text stringlengths 4 7.07k | text_hash stringlengths 32 32 | __index_level_0__ int64 1 1.81M |
|---|---|---|
= = Reforming the Breeders = =
| e551873061b896fa7eb417d21d830ba9 | 11,416 |
Later in 1996 , Deal changed the name of the group back to the Breeders , originally with almost the same line @-@ up as the Amps . Until then , Deal had been waiting for Wiggs and Kelley to rejoin the Breeders and record a new album together , and had held back from reforming the Breeders out of respect for them . In May 1996 , Wiggs revealed that she would not be involved in any immediate Breeders activity ; Kelley also chose to stay in Saint Paul , to be close to her rehabilitation facility . Deal then decided that she did not want to wait any longer to reform the group , partly because the Breeders ' repertoire was larger than the Amps ' , thereby allowing longer concerts . Deal added violinist Carrie Bradley ( who had played on the Breeders ' Pod album ) , and with Macpherson , Lerma , and Farley , played some shows in 1996 with Primus .
| aa955806d6dace48ea5b4dab8f4f6530 | 11,418 |
By 1998 , Kelley had rejoined and Macpherson had left the group , and by 2000 Lerma and Farley had also left . The Breeders , with a line @-@ up including the Deal sisters and new members Mando Lopez and Jose Medeles , released the albums Title TK in 2002 and Mountain Battles in 2008 . Meanwhile , Macpherson was a member of Guided by Voices from 1998 to 2001 , and participated in other projects with Guided By Voices ' Robert Pollard until 2005 . Lerma and Farley have been members of the Tasties , and in 1999 participated in Pollard 's Lexo and the Leapers side project group ; Farley was also a member of Guided by Voices from 1999 to 2004 . In 2013 , the Last Splash @-@ era Breeders line @-@ up of Kim and Kelley Deal , Macpherson , and Wiggs reunited to tour to celebrate the 20th anniversary of that album .
| 96f752ed36c34c7fbf55f7ac62a777a2 | 11,419 |
= = Members = =
| 7769c677c3a08b24a8b27656c07d44d1 | 11,421 |
Kim Deal – vocals , guitars
| 4a924357cabd3434bab45e0bd256b03a | 11,423 |
Luis Lerma – bass
| 393d2e3e631793fe009d2664bcaecda4 | 11,424 |
Nate Farley – guitars
| a611f4672531425e279c239dac9dc3e6 | 11,425 |
Jim Macpherson – drums
| e2b025ed3f61104bac86faf36f287f4f | 11,426 |
= = Discography = =
| 5815680322143e113f7c6b1491df1428 | 11,428 |
= = = Album = = =
| 66b3b45e94e6b0bb9593d6e840153211 | 11,431 |
= = = Single = = =
| 08f3018b0b6850e2e65cd3529a83acf7 | 11,434 |
= Exploration of Jupiter =
| 8840c96274c668c08d88364560c6f866 | 11,438 |
The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by automated spacecraft . It began with the arrival of Pioneer 10 into the Jovian system in 1973 , and , as of 2016 , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions . All of these missions were undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit . These probes make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System 's outer planets as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time . On 5th July 2016 , spacecraft Juno arrived and entered the planet 's orbit — the second craft ever to do so . Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties , especially due to the probes ' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet 's harsh radiation environment .
| 56faca61d6444f80da6b06f5b5f856d8 | 11,440 |
The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter was Pioneer 10 in 1973 , followed a year later by Pioneer 11 . Aside from taking the first close @-@ up pictures of the planet , the probes discovered its magnetosphere and its largely fluid interior . The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes visited the planet in 1979 , and studied its moons and the ring system , discovering the volcanic activity of Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa . Ulysses further studied Jupiter 's magnetosphere in 1992 and then again in 2000 . The Cassini probe approached the planet in 2000 and took very detailed images of its atmosphere . The New Horizons spacecraft passed by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its and its satellites ' parameters .
| 1e36f90c78c5bd4a43e67a5f1dbbd4a9 | 11,441 |
The Galileo spacecraft was the first to have entered orbit around Jupiter , arriving in 1995 and studying the planet until 2003 . During this period Galileo gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system , making close approaches to all of the four large Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them , as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath their surfaces . It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede . As it approached Jupiter , it also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 . In December 1995 , it sent an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere , so far the only craft to do so .
| ec8e455a26f8f11c5903bf0a70d79ed7 | 11,442 |
In July 2016 , the Juno spacecraft , launched in 2011 , completed its orbital insertion maneuver successfully , and is now in orbit around Jupiter and preparing for its science programme .
| 41d3ca2739f75a244850d494f8bbc3b7 | 11,443 |
The European Space Agency selected the L1 @-@ class JUICE mission in 2012 as part of its Cosmic Vision programme to explore three of Jupiter 's Galilean moons , with a possible Ganymede lander provided by Roscosmos . JUICE is proposed to be launched in 2022 .
