:MOSHAWAII Manual of Style Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject Organizing by subject Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: Naming conventions (geographic names) WikiProject style advice Science and technology Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Mathematics Medicine Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Other Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Blazons Cue sports ( Snooker ) Islam Latter Day Saints Legal Military history Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games history legal and cultural religion and education sports and games Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Simplified Contents Tips Simplified Contents Tips .mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e The following is the English Wikipedia's style guide for editing Hawaii -related articles, including the State of Hawaii as well as the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi and its ancient history. This subpage gives the preferred method of aligning word usage and typography in Hawaii-related articles to give all articles a consistent "look and feel". This subpage is the result and record of past agreements and discussions over typographical issues. This is a general reference for editors on unique aspects of word usage in Hawaii, as well as how to treat specific subjects. Orthography and formatting MOS:OKINA MOS:OKINA Orthography refers to the correct spelling of a language. The Hawaiian orthography has two characteristic features: the kahakō (macron), a vowel diacritic, and the ʻokina (glottal stop), a consonant letter. Kahakō is the Hawaiian term for the macron , a short line added above a vowel letter to indicate that it represents a long vowel: The ʻokina is a letter of the Hawaiian alphabet that looks more or less like a turned apostrophe and indicates the glottal stop , which is a consonant in the Hawaiian language: [ 1 ] An apostrophe or quotation mark should never be used in place of the ʻokina , even if one is used in the source. The official Unicode character .mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace} U+02BB ʻ MODIFIER LETTER TURNED COMMA should be used instead. In article titles, the Unicode character needs to be used directly, but for article text the {{ okina }} template was created for this purpose. The template should be used in text to make the ʻokina visibly distinct to other editors from punctuation marks. The kahakō does not have a template but ā, ē, ī, ō, ū are available in the Latin section of the list of symbols in the editing box. Use of special characters In general, follow current Hawaiian orthography for the use of kahakō and ʻokina in Hawaiian words, names and phrases in the body of articles dealing with Hawaii. The online Hawaiian Dictionary or a similar reference work should be used as a guide for proper spelling. The {{ Hawaiian Dictionaries }} template is useful for citations. When using the kahakō and ʻokina for a word that has both these marks, in either article content or a title, it is recommended to use both of the characters or neither of them. This is to avoid a misuse of the letters that would change the meaning of the word. As with any letter or character, omission of the kahakō or ʻokina in Hawaiian words alters the pronunciation and can change the meaning of the word. It may alter a geographical location: for example, Kalaʻe and Ka Lae are different places. [ 2 ] Lānaʻi is an island (and has some other meanings), [ 3 ] while lānai is a covered porch around a house, [ 4 ] and lanai means 'stiff-backed'. [ 5 ] The English adjective Hawaiian is spelled without an ʻokina . Please see the sections below for more guidance on a few special cases or specific topics. Italics Unassimilated Hawaiian words and phrases are italicized in the running text and in the article title, [ 6 ] except for proper names. This can be done with the {{ lang }} template, which also has benefits for text-to-speech , spell checking, and other systems: Loanwords and -phrases that have common use in English, such as " hula ", are not italicized, except for consistency in linguistic material, or where indicating an original native meaning from which the sense in English has diverged. WP:ITALICTITLE states: "Italic formatting cannot be part of the actual (stored) title of a page; adding single quotes to a page title will cause those quotes to become part of the URL, rather than affecting its appearance. A title or part of it is made to appear in italics with the use of the DISPLAYTITLE magic word or the {{ italic title }} template. In addition, certain templates, including {{ infobox book }} , {{ infobox film }} and {{ infobox album }} , by default italicize the titles of the pages they appear on; see the pages for those templates for details. For details, see Italics and formatting on the technical restrictions page. Article names The Wikipedia policy for article names provides general guidance on naming. The Wikipedia naming conventions page provides more specific guidance. This page provides guidance for where the practice for Hawaiian articles differs from that of these universal Wikipedia conventions. For place names, use the most common name of the subject as the title of the article, as you would find in reliable sources. For example, use Pearl Harbor rather than Puʻuloa . If the common name is of Hawaiian origin, follow the correct orthography as outlined in the Hawaiʻi State Board on Geographic Names . When a non-Hawaiian name is used for the article, use the {{ langx }} template to list the Hawaiian name in the lead, and include the Hawaiian name in the infobox as appropriate. However, do not use the lang and langx templates to differentiate the orthography. For example, You should create redirects from common alternative names and spellings. This makes the article easy to find, and easy to compare information with other sources. Wikipedia disambiguation pages are also used to help the reader find the desired article if several have similar names. For example, Waimea . Sources Never copy content from a source directly into an article. Close paraphrasing without in-text attribution may constitute plagiarism , and when extensive (with or without in-text attribution) may also violate Wikipedia's copyright policy , which forbids Wikipedia contributors from copying material directly from other sources. Public domain material must likewise be attributed to avoid plagiarism. If the source material bears a free copyright license that is compatible with Wikipedia's licenses , copying or closely paraphrasing it is not a copyright violation so long as the source is attributed somewhere in the article, usually at the end. When trying to determine what is a reliable source remember that three things affect a source's reliability: the author, the publication itself and the publisher. Tertiary sources may be used but are not as strong as secondary, reliable sources. Primary sources may be used but when sourcing facts from a primary source, be careful to only mention what content is in the source with no additional editorializing, analysis or interpretation. Hawaiian sources Sources must support the material clearly and directly: drawing inferences from multiple sources to advance a novel position is prohibited by the NOR policy. [ 7 ] Hawaiian-language sources, such as newspapers, books, journals and online references, may be used to source Hawaiian related articles when no other English source of equal quality and relevance is found. Sources sometimes have differing or conflicting information. WP:BALANCE states: "Neutrality assigns weight to viewpoints in proportion to their prominence. However, when reputable sources contradict one another and are relatively equal in prominence, describe both approaches and work for balance. This involves describing the opposing views clearly, drawing on secondary or tertiary sources that describe the disagreement from a disinterested viewpoint." WP:RSUE states: "Citations to non-English sources are allowed. However, because this is the English-language Wikipedia, English-language sources are preferred over non-English ones, whenever English sources of equal quality and relevance are available. As with sources in English, if a dispute arises involving a citation to a non-English source, editors may request that a quotation of relevant portions of the original source be provided, either in text, in a footnote, or on the article talk page. [ 7 ] (See Template:Request quotation .)" Translations When quoting Hawaiian sources, follow Wikipedia policy. "When quoting a non-English source (whether in the main text, in a footnote, or on the talk page), a translation into English should always accompany the quote. Translations published by reliable sources are preferred over translations by Wikipedians, but translations by Wikipedians are preferred over machine translations." Additionally, "If needed, ask an editor who can translate it for you. In articles, the original text is usually included with the translated text when translated by Wikipedians, and the translating editor is usually not cited. When quoting any material, whether in English or in some other language, be careful not to violate copyright; see the fair-use guideline ." 'Hawaiian' and 'Hawaii' "Hawaiian" is always capitalized; do not use an ʻokina , as it is not a Hawaiian word. When describing persons, "Hawaiian" refers to persons descended from the aboriginal peoples of Ancient Hawaiʻi. The article describing the people is Native Hawaiians , but that term can be ambiguous, and the people call themselves Kānaka Maoli . When referring to residents of the state in general, "Hawaii resident" is preferred, unless it is clear from the context that the person in question is of Hawaiian descent. Distinguishing between people who are "Hawaiian" or "Native Hawaiian" versus people who are "Hawaii residents" or "islanders" is also recommended by the AP Stylebook . [ 8 ] Either the spelling "Hawaii" or "Hawaiʻi" can be appropriate. The US State and the archipelago are usually spelled "Hawaii", though there are exceptions with proper names such as the University of Hawaiʻi . The ʻokina is generally used when talking about the ancient culture, the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , or the island of Hawaiʻi . Geography A good source for geographic names is the Geographic Names Information System , a resource developed by the United States Geological Survey . [ 9 ] Another is the Hawaiʻi State Board on Geographic Names. Many of the island names have the Hawaiian letters in them, but the major ones are likely to appear in English dictionaries, so both forms are acceptable (for example, Oahu or Oʻahu ). The "Place Names of Hawaii" and "Hawaiian Place Names" databases in {{ Hawaiian Dictionaries }} are also good sources. Honolulu Honolulu is the largest city and capital of the state of Hawaii, covering the southeastern coast of Oʻahu. The City and County of Honolulu is the governmental entity which covers the entire island of Oʻahu. Roads Generally names are used by local residents for roads instead of numbers. However, state highways and "Interstate" highways are also given numbers. According to highway naming guidelines , articles should be given titles of either the name or number of the road, for example "Hawaii Route 19" (which would generally be abbreviated to "Route 19" in the body). Census data Census Bureau policy in 2000 and earlier did not allow non-English letters in Hawaiian place names. Place names for the 2000 census were submitted by state officials in 1998, before the GNIS was updated to accommodate Hawaiian names. The United States Census Bureau attempted to have the CDP and GNIS names agree as much as possible for the 2010 census. The Hawaiʻi Board on Geographical Names, under the Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism, has been working with USGS to use proper orthography in place names. [ 10 ] Biography Avoid literal translation from Hawaiian-language sources. For example, improvements could be made to the passage: "He was born, the son of Aliʻi Hoʻopuʻulani and Aliʻi Kalanianuiapui." All people are "born", and the use of "he" makes it clear he was a "son" so those words convey no additional information. On the other hand, it would not be clear which parent was his father and which his mother, since they have similar titles. A better wording might be: "He was born in the late 18th century. His father was High Chief Hoʻopuʻulani and his mother was High Chiefess Kalanianuiapui." Dates Although two styles of dates are allowed by the general date style guideline , the "month day, year" style is used almost exclusively within Hawaii, and by most sources (published in the islands or the US mainland). Therefore, the "month day, year" style is preferred in Hawaii-related articles. Ancient names As stated above, use the kahakō and ʻokina . An older style of using hyphens is more popular for pre-historic figures, and may be mentioned for clarification. Hawaiian monarchs In article titles for Hawaiian monarchs and members of the royal family, use the reign name (and ordinal as appropriate); e.g. Kamehameha III . Do not use Christian names in the article title, nor the pre-reign name. Examples: Kamehameha II , not Liholiho. Kalākaua , not David Kalākaua. Kamehameha II , not Liholiho. Kalākaua , not David Kalākaua. Avoid "of Hawaii" in the article title; the names of royalty are mostly unique to Hawaiʻi. Example: Kamehameha I , not Kamehameha I of Hawaii. One exception is Queen Emma of Hawaii . Avoid the words "King" "Queen" "Prince" etc. in the title, since that can change through a person's life. Refer to other given names in the article lead and body. Use redirects as appropriate for alternate names. In the body of the article, refer to the name generally used by the person at the time the event is being discussed, being careful to explain when names change, such as when Prince Lot Kapuāiwa became King Kamehameha V . Notes References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Charles L. Crow (15 April 2008). A Companion to the Regional Literatures of America . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 475–. ISBN 978-0-470-99907-3 . ^ Juvik, S. & Juvik, J. (1998). Atlas of Hawaiʻi , Third Edition, p.26. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Honolulu. ISBN 0-8248-2125-4 (pbk.) ^ Mary Māmaka Kaiao Kuleana kope. "Hawaiian Dictionaries" . University of Hawaiʻi Press . Retrieved 2014-06-24 . ^ Mary Māmaka Kaiao Kuleana kope. "Hawaiian Dictionaries" . University of Hawaii Press . Retrieved 2014-06-24 . ^ Mary Māmaka Kaiao Kuleana kope. "Hawaiian Dictionaries" . University of Hawaiʻi Press . Retrieved 2014-06-24 . ^ This was decided during a July–September 2010 poll on the Article titles talk page. See Wikipedia talk:Article titles/Archive 29#Wikipedia:Requests for comment:Use of italics in article titles as well as the discussions that led up to the poll at Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style/Archive 116#Italicised article titles and Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style/Archive 116#Request for comment: Use of italics in article names ^ a b When there is dispute about whether a piece of text is fully supported by a given source, direct quotes and other relevant details from the source should be provided to other editors as a courtesy. Do not violate the source's copyright when doing so. ^ Christian, Darrel; Jacobsen, Sally A.; Minthorn, David, eds. (2013). The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law . New York, NY: Basic Books. p. 112. ISBN 9780465082995 . ^ Search in the Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) ^ "Hawaii Board on Geographical Names" . Office of Planning, Department of Business, Economic Development & Tourism web site . State of Hawaii . Retrieved 2013-11-29 . v t e Manual of Style v t e Overview Contents Tips Overview Contents Tips Content Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Accessibility Biography Disambiguation pages Organizing by subject area Organizing by subject area Gender identity Hidden text Infoboxes Linking Self-references Words to watch Formatting Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Abbreviations Capitalization Dates and numbers Pronunciation Spelling Superscripts and subscripts Text formatting Titles of works Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Captions Image placement Icons Images Layout Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Layout Lead section Tables Trivia sections Lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists Lists Lists of works Road junctions Stand-alone lists By topic area Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Arts Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Anime and manga Comics Film Lyrics and poetry Novels Television Video games Visual arts Writing about fiction See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice Music Music samples Record charts Stringed instruments See also: WikiProject style advice History Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Blazons Military history See also: WikiProject style advice Legal and cultural Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Legal Trademarks See also: WikiProject style advice Regional Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Specific naming conventions Canada China (and Chinese) France (and French) Hawaii India Indonesia Ireland Japan Korea Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Poland Singapore See also: WikiProject style advice Religion and education Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Islam Latter Day Saints See also: WikiProject style advice Science and technology Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Mathematics Medicine Chemistry Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Compound classes Chemicals References and external links Safety Structure drawing Computer science Taxonomy See also: WikiProject style advice Sports Cue sports Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Cue sports Snooker Snooker See also: WikiProject style advice Related guidelines Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Article size Article titles Categories, lists, and navigation templates Categorization Hatnotes Subpages Understandability Search Category Category Wikipedia style guideline proposals Wikipedia Manual of Style (regional) Pages using sidebar with the child parameter This page was last edited on 19 November 2025, at 05:33 (UTC) . 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Hovudside Arbeidskontoret Samfunnshuset Siste endringar Tilfeldig side Hjelp Kontakt Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Foundation MediaWiki Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Outreach Fleirspråkleg Wikikjelda Wikispecies Wikidata Wikifunctions Wikimania Wikifrasar Wiktionary Wikidata-element Gåver Opprett konto Logg inn Gåver Opprett konto Logg inn Hovudside Hovudside Diskusjon Les Sjå kjelda Sjå historikken Les Sjå kjelda Sjå historikken Lenkjer hit Relaterte endringar Last opp fil Fast lenkje Sideinformasjon Spesialsider Siter denne sida Hent kort URL Last ned QR-kode Byt til den gamle parseren Opprett ei bok Last ned som PDF Utskriftsversjon .mw-parser-output .frontPageLeft{float:left;width:66%}.mw-parser-output .frontPageRight{float:left;width:34%}@media screen and (max-width:800px){.mw-parser-output .frontPageLeft,.mw-parser-output .frontPageRight{float:none;width:100%}}.mw-parser-output .frontPageBlock{background:url(" 3px 3px;border:1px solid #c2dfff;padding:3px;margin-bottom:.4em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output .frontPageBlockIcon{position:absolute;left:5px;top:5px}.mw-parser-output .frontPageBlockIcon img{border:0 none #000}.mw-parser-output .frontPageBlockTitle{position:absolute;left:50px;top:7px;font-size:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .frontPageBlockContent{margin:1em;padding-top:30px;overflow:auto}.mw-parser-output .frontPageRight .frontPageBlock{background:url(" top right #f8fcff;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .frontPageRight .frontPageBlockIcon{left:auto;right:10px}.mw-parser-output .frontPageRight .frontPageBlockTitle{left:auto;right:45px;top:3px;font-size:1.05em}.mw-parser-output .frontPageRight .frontPageBlockContent{margin:1em;padding-top:20px}.mw-parser-output .frontPageFancyBlock{border-bottom:3px dotted #C2DFFF;padding:1em 0;font-size:95%;color:#CCCCCC;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .frontPageFancyBlockLast{border-bottom:none}.mw-parser-output #systerprojekt table{border-collapse:collapse;width:100%;margin:.3em 0 0;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output #systerprojekt th{text-align:center;padding:.7em 0;width:25%}.mw-parser-output #systerprojekt td{line-height:1.2em;vertical-align:middle} .mw-parser-output #huvudsidaintro{background-image:url(" Velkomen til Nynorsk Wikipedia – eit fritt oppslagsverk som alle kan redigera . I dag er det 13. januar 2026 (oppdater) Nynorsk Wikipedia har no 177 063 artiklar Utvald artikkel veke 3 Gribbkarakara ( Caracara plancus ) er ein rovfugl i falkefamilien, Falconidae. Han lever frå det sørlege og søraustlege USA (Texas, Arizona og Florida) gjennom Mexico, der han finst i alle delstatar, og i store delar av Sentral- og Sør-Amerika, og dessutan på Cuba. Han er generelt ikkje i regnskogen i Amazonas har fråvære frå det indre av Peru og indre Nord-Chile. Dette er ein rovfugl som ofte er sett på bakken der han søkjer opportunistisk etter mat. Han lever hovudsakleg av kadaver av daude dyr. Han stel mat frå andre rovfuglar, åtakar fuglereir og krypdyr, og tar levande byttedyr viss moglegheita byr seg, for det meste insekt eller små pattedyr, småfuglar, amfibium, krypdyr, fisk, krabbar, andre skaldyr, flugelarver og makk. Han kan også ete frukt. Les meir … Førre tre vekene: Berenikes hår — New age-musikk — Julerose Arkiv – Føreslå artiklar Dagens skandinaviske artikkel Termodynamik är läran om energi, dess omvandling mellan olika former och särskilt samspelet mellan värme och arbete. Den klassiska termodynamiken studerar kopplingen mellan makroskopiska egenskaper som temperatur, volym och tryck hos termodynamiska system. Historiskt har termodynamikens utveckling drivits av önskan att öka verkningsgraden hos tidiga ångmaskiner, framför allt genom det arbete som bedrevs av den franske fysikern Sadi Carnot, ofta kallad termodynamikens fader. Den klassiska termodynamiken är en makroskopisk disciplin, till stor del baserad på mätningar och erfarenheter. I motsats bygger den statistiska termodynamiken, med grund i kvantmekaniken, på den mikroskopiska naturen hos enskilda atomer och molekyler. Utöver dessa finns ett stort