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Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters , მ ( m ) , ნ ( n ) and თ ( t ) , 12 – 13th century .
| 7c9e78bf5955dec1dcfebc0a64dd3f65 | 34,338 |
From the 11th @-@ century " limb @-@ flowery " , " limb @-@ arrowy " and " limb @-@ spotty " decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed . The first two are found in 11th- and 12th @-@ century monuments , whereas the third one is used until the 18th century .
| 0811c3c2209cba3587101a539ef7f04a | 34,339 |
Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself .
| 701ba4a26f7e59bd6f8cb80790220e38 | 34,340 |
Asomtavruli letter დ ( doni ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds .
| 67de75634adfd2fcbab01d9163e1015b | 34,341 |
The " Curly " decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other , or the smaller letters are written inside other letters . It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books , although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asom... | 6b3b5a042121ffd877932eab06a4ef88 | 34,342 |
The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli " Curly " decorative form .
| a2ae56b072d8404b7f523efcc7dbd800 | 34,343 |
= = = Handwriting of Asomtavruli = = =
| 73327c154e5f5e4618bdeced1d340d12 | 34,345 |
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter :
| 3222b60cf63b1bfb03b524b154cfbe92 | 34,347 |
= = Nuskhuri = =
| 84f0e30730e5484e060bd84535da2ed1 | 34,349 |
Nuskhuri ( Georgian : ნუსხური ) is the second Georgian script . The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( ნუსხა ) , meaning " inventory " or " schedule " . Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts . The combination is called Khutsuri ( Georgian : ხუცური , " clerical " , fr... | 27cd58121aba6954e6d7a787aec73e29 | 34,351 |
Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli . The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD . The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD . Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century .
| 8f2e6e89f168b4b3c6f4a50b5ffbf252 | 34,352 |
= = = Form of Nuskhuri letters = = =
| 0d3dcc3e5a001ffcb2ff8e473daa1161 | 34,354 |
Nuskhuri letters vary in height , with ascenders and descenders , and are slanted to the right . Letters have an angular shape , with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli . This enabled faster writing of manuscripts .
| 9949e5c8cca038b584f1a4fa3914b2bb | 34,356 |
→ → Asomtavruli letters ო ( oni ) and ჳ ( vie ) . A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri , უ uni .
| e198d998a0792c103a4ec720343864a9 | 34,357 |
Note : Without proper font support , you may see question marks , boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters .
| ca090f1fc55d1f512f4fd9020f0367d8 | 34,358 |
= = = Handwriting of Nuskhuri = = =
| b476b06f1dfd0702f05d493517f24b0d | 34,360 |
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter :
| a6a360c311a471765c4e6c1be8e3d981 | 34,362 |
= = Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today = =
| 8a8d68984628b4cf117534d79191c078 | 34,364 |
Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals , and exterior design , especially in stone engravings . Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences , as in the Latin script , but it didn 't catch on . As... | 0a1cdb7fb22c30fd745b5fd3d9a1290f | 34,366 |
= = Mkhedruli = =
| baa6bfe681ca6653dd65e1eb2eed79b1 | 34,368 |
Mkhedruli ( Georgian : მხედრული ) is the third and current Georgian script . Mkhedruli , literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " , derives from mkhedari ( მხედარი ) meaning " horseman " , " knight " , " warrior " and " cavalier " .
| 3fcc47da9df39b68cc57d3b09bc08039 | 34,370 |
Like the two other scripts , Mkhedruli is purely unicameral . Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century . The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD . The second oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written text is found in the 11th @-@ century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia .... | 8df3793e4bb5f1c20c91a2c978befed1 | 34,371 |
Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts , though Khutsuri ( Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli ) was used until the 19th century . Since the 19th century , with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts , Mkhedruli became universal writing Georgian outside the Church .
| d9b496be3804a574ace601dee40b9231 | 34,372 |
= = = Form of Mkhedruli letters = = =
| 6df768a13d6e91962be6f60769a3fcf9 | 34,374 |
Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters . Mkhedruli letters are written in the four @-@ linear system , similar to Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing . It br... | e6a1732019b39257fdf6c6120712b35c | 34,376 |
Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century .
| 9a1f55a968a6c517c1086e802c25192b | 34,377 |
" Gurgen : King : of Kings : great @-@ grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates "
| f3a00e65a4cd302572194a619af02ca5 | 34,378 |
Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli , 1187 AD .