| 2a3d1dd198bd0dcff757f1b9e8cd2158 | 11,444 |
= = Technical requirements = =
| 956bd49ae344ab64025acef280b6c477 | 11,446 |
Flights from Earth to other planets in the Solar System have a high energy cost . It requires almost the same amount of energy for a spacecraft to reach Jupiter from Earth 's orbit as it does to lift it into orbit in the first place . In astrodynamics , this energy expenditure is defined by the net change in the spacecraft 's velocity , or delta @-@ v. The energy needed to reach Jupiter from an Earth orbit requires a delta @-@ v of about 9 km / s , compared to the 9 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 5 km / s to reach a low Earth orbit from the ground . Gravity assists through planetary flybys ( such as by Earth or Venus ) can be used to reduce the energetic requirement ( i.e. the fuel ) at launch , at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration to reach a target such as Jupiter when compared to the direct trajectory . Ion thrusters capable of a delta @-@ v of more than 10 kilometers / s were used on the Dawn spacecraft . This is more than enough delta @-@ v to do a Jupiter fly @-@ by mission from a solar orbit of the same radius as that of Earth without gravity assist .
| 7dd7a71c8f7ab00632257ceb963a52ea | 11,448 |
A major problem in sending space probes to Jupiter is that the planet has no solid surface on which to land , as there is a smooth transition between the planet 's atmosphere and its fluid interior . Any probes descending into the atmosphere are eventually crushed by the immense pressures within Jupiter .
| e259434def7ff9ed64a6ecf096c67308 | 11,449 |
Another major issue is the amount of radiation to which a space probe is subjected , due to the harsh charged @-@ particle environment around Jupiter ( for a detailed explanation see Magnetosphere of Jupiter ) . For example , when Pioneer 11 made its closest approach to the planet , the level of radiation was ten times more powerful than Pioneer 's designers had predicted , leading to fears that the probes would not survive . With a few minor glitches , the probe managed to pass through the radiation belts , but it lost most of the images of the moon Io , as the radiation had caused Pioneer 's imaging photo polarimeter to receive false commands . The subsequent and far more technologically advanced Voyager spacecraft had to be redesigned to cope with the radiation levels . Over the eight years the Galileo spacecraft orbited the planet , the probe 's radiation dose far exceeded its design specifications , and its systems failed on several occasions . The spacecraft 's gyroscopes often exhibited increased errors , and electrical arcs sometimes occurred between its rotating and non @-@ rotating parts , causing it to enter safe mode , which led to total loss of the data from the 16th , 18th and 33rd orbits . The radiation also caused phase shifts in Galileo 's ultra @-@ stable quartz oscillator .
| 952b21e8773f62bf99c75f4e734a56d2 | 11,450 |
= = Flyby missions = =
| b82b89f72763bcc153c975f04dd2e34f | 11,452 |
= = = Pioneer program ( 1973 and 1974 ) = = =
| 37fb5fafc2f874af7fe1ff2d7ce98f78 | 11,455 |
The first spacecraft to explore Jupiter was Pioneer 10 , which flew past the planet in December 1973 , followed by Pioneer 11 twelve months later . Pioneer 10 obtained the first @-@ ever close @-@ up images of Jupiter and its Galilean moons ; the spacecraft studied the planet 's atmosphere , detected its magnetic field , observed its radiation belts and determined that Jupiter is mainly fluid . Pioneer 11 made its closest approach , within some 34 @,@ 000 km of Jupiter 's cloud tops , on December 4 , 1974 . It obtained dramatic images of the Great Red Spot , made the first observation of Jupiter 's immense polar regions , and determined the mass of Jupiter 's moon Callisto . The information gathered by these two spacecraft helped astronomers and engineers improve the design of future probes to cope more effectively with the environment around the giant planet .
| 13ae2eaec122a34a17560fd74bcb588a | 11,457 |
= = = Voyager program ( 1979 ) = = =
| 09f1570ea977abc0437e9794f361dd5a | 11,459 |
Voyager 1 began photographing Jupiter in January 1979 and made its closest approach on March 5 , 1979 , at a distance of 349 @,@ 000 km from Jupiter 's center . This close approach allowed for greater image resolution , though the flyby 's short duration meant that most observations of Jupiter 's moons , rings , magnetic field , and radiation environment were made in the 48 @-@ hour period bracketing the approach , even though Voyager 1 continued photographing the planet until April . It was soon followed by Voyager 2 , which made its closest approach on July 9 , 1979 , 576 @,@ 000 km away from the planet 's cloud tops . The probe discovered Jupiter 's ring , observed intricate vortices in its atmosphere , observed active volcanoes on Io , a process analogous to plate tectonics on Ganymede , and numerous craters on Callisto .