antal grenar och tillämpningsområden som exempelvis kemisk termodynamik, energiteknik, meteorologi, materialvetenskap och biomedicin. Läs mer … Systerprojekt Commons Felles medialager Wikinytt Frie nyhende Wiktionary Ordbok og synonymordbok Wikifrasar Frie sitat Wikibøker Frie bøker Wikikjelda Frie kjeldetekstar Wikispecies Artskart Wikiversity Frie læremiddel Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Wikidata Fri kunnskapsbase Wikivoyage Fri reisehandbok Dagen i dag tysdag 13 . januar 2026 Gisle og Gislaug har namnedag ingen land har nasjonaldag Visste du at … ... itacolumitt er ein bergart som er så fleksibel at tynne heller av han kan bøyast utan at dei sprekk? ... Skulesongboka til Mads Berg er trykt i ein million eksemplar sidan ho fyrste gongen vart utgjeven i 1914? ... koarktasjon av aorta utgjer seks til åtte prosent av alle medfødde hjartefeil? ... garden Listveiten på Radøy var delt opp til sju småbruk frå 1800-talet før han etter 1950 på nytt blei samla til eitt bruk? ... Boy Point i Antarktis har namn etter ein polsk forfattar? Tilfeldige fakta frå nokre av artiklane våre Temasider Geografi · Historie · Kultur · Matematikk · Samfunn · Teknologi · Vitskap · Fleire... Om Wikipedia Wikipedia er det største prosjektet til stiftinga Wikimedia . Oppslagsverket er fritt til å bruka her og elles . Det baserer seg i stor grad på dugnad, både når det gjeld skriving og retting , og du er velkommen til å delta. To av utgåvene er på norsk; denne nynorske wikipediaen og Wikipedia på bokmål og riksmål med meir enn 600 000 artiklar. Wikipedia finst også på nordsamisk . Wikipedia er støtta av gåver frå brukarane sine, og me tek gjerne imot bidrag . Grunnprinsipp Spørsmål og svar Hjelp Skriva Endra Arbeidskontoret Samfunnshuset Kontakt Wikipedia på andre språk Skandinavisk og vestnordiske språk: bokmål · svenska · dansk · føroyskt · íslenska Vestgermanske språk: Afrikaans · Alemannisch · Deutsch (tysk) · English · Frysk (frisisk) · Nederlands · Plattdüütsch (plattysk) · Scots (skotsk) · ייִדיש (jiddisch) Keltiske språk: Gaeilge (irsk-gælisk) · Gàidhlig (skotsk-gælisk) · Cymraeg (walisisk) · Kernewek (kornisk) · Brezhoneg (bretonsk) Baltiske og slaviske språk: беларуская (kviterussisk) · kaszëbsczi (kasjubisk) · latviešu (latvisk) · lietuvių (litauisk) · polski (polsk) · русский (russisk) Finsk-ugriske språk: anarâškielâ (enaresamisk) · davvisámegiella (nordsamisk) · eesti (estisk) · suomi (finsk) Inuittiske språk: kalaallisut (grønlandsk) Andre viktige innvandrarspråk: العربية (arabisk) · bosanski (bosnisk) · español (spansk) · فارسی (farsi, persisk) · kurdî (kurdisk) · ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (panjabi) · shqip (albansk) · soomaaliga (somalisk) · தமிழ் (tamil) · Tiếng Việt (vietnamesisk) · türkçe (tyrkisk) · اردو (urdu) Velkomen til Nynorsk Wikipedia – eit fritt oppslagsverk som alle kan redigera . I dag er det 13. januar 2026 (oppdater) Nynorsk Wikipedia har no 177 063 artiklar Nynorsk Wikipedia har no 177 063 artiklar Gribbkarakara ( Caracara plancus ) er ein rovfugl i falkefamilien, Falconidae. Han lever frå det sørlege og søraustlege USA (Texas, Arizona og Florida) gjennom Mexico, der han finst i alle delstatar, og i store delar av Sentral- og Sør-Amerika, og dessutan på Cuba. Han er generelt ikkje i regnskogen i Amazonas har fråvære frå det indre av Peru og indre Nord-Chile. Dette er ein rovfugl som ofte er sett på bakken der han søkjer opportunistisk etter mat. Han lever hovudsakleg av kadaver av daude dyr. Han stel mat frå andre rovfuglar, åtakar fuglereir og krypdyr, og tar levande byttedyr viss moglegheita byr seg, for det meste insekt eller små pattedyr, småfuglar, amfibium, krypdyr, fisk, krabbar, andre skaldyr, flugelarver og makk. Han kan også ete frukt. Les meir … Berenikes hår — New age-musikk — Julerose Termodynamik är läran om energi, dess omvandling mellan olika former och särskilt samspelet mellan värme och arbete. Den klassiska termodynamiken studerar kopplingen mellan makroskopiska egenskaper som temperatur, volym och tryck hos termodynamiska system. Historiskt har termodynamikens utveckling drivits av önskan att öka verkningsgraden hos tidiga ångmaskiner, framför allt genom det arbete som bedrevs av den franske fysikern Sadi Carnot, ofta kallad termodynamikens fader. Den klassiska termodynamiken är en makroskopisk disciplin, till stor del baserad på mätningar och erfarenheter. I motsats bygger den statistiska termodynamiken, med grund i kvantmekaniken, på den mikroskopiska naturen hos enskilda atomer och molekyler. Utöver dessa finns ett stort antal grenar och tillämpningsområden som exempelvis kemisk termodynamik, energiteknik, meteorologi, materialvetenskap och biomedicin. Läs mer … Commons Felles medialager Wikinytt Frie nyhende Wiktionary Ordbok og synonymordbok Wikifrasar Frie sitat Wikibøker Frie bøker Wikikjelda Frie kjeldetekstar Wikispecies Artskart Wikiversity Frie læremiddel Meta-Wiki Wikimedia Wikidata Fri kunnskapsbase Wikivoyage Fri reisehandbok Gisle og Gislaug har namnedag ingen land har nasjonaldag Geografi · Historie · Kultur · Matematikk · Samfunn · Teknologi · Vitskap · Fleire... Grunnprinsipp Spørsmål og svar Hjelp Skriva Endra Arbeidskontoret Samfunnshuset Kontakt Vestgermanske språk: Afrikaans · Alemannisch · Deutsch (tysk) · English · Frysk (frisisk) · Nederlands · Plattdüütsch (plattysk) · Scots (skotsk) · ייִדיש (jiddisch) Keltiske språk: Gaeilge (irsk-gælisk) · Gàidhlig (skotsk-gælisk) · Cymraeg (walisisk) · Kernewek (kornisk) · Brezhoneg (bretonsk) Baltiske og slaviske språk: беларуская (kviterussisk) · kaszëbsczi (kasjubisk) · latviešu (latvisk) · lietuvių (litauisk) · polski (polsk) · русский (russisk) Finsk-ugriske språk: anarâškielâ (enaresamisk) · davvisámegiella (nordsamisk) · eesti (estisk) · suomi (finsk) Inuittiske språk: kalaallisut (grønlandsk) Wikipedia/Hovudside Norsk bokmål Svenska Dansk Acèh Адыгэбзэ Адыгабзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch Алтай тил አማርኛ Anarâškielâ अंगिका Ænglisc Аԥсшәа العربية Aragonés ܐܪܡܝܐ Արեւմտահայերէն Armãneashti Arpetan অসমীয়া Asturianu Atikamekw अवधी Avañe'ẽ Авар Aymar aru Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه Basa Bali Bamanankan বাংলা Banjar 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Basa Banyumasan Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца) भोजपुरी Bikol Central Bislama Български Boarisch བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Чӑвашла Cebuano Čeština Chamoru Chavacano de Zamboanga Chi-Chewa ChiShona ChiTumbuka Corsu Cymraeg Dagbanli الدارجة Davvisámegiella Deitsch Deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް Diné bizaad Dolnoserbski डोटेली ཇོང་ཁ Eesti Ελληνικά Emiliàn e rumagnòl English Эрзянь Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara Eʋegbe Farefare فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Frysk Fulfulde Furlan Gaeilge Gaelg Gagauz Gàidhlig Galego ГӀалгӀай 贛語 Gĩkũyũ گیلکی ગુજરાતી 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni Gungbe 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî Хальмг 한국어 Hausa Hawaiʻi Հայերեն हिन्दी Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Hulontalo Ido Igbo Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Interlingue ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut Iñupiatun Ирон IsiXhosa IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa Kabɩyɛ Kalaallisut ಕನ್ನಡ Kapampangan Къарачай-малкъар ქართული کٲشُر Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kernowek Ikinyarwanda Ikirundi Kiswahili Коми Kongo Kotava Kreyòl ayisyen Kriyòl gwiyannen Kurdî Кыргызча Кырык мары Ladin Ladino Лакку ລາວ Latgaļu Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Лезги Lietuvių Li Niha Ligure Limburgs Lingála Lingua Franca Nova Livvinkarjala La .lojban. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Relationships to other fields Toggle Relationships to other fields subsection 2.1 Artificial intelligence 2.2 Data compression 2.3 Data mining 2.4 Generalization 2.5 Statistics 2.6 Statistical physics 2.1 Artificial intelligence 2.2 Data compression 2.3 Data mining 2.4 Generalization 2.5 Statistics 2.6 Statistical physics 3 Theory 4 Approaches Toggle Approaches subsection 4.1 Supervised learning 4.2 Unsupervised learning 4.2.1 Dimensionality reduction 4.3 Semi-supervised learning 4.4 Reinforcement learning 4.5 Other types 4.5.1 Self-learning 4.5.2 Feature learning 4.5.3 Sparse dictionary learning 4.5.4 Anomaly detection 4.5.5 Robot learning 4.5.6 Association rules 4.1 Supervised learning 4.2 Unsupervised learning 4.2.1 Dimensionality reduction 4.2.1 Dimensionality reduction 4.3 Semi-supervised learning 4.4 Reinforcement learning 4.5 Other types 4.5.1 Self-learning 4.5.2 Feature learning 4.5.3 Sparse dictionary learning 4.5.4 Anomaly detection 4.5.5 Robot learning 4.5.6 Association rules 4.5.1 Self-learning 4.5.2 Feature learning 4.5.3 Sparse dictionary learning 4.5.4 Anomaly detection 4.5.5 Robot learning 4.5.6 Association rules 5 Models Toggle Models subsection 5.1 Artificial neural networks 5.2 Decision trees 5.3 Random forest regression 5.4 Support-vector machines 5.5 Regression analysis 5.6 Bayesian networks 5.7 Gaussian processes 5.8 Genetic algorithms 5.9 Belief functions 5.10 Rule-based models 5.11 Training models 5.11.1 Federated learning 5.1 Artificial neural networks 5.2 Decision trees 5.3 Random forest regression 5.4 Support-vector machines 5.5 Regression analysis 5.6 Bayesian networks 5.7 Gaussian processes 5.8 Genetic algorithms 5.9 Belief functions 5.10 Rule-based models 5.11 Training models 5.11.1 Federated learning 5.11.1 Federated learning 6 Applications 7 Limitations Toggle Limitations subsection 7.1 Explainability 7.2 Overfitting 7.3 Other limitations and vulnerabilities 7.1 Explainability 7.2 Overfitting 7.3 Other limitations and vulnerabilities 8 Model assessments 9 Ethics Toggle Ethics subsection 9.1 Bias 9.2 Financial incentives 9.1 Bias 9.2 Financial incentives 10 Hardware Toggle Hardware subsection 10.1 Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) 10.2 Neuromorphic computing 10.2.1 Physical neural networks 10.3 Embedded machine learning 10.1 Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) 10.2 Neuromorphic computing 10.2.1 Physical neural networks 10.2.1 Physical neural networks 10.3 Embedded machine learning 11 Software Toggle Software subsection 11.1 Free and open-source software 11.2 Proprietary software with free and open-source editions 11.3 Proprietary software 11.1 Free and open-source software 11.2 Proprietary software with free and open-source editions 11.3 Proprietary software 12 Journals 13 Conferences 14 See also 15 References 16 Sources 17 Further reading 18 External links Machine learning Afrikaans العربية অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí Башҡортса Беларуская भोजपुरी Български བོད་ཡིག Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk الدارجة Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaelg Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Ido Bahasa Indonesia IsiZulu Íslenska Italiano עברית Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Ligure Magyar Македонски മലയാളം मराठी Bahasa Melayu Монгол Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Runa Simi Русский ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ Shqip Simple English Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche Tiếng Việt Võro 吴语 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e v t e Part of a series on Artificial intelligence (AI) Major goals Artificial general intelligence Intelligent agent Recursive self-improvement Planning Computer vision General game playing Knowledge representation Natural language processing Robotics AI safety Artificial general intelligence Intelligent agent Recursive self-improvement Planning Computer vision General game playing Knowledge representation Natural language processing Robotics AI safety Approaches Machine learning Symbolic Deep learning Bayesian networks Evolutionary algorithms Hybrid intelligent systems Systems integration Open-source AI data centers Machine learning Symbolic Deep learning Bayesian networks Evolutionary algorithms Hybrid intelligent systems Systems integration Open-source AI data centers Applications Bioinformatics Deepfake Earth sciences Finance Generative AI Art Audio Music Government Healthcare Mental health Industry Software development Translation Military Physics Projects Bioinformatics Deepfake Earth sciences Finance Generative AI Art Audio Music Art Audio Music Government Healthcare Mental health Mental health Industry Software development Translation Military Physics Projects Philosophy AI alignment Artificial consciousness The bitter lesson Chinese room Friendly AI Ethics Existential risk Turing test Uncanny valley Human–AI interaction AI alignment Artificial consciousness The bitter lesson Chinese room Friendly AI Ethics Existential risk Turing test Uncanny valley Human–AI interaction History Timeline Progress AI winter AI boom AI bubble Timeline Progress AI winter AI boom AI bubble Controversies Deepfake pornography Taylor Swift deepfake pornography controversy Google Gemini image generation controversy Pause Giant AI Experiments Removal of Sam Altman from OpenAI Statement on AI Risk Tay (chatbot) Théâtre D'opéra Spatial Voiceverse NFT plagiarism scandal Deepfake pornography Taylor Swift deepfake pornography controversy Taylor Swift deepfake pornography controversy Google Gemini image generation controversy Pause Giant AI Experiments Removal of Sam Altman from OpenAI Statement on AI Risk Tay (chatbot) Théâtre D'opéra Spatial Voiceverse NFT plagiarism scandal Glossary Glossary Glossary v t e v t e Machine learning ( ML ) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and study of statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalise to unseen data, and thus perform tasks without explicit instructions . [ 1 ] Within a subdiscipline in machine learning, advances in the field of deep learning have allowed neural networks , a class of statistical algorithms, to surpass many previous machine learning approaches in performance. ML finds application in many fields, including natural language processing , computer vision , speech recognition , email filtering , agriculture , and medicine . The application of ML to business problems is known as predictive analytics . Statistics and mathematical optimisation (mathematical programming) methods comprise the foundations of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis (EDA) through unsupervised learning . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] From a theoretical viewpoint, probably approximately correct learning provides a mathematical and statistical framework for describing machine learning. Most traditional machine learning and deep learning algorithms can be described as empirical risk minimisation under this framework. History The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel , an IBM employee and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artificial intelligence . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] The synonym self-teaching computers was also used during this time period. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] The earliest machine learning program was introduced in the 1950s when Arthur Samuel invented a computer program that calculated the winning chance in checkers for each side, but the history of machine learning roots back to decades of human desire and effort to study human cognitive processes. [ 9 ] In 1949, Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb published the book The Organization of Behavior , in which he introduced a theoretical neural structure formed by certain interactions among nerve cells . [ 10 ] Hebb's model of neurons interacting with one another set a groundwork for how AIs and machine learning algorithms work under nodes, or artificial neurons used by computers to communicate data. [ 9 ] Other researchers who have studied human cognitive systems contributed to the modern machine learning technologies as well, including logician Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch , who proposed the early mathematical models of neural networks to come up with algorithms that mirror human thought processes. [ 9 ] By the early 1960s, an experimental "learning machine" with punched tape memory, called Cybertron, had been developed by Raytheon Company to analyse sonar signals, electrocardiograms , and speech patterns using rudimentary reinforcement learning . It was repetitively "trained" by a human operator/teacher to recognise patterns and equipped with a " goof " button to cause it to reevaluate incorrect decisions. [ 11 ] A representative book on research into machine learning during the 1960s was Nils Nilsson 's book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification. [ 12 ] Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973. [ 13 ] In 1981, a report was given on using teaching strategies so that an artificial neural network learns to recognise 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal. [ 14 ] Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T , as measured by P , improves with experience E ." [ 15 ] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing 's proposal in his paper " Computing Machinery and Intelligence ", in which the question, "Can machines think?", is replaced with the question, "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?". [ 16 ] Modern-day Machine Learning algorithms are broken into 3 algorithm types: Supervised Learning Algorithms, Unsupervised Learning Algorithms, and Reinforcement Learning Algorithms. [ 17 ] Current Supervised Learning Algorithms have objectives of classification and regression. Current Unsupervised Learning Algorithms have objectives of clustering, dimensionality reduction, and association rule. Current Reinforcement Learning Algorithms focus on decisions that must be made with respect to some previous, unknown time and are broken down to either be studies of model-based methods or model-free methods. In 2014 Ian Goodfellow and others introduced generative adversarial networks (GANs) with realistic data synthesis. [ 18 ] By 2016 AlphaGo obtained victory against top human players using reinforcement learning techniques. [ 19 ] Relationships to other fields Artificial intelligence As a scientific endeavour, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic discipline , some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then termed " neural networks "; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalised linear models of statistics. [ 21 ] Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis . [ 22 ] : 488 However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation. [ 22 ] : 488 By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of favour. [ 23 ] Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming (ILP), but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval . [ 22 ] : 708–710, 755 Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as " connectionism ", by researchers from other disciplines, including John Hopfield , David Rumelhart , and Geoffrey Hinton . Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation . [ 22 ] : 25 Machine learning (ML), reorganised and recognised as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic , and probability theory . [ 23 ] Data compression There is a close connection between machine learning and compression. A system that predicts the posterior probabilities of a sequence given its entire history can be used for optimal data compression (by using arithmetic coding on the output distribution). Conversely, an optimal compressor can be used for prediction (by finding the symbol that compresses best, given the previous history). This equivalence has been used as a justification for using data compression as a benchmark for "general intelligence". [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] An alternative view can show compression algorithms implicitly map strings into implicit feature space vectors , and compression-based similarity measures compute similarity within these feature spaces. For each compressor C(.) we define an associated vector space ℵ, such that C(.) maps an input string x, corresponding to the vector norm ||~x||. An exhaustive examination of the feature spaces underlying all compression algorithms is precluded by space; instead, feature vectors chooses to examine three representative lossless compression methods, LZW, LZ77, and PPM. [ 27 ] According to AIXI theory, a connection more directly explained in Hutter Prize , the best possible compression of x is the smallest possible software that generates x. For example, in that model, a zip file's compressed size includes both the zip file and the unzipping software, since you can not unzip it without both, but there may be an even smaller combined form. Examples of AI-powered audio/video compression software include NVIDIA Maxine , AIVC. [ 28 ] Examples of software that can perform AI-powered image compression include OpenCV , TensorFlow , MATLAB 's Image Processing Toolbox (IPT) and High-Fidelity Generative Image Compression. [ 29 ] In unsupervised machine learning , k-means clustering can be utilized to compress data by grouping similar data points into clusters. This technique simplifies handling extensive datasets that lack predefined labels and finds widespread use in fields such as image compression . [ 30 ] Data compression aims to reduce the size of data files, enhancing storage efficiency and speeding up data transmission. K-means clustering, an unsupervised machine learning algorithm, is employed to partition a dataset into a specified number of clusters, k, each represented by the centroid of its points. This process condenses extensive datasets into a more compact set of representative points. Particularly beneficial in image and signal processing , k-means clustering aids in data reduction by replacing groups of data points with their centroids, thereby preserving the core information of the original data while significantly decreasing the required storage space. [ 31 ] Large language models (LLMs) are also efficient lossless data compressors on some data sets, as demonstrated by DeepMind 's research with the Chinchilla 70B model. Developed by DeepMind, Chinchilla 70B effectively compressed data, outperforming conventional methods such as Portable Network Graphics (PNG) for images and Free Lossless Audio Codec (FLAC) for audio. It achieved compression of image and audio data to 43.4% and 16.4% of their original sizes, respectively. There is, however, some reason to be concerned that the data set used for testing overlaps the LLM training data set, making it possible that the Chinchilla 70B model is only an efficient compression tool on data it has already been trained on. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Data mining Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this is the analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as " unsupervised learning " or as a preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECML PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KDD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data. [ citation needed ] Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimisation : Many learning problems are formulated as minimisation of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the preassigned labels of a set of examples). [ 34 ] Generalization Characterizing the generalisation of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms. Statistics Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample , while machine learning finds generalisable predictive patterns. [ 35 ] Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for analysis. In contrast, machine learning is not built on a pre-structured model; rather, the data shape the model by detecting underlying patterns. The more variables (input) used to train the model, the more accurate the ultimate model will be. [ 36 ] Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modelling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model, [ 37 ] wherein "algorithmic model" means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random Forest . Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, leading to a combined field that they call statistical learning . [ 38 ] Statistical physics Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyse the weight space of deep neural networks . [ 39 ] Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics . [ 40 ] Theory A core objective of a learner is to generalise from its experience. [ 2 ] [ 41 ] Generalization in this context is the ability of a learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build a general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predictions in new cases. The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory via the probably approximately correct learning model. Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The bias–variance decomposition is one way to quantify generalisation error . For the best performance in the context of generalisation, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity of the function underlying the data. If the hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has underfitted the data. If the complexity of the model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and generalisation will be poorer. [ 42 ] In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time . There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time. Approaches Machine learning approaches are traditionally divided into three broad categories, which correspond to learning paradigms, depending on the nature of the "signal" or "feedback" available to the learning system: Supervised learning : The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a "teacher", and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs. Unsupervised learning : No labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means towards an end ( feature learning ). Reinforcement learning : A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such as driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's analogous to rewards, which it tries to maximise. [ 2 ] Although each algorithm has advantages and limitations, no single algorithm works for all problems. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] Supervised learning Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs. [ 46 ] The data, known as training data , consists of a set of training examples. Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. In the mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector , and the training data is represented by a matrix . Through iterative optimisation of an objective function , supervised learning algorithms learn a function that can be used to predict the output associated with new inputs. [ 47 ] An optimal function allows the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said to have learned to perform that task. [ 15 ] Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning , classification and regression . [ 48 ] Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, while regression algorithms are used when the outputs can take any numerical value within a range. For example, in a classification algorithm that filters emails, the input is an incoming email, and the output is the folder in which to file the email. In contrast, regression is used for tasks such as predicting a person's height based on factors like age and genetics or forecasting future temperatures based on historical data. [ 49 ] Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking , recommendation systems , visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification. Unsupervised learning Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labelled, classified or categorised. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. Central applications of unsupervised machine learning include clustering, dimensionality reduction , [ 4 ] and density estimation . [ 50 ] Cluster analysis is the assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters ) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or more predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for example, by internal compactness , or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and separation , the difference between clusters. Other methods are based on estimated density and graph connectivity . A special type of unsupervised learning called, self-supervised learning involves training a model by generating the supervisory signal from the data itself. [ 51 ] [ 52 ] Dimensionality reduction Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables. [ 53 ] In other words, it is a process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called the "number of features". Most of the dimensionality reduction techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction . One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher-dimensional data (e.g., 3D) to a smaller space (e.g., 2D). The manifold hypothesis proposes that high-dimensional data sets lie along low-dimensional manifolds , and many dimensionality reduction techniques make this assumption, leading to the areas of manifold learning and manifold regularisation . Semi-supervised learning Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labelled training data) and supervised learning (with completely labelled training data). Some of the training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabelled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labelled data, can produce a considerable improvement in learning accuracy. In weakly supervised learning , the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets. [ 54 ] Reinforcement learning Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment to maximise some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the field is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory , control theory , operations research , information theory , simulation-based optimisation , multi-agent systems , swarm intelligence , statistics and genetic algorithms . In reinforcement learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforcement learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques. [ 55 ] Reinforcement learning algorithms do not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP and are used when exact models are infeasible. Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent. Other types Other approaches have been developed which do not fit neatly into this three-fold categorisation, and sometimes more than one is used by the same machine learning system. For example, topic modelling , meta-learning . [ 56 ] Self-learning Self-learning, as a machine learning paradigm, was introduced in 1982 along with a neural network capable of self-learning, named crossbar adaptive array (CAA). [ 57 ] [ 58 ] It gives a solution to the problem learning without any external reward, by introducing emotion as an internal reward. Emotion is used as a state evaluation of a self-learning agent. The CAA self-learning algorithm computes, in a crossbar fashion, both decisions about actions and emotions (feelings) about consequence situations. The system is driven by the interaction between cognition and emotion. [ 59 ] The self-learning algorithm updates a memory matrix W =||w(a,s)|| such that in each iteration executes the following machine learning routine: in situation s act a receive a consequence situation s ' compute emotion of being in the consequence situation v(s') update crossbar memory w'(a,s) = w(a,s) + v(s') It is a system with only one input, situation, and only one output, action (or behaviour) a. There is neither a separate reinforcement input nor an advice input from the environment. The backpropagated value (secondary reinforcement) is the emotion toward the consequence situation. The CAA exists in two environments, one is the behavioural environment where it behaves, and the other is the genetic environment, wherefrom it initially and only once receives initial emotions about situations to be encountered in the behavioural environment. After receiving the genome (species) vector from the genetic environment, the CAA learns a goal-seeking behaviour in an environment that contains both desirable and undesirable situations. [ 60 ] Feature learning Several learning algorithms aim at discovering better representations of the inputs provided during training. [ 61 ] Classic examples include principal component analysis and cluster analysis. Feature learning algorithms, also called representation learning algorithms, often attempt to preserve the information in their input but also transform it in a way that makes it useful, often as a pre-processing step before performing classification or predictions. This technique allows reconstruction of the inputs coming from the unknown data-generating distribution, while not being necessarily faithful to configurations that are implausible under that distribution. This replaces manual feature engineering , and allows a machine to both learn the features and use them to perform a specific task. Feature learning can be either supervised or unsupervised. In supervised feature learning, features are learned using labelled input data. Examples include artificial neural networks , multilayer perceptrons , and supervised dictionary learning . In unsupervised feature learning, features are learned with unlabelled input data. Examples include dictionary learning, independent component analysis , autoencoders , matrix factorisation [ 62 ] and various forms of clustering . [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] Manifold learning algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is low-dimensional. Sparse coding algorithms attempt to do so under the constraint that the learned representation is sparse, meaning that the mathematical model has many zeros. Multilinear subspace learning algorithms aim to learn low-dimensional representations directly from tensor representations for multidimensional data, without reshaping them into higher-dimensional vectors. [ 66 ] Deep learning algorithms discover multiple levels of representation, or a hierarchy of features, with higher-level, more abstract features defined in terms of (or generating) lower-level features. It has been argued that an intelligent machine learns a representation that disentangles the underlying factors of variation that explain the observed data. [ 67 ] Feature learning is motivated by the fact that machine learning tasks such as classification often require input that is mathematically and computationally convenient to process. However, real-world data such as images, video, and sensory data have not yielded attempts to algorithmically define specific features. An alternative is to discover such features or representations through examination, without relying on explicit algorithms. Sparse dictionary learning Sparse dictionary learning is a feature learning method where a training example is represented as a linear combination of basis functions and assumed to be a sparse matrix . The method is strongly NP-hard and difficult to solve approximately. [ 68 ] A popular heuristic method for sparse dictionary learning is the k -SVD algorithm. Sparse dictionary learning has been applied in several contexts. In classification, the problem is to determine the class to which a previously unseen training example belongs. For a dictionary where each class has already been built, a new training example is associated with the class that is best sparsely represented by the corresponding dictionary. Sparse dictionary learning has also been applied in image denoising . The key idea is that a clean image patch can be sparsely represented by an image dictionary, but the noise cannot. [ 69 ] Anomaly detection In data mining , anomaly detection, also known as outlier detection, is the identification of rare items, events or observations that raise suspicions by differing significantly from the majority of the data. [ 70 ] Typically, the anomalous items represent an issue such as bank fraud , a structural defect, medical problems or errors in a text. Anomalies are referred to as outliers , novelties, noise, deviations and exceptions. [ 71 ] In particular, in the context of abuse and network intrusion detection, the interesting objects are often not rare, but unexpected bursts of inactivity. This pattern does not adhere to the common statistical definition of an outlier as a rare object. Many outlier detection methods (in particular, unsupervised algorithms) will fail on such data unless aggregated appropriately. Instead, a cluster analysis algorithm may be able to detect the micro-clusters formed by these patterns. [ 72 ] Three broad categories of anomaly detection techniques exist. [ 73 ] Unsupervised anomaly detection techniques detect anomalies in an unlabelled test data set under the assumption that the majority of the instances in the data set are normal, by looking for instances that seem to fit the least to the remainder of the data set. Supervised anomaly detection techniques require a data set that has been labelled as "normal" and "abnormal" and involves training a classifier (the key difference from many other statistical classification problems is the inherently unbalanced nature of outlier detection). Semi-supervised anomaly detection techniques construct a model representing normal behaviour from a given normal training data set and then test the likelihood of a test instance being generated by the model. Robot learning Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning, [ 74 ] [ 75 ] and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML). Association rules Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of "interestingness". [ 76 ] Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves "rules" to store, manipulate or apply knowledge. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learning algorithm is the identification and utilisation of a set of relational rules that collectively represent the knowledge captured by the system. This is in contrast to other machine learning algorithms that commonly identify a singular model that can be universally applied to any instance in order to make a prediction. [ 77 ] Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems , association rule learning, and artificial immune systems . Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal , Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transaction data recorded by point-of-sale (POS) systems in supermarkets. [ 78 ] For example, the rule { o n i o n s , p o t a t o e s } ⇒ { b u r g e r } {\displaystyle \{\mathrm {onions,potatoes} \}\Rightarrow \{\mathrm {burger} \}} found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or product placements . In addition to market basket analysis , association rules are employed today in application areas including Web usage mining , intrusion detection , continuous production , and bioinformatics . In contrast with sequence mining , association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions. Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm , with a learning component, performing either supervised learning , reinforcement learning , or unsupervised learning . They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner to make predictions. [ 79 ] Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule learning using logic programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs . Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing . Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] [ 82 ] Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples. [ 83 ] The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than mathematical induction , proving a property for all members of a well-ordered set. Models A .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}} machine learning model is a type of mathematical model that, once "trained" on a given dataset, can be used to make predictions or classifications on new data. During training, a learning algorithm iteratively adjusts the model's internal parameters to minimise errors in its predictions. [ 84 ] By extension, the term "model" can refer to several levels of specificity, from a general class of models and their associated learning algorithms to a fully trained model with all its internal parameters tuned. [ 85 ] Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems, picking the best model for a task is called model selection . Artificial neural networks Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains . Such systems "learn" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specific rules. An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called " artificial neurons ", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each connection, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number , and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or decreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (the output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times. The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, leading to deviations from biology . Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety of tasks, including computer vision , speech recognition , machine translation , social network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis . Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing. Some successful applications of deep learning are computer vision and speech recognition. [ 86 ] Decision trees Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). It is one of the predictive modelling approaches used in statistics, data mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels, and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels. Decision trees where the target variable can take continuous values (typically real numbers ) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making . In data mining, a decision tree describes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision-making. Random forest regression Random forest regression (RFR) falls under the umbrella of decision tree-based models . RFR is an ensemble learning method that builds multiple decision trees and averages their predictions to improve accuracy and to avoid overfitting. To build decision trees, RFR uses bootstrapped sampling; for instance, each decision tree is trained on random data from the training set. This random selection of RFR for training enables the model to reduce biased predictions and achieve a higher degree of accuracy. RFR generates independent decision trees, and it can work on single-output data as well as multiple regressor tasks. This makes RFR compatible to be use in various applications. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] Support-vector machines Support-vector machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one category. [ 89 ] An SVM training algorithm is a non- probabilistic , binary , linear classifier , although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick , implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces. Regression analysis Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression , where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to a mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares . The latter is often extended by regularisation methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression . When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excel [ 90 ] ), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification ) or even kernel regression , which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space. Multivariate linear regression extends the concept of linear regression to handle multiple dependent variables simultaneously. This approach estimates the relationships between a set of input variables and several output variables by fitting a multidimensional linear model. It is particularly useful in scenarios where outputs are interdependent or share underlying patterns, such as predicting multiple economic indicators or reconstructing images, [ 91 ] which are inherently multi-dimensional. Bayesian networks A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed acyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed acyclic graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein sequences , are called dynamic Bayesian networks . Generalisations of Bayesian networks that can represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams . Gaussian processes A Gaussian process is a stochastic process in which every finite collection of the random variables in the process has a multivariate normal distribution , and it relies on a pre-defined covariance function , or kernel, that models how pairs of points relate to each other depending on their locations. Given a set of observed points, or input–output examples, the distribution of the (unobserved) output of a new point as a function of its input data can be directly computed by looking at the observed points and the covariances between those points and the new, unobserved point. Gaussian processes are popular surrogate models in Bayesian optimisation used to do hyperparameter optimisation . Genetic algorithms A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural selection , using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s. [ 93 ] [ 94 ] Conversely, machine learning techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms . [ 95 ] Belief functions The theory of belief functions, also referred to as evidence theory or Dempster–Shafer theory, is a general framework for reasoning with uncertainty, with understood connections to other frameworks such as probability , possibility and imprecise probability theories . These theoretical frameworks can be thought of as a kind of learner and have some analogous properties of how evidence is combined (e.g., Dempster's rule of combination), just like how in a pmf -based Bayesian approach would combine probabilities. [ 96 ] However, there are many caveats to these beliefs functions when compared to Bayesian approaches to incorporate ignorance and uncertainty quantification . These belief function approaches that are implemented within the machine learning domain typically leverage a fusion approach of various ensemble methods to better handle the learner's decision boundary , low samples, and ambiguous class issues that standard machine learning approach tend to have difficulty resolving. [ 97 ] [ 6 ] However, the computational complexity of these algorithms is dependent on the number of propositions (classes), and can lead to a much higher computation time when compared to other machine learning approaches. Rule-based models Rule-based machine learning (RBML) is a branch of machine learning that automatically discovers and learns 'rules' from data. It provides interpretable models, making it useful for decision-making in fields like healthcare, fraud detection, and cybersecurity. Key RBML techniques includes learning classifier systems , [ 98 ] association rule learning , [ 99 ] artificial immune systems , [ 100 ] and other similar models. These methods extract patterns from data and evolve rules over time. Training models Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data to perform accurate predictions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text , a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users of a service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Biased models may result in detrimental outcomes, thereby furthering the negative impacts on society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result of data not being fully prepared for training. Machine learning ethics is becoming a field of study and, notably, becoming integrated within machine learning engineering teams. Federated learning Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to train machine learning models that decentralises the training process, allowing for users' privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralised server. This also increases efficiency by decentralising the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search query prediction models on users' mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google . [ 101 ] Applications There are many applications for machine learning, including: Agriculture Anatomy Adaptive website Affective computing Astronomy Automated decision-making Banking Behaviorism Bioinformatics Brain–machine interfaces Cheminformatics Citizen Science Climate Science Computer networks Computer vision Credit-card fraud detection Data quality DNA sequence classification Economics Financial data analysis [ 102 ] General game playing Handwriting recognition Healthcare Information retrieval Insurance Internet fraud detection Investment management [ 103 ] Knowledge graph embedding Linguistics Machine learning control Machine perception Machine translation Material Engineering Marketing Medical diagnosis Natural language processing Natural language understanding Online advertising Optimisation Recommender systems Robot locomotion Search engines Sentiment analysis Sequence mining Software engineering Speech recognition Structural health monitoring Syntactic pattern recognition Telecommunications Theorem proving Time-series forecasting Tomographic reconstruction [ 104 ] User behaviour analytics In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first " Netflix Prize " competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs -Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million. [ 105 ] Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realised that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly. [ 106 ] In 2010, an article in The Wall Street Journal noted the use of machine learning by Rebellion Research to predict the 2008 financial crisis . [ 107 ] In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems , Vinod Khosla , predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software. [ 108 ] In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognised influences among artists. [ 109 ] In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning. [ 110 ] In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19. [ 111 ] Machine learning was recently applied to predict the pro-environmental behaviour of travellers. [ 112 ] Recently, machine learning technology was also applied to optimise smartphone's performance and thermal behaviour based on the user's interaction with the phone. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] [ 115 ] When applied correctly, machine learning algorithms (MLAs) can utilise a wide range of company characteristics to predict stock returns without overfitting . By employing effective feature engineering and combining forecasts, MLAs can generate results that far surpass those obtained from basic linear techniques like OLS . [ 116 ] Recent advancements in machine learning have extended into the field of quantum chemistry, where novel algorithms now enable the prediction of solvent effects on chemical reactions, thereby offering new tools for chemists to tailor experimental conditions for optimal outcomes. [ 117 ] Machine Learning is becoming a useful tool to investigate and predict evacuation decision-making in large-scale and small-scale disasters. Different solutions have been tested to predict if and when householders decide to evacuate during wildfires and hurricanes. [ 118 ] [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Other applications have been focusing on pre evacuation decisions in building fires. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] Limitations Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machine-learning programs often fail to deliver expected results. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] [ 125 ] Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of access to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems. [ 126 ] The " black box theory " poses another yet significant challenge. Black box refers to a situation where the algorithm or the process of producing an output is entirely opaque, meaning that even the coders of the algorithm cannot audit the pattern that the machine extracted from the data. [ 127 ] The House of Lords Select Committee, which claimed that such an "intelligence system" that could have a "substantial impact on an individual's life" would not be considered acceptable unless it provided "a full and satisfactory explanation for the decisions" it makes. [ 127 ] In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision. [ 128 ] Attempts to use machine learning in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested. [ 129 ] [ 130 ] Microsoft's Bing Chat chatbot has been reported to produce hostile and offensive response against its users. [ 131 ] Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update the evidence related to a systematic review and increased reviewer burden related to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research itself. [ 132 ] Explainability Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI. [ 133 ] It contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a specific decision. [ 134 ] By refining the mental models of users of AI-powered systems and dismantling their misconceptions, XAI promises to help users perform more effectively. XAI may be an implementation of the social right to explanation. Overfitting Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data but penalising the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is. [ 135 ] Other limitations and vulnerabilities Learners can also be disappointed by "learning the wrong lesson". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses. [ 136 ] A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often do not primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image can result in "adversarial" images that the system misclassifies. [ 137 ] [ 138 ] Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems or from non-pattern perturbations. For some systems, it is possible to change the output by only changing a single adversarially chosen pixel. [ 139 ] Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation or evasion via adversarial machine learning . [ 140 ] Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classifying (e.g., for categories "spam" and "not spam" of posts) machine learning models that are often developed or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box access . [ 141 ] [ 142 ] [ 143 ] Model assessments Classification of machine learning models can be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the holdout method, which splits the data into a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance of the training model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold- cross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-1 subsets for training the model. In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap , which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, can be used to assess model accuracy. [ 144 ] In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity , meaning true positive rate (TPR) and true negative rate (TNR), respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the false positive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (FNR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC), along with the accompanying Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC), offer additional tools for classification model assessment. Higher AUC is associated with a better performing model. [ 145 ] Ethics The ethics of artificial intelligence covers a broad range of topics within AI that are considered to have particular ethical stakes. [ 146 ] This includes algorithmic biases , fairness , accountability , transparency, privacy, and regulation , particularly where systems influence or automate human decision-making. It also covers various emerging or potential future challenges such as machine ethics (how to make machines that behave ethically), lethal autonomous weapon systems , arms race dynamics, AI safety and alignment , technological unemployment , AI-enabled misinformation , [ 147 ] how to treat certain AI systems if they have a moral status (AI welfare and rights), artificial superintelligence and existential risks . [ 146 ] Some application areas may also have particularly important ethical implications, like healthcare , education, criminal justice, or the military. Bias Different machine learning approaches can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to predict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When trained on human-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society. [ 148 ] Systems that are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases upon use (algorithmic bias), thus digitising cultural prejudices. [ 149 ] For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program had denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to either be women or have non-European-sounding names. [ 148 ] Using job hiring data from a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] Another example includes predictive policing company Geolitica 's predictive algorithm that resulted in "disproportionately high levels of over-policing in low-income and minority communities" after being trained with historical crime data. [ 152 ] While responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmic rules used by a system is considered a critical part of machine learning, some researchers blame the lack of participation and representation of minority populations in the field of AI for machine learning's vulnerability to biases. [ 153 ] In fact, according to research carried out by the Computing Research Association in 2021, "female faculty make up just 16.1%" of all faculty members who focus on AI among several universities around the world. [ 154 ] Furthermore, among the group of "new U.S. resident AI PhD graduates," 45% identified as white, 22.4% as Asian, 3.2% as Hispanic, and 2.4% as African American, which further demonstrates a lack of diversity in the field of AI. [ 154 ] Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases. [ 155 ] [ 156 ] Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases. [ 157 ] [ 158 ] In 2016, Microsoft tested Tay , a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language. [ 159 ] In an experiment carried out by ProPublica , an investigative journalism organisation, a machine learning algorithm's insight into the recidivism rates among prisoners falsely flagged "black defendants high risk twice as often as white defendants". [ 152 ] In 2015, Google Photos once tagged a couple of black people as gorillas, which caused controversy. The gorilla label was subsequently removed, and in 2023, it still cannot recognise gorillas. [ 160 ] Similar issues with recognising non-white people have been found in many other systems. [ 161 ] Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other domains. [ 162 ] Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good, is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li , who said that "[t]here's nothing artificial about AI. It's inspired by people, it's created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people. It is a powerful tool we are only just beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility." [ 163 ] Financial incentives There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines. This is especially true in the United States, where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also increasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals with an additional tool to diagnose, medicate, and plan recovery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated. [ 164 ] Hardware Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of nonlinear hidden units. [ 165 ] By 2019, graphics processing units ( GPUs ), often with AI-specific enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI. [ 166 ] OpenAI estimated the hardware compute used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (2012) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fold increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months. [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) are specialised hardware accelerators developed by Google specifically for machine learning workloads. Unlike general-purpose GPUs and FPGAs , TPUs are optimised for tensor computations, making them particularly efficient for deep learning tasks such as training and inference. They are widely used in Google Cloud AI services and large-scale machine learning models like Google's DeepMind AlphaFold and large language models. TPUs leverage matrix multiplication units and high-bandwidth memory to accelerate computations while maintaining energy efficiency. [ 169 ] Since their introduction in 2016, TPUs have become a key component of AI infrastructure, especially in cloud-based environments. Neuromorphic computing Neuromorphic computing refers to a class of computing systems designed to emulate the structure and functionality of biological neural networks. These systems may be implemented through software-based simulations on conventional hardware or through specialised hardware architectures. [ 170 ] Physical neural networks A physical neural network is a specific type of neuromorphic hardware that relies on electrically adjustable materials, such as memristors, to emulate the function of neural synapses . The term "physical neural network" highlights the use of physical hardware for computation, as opposed to software-based implementations. It broadly refers to artificial neural networks that use materials with adjustable resistance to replicate neural synapses. [ 171 ] [ 172 ] Embedded machine learning Embedded machine learning is a sub-field of machine learning where models are deployed on embedded systems with limited computing resources, such as wearable computers , edge devices and microcontrollers . [ 173 ] [ 174 ] [ 175 ] [ 176 ] Running models directly on these devices eliminates the need to transfer and store data on cloud servers for further processing, thereby reducing the risk of data breaches, privacy leaks and theft of intellectual property, personal data and business secrets. Embedded machine learning can be achieved through various techniques, such as hardware acceleration , [ 177 ] [ 178 ] approximate computing , [ 179 ] and model optimisation. [ 180 ] [ 181 ] Common optimisation techniques include pruning , quantisation , knowledge distillation , low-rank factorisation, network architecture search, and parameter sharing. Software Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following: Free and open-source software Caffe Deeplearning4j DeepSpeed ELKI Google JAX Infer.NET JASP Jubatus Keras Kubeflow LightGBM Mahout Mallet Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit ML.NET mlpack MXNet OpenNN Orange pandas (software) ROOT (TMVA with ROOT) scikit-learn Shogun Spark MLlib SystemML Theano TensorFlow Torch / PyTorch Weka / MOA XGBoost Yooreeka Proprietary software with free and open-source editions KNIME RapidMiner Proprietary software Amazon Machine Learning Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO Azure Machine Learning IBM Watson Studio Google Cloud Vertex AI Google Prediction API IBM SPSS Modeller KXEN Modeller LIONsolver Mathematica MATLAB Neural Designer NeuroSolutions Oracle Data Mining Oracle AI Platform Cloud Service PolyAnalyst RCASE SAS Enterprise Miner SequenceL Splunk STATISTICA Data Miner Journals Journal of Machine Learning Research Machine Learning Nature Machine Intelligence Neural Computation IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence Conferences AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence Association for Computational Linguistics ( ACL ) European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases ( ECML PKDD ) International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics ( CIBB ) International Conference on Machine Learning ( ICML ) International Conference on Learning Representations ( ICLR ) International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems ( IROS ) Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining ( KDD ) Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems ( NeurIPS ) See also Automated machine learning – Process of automating the application of machine learning Big data – Extremely large or complex datasets Deep learning — branch of ML concerned with artificial neural networks Differentiable programming – Programming paradigm List of datasets for machine-learning research List of machine learning algorithms and List of algorithms for machine learning and statistical classification M-theory (learning framework) – Framework in machine learning Machine unlearning – Field of study in artificial intelligence Outline of machine learning Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference – Mathematical theory References ^ The definition "without being explicitly programmed" is often attributed to Arthur Samuel , who coined the term "machine learning" in 1959, but the phrase is not found verbatim in this publication, and may be a paraphrase that appeared later. Confer "Paraphrasing Arthur Samuel (1959), the question is: How can computers learn to solve problems without being explicitly programmed?" in .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} Koza, John R.; Bennett, Forrest H.; Andre, David; Keane, Martin A. 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Introduction to Machine Learning , (4th edition) MIT Press, ISBN 9780262043793 . Bishop, Christopher (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition , Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-853864-2 . Bishop, Christopher (2006) Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning , Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-31073-2 Domingos, Pedro (September 2015), The Master Algorithm , Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06570-7 Duda, Richard O. ; Hart, Peter E. ; Stork, David G. (2001) Pattern classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-05669-3 . Hastie, Trevor ; Tibshirani, Robert & Friedman, Jerome H. (2009) The Elements of Statistical Learning , Springer. doi : 10.1007/978-0-387-84858-7 ISBN 0-387-95284-5 . MacKay, David J. C. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-1 Murphy, Kevin P. (2021). Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction Archived 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine , MIT Press. Nilsson, Nils J. (2015) Introduction to Machine Learning Archived 16 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Russell, Stuart & Norvig, Peter (2020). Artificial Intelligence – A Modern Approach . (4th edition) Pearson, ISBN 978-0134610993 . Solomonoff, Ray , (1956) An Inductive Inference Machine Archived 26 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine A privately circulated report from the 1956 Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on AI . Witten, Ian H. & Frank, Eibe (2011). Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 664pp., ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0 . External links International Machine Learning Society mloss is an academic database of open-source machine learning software. v t e Artificial intelligence (AI) v t e History timeline Glossary Companies Projects History timeline timeline Glossary Companies Projects Concepts Parameter Hyperparameter Loss functions Regression Bias–variance tradeoff Double descent Overfitting Clustering Gradient descent SGD Quasi-Newton method Conjugate gradient method Backpropagation Attention Convolution Normalization Batchnorm Activation Softmax Sigmoid Rectifier Gating Weight initialization Regularization Datasets Augmentation Prompt engineering Reinforcement learning Q-learning SARSA Imitation Policy gradient Diffusion Latent diffusion model Autoregression Adversary RAG Uncanny valley RLHF Self-supervised learning Reflection Recursive self-improvement Hallucination Word embedding Vibe coding Safety ( Alignment ) Parameter Hyperparameter Hyperparameter Loss functions Regression Bias–variance tradeoff 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Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) (Hypothetical: Artificial general intelligence (AGI) ) (Hypothetical: Artificial superintelligence (ASI) ) Machine learning In-context learning In-context learning Artificial neural network Deep learning Deep learning Language model Large NMT Reasoning Large NMT Reasoning Model Context Protocol Intelligent agent Artificial human companion Humanity's Last Exam Lethal autonomous weapons (LAWs) Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) (Hypothetical: Artificial general intelligence (AGI) ) (Hypothetical: Artificial superintelligence (ASI) ) Implementations Audio–visual AlexNet WaveNet Human image synthesis HWR OCR Computer vision Speech synthesis 15.ai ElevenLabs Speech recognition Whisper Facial recognition AlphaFold Text-to-image models Aurora DALL-E Firefly Flux GPT Image Ideogram Imagen Midjourney Recraft Stable Diffusion Text-to-video models Dream Machine Runway Gen Hailuo AI Kling Sora Veo Music generation Riffusion Suno AI Udio Text Word2vec Seq2seq GloVe BERT T5 Llama Chinchilla AI PaLM GPT 1 2 3 J ChatGPT 4 4o o1 o3 4.5 4.1 o4-mini 5 5.1 5.2 Claude Gemini Gemini (language model) Gemma Grok LaMDA BLOOM DBRX Project Debater IBM Watson IBM Watsonx Granite PanGu-Σ DeepSeek Qwen Decisional AlphaGo AlphaZero OpenAI Five Self-driving car MuZero Action selection AutoGPT Robot control Audio–visual AlexNet WaveNet Human image synthesis HWR OCR Computer vision Speech synthesis 15.ai ElevenLabs Speech recognition Whisper Facial recognition AlphaFold Text-to-image models Aurora DALL-E Firefly Flux GPT Image Ideogram Imagen Midjourney Recraft Stable Diffusion Text-to-video models Dream Machine Runway Gen Hailuo AI Kling Sora Veo Music generation Riffusion Suno AI Udio AlexNet WaveNet Human image synthesis HWR OCR Computer vision Speech synthesis 15.ai ElevenLabs 15.ai ElevenLabs Speech recognition Whisper Whisper Facial recognition AlphaFold Text-to-image models Aurora DALL-E Firefly Flux GPT Image Ideogram Imagen Midjourney Recraft Stable Diffusion Aurora DALL-E Firefly Flux GPT Image Ideogram Imagen Midjourney Recraft Stable Diffusion Text-to-video models Dream Machine Runway Gen Hailuo AI Kling Sora Veo Dream Machine Runway Gen Hailuo AI Kling Sora Veo Music generation Riffusion Suno AI Udio Riffusion Suno AI Udio Text Word2vec Seq2seq GloVe BERT T5 Llama Chinchilla AI PaLM GPT 1 2 3 J ChatGPT 4 4o o1 o3 4.5 4.1 o4-mini 5 5.1 5.2 Claude Gemini Gemini (language model) Gemma Grok LaMDA BLOOM DBRX Project Debater IBM Watson IBM Watsonx Granite PanGu-Σ DeepSeek Qwen Word2vec Seq2seq GloVe BERT T5 Llama Chinchilla AI PaLM GPT 1 2 3 J ChatGPT 4 4o o1 o3 4.5 4.1 o4-mini 5 5.1 5.2 1 2 3 J ChatGPT 4 4o o1 o3 4.5 4.1 o4-mini 5 5.1 5.2 Claude Gemini Gemini (language model) Gemma Gemini (language model) Gemma Grok LaMDA BLOOM DBRX Project Debater IBM Watson IBM Watsonx Granite PanGu-Σ DeepSeek Qwen Decisional AlphaGo AlphaZero OpenAI Five Self-driving car MuZero Action selection AutoGPT Robot control AlphaGo AlphaZero OpenAI Five Self-driving car MuZero Action selection AutoGPT AutoGPT Robot control People Alan Turing Warren Sturgis McCulloch Walter Pitts John von Neumann Christopher D. Manning Claude Shannon Shun'ichi Amari Kunihiko Fukushima Takeo Kanade Marvin Minsky John McCarthy Nathaniel Rochester Allen Newell Cliff Shaw Herbert A. Simon Oliver Selfridge Frank Rosenblatt Bernard Widrow Joseph Weizenbaum Seymour Papert Seppo Linnainmaa Paul Werbos Geoffrey Hinton John Hopfield Jürgen Schmidhuber Yann LeCun Yoshua Bengio Lotfi A. Zadeh Stephen Grossberg Alex Graves James Goodnight Andrew Ng Fei-Fei Li Alex Krizhevsky Ilya Sutskever Oriol Vinyals Quoc V. Le Ian Goodfellow Demis Hassabis David Silver Andrej Karpathy Ashish Vaswani Noam Shazeer Aidan Gomez John Schulman Mustafa Suleyman Jan Leike Daniel Kokotajlo François Chollet Alan Turing Warren Sturgis McCulloch Walter Pitts John von Neumann Christopher D. Manning Claude Shannon Shun'ichi Amari Kunihiko Fukushima Takeo Kanade Marvin Minsky John McCarthy Nathaniel Rochester Allen Newell Cliff Shaw Herbert A. Simon Oliver Selfridge Frank Rosenblatt Bernard Widrow Joseph Weizenbaum Seymour Papert Seppo Linnainmaa Paul Werbos Geoffrey Hinton John Hopfield Jürgen Schmidhuber Yann LeCun Yoshua Bengio Lotfi A. Zadeh Stephen Grossberg Alex Graves James Goodnight Andrew Ng Fei-Fei Li Alex Krizhevsky Ilya Sutskever Oriol Vinyals Quoc V. 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 History 2 Two popes Toggle Two popes subsection 2.1 Consequences 2.1 Consequences 3 Three popes Toggle Three popes subsection 3.1 Council of Constance 3.1 Council of Constance 4 Aftermath 5 Official list of popes Toggle Official list of popes subsection 5.1 Timeline 5.2 Papal recognition 5.1 Timeline 5.2 Papal recognition 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Western Schism Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu বাংলা Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingue Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Latina Magyar Македонски മലയാളം مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Simple English Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Vèneto Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikidata item .mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}} You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French . (December 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate , is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 1,236 articles in the main category , and specifying |topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Grand schisme d'Occident]]; see its history for attribution. You may also add the template {{Translated|fr|Grand schisme d'Occident}} to the talk page . For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation . Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate , is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 1,236 articles in the main category , and specifying |topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Grand schisme d'Occident]]; see its history for attribution. You may also add the template {{Translated|fr|Grand schisme d'Occident}} to the talk page . For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation . Part of the crisis of the late Middle Ages A 14th-century miniature symbolizing the schism Date 20 September 1378 – 11 November 1417 (39 years, 1 month, 3 weeks and 1 day) Location Europe Type Christian schism Cause Election of two popes by the College of Cardinals in 1378 Election of a third pope by the Council of Pisa in 1409 Election of two popes by the College of Cardinals in 1378 Election of a third pope by the Council of Pisa in 1409 Motive International rivalries in Catholic Europe Outcome Reunification of the Catholic Church after the Council of Constance The Western Schism , also known as the Great Divide , the Great Occidental Schism , the Schism of 1378 , or the Great Western Schism [ 1 ] ( Latin : Magnum schisma occidentale, Ecclesiae occidentalis schisma ), was a split within the Catholic Church lasting from 20 September 1378 to 11 November 1417, in which bishops residing in Rome and Avignon simultaneously claimed to be the true pope , and were eventually joined by a line of Pisan claimants in 1409. The event was driven by international rivalries, personalities and political allegiances, with the Avignon Papacy in particular being closely tied to the French monarchy . The papacy had resided in Avignon since 1309, but Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377. The Catholic Church split in September 1378, when, following Gregory XI's death and Urban VI 's subsequent election, a group of French cardinals declared his election invalid due to intimidation and violence and, in the presence of three Italian cardinals, elected Clement VII , who claimed to be the true pope. As Roman claimant, Urban VI was succeeded by Boniface IX , Innocent VII and Gregory XII . Clement VII was succeeded as Avignon claimant by Benedict XIII . Following several attempts at reconciliation, the Council of Pisa (1409) declared that both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII were heretical and schismatic, and elected another pope, Alexander V . [ 2 ] The schism was finally resolved when Alexander V’s successor as Pisan claimant, Antipope John XXIII , called the Council of Constance (1414–1418). The Council arranged for the renunciation of both Roman pope Gregory XII and Pisan antipope John XXIII. The Avignon antipope Benedict XIII was excommunicated, while Pope Martin V was elected and reigned from Rome. The split is sometimes referred to as the ' Great Schism ' , although this term is usually reserved for the East–West Schism of 1054 between the churches remaining in communion with the See of Rome and those remaining with the See of Constantinople . History Under pressure from Philip IV of France , the papacy had, since 1309, resided in Avignon, a papal enclave surrounded by France . Initiated by Pope Clement V , the Avignon Papacy had developed a reputation for corruption that estranged much of Western Christendom . [ 3 ] This reputation was attributed to perceptions of strong French influence, the papal curia 's efforts to extend its powers of patronage, and attempts to increase its revenues. The last Avignon pope, Gregory XI , at the entreaty of relatives, friends, and his retinue, decided to return to Rome on 17 January 1377. [ 4 ] Gregory, however, announced his intention to reverse his decision and return to Avignon just after the Easter celebrations of 1378. [ 5 ] Before he could return to Avignon, Gregory XI died in the Vatican palace on 27 March 1378. [ 6 ] The Romans put into operation a plan to use intimidation and violence ( impressio et metus ) to ensure the election of a Roman pope. [ 7 ] The pope and his curia had returned to Rome after seventy years in Avignon, and the Romans were prepared to do everything in their power to keep them there. [ 8 ] On 8 April 1378, the cardinals elected Bartolomeo Prignano, the archbishop of Bari , as Pope Urban VI . [ 9 ] Two popes The majority of the cardinals who had elected Urban VI quickly regretted their decision and removed themselves to Anagni . [ 10 ] Meeting at Fondi , thirteen cardinals elected Count Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII on 20 September 1378. [ 11 ] The dissident cardinals argued that the election of Urban VI was invalid because it had been out of fear of the rioting Roman crowds. [ 12 ] Unable to maintain himself in Anagni, and following the defeat of his forces at the battle of Marino, [ 13 ] Clement VII fled to Naples, which was ruled by one of his supporters, Queen Joanna I of Naples . [ 14 ] Despite being met regally by Joanna, Clement was met with the populace chanting Viva Papa Urbano (Long Live Pope Urban) and Muoia l'Anticristo (Death to the Antichrist), which convinced him to leave. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] He took a ship to Avignon and reestablished the papal court there. Charles V of France , who seems to have been irked beforehand by the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon became his greatest protector. [ 16 ] Besides France, Clement eventually succeeded in winning to his cause Castile , Aragon , Navarre , Poland , Lithuania , Hungary , Scotland , and most of Italy besides Naples and Savoy . [ 17 ] Years later, Owain Glyndŵr 's rebellion in Wales also recognized the Avignon antipope Benedict XIII. [ 18 ] John I of Portugal , the founder of the House of Aviz , [ 19 ] who took the throne with English support signed the Treaty of Windsor in 1386 and firmly sided with Urban VI. [ 20 ] Unlike their relatives, the Angevin kings of Hungary ( Louis I and Mary ) supported Rome. [ 21 ] Joanna I of Naples , who sided with Clement VII was deposed and replaced by Charles III in 1381. [ 22 ] Charles III would later take the throne of Hungary from Mary and her husband Sigismund ; for this she was excommunicated by Urban VI. [ 23 ] Consequences In the intense partisanship that was characteristic of the Middle Ages, the schism engendered a fanatical hatred noted by Johan Huizinga : [ 24 ] when the town of Bruges went over to the "obedience" of Avignon, a great number of people left to follow their trade in a city of Urbanist allegiance. ... In the 1382, the oriflamme , which might only be unfurled in a holy cause, was taken up against the Flemings , because they were Urbanists, that is, infidels. when the town of Bruges went over to the "obedience" of Avignon, a great number of people left to follow their trade in a city of Urbanist allegiance. ... In the 1382, the oriflamme , which might only be unfurled in a holy cause, was taken up against the Flemings , because they were Urbanists, that is, infidels. Sustained by such national and factional rivalries, the schism continued after the deaths of both Urban VI in 1389 and Clement VII in 1394. Boniface IX was crowned in Rome in 1389, and Benedict XIII , who was elected against the wishes of Charles VI of France, reigned in Avignon from 1394. [ 25 ] When Pope Boniface died in 1404, the eight cardinals of the Roman conclave offered to refrain from electing a new pope if Benedict would resign; but when Benedict's legates refused on his behalf, [ a ] [ 27 ] the Roman party then proceeded to elect Pope Innocent VII . [ 26 ] Discussions continued instead with Innocent, but quickly stalled and by February 1405, and Benedict's envoys had returned to Avignon. [ 26 ] Benedict quickly excommunicated Innocent and with an army started marching towards Rome, in May 1405. He occupied Genoa for a year and awaited French military support, which never came. [ 26 ] Innocent died 6 November 1406, and the Roman cardinals elected Angelo Correr as Gregory XII. [ 28 ] The suggestion for a church council to resolve the Schism, first made in 1378, was not adopted initially, because canon law required that a pope call a council. Eventually theologians like Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson, adopted arguments that permitted the Church to call a council to resolve this issue, [ 29 ] while Francesco Zabarella argued that a council could only be convoked by an emperor. [ 30 ] Three popes Benedict and Gregory agreed to abdicate their respective papacies in December 1406. However, Benedict stated that he wanted to negotiate a solution first. [ 28 ] Gregory sent an ambassador to the St. Victor abbey in Marseille, where Benedict was staying. [ 28 ] On the other hand, Gregory preferred Savona, and Benedict concurred. [ 28 ] They balked at the last moment, and both groups of cardinals abandoned their preferred leaders. [ 31 ] The Council of Pisa met in 1409 under the auspices of the cardinals to try solving the dispute. [ 31 ] At the fifteenth session, on 5 June 1409, the Council of Pisa attempted to depose both the Roman pope and Avignon antipope as schismatical, heretical, perjured and scandalous, [ 32 ] but proceeded to inflame the problem even further by electing Peter Philargi, the cardinal archbishop of Milan, as Alexander V . [ 33 ] He reigned briefly in Pisa from June 26, 1409, to his death in 1410, [ 34 ] when he was succeeded by Baldassare Cossa as John XXIII , [ 35 ] who achieved limited support. Council of Constance In 1414, Council of Constance was convened by the Pisan pope John XXIII to resolve the schism once and for all. [ 36 ] The council was also endorsed by the Roman pope Gregory XII , giving it greater legitimacy. [ 37 ] On 6 April 1415, the council issued Haec sancta , [ 38 ] stating that the council is the Church's highest governing body and has the authority to remove popes. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Haec sancta is today considered invalid by the Catholic Church, on the basis that Gregory XII was the legitimate pope at the time and the decree was passed by the council in a session before his confirmation; further, since it was not used to remove him, it was not actually used to remove the pope. The council, advised by the theologian Jean Gerson , secured the resignation of Gregory XII and the detention and removal of John XXIII. [ 41 ] The Avignon antipope Benedict XIII , who refused to step down, was excommunicated on 27 July 1417, having lost all his supporters in the process. [ 42 ] [ 41 ] The Council elected Pope Martin V in 1417, essentially ending the schism. [ 43 ] Benedict XIII, recognized by King Martin of Aragon in 1397, chose to ignore pleas for his resignation. [ 44 ] Benedict died 23 May 1423: to succeed him three cardinals elected Gil Sanchez Munoz y Carbon as Clement VIII . [ 45 ] Clement VIII resigned in 1429 and recognized Martin V. [ 45 ] Aftermath Conciliarism gained impetus due to the Schism. [ 46 ] This new reformist movement held that a general council is superior to the pope on the strength of its capability to resolve ecclesiastical issues. Theorists such as Jean Gerson explained that the priests and the church itself are the sources of the papal power and, thus, the church should be able to correct, punish, and, if necessary, depose a pope. On 18 January 1460, Pope Pius II issued the bull Execrabilis which forbade any attempt to appeal papal judgements by general councils. [ 47 ] There was also a marked decline in discipline within the church. Scholars note that the Western Schism effectively eroded the church's authority and its capacity to proclaim the gospel. [ 48 ] This dissension and loss of unity ultimately culminated in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. Official list of popes For the next five centuries, the Catholic Church recognized the Roman popes as the legitimate line from 1378 to 1409, followed by the Pisan popes from 1409 to 1415. All Avignon popes after 1378 are considered to be antipopes. This recognition is reflected in the numbering of popes Alexander VI , VII , and VIII , who numbered themselves consecutively after their Pisan namesake Alexander V. The recognition of the Pisan popes made the continued legitimacy of the Roman pope Gregory XII doubtful for 1409–1415. The Annuario Pontificio for 1860 listed the Pisan popes as true popes from 1409 to 1415, but it acknowledged that Gregory XII's reign ended in either 1409 or 1415. The Western Schism was, in practice, reinterpreted in 1958 when Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli chose to reuse the ordinal XXIII upon his election as Pope John XXIII, citing "twenty-two [sic] Johns of indisputable legitimacy". [ 49 ] (There had actually been twenty undisputed Johns due to antipopes and numbering errors .) Although Roncalli's declaration of assuming the name specified that his decision was made "apart from disputes about legitimacy", this passage was subsequently excised from the version appearing in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the Pisan popes Alexander V and John XXIII have since been classified as antipopes by the Roman Curia. [ 50 ] The reinterpretation is reflected in modern editions of the Annuario Pontificio , which extend Gregory XII's reign to 1415. The line of Roman popes is now retroactively recognized by the Catholic Church as the sole legitimate line during the Western Schism. However, Popes Alexander VI through VIII have not been renumbered, leaving a gap in the numbering sequence. According to John F. Broderick (1987): Doubt still shrouds the validity of the three rival lines of pontiffs during the four decades subsequent to the still disputed papal election of 1378. This makes suspect the credentials of the cardinals created by the Roman, Avignon, and Pisan claimants to the Apostolic See. Unity was finally restored without a definitive solution to the question; for the Council of Constance succeeded in terminating the Western Schism, not by declaring which of the three claimants was the rightful one, but by eliminating all of them by forcing their abdication or deposition, and then setting up a novel arrangement for choosing a new pope acceptable to all sides. To this day the Church has never made any official, authoritative pronouncement about the papal lines of succession for this confusing period; nor has Martin V or any of his successors. Modern scholars are not agreed in their solutions, although they tend to favor the Roman line. [ 51 ] Doubt still shrouds the validity of the three rival lines of pontiffs during the four decades subsequent to the still disputed papal election of 1378. This makes suspect the credentials of the cardinals created by the Roman, Avignon, and Pisan claimants to the Apostolic See. Unity was finally restored without a definitive solution to the question; for the Council of Constance succeeded in terminating the Western Schism, not by declaring which of the three claimants was the rightful one, but by eliminating all of them by forcing their abdication or deposition, and then setting up a novel arrangement for choosing a new pope acceptable to all sides. To this day the Church has never made any official, authoritative pronouncement about the papal lines of succession for this confusing period; nor has Martin V or any of his successors. Modern scholars are not agreed in their solutions, although they tend to favor the Roman line. [ 51 ] Timeline .