| 98c64246dc56548ab3f30c84c770afed | 34,379 |
= = = Modern Georgian alphabet = = =
| 22061e848111922fd15c0cab3e371356 | 34,381 |
The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters :
| e040ee8ca87c6e556688752f99c5fd1e | 34,383 |
= = = Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet = = =
| 50ebceb3a03c9f643c3781a576a83b5e | 34,385 |
The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians , founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879 , discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant :
| 6c0fd98d5a5b0b020ad0e6c3cbc8b566 | 34,387 |
ჱ ( he ) , sometimes called " ei " or " e @-@ merve " ( " eighth e " ) , was equivalent to ეჲ ey , as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey ' Christ ' .
| eecc39a687e5344753c4282332096ee1 | 34,388 |
ჲ ( hie ) , also called iota , appeared instead of ი ( ini ) after a vowel , but came to have the same pronunciation as ი ( ini ) and was replaced by it . Thus ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey " Christ " is now written ქრისტეი krist 'ei .
| 308831a659147868429910e8c73eaa5c | 34,389 |
ჳ ( vie ) came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence , as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi " others ' " .
| 2538c166dfada1ed1edfa310052ed659 | 34,390 |
ჴ ( qari , hari ) came to be pronounced the same as ხ ( khani ) , and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴლმწიფე became ხელმწიფე " sovereign " .
| 46f05bb61fdf73dfc5c5dc2a80558068 | 34,391 |
ჵ ( hoe ) was used for the interjection hoi ! and is now spelled ჰოი .
| 2db937d5435ac32de2bdfe84956adb38 | 34,392 |
All but ჵ ( hoe ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; ჲ ( hie ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well , for the y @-@ sound / j / . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script .
| 7195bf590528b6dac83b61bb7fe43b3f | 34,393 |
= = = Letters added to other alphabets = = =
| 5ecaf5aeeb534b774770a8b0aaa75472 | 34,395 |
Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian . Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian , while others required additional letters :
| 6ab4f10576e45365e3206fe88ef03b7f | 34,397 |
ჶ ( fi " phi " ) is used in Laz and Svan , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian . It derives from the Greek letter Φ ( phi ) .
| c5700e2e36b0ed53979ec92e5b666059 | 34,398 |
ჷ ( shva " schwa " ) , also called yn , is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian .
| ed5af047ff61a8f8508d686a24105c22 | 34,399 |
ჸ ( elifi " alif " ) is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 ყ 〉 ( q 'ari ) .
| da18716a951af66570b794aa54acbb56 | 34,400 |
ჹ ( turned gani ) was once used for [ ɢ ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages .
| 634842a8a9cb2b236cceb075f436f28f | 34,401 |
ჺ ( aini " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ ʕ ] in Bats . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 ﻋ 〉 ( ‘ ain ) .
| bb9cb64ad2241bf6215f9d0005710aa1 | 34,402 |
= = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = =
| c57bf3a550e9b7fecf2ecc121a558a7d | 34,404 |
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter :
| 7b1dfdb829c4eae65b50ea692673726e | 34,406 |
ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller ascender , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter t... | 656e10c417b5e52f466807b4e145e35a | 34,407 |
Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : ა , თ , ი , ო .
| 89b0d123b1f6094f2304086d254999f0 | 34,408 |
Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : ბ , ზ , მ , ნ , პ , რ , ს , შ , ჩ , ძ , წ , ხ , ჰ
| cd910bb5cf2720c902c863d8a688e3e2 | 34,409 |
An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , ე , ვ , კ , ლ , ჟ , ტ , უ , ფ , ღ , ყ , ც
| 7bd8069aa2c6b2dae60f579e3eef5f7b | 34,410 |
Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like þ in Old English : ქ , ჭ , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both ascender and descender in print , and sometimes in handwriting .
| 7b66b9e45abe3384b39a74e7d9b41f8f | 34,411 |
= = = = Variation = = = =
| b61963ce5b6ebe1bf2ca227b8b9a9c6d | 34,413 |
There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o 'clock , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of ... | d80ca53bbc8ad0fd69a74da8e14b5ef5 | 34,415 |
გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom .
| 9136ee65e5f54a381c65df4f7e9a9a1f | 34,416 |
დ ( doni ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , .
| 16d4a86c091bbf9988149f0caebbb184 | 34,417 |
კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , tsani , dzili ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( tsani ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side .
| 12b27418e919a45048a7c8f8e3ca7f27 | 34,418 |
ლ ( lasi ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it .
| ffb81ab0d8d9e49b812503191489f793 | 34,419 |
Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , .
| 222169157eb01a5a76b2ea15a2d184a5 | 34,420 |
რ ( rae ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 .
| cfa1c37931f3e96e3fa8237acc667513 | 34,421 |
ტ ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top .
| 1e7d9634054ddba4d1b3d63eb45d1cc3 | 34,422 |
წ ( ts 'ili ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl .
| 54182cca75506bdaae112f49a31dc084 | 34,423 |
ჭ ( ch 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line .
| 8d1218832c100336b486fde9fa90a300 | 34,424 |
ჱ ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a conflation of ს and ჰ .
| 55fa97d2717972d816313e2efb2ec08b | 34,425 |
ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X "
| 50d18e2a49818fb8aeee48e8a418cbe4 | 34,426 |
= = = = Similar letters = = = =
| 8c86e54c555f6dc099631ba887c17160 | 34,428 |
Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting .
| 32bf6b0eeaba80703895629642189deb | 34,430 |
For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line .
| e17d6a7daf5b8fa7e1ee06269bac84ba | 34,431 |
For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( uni ) and შ ( shini ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( sani ) and ხ ( khani ) .
| 28f5dbfec5000f41e00470b58d70bfd3 | 34,432 |
For კ ( k 'ani ) and პ ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up .
| 9176b9b9b1a2f4707fba7697fd51f1fa | 34,433 |
ძ ( dzili ) is written with a vertical top .
| 3385bdc048c392b00b92eb35ba8070a7 | 34,434 |
= = Ligatures , abbreviations and calligraphy = =
| e30781da10452391ad9674277e134fbd | 34,436 |
Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters .
| bb308e2a9e754d5966dd0de127fecd8d | 34,438 |
A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia , Ⴂ Ⴌ ( გნ , GN )
| b6b56ade3410cce90d055e55881f459c | 34,439 |
A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ ( და , da ) " and "
| a9791b93ce2d92d11f4649511bd91a6d | 34,440 |
Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious , abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in... | 2c8e93bcecab5b1823846eb692eb00cb | 34,441 |
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი ( romeli ) " which "
| a81c15857d5207fd97355090be24cc2a | 34,442 |
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე ( iesu kriste ) " Jesus Christ "
| 7569349ed03ea44517fe58e59af04428 | 34,443 |
Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory , requiring adhesion to a complex system .
| 1a517c0ba7e019a302e0cad19f17ebcd | 34,444 |
A Mkhedruli ligature of და ( da ) " and "
| 6d6ed70ec717ff76b90caa868be59ee3 | 34,445 |
Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti
| 42e20959845d65f7478ad80e5bb6ada0 | 34,446 |
= = Type faces = =
| e3e1e5fc01485906fad3775082f8e9dd | 34,448 |
Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or italic type .
| f0a287a87cc8101424c190a35a55cf16 | 34,450 |
= = Punctuation = =
| e714fca7619ca9f56ec784cdaca5a442 | 34,452 |
In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as dashes , like − ,
| 92ee8cdc53693acaac0d7fe847fbcd68 | 34,454 |
= and =
| 5b3aff4a45f17b78edebe89bd9b93110 | 34,455 |
− . In the 10th century , clusters of one ( · ) , two ( : ) , three ( ჻ ) and six ( ჻ ჻ ) dots ( later sometimes small circles ) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text . One dot indicated a " minor stop " ( presumably a simple word break ) , two dots marked or separated " special wo... | c9b2280552cf7aa01144d53f9d41d170 | 34,456 |
Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti , with the divider 〈 ჻ 〉
| 8e272c763b69fd05bfc5d144d254662f | 34,457 |
ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე
| 86afe3febf536deffa8ca737f04a1edd | 34,458 |
" The sovereign Alexander "
| 6426bfc573eafc0a168249f364f9b5e4 | 34,459 |
= = Summary = =
| 32da9edad32dad8d45f63764502e541f | 34,461 |
This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns , including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets ( shown with a blue background ) , obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets ( green background ) , or additional letters in languages other than Georgian ( pink background ) . The " natio... | 3553e245da3703be0a86bcc3503cf762 | 34,463 |
= = Use for other non @-@ Kartvelian languages = =
| b130d5122177e08859d41fb7d4eac2ae | 34,465 |
Ossetian language during the 1940s .
| 1ded83825287617e681bb46c2bb62343 | 34,467 |
Abkhaz language during the 1940s .
| 7334a6be7038ee9f9d3d01a203ed52a3 | 34,468 |
Ingush language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
| 5686f04b14bbd2d28a8acffa3dc6574a | 34,469 |
Chechen language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
| 8dd924e2be9c41ab29b37b30b5ae257a | 34,470 |
Avar language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
| c498ddffd7322336cf1f2ad019862d2c | 34,471 |
Turkish language and Tatar language . A Turkish Gospel , dictionary , poems , medical book dating from the 18th century .
| 2fa8da5c15077178383efbe22e013ca7 | 34,472 |
Persian language . The 18th @-@ century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
| aaa7a40c90c4c1ec588d18ce94e250f5 | 34,473 |
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