| 59f728fe9ad03bf1f98792de2de73deb | 11,461 |
The Voyager missions vastly improved our understanding of the Galilean moons , and also discovered Jupiter 's rings . They also took the first close @-@ up images of the planet 's atmosphere , revealing the Great Red Spot as a complex storm moving in a counter @-@ clockwise direction . Other smaller storms and eddies were found throughout the banded clouds ( see animation on the right ) . Two new , small satellites , Adrastea and Metis , were discovered orbiting just outside the ring , making them the first of Jupiter 's moons to be identified by a spacecraft . A third new satellite , Thebe , was discovered between the orbits of Amalthea and Io .
| c0f019ce6f20630fe730a5fb6cfb02b7 | 11,462 |
The discovery of volcanic activity on the moon Io was the greatest unexpected finding of the mission , as it was the first time an active volcano was observed on a celestial body other than Earth . Together , the Voyagers recorded the eruption of nine volcanoes on Io , as well as evidence for other eruptions occurring between the Voyager encounters .
| d1124d8a57d66e706995637d4dec0f9c | 11,463 |
Europa displayed a large number of intersecting linear features in the low @-@ resolution photos from Voyager 1 . At first , scientists believed the features might be deep cracks , caused by crustal rifting or tectonic processes . The high @-@ resolution photos from Voyager 2 , taken closer to Jupiter , left scientists puzzled as the features in these photos were almost entirely lacking in topographic relief . This led many to suggest that these cracks might be similar to ice floes on Earth , and that Europa might have a liquid water interior . Europa may be internally active due to tidal heating at a level about one @-@ tenth that of Io , and as a result , the moon is thought to have a thin crust less than 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) thick of water ice , possibly floating on a 50 @-@ kilometers @-@ deep ( 30 mile ) ocean .
| fb173a13618ed18bdb7194e96bfcca35 | 11,464 |
= = = Ulysses ( 1992 ) = = =
| e055ab40df114b20346e0c3c2602a851 | 11,466 |
On February 8 , 1992 , the Ulysses solar probe flew past Jupiter 's north pole at a distance of 451 @,@ 000 km . This swing @-@ by maneuver was required for Ulysses to attain a very high @-@ inclination orbit around the Sun , increasing its inclination to the ecliptic to 80 @.@ 2 degrees . The giant planet 's gravity bent the spacecraft 's flightpath downward and away from the ecliptic plane , placing it into a final orbit around the Sun 's north and south poles . The size and shape of the probe 's orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree , so that its aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU ( Jupiter 's distance from the Sun ) , while its perihelion lay somewhat beyond 1 AU ( Earth 's distance from the Sun ) . During its Jupiter encounter , the probe made measurements of the planet 's magnetosphere . Since the probe had no cameras , no images were taken . In February 2004 , the probe arrived again at the vicinity of Jupiter . This time the distance from the planet was much greater — about 240 million km — but it made further observations of Jupiter .
| 1463db0b00e4d736745963ef724711eb | 11,468 |
= = = Cassini ( 2000 ) = = =
| 60c496ed7dc8563f608c2203734b0310 | 11,470 |
In 2000 , the Cassini probe , en route to Saturn , flew by Jupiter and provided some of the highest @-@ resolution images ever taken of the planet . It made its closest approach on December 30 , 2000 , and made many scientific measurements . About 26 @,@ 000 images of Jupiter were taken during the months @-@ long flyby . It produced the most detailed global color portrait of Jupiter yet , in which the smallest visible features are approximately 60 km ( 37 mi ) across .
| 1160c398d7d275f2ef03c36408ae36fd | 11,472 |
A major finding of the flyby , announced on March 6 , 2003 , was of Jupiter 's atmospheric circulation . Dark belts alternate with light zones in the atmosphere , and the zones , with their pale clouds , had previously been considered by scientists to be areas of upwelling air , partly because on Earth clouds tend to be formed by rising air . Analysis of Cassini imagery showed that the dark belts contain individual storm cells of upwelling bright @-@ white clouds , too small to see from Earth . Anthony Del Genio of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies said that " the belts must be the areas of net @-@ rising atmospheric motion on Jupiter , [ so ] the net motion in the zones has to be sinking " .
| d59a7880f484af2a48cb0e021c8cd8fa | 11,473 |
Other atmospheric observations included a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric @-@ haze , about the size of the Great Red Spot , near Jupiter 's north pole . Infrared imagery revealed aspects of circulation near the poles , with bands of globe @-@ encircling winds , and adjacent bands moving in opposite directions . The same announcement also discussed the nature of Jupiter 's rings . Light scattering by particles in the rings showed the particles were irregularly shaped ( rather than spherical ) and likely originated as ejecta from micrometeorite impacts on Jupiter 's moons , probably on Metis and Adrastea . On December 19 , 2000 , the Cassini spacecraft captured a very @-@ low @-@ resolution image of the moon Himalia , but it was too distant to show any surface details .