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Western Schism timeline v t e ↓ Gregory XI move back to Rome ↱ Clement VII's election begins the Western Schism ↓ Council of Pisa ↓ Council of Constance ends the Western Schism Clement VII Benedict XIII Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Alexander V → John XXIII │ 1376 │ 1381 │ 1386 │ 1391 │ 1396 │ 1401 │ 1406 │ 1411 │ 1416 = Avignon = Rome = Pisa Papal recognition Papacy Avignon popes Roman popes Pisan popes (from 1409) Supporters: House of Valois Kingdom of France (until 1409) Kingdom of Navarre Kingdom of Naples (until 1382, continued to fight Hungary) Kingdom of Portugal (until 1385 ) Burgundian State [ citation needed ] Crown of Aragon Crown of Castile Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of Sicily County of Savoy [ 52 ] Duchy of Brittany Kingdom of Cyprus Crown of Bohemia Knights of Rhodes Welsh rebels (fought against England) County of Foix County of Armagnac small number of estates of the Holy Roman Empire House of Valois Kingdom of France (until 1409) Kingdom of Navarre Kingdom of Naples (until 1382, continued to fight Hungary) Kingdom of Portugal (until 1385 ) Burgundian State [ citation needed ] Kingdom of France (until 1409) Kingdom of Navarre Kingdom of Naples (until 1382, continued to fight Hungary) Kingdom of Portugal (until 1385 ) Burgundian State [ citation needed ] Crown of Aragon Crown of Castile Kingdom of Scotland Kingdom of Sicily County of Savoy [ 52 ] Duchy of Brittany Kingdom of Cyprus Crown of Bohemia Knights of Rhodes Welsh rebels (fought against England) County of Foix County of Armagnac small number of estates of the Holy Roman Empire Italian city-states (Central-Northern Italy) Papal States Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Holy Roman Empire (majority and the Emperor , only a small number of estates aligned with Avignon) Kingdom of England Ireland under English rule Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland Kingdom of Naples (since 1382) Kingdom of Portugal (aligned with Rome in 1385 ) Kingdom of Hungary (until 1385) Kingdom of Hungary (since 1385) Crown of Poland Grand Duchy of Lithuania County of Flanders [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Kingdom of Denmark Kingdom of Norway Kingdom of Sweden Teutonic Order Duchy of Aquitaine Ghent rebels (fought against France) Italian city-states (Central-Northern Italy) Papal States Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Holy Roman Empire (majority and the Emperor , only a small number of estates aligned with Avignon) Kingdom of England Ireland under English rule Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland Kingdom of Naples (since 1382) Kingdom of Portugal (aligned with Rome in 1385 ) Kingdom of Hungary (until 1385) Kingdom of Hungary (since 1385) Crown of Poland Grand Duchy of Lithuania County of Flanders [ 53 ] [ 54 ] Kingdom of Denmark Kingdom of Norway Kingdom of Sweden Teutonic Order Duchy of Aquitaine Ghent rebels (fought against France) Kingdom of France (from 1409) Kingdom of England [ clarification needed ] Ireland under English rule [ clarification needed ] Crown of Poland (changed two times to Roman pope Gregory XII in 1410 and 1414) [ clarification needed ] Grand Duchy of Lithuania [ clarification needed ] Kingdom of Hungary (changed to Roman pope Gregory XII in 1414) [ citation needed ] [ clarification needed ] Kingdom of Portugal (began supporting Pisa in 1409) [ citation needed ] Kingdom of Denmark [ citation needed ] Kingdom of Norway [ citation needed ] Kingdom of Sweden [ citation needed ] some imperial states of Holy Roman Empire [ which? ] Teutonic Order (from 1409–1415 was in alliance with Pisa) [ citation needed ] [ clarification needed ] Kingdom of France (from 1409) Kingdom of England [ clarification needed ] Ireland under English rule [ clarification needed ] Crown of Poland (changed two times to Roman pope Gregory XII in 1410 and 1414) [ clarification needed ] Grand Duchy of Lithuania [ clarification needed ] Kingdom of Hungary (changed to Roman pope Gregory XII in 1414) [ citation needed ] [ clarification needed ] Kingdom of Portugal (began supporting Pisa in 1409) [ citation needed ] Kingdom of Denmark [ citation needed ] Kingdom of Norway [ citation needed ] Kingdom of Sweden [ citation needed ] some imperial states of Holy Roman Empire [ which? ] Teutonic Order (from 1409–1415 was in alliance with Pisa) [ citation needed ] [ clarification needed ] Notes ^ According to Joëlle Rollo-Koster, Benedict's legates were imprisoned until after the conclave ended. [ 26 ] References ^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Western Schism | History, Background, Popes, & Resolution | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . 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External links Catholicism portal The Age of the Great Western Schism Catholic Encyclopedia article v t e Popes of the Catholic Church v t e List of popes graphical canonised Papal names Tombs extant non-extant Antipope Pope emeritus papal resignation Pope-elect Apocryphal Pope Donus II List of popes graphical canonised graphical canonised Papal names Tombs extant non-extant extant non-extant Antipope Pope emeritus papal resignation papal resignation Pope-elect Apocryphal Pope Donus II 1st–4th centuries Peter Linus Anacletus Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleutherius Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Peter Linus Anacletus Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleutherius Victor I 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Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Special pages Donate Create account Log in Donate Create account Log in Contents (Top) 1 Early life 2 Journalism and non-fiction 3 Fiction Toggle Fiction subsection 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 3.1 Romantic novels series 3.2 The Rutshire Chronicles 3.3 Little Mabel series 4 Personal life 5 Death and tributes 6 Honours, awards and recognition 7 Film and television productions Toggle Film and television productions subsection 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.1 Screenwriting and appearances 7.2 Adaptations 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 7.2.1 Romance series 7.2.2 Rutshire Chronicles 8 Analysis 9 List of works Toggle List of works subsection 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 9.1 Fiction 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.1.1 The Rutshire Chronicles 9.1.2 Romances 9.1.3 "Little Mabel" series 9.1.4 Other 9.2 Non-fiction 10 References 11 External links Jilly Cooper العربية Български Cymraeg Deutsch Español فارسی Français کٲشُر مصرى Polski Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Türkçe Article Talk Read Edit View history Read Edit View history What links here Related changes Upload file Permanent link Page information Cite this page Get shortened URL Download QR code Download as PDF Printable version Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikidata item Dame Jilly Cooper DBE Cooper in 1974 Born Jill Sallitt ( 1937-02-21 ) 21 February 1937 Hornchurch , Essex, England Died 5 October 2025 (2025-10-05) (aged 88) Gloucester , England Occupation Author Genre Erotic , romance Notable works Rutshire Chronicles Spouse .mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-inline{display:inline} Leo Cooper ( m. 1961; died 2013) Children 2 Website jillycooper .co .uk Dame Jilly Cooper (born Jill Sallitt ; 21 February 1937 – 5 October 2025) was an English author and journalist, best known for her long-running Rutshire Chronicles series. She began her career in journalism and published several works of non-fiction, including books on class, animals and marriage, before turning to fiction. Her first book was How to Stay Married , which was published in 1969. She published several collections of journalism, alongside other non-fiction volumes throughout much of her career. Cooper's first novel to be published was the romance , Emily , which appeared in 1975 and was followed by five more, as well as a volume of short stories. Cooper was also an anthologist and wrote the Little Mabel series of children's books. Cooper went on to become a prominent figure in British popular literature, noted for her witty social commentary and depictions of upper-middle-class life. Her best-known works are the Rutshire Chronicles of which the 1985 novel Riders was the first; it was followed by ten more volumes with the latest installment Tackle! published in 2023. The series is known for its humour, sexuality and depictions of upper-class life; several of the volumes feature the character Rupert Campbell-Black as a key protagonist. Whilst Riders alone sold over one million copies, and her romance novels compared to those of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland , not all reviews were positive. Private Eye lampooned Cooper and gave her the nickname 'Super Cooper', which she later used as a title for one of her own books. Nevertheless Cooper is recognised as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . Whilst few academics have analysed her work, those that have, recognise her ability to portray large cast of characters and her focus on pleasure as a literary theme. Academic Ian Patterson compared her to Anthony Trollope and Charles Dickens . In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. After Cooper's death in the same year, Queen Camilla described her as a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend". Cooper had received several honours during her lifetime, including that of Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. Several of her works were adapted for television and radio, including the second Rutshire Chronicles volume, Rivals , which was adapted by Disney+ and released in 2024. It starred David Tennant and Aidan Turner . Early life Jill Sallitt was born in Hornchurch , Essex, on 21 February 1937 to Mary Elaine ( née Whincup) and Brigadier W. B. Sallitt. [ 1 ] She grew up in Ilkley , Yorkshire, and in Surrey . Cooper was educated at Moorfield School in Ilkley and Godolphin School in Salisbury , Wiltshire. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] She subsequently learnt to type in Oxford. [ 3 ] Journalism and non-fiction Aged 20, Cooper became a junior reporter for The Middlesex Independent , based in Brentford . [ 3 ] She worked for the paper from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, she worked as an account executive, copywriter , publisher's reader and receptionist . [ 4 ] Her break came with a chance meeting at a dinner party with Godfrey Smith , the editor of The Sunday Times Magazine , who asked her to write a feature about her experiences as a young married woman. [ 4 ] This led to a column in which Cooper wrote about marriage , sex and housework . [ 3 ] That column ran from 1969 to 1982, when she moved to The Mail on Sunday , where she worked as a columnist for a further five years. [ 3 ] In parallel to her journalism, Cooper wrote several humorous and satirical books: her earliest columns led to the publication of her first book, the satirical How to Stay Married , in 1969, which was quickly followed by another satirical guide to working life, How to Survive from Nine to Five , in 1970. [ 5 ] Further satirical works were Men and Super Men , published in 1972, [ 6 ] and Women and Super Women , published in 1974. [ 7 ] The former has mixed reviews, with the Liverpool Daily Post describing the puns as bad, but that Cooper's writing had a "knowing adolescence". [ 6 ] In contrast the Evening Dispatch instructed all its readers to immediately buy it, as a guide to "men and sex". [ 8 ] Women and Super Women was reviewed positively by Clive James in The Observer , [ 9 ] whereas other reviews described the book as cruel (if funny) in its discussions of a wide range of women. [ 7 ] Cooper's journalism was first collected into a single volume, Jolly Super , in 1971. [ 5 ] That collection took its title from the nickname given to Cooper by Private Eye . [ 10 ] A further collection Jolly Super Too was published in 1973. [ 11 ] The Birmingham Evening Mail compared Cooper to Mick McManus as someone the public loved to hate, and stated that the book would deliver "a snigger a minute" to readers. [ 12 ] Jolly Superlative was published in 1975 and largely included pieces from The Sunday Times , but also Vogue , and was praised by The Daily Telegraph for its "limitless comic invention". [ 13 ] In 1977 another collection of journalism, Super Jilly, was reviewed by Clive James in the The Observer as "another breathless year-book by the Sunday Times' head-girl". [ 14 ] The same year How to Stay Married and How to Survive from Nine to Five were republished together in a single volume in 1977 under the revised title How To Survive Work and Wedlock. [ 15 ] The combined volume had mixed reviews from "saucy, but relevant" according to the Sydney Morning Herald , [ 16 ] to the Evening Standard describing how "Women's Lib must hate her insouciant approach to the woman's world". [ 17 ] The theme of class dominated much of her writing and her non-fiction with her work written from an explicitly upper-middle-class British perspective, with emphasis on the relationships between men and women and matters of social class in contemporary Britain. [ 2 ] Upon the publication of 1979's book Class , Ralf Dahrendorf reviewed it for the London Review of Books , describing the work as one where "the characters are fun, the observations acute". [ 18 ] Published in 2000 David Cannadine 's Class in Britain assessed Cooper's book, pointing out that Cooper herself had felt that it did not fully describe the intricacies of the British class system. [ 19 ] Another republication during this period was 1980's Super Cooper , which was a volume of excerpts from her earlier books Men and Super Men and Women and Super Women. [ 20 ] This was described the Sydney Morning Herald as a "brilliant guide to the sexes" and by the Liverpool as a volume "that never disappoints the reader". [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Jolly Marsupial another volume of journalism, this time focussing on Cooper's 1980 tour of Australia to promote the book Class , was published in 1982. [ 22 ] In 1981 Cooper published Intelligent and Loyal , which is a book about mongrels . [ 23 ] In it Cooper created her own humorous typology for mongrels. [ 24 ] To gather stories about mongrels for the book, Cooper put an advert in newspapers asking people to share stories about their pets for the book. [ 23 ] [ 25 ] As a result of the book's success Cooper and her dogs subsequently made public appearances, including on The Animals Roadshow in 1989. [ 26 ] In 1983 she published Animals in War , a book that recorded the contributions a variety of species made to the military. [ 27 ] Public response to the book led to a campaign, supported by Cooper, to establish the Animals in War Memorial . [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Cooper edited an anthology of prose and poetry entitled The British in Love . [ 30 ] With Tom Hartman she also co-edited a dictionary of quotations purely sourced from women entitled Violets and Vinegar . [ 31 ] In 2020, some of her writings on sex and marriage from the 1970s were republished as Between the Covers and praised for their honesty . [ 32 ] Fiction Cooper has been described as "the queen of the bonkbuster ", [ 33 ] however her first novels were romances. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] These were followed by the Rutshire Chronicles series, where dogs and horses featured heavily. [ 36 ] Cooper described the research she undertook for each novel as "like studying for an A-level". [ 37 ] Quoted in the Evening Standard in 1994, Cooper stated that she thought that product placement in literary works was acceptable and discussed how she had received thank you gifts as a result of unsolicited mentions in her novels. [ 38 ] Romantic novels series Cooper was encouraged to write romantic fiction by the editor Desmond Elliott , who had read the short stories she had written previously for teenage magazines. [ 34 ] At the time she was working in publicity for HarperCollins ; Elliott commissioned her with a six-book contract and the paperback rights were subsequently sold to Corgi Books . [ 34 ] The series sold in the 100,000s. [ 34 ] The contract was for Cooper to publish a novel every six months. [ 39 ] The first novel in the series was Emily , which was published in 1975. [ 40 ] Set on a remote Scottish island, its storyline follows Emily who moves to the island after a short courtship and marriage to a volatile artist. [ 41 ] Reviews were complimentary, [ 42 ] [ 43 ] although Auberon Waugh noted similarity between Emily and Devil's Cub by Georgette Heyer . [ 44 ] The work was compared to that of Nancy Mitford and Barbara Cartland . [ 39 ] Emily was followed by Harriet and then Bella , both published in 1976. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In Harriet , the titular character becomes pregnant whilst at university and subsequently works as a nanny for an irascible screenwriter so she can take the baby with her. [ 47 ] In review, Barbara Cartland disliked the novel. [ 48 ] The novel Bella ' s storyline revolves around an actress whose fiancé is super-wealthy, but his family do not approve of Bella. [ 49 ] The novel mixes romance and mystery, as Bella is kidnapped. [ 49 ] Auberon Waugh praised the emotional engagement of the novel, but The Guardian described disappointment since good jokes were lost in the prose. [ 44 ] [ 50 ] In October 1993, seven years after Private Eye had pointed out the similarities, Cooper admitted that sections of Emily and Bella were plagiarised from The Dud Avocado (1958) by Elaine Dundy , but said that it was not deliberate. [ 51 ] The next novel in the series was Octavia , which was published in 1977, set in Britain during the 1970s. [ 52 ] Reviews were less positive than the previous novels, but Cooper's word-play continued to be praised. [ 53 ] In a review Auberon Waugh expressed frustration with the novel as he felt Cooper could write much better than the text. [ 54 ] Octavia was followed by the novel Prudence , which was set in the Lake District in England during a house party. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] The novel had a mixed reception upon publication, including from one reviewer who hoped it was the last in the series. [ 57 ] In response, Cooper's publisher, Desmond Elliott, wrote to the paper announcing that the next novel, Imogen , was due that same year and it too was likely to be enjoyed by hundreds of thousands of readers. [ 57 ] The final novel in the series is Imogen , which was published in 1978. [ 58 ] At the time of publication, the preceding five novels had sold 340,000 copies. [ 59 ] Set between Yorkshire and the south of France, it follows Imogen as she is seduced by a tennis player, who takes her on holiday, but ultimately falls in love with his best friend. [ 58 ] The novel was mostly received favourably, [ 60 ] although the character of Imogen was described in one review as "spineless". [ 61 ] It is cited as an example in academic texts on a variety of themes, including the allure of the French Riviera for Anglo-American culture, [ 62 ] and a cultural analysis of cohabitation in the 1970s. [ 63 ] Also grouped in the romance series is the short story collection Lisa & Co ; each story is based on some of Cooper's earliest writings for women's magazines in the 1960s. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] In 2017 in her book The Gender Games , transgender writer Juno Dawson described how her obsession with the "ultra-glam" covers of these romances as a child gave her a sense that she was not "very good at being a boy". [ 66 ] The Rutshire Chronicles The best-known of Cooper's works, each book of the Rutshire Chronicles is set in a glamorous and wealthy milieu , such as the worlds of show jumping or classical music . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] These books were noted for the luxurious lifestyles portrayed, the proliferation of animals and their wit. [ 69 ] The first in the series was Riders (1985), an international bestseller, which sold over one million copies. [ 70 ] The first version of Riders was written by 1970, but shortly after Cooper had finished it, she took it with her into the West End of London , but left the manuscript on a bus. The London Evening Standard put out an appeal, but it was never found. She was, she says, "devastated" and it took her more than a decade to start it again. [ 71 ] Set in the world of show-jumping, the novel is the first appearance of Cooper's ongoing central character Rupert Campbell-Black . [ 72 ] The novel centres on his rivalry with fellow show-jumper Jake Lovell and the novel's denouement is set in the Los Angeles Olympics . [ 73 ] The follow-up novel to Riders was Rivals , set in the world of commercial television. [ 74 ] Still featuring Campbell-Black, he joins forces with television presenter Declan O'Hara and other characters to take over the local television station. [ 75 ] [ 76 ] Despite some initial scepticism from her publisher about the setting, [ 77 ] the novel debuted at #2 on the Sunday Times bestseller list for hardback fiction on June 12, 1988. [ 78 ] The next novel in the series was Polo , published in 1991, and was a return to the horse-focussed settings that Cooper became known for. [ 79 ] Cooper researched the book by travelling to Palm Beach and to Argentina, meeting polo players there. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The novel went to number 1 in the UK hardback bestseller list, on its first entry. [ 82 ] Based on a rivalry between British polo player Ricky France-Lynch and an American millionaire Bart Alderton, the novel follows the teams associated with the two figures as they compete around the world. [ 83 ] It also features Rupert Campbell-Black's illegitimate daughter Perdita as a key protagonist. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Following Polo , the next novel in the series was The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , which followed the life of Lysander Hawkley, a man who rich women employed to encourage their unfaithful husbands to return to their marriages. [ 87 ] It was the first novel to feature Roberto Rannaldini, a conductor and sworn enemy of Rupert Campbell-Black. [ 88 ] The novel received a range of reviews, but was praised for its "plain" heroine and a sub-plot relating to miscarriage. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] The next in the series was Appassionata , which was based in the world of classical music and followed the career of soloist, then conductor, Abigail Rosen. [ 91 ] Cooper spent three years researching the novel and travelled on tour to Spain, twice, with the Royal Scottish National Orchestra (RSNO). [ 91 ] The novel was a bestseller, and a soundtrack to the novel was released in parallel to the book. [ 92 ] [ 93 ] Reviews were mixed, with praise for Cooper's research [ 93 ] balanced by suggestions that the cast of characters was too large and contrived plots. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] Cooper remained largely in the world of classical music for her next novel, Score! , but this time focussing on a production of the opera Don Carlos . [ 86 ] In it Rannaldini is directing a film of the production, but is murdered on set, leading to a police investigation. [ 96 ] The novel was a Number 1 bestseller upon its release. The book received mixed reviews, [ 97 ] [ 86 ] as well as the accusation that at some moments the book seemed to suggest "that the death of a dog is rather more grief-worthy than the death of a human". [ 98 ] Her following novel Pandora was set in the art world, [ 99 ] and followed the Belvedon family of dealers and artists, based in the neighbouring county of Larkshire. [ 100 ] Reviewing the novel in The Observer , Robert Macfarlane described how it depicted and lampooned Britart , conceptual art and the Turner Prize . [ 99 ] This theme was continued by the New Statesman , where a reviewer described one scene where a woman who is raped is also menstruating as "very Jake and Dinos Chapman ". [ 101 ] The next volume in the series was Wicked! which was published in 2006 and was set in a boarding school, going to No. 1 in the fiction charts on its release. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] The novel had mixed reviews with some writers sharing unease at the depictions of teenage sex and romance. [ 104 ] [ 86 ] The Guardian stated that running at over 800 pages, the book needed a thorough edit since it was "as long as Anna Karenina and that, surely, is a mistake". [ 105 ] Returning to the world of horses, the ninth novel Jump! was released in 2010. [ 106 ] It features characters from the Rutshire Chronicles in the world of National Hunt steeplechase racing and tells the transformation of a mutilated horse (Mrs Wilkinson) into a successful racehorse. [ 106 ] After publication, it was revealed that Cooper had named a goat in the book (Chisolm) in order to hit back at the critic Anne Chisholm. [ 107 ] The tenth novel in the series Jump! was set in the world of flat racing . [ 108 ] Whilst Cooper's descriptions of the Cotswolds and her descriptions of racing were praised, some reviewers criticised the characterisation and "depraved and ridiculous" sex scenes. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The eleventh book in the series was Tackle! , published in 2023 it was set in the world of football. [ 112 ] It was named by The Week as one of the best novels of 2023. [ 113 ] The novel features Rupert Campbell-Black becoming the director of a local football club, based on Cooper's local side Forest Green Rovers . [ 114 ] [ 115 ] The sexual content of the novel received mixed reviews, with praise for the oral sex featured, but dismay that other scenes felt "lacklustre". [ 116 ] Little Mabel series Cooper also wrote a series of four children's books based on the misadventures of a young mongrel puppy called Mabel. [ 117 ] The Little Mabel series comprised Little Mabel, Little Mabel's Great Escape, Little Mabel Wins and Little Mabel Saves the Day. [ 117 ] When interviewed in 2013 to discuss the inclusion of a new class for mongrels at Crufts , Cooper described her book Little Mabel Wins as "prophetic" since it featured a protest against mongrel discrimination at that dog show. [ 118 ] Two of the books featured in the British children's television series Jackanory , read by Victoria Wood and Liza Goddard . [ 119 ] [ 120 ] Personal life In 1961, she married Leo Cooper , a publisher of military history books. [ 121 ] The couple had met when she was aged eight and Cooper aged 10, although they did not marry until she was 24 and he was 27. [ 122 ] [ 3 ] The couple adopted two children and had five grandchildren. [ 123 ] [ 124 ] In 1982, the couple left Putney , south-west London, for an old manor house near Stroud , Gloucestershire. [ 121 ] [ 125 ] As she told The Field in 2002, "I loved London, but I used to cry because I missed the countryside. We did the usual married run: Earl’s Court ; Fulham ; Putney ; Move To The Country." [ 126 ] The Coopers' marriage was greatly disrupted in 1990 when publisher Sarah Johnson revealed that she and Leo had had an affair for several years. [ 127 ] [ 128 ] Leo was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 2002. He died on 29 November 2013, at the age of 80. [ 121 ] In 2010, Cooper [ which? ] suffered a minor stroke. [ 129 ] Cooper was a passenger in one of the derailed carriages in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash of 1999, in which 31 people died, [ 123 ] and crawled through a window to escape. She later spoke of feeling that her "number was up". [ 3 ] Cooper was a supporter of the Conservative Party , [ 130 ] and was also in favour of the Iraq War (2003 to 2011). [ 131 ] In a 2007 interview with The Guardian she said, "I loved Mrs Thatcher , I adored her, she was very very nice to me". [ 132 ] By 2012, however, she had grown disillusioned with the Conservatives, telling The Spectator that she was "disappointed with this government" and that the party was "full of terrible people now". [ 133 ] In 2018 Cooper said that because of the #MeToo movement , young men and women no longer feel free to flirt with one another and that she enjoyed being the subject of wolf whistles . [ 134 ] Cooper stated that she was a football fan and supported Leeds United when she lived in Yorkshire. [ 135 ] She was also a Manchester City fan. [ 136 ] Cooper campaigned for the preservation of limestone grasslands in Gloucestershire with the Trust for Nature Conservation. [ 137 ] Death and tributes On 4 October 2025, Cooper was attended to by paramedics after suffering a fall at her home in Bisley , Gloucestershire, which caused a fatal head injury. She was transported to Gloucestershire Royal Hospital , where her condition deteriorated. She died there on 5 October, aged 88, surrounded by family. [ 138 ] Queen Camilla , a long-term friend, led the tributes to Cooper, describing her as a legend and a "wonderfully witty and compassionate friend to me and so many", adding: "May her hereafter be filled with impossibly handsome men and devoted dogs." [ 139 ] The official spokesman of the prime minister, Keir Starmer , said: "Dame Jilly Cooper was a literary force whose wit, warmth and wisdom shaped British culture for over half a century and brought joy to millions." Famously a fan of Cooper's novels, former prime minister Rishi Sunak wrote on X : "Sad to hear of the passing of Dame Jilly Cooper, a storyteller whose wit and love of character brought joy to millions. My thoughts are with her family and fellow readers." [ 140 ] Others paying tribute to Cooper included comedian Helen Lederer , who wrote on X: "Trail blazer, wit, optimist and the giver of the greatest summer parties – you made it look simple." Broadcaster Gyles Brandreth wrote that she was "simply adorable". [ 141 ] Television presenter Kirstie Allsopp said Cooper was "a British institution, funny, enthusiastic and self deprecating, we don't see enough of it these days". [ 142 ] Piers Morgan posted: "Such a fabulously fun, mischievous, warm-hearted lady. If she was in a room, everyone would feel instantly cheerier." [ 142 ] Fellow broadcaster Russell Grant wrote on X: "Jilly was one of the most kind, courteous, generous, warm-hearted and smiley people I ever met when I worked on breakfast and morning TV." [ 143 ] Actress Dame Joanna Lumley , who starred in Cooper's early 1970s sitcom It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling , told BBC News: "She was entirely generous, hugely talented, prolific, enthusiastic, meticulous and wholly loveable: a darling friend and a brilliant person." [ 144 ] A number of authors have also recognised her and her legacy, including Jill Mansell who credited Cooper for inspiring her to be a writer. The Australian-British author Kathy Lette said: "A twinkle has gone out of the world." [ 144 ] Author and former doctor Adam Kay recalled being Cooper's "perhaps unlikely penpal", adding: "We have lost one of the greats." [ 139 ] Honours, awards and recognition Cooper was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours for services to literature, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2024 New Year Honours for services to literature and charity. [ 145 ] On 13 November 2009, Cooper was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Letters by the University of Gloucestershire at a ceremony in Gloucester Cathedral . [ 146 ] In 2011, She was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Letters at Anglia Ruskin University . [ 147 ] In 2024 she was named Harper's Bazaar ' s Author of the Year. [ 148 ] In 1997 local councillors in Ilkley , West Yorkshire, rejected a housing developers' proposal to name a street after Cooper. [ 149 ] Located on the site of the tennis courts of Ilkley Hall, where Cooper spent some of her childhood, the street was ultimately named after Thomas Maufe , who was awarded a Victoria Cross . Cooper stated that "[Maufe] is much more deserving than me." [ 149 ] A racehorse was named after Cooper, but it had to be euthanised in 2024 after a racing accident. [ 150 ] [ 151 ] In 2025, the Jilly Cooper Prize was established as part of the Comedy Women in Print Awards to honour her contribution to comic fiction. [ 152 ] The prize recognises works of fiction by women and non-binary authors that demonstrate a distinctive sense of humour, irreverence, and comic narrative voice. The award was introduced following Cooper’s death in 2024, with the intention of acknowledging her influence on contemporary comic fiction and her long-standing reputation for comedic prose, romantic satire, and portrayals of British high society. [ 153 ] The inaugural winner of the prize was Sara Pascoe , who received the award in 2025 for her novel Weirdo . [ 154 ] Film and television productions Screenwriting and appearances In 1971 Cooper wrote the comedy series It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling with Christopher Bond , about four posh young women sharing a flat in London, featuring Joanna Lumley and airing on BBC1 . [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In the 1980s she was a regular guest on the BBC television programme What's My Line? [ 157 ] According to a 2016 interview with Cooper, she was also the subject of a Spitting Image puppet, whose only line was "Sex sex sex sex sex sex". [ 5 ] Adaptations Romance series Emily was adapted by Eleanor Bron for Thames Television in 1976 as part of a six-part romance series. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Directed by Alastair Reid , [ 160 ] it was broadcast on 6 April 1977. [ 161 ] Prudence was adapted for radio in 1979 by Capital Radio , starring Felicity Kendal as Prudence, [ 162 ] alongside Nigel Davenport and Gerald Harper . [ 163 ] In 2007 a television adaptation of four of the romance novels was proposed. [ 164 ] This was suggested as one of a four-part series focusing on Harriet , Bella , Octavia and one unspecified; the only episode to be filmed was Octavia . [ 164 ] The screenplay was written by Jonathan Harvey . [ 165 ] As of 2009 there was no date for its screening. [ 166 ] In 2013 The Telegraph reported that Harriet was being adapted into a musical by Eva Rice, novelist and daughter of Tim Rice . [ 167 ] Rutshire Chronicles Television adaptations of Cooper's novels were produced for ITV and Disney+. Other productions include the television mini-series The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous , starring Hugh Bonneville , produced by Sarah Lawson ; Riders ; [ 168 ] and, in 2024, Rivals , starring David Tennant , Aidan Turner and Alex Hassell , produced by Eliza Mellor. [ 169 ] The latter was renewed for a second series, which is expected to be released in 2026. [ 170 ] Analysis Cooper has been identified as one of the key writers of the bonkbuster novel, along with Jackie Collins , Shirley Conran and Judith Krantz . [ 70 ] Riders in particular is seen as a key text for the genre, embodying its themes of sex (sometimes coercive) and romance (sometimes unfulfilled). [ 70 ] Indeed, academic Emma Parker has described how the novel "exemplified" the genre. [ 171 ] Ian Patterson , writing for the London Review of Books is one of the few academics to seriously consider Cooper's literary oeuvre. [ 172 ] In his critique of her work, Patterson described how Cooper had a "propensity for subplots worthy of Trollope or Dickens". [ 97 ] Moreover, that her books are "worth thinking about" because they cover "pleasure, that most ticklish of subjects". [ 97 ] Patterson goes on to describe the themes of pleasure that Cooper deals with: "pleasure delayed and deferred, guilty pleasure, the pleasure of repetition and the problems of it", as well as "good pleasures, in various degrees, wrong but permissible pleasures, and unequivocally bad pleasures". [ 97 ] He praised Cooper's use of language, in particular "puns and other forms of verbal humour", which give the reader the impression that Cooper, as writer, is never far away. [ 97 ] On the Romance series, Patterson described the novels as "tightly structured, agreeably predictable wish-fulfilment narratives named for their heroines". [ 97 ] Beyond Cooper's novels, Patterson praised her portrait of Margaret Thatcher, and her Sunday Times columns. [ 97 ] Patterson compared Cooper to Ali Smith since in their writing they share a "fondness for both wordplay and wise children". [ 97 ] Cooper's use of humour as part of erotic writing has been discussed by Tim Miles, who described how there was "is little or no separation" of the two, especially in Riders. [ 173 ] In his analysis of the career of Mary Ward , academic Alan Deyermond describes how she was described as "the Jilly Cooper of her day", which became part of her professional denigration. [ 174 ] Cooper's use of horses as a repeated trope across many of her novels has been considered by academic Gail Cunningham, who described how Riders and Polo provided "women readers with an adult version of the pony book ". [ 175 ] List of works Fiction The Rutshire Chronicles Riders (1985) [ 176 ] Rivals (1988; also known as Players ) [ 177 ] Polo (1991) [ 178 ] The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous (1993) [ 179 ] Appassionata (1996) [ 180 ] Score! (1999) [ 181 ] Pandora (2002) [ 182 ] Wicked! (2006) [ 183 ] Jump! (2010) [ 184 ] Mount! (2016) [ 185 ] Tackle! (2023) [ 186 ] Romances Emily (1975) [ 187 ] Bella (1976) [ 188 ] Harriet (1976) [ 189 ] Octavia (1977) [ 190 ] Prudence (1978) [ 191 ] Imogen (1978) [ 192 ] Lisa & Co . (1981) [ 193 ] "Little Mabel" series Little Mabel (1980) [ 194 ] Little Mabel's Great Escape (1981) [ 195 ] Little Mabel Wins (1982) [ 196 ] Little Mabel Saves the Day (1985) [ 197 ] Other Araminta's Wedding (1993) [ 198 ] Non-fiction How to Stay Married (1969) [ 199 ] How To Survive from Nine To Five (1970) [ 200 ] Jolly Super (1971) [ 201 ] Men and Super Men (1972) [ 202 ] Jolly Super Too (1973) [ 203 ] Women and Super Women (1974) [ 204 ] Jolly Superlative (1975) [ 205 ] Supermen and Superwomen (1976) [ 206 ] How to Survive Work and Wedlock (1977); republication of earlier works [ 207 ] Superjilly (1977) [ 208 ] The British in Love (1979) [ 209 ] Class: A View from Middle England (1979) [ 210 ] Supercooper (1980) [ 211 ] Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings (1980) [ 212 ] Intelligent and Loyal (1981) [ 213 ] Jolly Marsupial (1982) [ 214 ] Animals in War (1983) [ 215 ] The Common Years (1984) [ 216 ] On Rugby (1984; with Leo Cooper ) [ 217 ] On Cricket (1985; with Leo Cooper) [ 218 ] Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point (1985; with Patrick Lichfield ) [ 219 ] Horse Mania! (1986; with Leo Cooper) [ 220 ] How To Survive Christmas (1986) [ 221 ] Turn Right at the Spotted Dog (1987) [ 222 ] Angels Rush In (1990) [ 223 ] Between the Covers (2020) [ 32 ] References ^ a b .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}} "Biography with magazine quotations" . 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The Changing Legal Regulation of Cohabitation: From Fornicators to Family, 1600–2010 . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02084-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). "Introduction". Lisa & Co (PDF) . Corgi. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ "Frothy romance" . Manchester Evening News . 5 November 1981. p. 14 . Retrieved 30 June 2025 . ^ Dawson, Juno (1 June 2017). The Gender Games: The Problem With Men and Women, From Someone Who Has Been Both . John Murray Press. ISBN 978-1-4736-4861-6 . ^ "BBC Radio 4 - Radio 4 in Four - Why we all adore Jilly Cooper" . BBC . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (30 January 2019). "Jilly Cooper says #MeToo movement has 'diminished' men" . The Independent . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Risbridger, Ella (28 October 2025). "Could there ever be another Jilly?" . The Bookseller . Retrieved 3 December 2025 . ^ a b c Burge, Amy; McAlister, Jodi; Ireland, Charlotte (31 August 2023). " "Prince Charming with an Erection": The Sensational Pleasures of the Bonkbuster" . Contemporary Women's Writing . 17 (2): 137– 155. doi : 10.1093/cww/vpae002 . ISSN 1754-1484 . ^ Day, Elizabeth (24 April 2011). "Jilly Cooper: 'I'm a reasonable writer but I'm much too colloquial' " . The Guardian . Retrieved 4 May 2023 . ^ Saltzer, Bernice (1 May 1993). "Riders' Rivalry Reaches Boiling Point ." Hartlepool Mail . p. 11. ^ Laing, Olivia (10 November 2023). " 'Sex, puns and labradors': How Olivia Laing fell for Jilly Cooper's bonkbusters" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 14 November 2025 . ^ "Why you should read Rivals as literary fiction" . Varsity Online . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ "Aidan Turner based Rivals character on his dad" . Yahoo News . 15 October 2024 . Retrieved 15 November 2025 . ^ Venn, Lydia (18 October 2024). "What a Gen Z writer thought reading Jilly Cooper's Rivals for the first time" . Cosmopolitan . 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Retrieved 28 April 2025 . ^ "Jilly Cooper sets the stage for her West End debut" . The Daily Telegraph . 19 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ "Riders (1993)" . Archived from the original on 21 September 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2019 . ^ Cormack, Morgan. "David Tennant, Aidan Turner to star in Jilly Cooper adaptation Rivals | Radio Times" . www.radiotimes.com . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Garden, House & (8 October 2024). "Rivals season 2: Hayley Atwell and Rupert Everett join the cast of the Disney+ adaptation of Jilly Cooper's novel" . House & Garden . Retrieved 25 October 2025 . ^ Parker, Emma (1 December 2006). "Sex Changes: The Politics of Pleasure in the Novels of Michèle Roberts" . Lit: Literature Interpretation Theory . 17 ( 3– 4): 325– 351. doi : 10.1080/10436920601000336 . ISSN 1043-6928 . ^ "Jilly Cooper compared to Charles Dickens and Anthony Trollope by Cambridge academic" . The Telegraph . Archived from the original on 13 May 2017 . Retrieved 14 October 2025 . ^ Miles, Tim (2011). "Sex, pies and Jilly Cooper: An online, cooperative analysis of humour and the erotic" . Comedy Studies . 2 (1): 63– 71. doi : 10.1386/cost.2.1.63_1 . ISSN 2040-610X . ^ Deyermond, Alan (2004). "Mary Ward, or the Incremental Denigration of a Hispanist" . Hispanic Research Journal . 5 (2): 177– 179. doi : 10.1179/hrj.2004.5.2.177 . ISSN 1468-2737 . ^ Cunningham G. 'Seizing the reins: women, girls and horses' in: Sceats, S. and Cunnigham, G. 2014. Image and Power : Women in Fiction in the Twentieth Century [Online]. Taylor & Francis. ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Riders . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15617-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Rivals . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15637-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (11 March 2025). Polo . Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5387-7355-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). The Man who Made Husbands Jealous . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15639-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Appassionata. Jilly Cooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15638-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2000). Score! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14579-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Pandora . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15640-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2007). Wicked! . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15156-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2010). Jump! . Bantam Press. ISBN 978-0-593-06153-4 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (25 October 2016). Mount! . National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-593-07291-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2001). Tackle! . Ulverscroft, Charnwood. ISBN 978-1-4448-5217-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Emily . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-15249-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Bella: A Deliciously Upbeat and Laugh-out-loud Romance from the Inimitable Multimillion-copy Bestselling Jilly Cooper . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15250-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (2005). Harriet . Transworld Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-552-15251-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Octavia: A light-hearted and hilarious romcom from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3218-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Prudence: The feel-good romance from the Sunday Times bestselling author of Rivals . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3228-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1979). Imogen . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11149-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Lisa & Co . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-12041-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1980). Little Mabel . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11158-6 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Little Mabel's Great Escape . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11160-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1982). Little Mabel Wins . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-11159-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day . Granada. ISBN 978-0-246-12291-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (30 June 2012). Araminta's Wedding . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-5252-0 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 September 2011). How To Stay Married . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-9798-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). How To Survive From Nine To Five . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0772-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Super . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11751-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 October 2011). Men and Supermen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0813-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1973). Jolly Super Too . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-30530-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (31 January 2012). Women And Superwomen . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-3505-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Jolly Superlative . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11801-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Super Men and Super Women, by Jilly Cooper . ISBN 978-0-417-05370-7 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Work and Wedlock . London: Magnum Books. ISBN 978-0417018201 . Retrieved 9 October 2025 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1977). Superjilly . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38620-5 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). The British in Love . Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005650-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). Class: A View from Middle England . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14662-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Supercooper . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11832-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Hartman, Tom (1982). Violets and Vinegar: An Anthology of Women's Writings and Sayings . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-11869-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1981). Intelligent and Loyal: A Celebration of the Mongrel . Eyre Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-48000-2 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (29 February 2012). Jolly Marsupial . Transworld. ISBN 978-1-4481-0902-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (23 December 2010). Animals In War . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4090-3190-1 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1999). The Common Years . Corgi. ISBN 978-0-552-14663-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1984). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Rugby . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2411-6 . ^ Cooper, Leo (1985). Leo & Jilly Cooper on Cricket . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2537-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly; Lichfield, Patrick (1985). Hotfoot to Zabriskie Point . Constable. ISBN 978-0-09-466760-0 . ^ Cooper, Leo; Cooper, Jilly (1986). Horse Mania! . Bell & Hyman. ISBN 978-0-7135-2665-3 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1986). How to Survive Christmas: An Xmasochist's Guide to the Darkest Days of the Year . Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-59780-9 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (1988). Turn Right at the Spotted Dog: And Other Diversions . Chivers. ISBN 978-0-7451-0744-8 . ^ Cooper, Jilly (24 April 2012). Angels Rush In . Random House. ISBN 978-1-4481-0810-7 . External links Official website Jilly Cooper at IMDb Jilly Cooper at the British Film Institute Portraits of Jilly Cooper at the National Portrait Gallery, London "The queen of chick lit" article , The Guardian , 15 June 2004 An interview with Cooper recorded in 2000 by meettheauthor.co.uk .mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}} v t e Jilly Cooper v t e Fiction Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Rutshire Chronicles Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Riders Rivals Polo The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Appassionata Score! Pandora Wicked! Jump! Mount! Tackle! Romance series Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Emily Harriet Bella Octavia Prudence Imogen Short stories Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Lisa & Co Araminta's Wedding Children's stories Little Mabel (series) Little Mabel (series) Non-fiction How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers How to Stay Married How To Survive From Nine To Five Jolly Super Jolly Super Too Jolly Superlative Class Violets and Vinegar Intelligent and Loyal Jolly Marsupial Animals in War The Common Years How To Survive Christmas Turn Right at the Spotted Dog Angels Rush In Between the Covers Adaptations It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling Riders The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous Rivals Fictional characters Rupert Campbell-Black Rupert Campbell-Black Related Leo Cooper Leo Cooper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat ISNI VIAF GND FAST WorldCat National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Spain Netherlands Norway Latvia Greece Poland Israel Academics CiNii CiNii Artists MusicBrainz MusicBrainz People Trove Trove Other IdRef Open Library Yale LUX IdRef Open Library Yale LUX 1937 births 2025 deaths 20th-century English non-fiction writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers 21st-century English non-fiction writers 21st-century English novelists 21st-century English women writers Accidental deaths from falls in the United Kingdom Accidental deaths in England British Book Award winners British women romantic fiction writers British women columnists Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English romantic fiction writers English women journalists English women non-fiction writers English women novelists People educated at Godolphin School People from Hornchurch Survivors of railway accidents or incidents 21st-century British women novelists 20th-century British women novelists British children's writers British women children's writers Deaths from head injury CS1 maint: publisher location Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y Webarchive template wayback links Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Good articles Use British English from October 2016 All Wikipedia articles written in British English Use dmy dates from October 2025 All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from January 2026 Commons category link from Wikidata National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID same as Wikidata This page was last edited on 16 January 2026, at 06:20 (UTC) . 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Photograph: Denis Balibouse/Reuters View image in fullscreen Emergency personnel work at the site of the fire. Photograph: Denis Balibouse/Reuters Switzerland About 40 killed and 115 injured in fire at bar in Swiss ski resort of Crans-Montana Police say blaze tore through crowded bar where people were seeing in the new year Chris Michael in Crans-Montana, Angela Giuffrida and Luke Harding Thu 1 Jan 2026 11.21 EST First published on Thu 1 Jan 2026 01.26 EST Share About 40 people are believed to have been killed and 115 injured after a fire tore through a crowded bar during a New Year’s Eve party in the Swiss ski resort of Crans-Montana. Swiss police confirmed several dozen partygoers were dead. The victims could not be immediately identified because of the severity of their burns, the ministry said. It confirmed arson was not responsible, with the blaze thought to be the result of an accident. Social media video appears to show Crans-Montana fire break out – video A police spokesperson in the canton of Valais in south-west Switzerland said the fire started at about 1.30am local time (0030 GMT) in a bar called Le Constellation, which is popular with tourists, as revellers rang in the new year. “More than a hundred people were in the building and we are seeing many injured and many dead,” he said. Video from the scene shows orange flames billowing from inside the ground-floor bar and lounge. Screams can be heard as well as loud music. Several people were seen collapsed outside the building, which is located in the centre of the Valais resort. Two women told the French broadcaster BFMTV that they were inside Le Constellation when they saw a bartender carrying a female member of staff on his shoulders. She was holding a lit candle in a champagne bottle that set fire to a wooden ceiling. The flames quickly spread and collapsed the ceiling, they said. A photo showed a woman in a black dress in the basement of the bar, holding a magnum of champagne. A large white flame can be seen coming from the top of the bottle. 2:50 Video dispatch: Crans-Montana mourns nightclub victims One of the women described a crowd surge as people frantically tried to escape from a basement nightclub up a narrow flight of stairs and through a narrow door. Another witness speaking to BFMTV described partygoers breaking windows to escape the fire, some gravely injured, and panicked parents rushing to the scene in cars to see whether their children were trapped inside. The young man said he saw about 20 people scrambling to get out of the smoke and flames. He likened what he saw to a horror movie as he watched from across the street. View image in fullscreen The interior building where the fire broke out. Photograph: Police Cantonale Valaisanne/AP The morning after the tragedy, two women held each other and wept in front of the police cordon outside Le Constellation, while mourners left flowers. The club itself, which is frequented by younger people and tourists, was surrounded by police tents. Shortly before 1pm a Swiss police forensics team entered the tents. Behind the building, an apartment block – also called Le Constellation – had smashed windows where firefighters had attempted to let the smoke from the blaze escape. Crans-Montana is a bustling resort town of about 10,000 people perched high in the Valais canton of the Swiss Alps, with a view across the valley to the famed Matterhorn mountain. Unlike nearby Verbier, which attracts a wealthy anglophone crowd, Crans-Montana is popular mainly with wealthy Europeans. Location of bar in town But Le Constellation itself was more of a cheap and cheerful bar for younger people and tourists. Ulysse Brozzo, 16, an instructor at the ESS ski school, said several of his friends were in the club at the time. He said he had spoken to some who were safe, but had yet to hear from others he knew were inside when the fire broke out. A friend of a friend was in a coma at Sion hospital. “It’s a total tragedy,” he said. “There were hundreds of people inside.” Location map The venue was set over two floors, he said, with a bar on the main floor and narrow stairs leading to a basement nightclub below, where he speculated it would have been possible for people to have become trapped and incapacitated from smoke inhalation. He said shisha pipes were available to smoke. “What people are saying is that the charcoal on the shisha could have spilled and caused the fire,” Brozzo said. Speaking at a press conference on Thursday morning, Mathias Reynard, the president of the Valais canton, said what should have been a moment of celebration “turned into a nightmare”. 1:19 'I'm very worried': residents wait as victim identification under way in Switzerland – video The police commander Frédéric Gisler said: “I can’t hide from you that we are all shaken by what happened overnight in Crans.” Patients had been dispatched to hospitals in Sion, Lausanne, Geneva and Zurich, he said. “At the moment we are considering this a fire and we are not considering the possibility of an attack,” the prosecutor Beatrice Pilloud said, adding that authorities had opened a full investigation. She said authorities were trying to get the bodies of the victims to their families. “A lot of resources have been put into forensics to identify the victims. These resources are intended to allow us to get the bodies to the families as soon as possible,” she said. Some of the victims are from other countries, said Stéphane Ganzer, the head of security for the Valais canton. View image in fullscreen Rescuers at the site of the explosion that ripped through the bar in Crans-Montana. Photograph: Maxime Schmid/AFP/Getty Images The 22 injured patients being treated at Lausanne university hospital are reported to be aged between 16 and 26. General manager Claire Charmet said eight of them were resuscitated on arrival . They were now being treated in critical and specialised care units. “This will be a long and intensive process, lasting several weeks, perhaps even months,” she said. A reception centre and helpline have been set up for affected families, Lathion said. “We’re just at the beginning of our investigation, but this is a internationally renowned ski resort with lots of tourists.” French media said Le Constellation was a well-known spot in Crans-Montana. It opened in 2015 and could accommodate up to 300 people inside, with another 40 on a heated terrace. The bar’s Facebook and Instagram pages appear to have been deleted and are unavailable. Its owners are reportedly a French couple, originally from Corsica. The owner of the Dédé clothing store, directly across the street from Le Constellation, said the venue was a popular destination for younger people – including the children of her friends, who would often drink there from as young as 14 years old. François, 17, a ski instructor who said he had often partied at the bar, said new year parties were known as being more lax in terms of checking the age of bar entrants. The town relies heavily on a largely European clientele who come to ski, eat in several Michelin-starred restaurants and shop at Moncler and Louis Vuitton stores. It has about 3,000 hotel rooms and 10,000 residents. With Agence France-Presse and Associated Press Explore more on these topics Switzerland Europe Crans-Montana fire news Share Reuse this content About 40 killed and 115 injured in fire at bar in Swiss ski resort of Crans-Montana Police say blaze tore through crowded bar where people were seeing in the new year About 40 people are believed to have been killed and 115 injured after a fire tore through a crowded bar during a New Year’s Eve party in the Swiss ski resort of Crans-Montana. Swiss police confirmed several dozen partygoers were dead. The victims could not be immediately identified because of the severity of their burns, the ministry said. It confirmed arson was not responsible, with the blaze thought to be the result of an accident. A police spokesperson in the canton of Valais in south-west Switzerland said the fire started at about 1.30am local time (0030 GMT) in a bar called Le Constellation, which is popular with tourists, as revellers rang in the new year. “More than a hundred people were in the building and we are seeing many injured and many dead,” he said. Video from the scene shows orange flames billowing from inside the ground-floor bar and lounge. Screams can be heard as well as loud music. Several people were seen collapsed outside the building, which is located in the centre of the Valais resort. Two women told the French broadcaster BFMTV that they were inside Le Constellation when they saw a bartender carrying a female member of staff on his shoulders. She was holding a lit candle in a champagne bottle that set fire to a wooden ceiling. The flames quickly spread and collapsed the ceiling, they said. A photo showed a woman in a black dress in the basement of the bar, holding a magnum of champagne. A large white flame can be seen coming from the top of the bottle. One of the women described a crowd surge as people frantically tried to escape from a basement nightclub up a narrow flight of stairs and through a narrow door. Another witness speaking to BFMTV described partygoers breaking windows to escape the fire, some gravely injured, and panicked parents rushing to the scene in cars to see whether their children were trapped inside. The young man said he saw about 20 people scrambling to get out of the smoke and flames. He likened what he saw to a horror movie as he watched from across the street. The morning after the tragedy, two women held each other and wept in front of the police cordon outside Le Constellation, while mourners left flowers. The club itself, which is frequented by younger people and tourists, was surrounded by police tents. Shortly before 1pm a Swiss police forensics team entered the tents. Behind the building, an apartment block – also called Le Constellation – had smashed windows where firefighters had attempted to let the smoke from the blaze escape. Crans-Montana is a bustling resort town of about 10,000 people perched high in the Valais canton of the Swiss Alps, with a view across the valley to the famed Matterhorn mountain. Unlike nearby Verbier, which attracts a wealthy anglophone crowd, Crans-Montana is popular mainly with wealthy Europeans. But Le Constellation itself was more of a cheap and cheerful bar for younger people and tourists. Ulysse Brozzo, 16, an instructor at the ESS ski school, said several of his friends were in the club at the time. He said he had spoken to some who were safe, but had yet to hear from others he knew were inside when the fire broke out. A friend of a friend was in a coma at Sion hospital. “It’s a total tragedy,” he said. “There were hundreds of people inside.” The venue was set over two floors, he said, with a bar on the main floor and narrow stairs leading to a basement nightclub below, where he speculated it would have been possible for people to have become trapped and incapacitated from smoke inhalation. He said shisha pipes were available to smoke. “What people are saying is that the charcoal on the shisha could have spilled and caused the fire,” Brozzo said. Speaking at a press conference on Thursday morning, Mathias Reynard, the president of the Valais canton, said what should have been a moment of celebration “turned into a nightmare”. The police commander Frédéric Gisler said: “I can’t hide from you that we are all shaken by what happened overnight in Crans.” Patients had been dispatched to hospitals in Sion, Lausanne, Geneva and Zurich, he said. “At the moment we are considering this a fire and we are not considering the possibility of an attack,” the prosecutor Beatrice Pilloud said, adding that authorities had opened a full investigation. She said authorities were trying to get the bodies of the victims to their families. “A lot of resources have been put into forensics to identify the victims. These resources are intended to allow us to get the bodies to the families as soon as possible,” she said. Some of the victims are from other countries, said Stéphane Ganzer, the head of security for the Valais canton. The 22 injured patients being treated at Lausanne university hospital are reported to be aged between 16 and 26. General manager Claire Charmet said eight of them were resuscitated on arrival . They were now being treated in critical and specialised care units. “This will be a long and intensive process, lasting several weeks, perhaps even months,” she said. A reception centre and helpline have been set up for affected families, Lathion said. “We’re just at the beginning of our investigation, but this is a internationally renowned ski resort with lots of tourists.” French media said Le Constellation was a well-known spot in Crans-Montana. It opened in 2015 and could accommodate up to 300 people inside, with another 40 on a heated terrace. The bar’s Facebook and Instagram pages appear to have been deleted and are unavailable. Its owners are reportedly a French couple, originally from Corsica. The owner of the Dédé clothing store, directly across the street from Le Constellation, said the venue was a popular destination for younger people – including the children of her friends, who would often drink there from as young as 14 years old. François, 17, a ski instructor who said he had often partied at the bar, said new year parties were known as being more lax in terms of checking the age of bar entrants. The town relies heavily on a largely European clientele who come to ski, eat in several Michelin-starred restaurants and shop at Moncler and Louis Vuitton stores. It has about 3,000 hotel rooms and 10,000 residents. With Agence France-Presse and Associated Press Switzerland Europe Crans-Montana fire news More on this story More on this story Service door of Crans-Montana bar where 40 died in fire was locked from inside, owner says 6d ago ‘An incomprehensible nightmare’: grief turns to anger over Swiss bar fire as Le Constellation owner arrested 7d ago No safety inspections at site of Swiss bar fire for past five years, mayor says 6 Jan 2026 All 116 people injured in Swiss resort fire identified, say police 5 Jan 2026 Last 16 victims of Crans-Montana fire identified, police say 4 Jan 2026 ‘It has hit us very hard’: grief grips Crans-Montana as police identify more victims 4 Jan 2026 Swiss prosecutors place bar managers under investigation after deadly fire 3 Jan 2026 Crans-Montana fire: families face agonising wait for victims’ identification 2 Jan 2026 Sparklers held near ceiling started Swiss ski resort fire, investigators believe 2 Jan 2026 Teenage girl educated in Britain among the missing after Crans-Montana fire 2 Jan 2026 More on this story More on this story Service door of Crans-Montana bar where 40 died in fire was locked from inside, owner says 6d ago Service door of Crans-Montana bar where 40 died in fire was locked from inside, owner says ‘An incomprehensible nightmare’: grief turns to anger over Swiss bar fire as Le Constellation owner arrested 7d ago ‘An incomprehensible nightmare’: grief turns to anger over Swiss bar fire as Le Constellation owner arrested No safety inspections at site of Swiss bar fire for past five years, mayor says 6 Jan 2026 No safety inspections at site of Swiss bar fire for past five years, mayor says All 116 people injured in Swiss resort fire identified, say police 5 Jan 2026 All 116 people injured in Swiss resort fire identified, say police Last 16 victims of Crans-Montana fire identified, police say 4 Jan 2026 Last 16 victims of Crans-Montana fire identified, police say ‘It has hit us very hard’: grief grips Crans-Montana as police identify more victims 4 Jan 2026 ‘It has hit us very hard’: grief grips Crans-Montana as police identify more victims Swiss prosecutors place bar managers under investigation after deadly fire 3 Jan 2026 Swiss prosecutors place bar managers under investigation after deadly fire Crans-Montana fire: families face agonising wait for victims’ identification 2 Jan 2026 Crans-Montana fire: families face agonising wait for victims’ identification Sparklers held near ceiling started Swiss ski resort fire, investigators believe 2 Jan 2026 Sparklers held near ceiling started Swiss ski resort fire, investigators believe Teenage girl educated in Britain among the missing after Crans-Montana fire 2 Jan 2026 Teenage girl educated in Britain among the missing after Crans-Montana fire Most viewed Most viewed Most viewed Most viewed World Europe US news Americas Asia Australia Middle East Africa Inequality Global development News Opinion Sport Culture Lifestyle About us Help Complaints & corrections Contact us Tip us off SecureDrop Privacy policy Cookie policy Tax strategy Terms & conditions All topics All writers Newsletters Digital newspaper archive Bluesky Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Threads TikTok YouTube Advertise with us Guardian Labs Search jobs Work with us Accessibility settings
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