| b708db70448533b25c4e5db45db4d0ee | 11,474 |
= = = New Horizons ( 2007 ) = = =
| d6cfe09291608f337724fd90a783d8dd | 11,476 |
The New Horizons probe , en route to Pluto , flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist and was the first probe launched directly towards Jupiter since the Ulysses in 1990 . Its Long Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) took its first photographs of Jupiter on September 4 , 2006 . The spacecraft began further study of the Jovian system in December 2006 , and made its closest approach on February 28 , 2007 .
| 7b564792ac65e83da65f43c705d63603 | 11,478 |
Although close to Jupiter , New Horizons ' instruments made refined measurements of the orbits of Jupiter 's inner moons , particularly Amalthea . The probe 's cameras measured volcanoes on Io , studied all four Galilean moons in detail , and made long @-@ distance studies of the outer moons Himalia and Elara . The craft also studied Jupiter 's Little Red Spot and the planet 's magnetosphere and tenuous ring system .
| 2b003d40c9242115e0e8116493ea4267 | 11,479 |
On March 19 , 2007 the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself , causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode . The craft fully recovered within two days , with some data loss on Jupiter 's magnetotail . No other data loss events were associated with the encounter . Due to the immense size of the Jupiter system and the relative closeness of the Jovian system to Earth in comparison to the closeness of Pluto to Earth , New Horizons will send back more data to Earth from the Jupiter encounter than the Pluto encounter .
| 62ff68cf4239aae7ade752c0d5af80ea | 11,480 |
= = Orbiter missions = =
| 9d52473acf2b27324add56c1936503b1 | 11,482 |
= = = Galileo ( 1995 – 2003 ) = = =
| 3e7c2641f292d09d8895cedf7e536ea0 | 11,485 |
The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo orbiter , which went into orbit around Jupiter on December 7 , 1995 . It orbited the planet for over seven years , making 35 orbits before it was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on September 21 , 2003 . During this period , it gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system ; the amount of information was not as great as intended because the deployment of its high @-@ gain radio transmitting antenna failed . The major events during the eight @-@ year study included multiple flybys of all of the Galilean moons , as well as Amalthea ( the first probe to do so ) . It also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994 and the sending of an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere in December 1995 .
| 985d54160ce1e629974c8840666551de | 11,487 |
Cameras on the Galileo spacecraft observed fragments of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 between 16 and 22 July 1994 as they collided with Jupiter 's southern hemisphere at a speed of approximately 60 kilometres per second . This was the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system objects . While the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth , Galileo , then at a distance of 1 @.@ 6 AU from the planet , was able to see the impacts as they occurred . Its instruments detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about 24 @,@ 000 K , compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130 K ( − 143 ° C ) , with the plume from the fireball reaching a height of over 3 @,@ 000 km .
| 7a3c7b74aad2dac8fe2d19afb278c771 | 11,488 |
An atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995 , entering the planet 's atmosphere on December 7 , 1995 . After a high @-@ g descent into the Jovian atmosphere , the probe discarded the remains of its heat shield , and it parachuted through 150 km of the atmosphere , collecting data for 57 @.@ 6 minutes , before being crushed by the pressure and temperature to which it was subjected ( about 22 times Earth normal , at a temperature of 153 ° C ) . It would have melted thereafter , and possibly vaporized . The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21 , 2003 at a speed of over 50 km / s , in order to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and contaminating Europa .
| 4761bb65910658fe6cd91fe2a9eb261c | 11,489 |
Major scientific results of the Galileo mission include :
| e172fd976ce2e2c4459142b278ce9d83 | 11,490 |
the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet 's atmosphere — the atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths ;
| 2c4e3616e10157861ab59a81a3b13dd2 | 11,491 |
confirmation of extensive volcanic activity on Io — which is 100 times greater than that found on Earth ; the heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth ;
| 7e297bcd31ea5bbe755b23d5aca83a2e | 11,492 |
observation of complex plasma interactions in Io 's atmosphere which create immense electrical currents that couple to Jupiter 's atmosphere ;
| 0e8e873606a8b44f273ccf01c7eae1ad | 11,493 |
providing evidence for supporting the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa 's icy surface ;
| 8cd4ce141f6c63ce76614b19ee21a614 | 11,494 |
first detection of a substantial magnetic field around a satellite ( Ganymede ) ;
| 698edad769e9b9f34f38e10a1512e9f5 | 11,495 |
magnetic data evidence suggesting that Europa , Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid @-@ saltwater layer under the visible surface ;
| d700a5083faaa978f71652e26a84dd37 | 11,496 |
evidence for a thin atmospheric layer on Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto known as a ' surface @-@ bound exosphere ' ;
| e3e6c5841edda8ff01d8d7b58ec706f5 | 11,497 |
understanding of the formation of the rings of Jupiter ( by dust kicked up as interplanetary meteoroids which smash into the planet 's four small inner moons ) and observation of two outer rings and the possibility of a separate ring along Amalthea 's orbit ;
| e2e2551f088e57ec83c6ff5c4365a07c | 11,498 |
identification of the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet 's magnetosphere .
| 05b1df36b646b9a133ed3c9b1f10cc13 | 11,499 |
On December 11 , 2013 , NASA reported , based on results from the Galileo mission , the detection of " clay @-@ like minerals " ( specifically , phyllosilicates ) , often associated with organic materials , on the icy crust of Europa , moon of Jupiter . The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists .
| ecaa6f2c3c10a9d6b9ba06f74d775a86 | 11,500 |
= = = Juno ( 2016 ) = = =
| 4860e1dc996468ff8121681ad78cb89d | 11,502 |
NASA launched Juno on August 5 , 2011 to study Jupiter in detail from a polar orbit when it arrives in 2016 . The spacecraft will be placed in a polar orbit to study the planet 's composition , gravity field , magnetic field , and polar magnetosphere . Juno will also search for clues about how Jupiter formed , including whether the planet has a rocky core , the amount of water present within the deep atmosphere , and how the mass is distributed within the planet . Juno will also study Jupiter 's deep winds , which can reach speeds of 600 km / h . Juno started orbiting Jupiter on the night of 4th July 2016 .
| ae922c1b093d9738e0a3b2c56e8a57ef | 11,504 |
= = = Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( 2022 ) = = =
| 6a0440023d9382421f45c9d303b64d5f | 11,506 |
ESA 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) has been selected as part of ESA 's Cosmic Vision science program . It is expected to launch in 2022 and , after a series of flybys in the inner Solar System , arrive in 2030 . In 2012 , the European Space Agency 's selected the JUpiter ICy moon Explorer ( JUICE ) as its first Large mission , replacing its contribution to EJSM , the Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter ( JGO ) . The partnership for the Europa Jupiter System Mission has since ended , but NASA will continue to contribute the European mission with hardware and an instrument .
| 8e3faa141cf155236b98aecc8f4bb7cb | 11,508 |
= = Proposed missions = =
| 1f6b57d306ad9fabf28b697b45aec1a3 | 11,510 |
The Europa Clipper is a mission proposed to NASA to focus on studying Jupiter 's moon Europa . In March 2013 , funds were authorized for " pre @-@ formulation and / or formulation activities for a mission that meets the science goals outlined for the Jupiter Europa mission in the most recent planetary decadal survey " . The proposed mission would be set to launch in the early 2020s and reach Europa after a 6 @.@ 5 year cruise . The spacecraft would fly by the moon 32 times to minimize radiation damage .
| 4af5fa188a545f324773ba2c11762ef0 | 11,512 |
= = = Canceled missions = = =
| b2ae8446fe177b6c0cbf376c85c33c2f | 11,514 |
Because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter 's moons Europa , Ganymede and Callisto , there has been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail . Funding difficulties have delayed progress . The Europa Orbiter was a planned NASA mission to Europa , which was canceled in 2002 . Its main objectives included determining the presence or absence of a subsurface ocean and identifying candidate sites for future lander missions . NASA 's JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) , which was canceled in 2005 , and a European Jovian Europa Orbiter mission were also studied , but were superseded by the Europa Jupiter System Mission .
| 0e5f43e82cd81957a5ff983a4af08c18 | 11,516 |
The Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter and its moons . In February 2009 it was announced that both space agencies had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission . The proposal included a launch date of around 2020 and consists of the NASA @-@ led Jupiter Europa Orbiter , and the ESA @-@ led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter . ESA 's contribution had encountered funding competition from other ESA projects . However , the Jupiter Europa Orbiter ( JEO ) , NASA 's contribution , was considered by the Planetary Decadal Survey to be too expensive . The survey supported a cheaper alternative to JEO .
| 061a4d2aee685326ce3bf862a2c8c4de | 11,517 |
= = Human exploration = =
| d9dc95cc3facba4cd9e1346102ac6464 | 11,519 |
While scientists require further evidence to determine the extent of a rocky core on Jupiter , its Galilean moons provide the potential opportunity for future human exploration .
| 0ac2dd17950a5f36c59f0bb50acd927e | 11,521 |
Particular targets are Europa , due to its potential for life , and Callisto , due to its relatively low radiation dose . In 2003 , NASA proposed a program called Human Outer Planets Exploration ( HOPE ) that involved sending astronauts to explore the Galilean moons . NASA has projected a possible attempt some time in the 2040s . In the Vision for Space Exploration policy announced in January 2004 , NASA discussed missions beyond Mars , mentioning that a " human research presence " may be desirable on Jupiter 's moons . Before the JIMO mission was cancelled , NASA administrator Sean O 'Keefe stated that " human explorers will follow . "
| e4c66e522ae7786b6bbe242feaa0ed99 | 11,522 |
= = = Potential for colonization = = =
| 7cfb556615cba490aa598d805cf22229 | 11,524 |
NASA has speculated on the feasibility of mining the atmospheres of the outer planets , particularly for helium @-@ 3 , an isotope of helium that is rare on Earth and could have a very high value per unit mass as thermonuclear fuel . Factories stationed in orbit could mine the gas and deliver it to visiting craft . However , the Jovian system in general poses particular disadvantages for colonization because of the severe radiation conditions prevailing in Jupiter 's magnetosphere and the planet 's particularly deep gravitational well . Jupiter would deliver about 36 Sv ( 3600 rem ) per day to unshielded colonists at Io and about 5 @.@ 4 Sv ( 540 rems ) per day to unshielded colonists at Europa , which is a decisive aspect due to the fact that already an exposure to about 0 @.@ 75 Sv over a period of a few days is enough to cause radiation poisoning , and about 5 Sv over a few days is fatal .
| 92f220d6f735d1559ee5005c038ac7ee | 11,526 |
Ganymede is the Solar System 's largest moon and the Solar System 's only known moon with a magnetosphere , but this does not shield it from cosmic radiation to a noteworthy degree , because it is overshadowed by Jupiter 's magnetic field . Ganymede receives about 0 @.@ 08 Sv ( 8 rem ) of radiation per day . Callisto is farther from Jupiter 's strong radiation belt and subject to only 0 @.@ 0001 Sv ( 0 @.@ 01 rem ) a day . For comparison , the average amount of radiation taken on Earth by a living organism is about 0 @.@ 0024 Sv per year ; the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are recorded around Ramsar hot springs at about 0 @.@ 26 Sv per year .
| 91b901b88248eaa11605e93a2860f231 | 11,527 |
One of the main targets chosen by the HOPE study was Callisto . The possibility of building a surface base on Callisto was proposed , because of the low radiation levels at its distance from Jupiter and its geological stability . Callisto is the only Galilean satellite for which human exploration is feasible . The levels of ionizing radiation on Io , Europa , and Ganymede are hostile to human life , and adequate protective measures have yet to be devised .
| 8e0cedfc6d4c1b26aa08259550477d4e | 11,528 |
It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System . In 1997 , the Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa . According to this plan , explorers would drill down into the Europan ice crust , entering the postulated subsurface ocean , where they would inhabit artificial air pockets .
| 215acdcfccf6fd0572875fd2ea45fd1b | 11,529 |
= Fort Glanville Conservation Park =
| 49485de47697320f2a04bc1a11331cd0 | 11,532 |
Fort Glanville Conservation Park is a protected area located in the Australian state of South Australia located in Semaphore Park , a seaside suburb of Adelaide consisting of a functional 19th century fort listed on the South Australian Heritage Register and some adjoining land . The fort was built after more than 40 years of indecision over the defence of South Australia . It was the first colonial fortification in the state and is the best preserved and most functional in Australia . Fort Glanville was designed by Governor Major General Sir William Jervois and Lieutenant Colonel Peter Scratchley , both important figures in early Australian colonial defence . When built it was designed to defend both Semaphore 's anchorage and shipping entering the Port River from naval attack .
| 8bf5cd72a2f493e19c787025708478a7 | 11,534 |
Construction of the fort began in 1878 . It was officially opened in October 1880 and completed by 1882 . Due to changes in the Port River and shipping movements , Fort Largs surpassed it for strategic importance by 1890 . By the close of the 19th century , the fort was largely unused and had no defence significance . It was briefly used for military purposes during World War I and World War II , though not for its original defensive role . For much of the 20th century the area was put to a variety of uses including accommodation , a caravan park and a boy scout campsite . After coming into state government hands in 1951 it was declared as a conservation park and is now managed by the Department of Environment , Water and Natural Resources ( DEWNR ) ; preserving and showcasing its historic value . The fort and surrounds occupy the northern half of the 5 @-@ hectare ( 12 @-@ acre ) conservation park , the southern half is a caravan park . The fort is a lunette shaped defensible battery that was supported by land forces for self @-@ defence . When constructed it was seen as state of the art , incorporating powerful and modern weapons . Its main armament is two rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) 10 inch 20 ton guns backed up by two RML 64 pounder 64 cwt guns , both rare in their particular configuration . The fort retains its original 19th century cannons and three have been restored to working condition .
| 342bade70a21c1b28f5a08a4b3cea180 | 11,535 |
Fort Glanville Historical Association operates the park under license and conducts open days in the park , recreating the past operation of the fort including military drill and the firing of period weapons . The Association , park service , other volunteers and various grants have all helped ensure the fort is presented in close to original condition . It is the most complete 19th Century fort in Australia , and one of very few in the world that remains in original condition . Connecting the fort to Semaphore jetty is the Semaphore and Fort Glanville Tourist Railway , a 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) gauge passenger steam train operated by volunteers from the National Railway Museum .
| 59e0d71e3e1265f49ffa75999291db8d | 11,536 |
= = Historic background = =
| 9e358489c2c9967dcab2f7e1e8d14229 | 11,538 |
In the early years of colonial South Australia , the colonists saw themselves as part of the British Empire and external defence as an Imperial responsibility . Communication lines were long and the empire 's wars remote . Great Britain had undisputed military predominance and she was expected by all to protect her colonies , even one as distant . For local defence , Governor Gawler raised the first military force in 1840 , composed solely of volunteers and known as the South Australian Volunteer Militia Brigade . It was granted the " Royal " title in 1841 but the brigade had all but ceased to exist a year later . The colony obtained its first artillery in 1847 with the arrival of six field guns of various types .
| bb9031b66abd98b10944b18abf7ae9d8 | 11,540 |
Tensions between Britain and the Russian Empire in the 1850s , as starkly demonstrated by the Crimean War , along with Australia @-@ wide moves towards self @-@ government caused a reassessment of the colony 's defence posture . The various colonies regarded themselves as possible targets for the Russian Pacific Fleet , then based in Siberia . In 1854 , Governor Henry Young appointed a commission under Boyle Travers Finniss to report on the defence of the colony , in case of war . Boyle 's report recommended leaving strategic defence in the hands of the Imperial Navy , though South Australia was to purchase a 400 ton naval vessel . Local defence was to be largely handled by the existing small Imperial garrison and local colonial force , supported by the artillery obtained in 1847 . When the Crimean War ended in 1856 , the danger passed and the perceived need for expensive defence preparations with it . For many years nothing substantive came about from debate on defence of the colony . Over time there formed a consensus favouring Semaphore for fixed defences or fortification ; a strategy also argued by the government established Hart Commission in 1858 . Raiders were seen as unlikely to force the shallows of the Port River but instead were expected to stand off Semaphore , shell the port and use their guns to support landings . The Hart Report recommended building of martello towers at Semaphore and Glenelg , the first report to recommend permanent fortification at Semaphore , though none were built mainly due to the cost .
| 019dee552ba83d61b2e5bcd68d181e68 | 11,541 |
The volunteer military force was revived in 1859 , with new and modern arms for the infantry , cavalry and artillery . Though there was a few years of enthusiasm and a restructuring in 1866 , by 1870 the force was virtually disbanded . In that year also , British troops were withdrawn from the other Australian colonies ; none were by then stationed in South Australia . With no definitive defence policy , in 1864 the government had sought advice from Captain Parkin of HMS Falcon and Commodore Sir William Wiseman commander of the Australian station ; both visiting British naval officers . They both recommended fixed fortifications for the coast supported by gunboats . Sir Wiseman 's report particularly recommended construction of forts at Semaphore , Port Creek 's entrance and one midway between . In 1864 a story circulated , supported by press speculation , that there was a danger of the Russian fleet attacking Melbourne should Russia and Britain find themselves at war . The South Australian Register produced an editorial decrying the states lack of defences . Within days £ 20 @,@ 000 ( A $ 4 @.@ 14 million in 2005 ) was provided by the government for defence , an amount then seen as insufficient for significant preparation . The danger passed without any lasting defence action except the government 's in @-@ principle adoption of Sir Wiseman 's recommendations . To curtail costs only the Semaphore fort was to be built initially , as it was considered the most critical . Site preparation begun and two 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns were purchased , but escalating cost estimates caused the plan to be abandoned by 1868 .
| f490489d16f5644889283bab4a9c772b | 11,542 |
During the early 1870s South Australia 's defence was solely dependent on the volunteer military , and a few artillery pieces purchased during earlier war scares . British troops had been withdrawn from the Australian colonies in 1870 , leaving the state dependent on its own military resources . In a report to the government in 1866 , Colonel Freeling and Major Peter Scratchley recommended establishment of a permanent military force . In 1876 the South Australian government , along with those from New South Wales , Victoria and Queensland requested from the War Office that Major General Sir William Jervois , a noted coastal fortification expert , be appointed to advise on defence needs . He arrived in Sydney in mid @-@ 1877 with then Lieutenant Colonel Scratchley . The 1877 report , delivered after he became South Australian Governor , called for three batteries , at Largs Bay , Semaphore and Glenelg , connected by a military road and supported by field gun emplacements , naval elements and mobile forces . He determined that South Australia 's most probable defence risk was an attack by up to two ships rather than a larger force , and this formed the basis of the final fortification design . His report called for Military Road to be extended to Marino , an electro @-@ contact torpedo station be established on Torrens Island and that a gun boat be provided . In November 1878 the government passed the Military Forces Act , which provided for the raising of a permanent military force and reserve . Two volunteer reserve rifle companies were formed in 1878 and a permanent artillery unit in 1882 .
| 8de3ebb6dccba1ebaa9a0e917e64eff6 | 11,543 |
At this time Semaphore , with its jetty built in 1860 , was the state 's main entry point for passengers and mail . It had a signal station ( built 1872 ) and a time ball tower ( built 1875 ) . Semaphore remained of great maritime significance for the state until the 1880s . When the decision was made to build the fort , in 1878 , the state 's population had reached approximately 250 @,@ 000 . Settlement extended beyond Port Augusta , though Adelaide remained the dominant feature in the economy partly due to the layout of the rail network . At this point Adelaide had a population of over 30 @,@ 000 . Port Adelaide was the main port for South Australia , with over 1000 ships visiting each year , and a local population of over 2 @,@ 500 .
| bbd4c3fc3edcfc76607fbe67370412d8 | 11,544 |
= = Foundation = =
| 46f3740d659373d931d12bb3d5d2141a | 11,546 |
Scratchley had inspected the proposed South Australian fort sites , and Jervois and Scratchley were both responsible for the final fort design and location . The first fort was erected to guard both the entrance to Port Adelaide and the anchorage at Semaphore . It was built on sandhills near Glanville Hall at Semaphore , on a promontory called " Point Malcom " — a name that is now used for an adjacent reserve . The site was chosen so as to best guard shipping sailing to both the Port River and the Outer Harbour ; and a second northern fort was to protect the entrance to Port River itself . At the time of its construction it was seen as a defence against foreign threats , mainly Russian . Scratchley had offered to design the battery , the offer accepted by Cabinet in January 1878 , and he was primarily responsible for the design of both Fort Glanville and Fort Largs . The plans were drawn by Alexander Bain Moncrieff of the South Australian Engineer @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Department , supervised by Scratchley in his Melbourne headquarters . Moncrieff , at Scratchley 's suggestion , was later to supervise the fort 's construction . Plans for both batteries were completed in June 1878 , tenders called for in July and the contract for Fort Glanville awarded in August to John Robb of Kapunda , South Australia for the sum of £ 15 @,@ 893 12s 7d .
| 144b51621fbafbd12365b9518f97a321 | 11,548 |
Construction began in 1878 and though completed by 1882 the fort was operational in 1880 . Changes were made to the design during construction . Some forced by armament changes and others made to ensure additional security , including a rear @-@ defence wall and connecting road from Military Road . By January 1880 two guns were in place and the fort opened later the same year with an extensive opening ceremony on 2 October . In addition to parades , a small target was moored 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) offshore and fired on by all guns . A total of sixteen shots were fired during which one of the ten inch guns proved faulty . Only one ranging shot was fired and the shots were estimated to land from on @-@ target to 350 yards short . The fort 's final cost was approximately £ 36 @,@ 000 ( A $ 7 @.@ 05 million in 2005 ) consisting of £ 23 @,@ 600 for physical structures and the remainder for armament and fittings . At the time of its construction it was at the forefront of such fortification design , and was considered state of the art .
| 06809de6001f58c3ec8f06a44e8257b9 | 11,549 |
When first conceived , it was known as the Semaphore Battery , later changed to South Battery and then Fort Glanville by the opening ceremony . The name Glanville came from nearby Glanville Hall , residence of John Hart ( 1809 – 1873 ) thrice Premier of South Australia . Hart had named the house after his mother 's maiden name ( Mary Glanville ) .
| 6a0bf083648bcaa38357a248f9b908a7 | 11,550 |
= = Personnel = =
| 7a6d26083ea635088dddefc202021790 | 11,552 |
For the eighteen months after its opening , the fort was manned by B company of the South Australian Volunteer Artillery but only on weekends . This changed in mid @-@ 1882 when South Australia 's first permanent military force was formed . The fort became the headquarters for the South Australian Permanent Military Force , then the state 's entire standing army of one officer and eighteen other ranks . Some of the unit was stationed at nearby Fort Largs from 1886 ; and , by 1889 the unit had grown to one officer and 45 other ranks . This force grew to 53 of all ranks by 1892 and was by then known as the Permanent Artillery . The unit trained 27 more non @-@ commissioned officers and men who were sent to man the King George Sound batteries near Albany , Western Australia . Though some of the gunners served in the Second Boer War , the unit itself never saw action . Fort Glanville 's section was called out in 1890 , marching to assist the police with a waterside worker 's strike in Port Adelaide . In this case no shots were fired and the strikers did not confront the police or troops . Additional defence acts were passed in 1886 , 1890 and 1895 but , until defence passed into federal hands after 1901 , the state 's permanent military force was composed solely of artillery . Shortly after the federation of Australia , a regiment of the Royal Australian Artillery ( RAA ) was formed and what had been the Permanent Artillery became No.10 company RAA . The fort was manned to an extent during World War I , with one non @-@ commissioned officer and 11 gunners stationed as of November 1914 . Military reports and orders show the fort manned to at least mid @-@ 1918 , though at this point it is doubtful if the guns were fit to engage targets .
| 66bd19a08801333951f4339dcf3d13a4 | 11,554 |
There is little in the way of surviving personnel records from the fort 's active time . They may have either been destroyed or transferred to Melbourne after federation . The fort 's record book shows it manned by a section of either the Royal Australian Artillery or B Company of the militia garrison artillery . For the time covered by the book , strength varied from 56 to 108 men of all ranks . Two figures who served at the fort are remembered for their impact outside its operation :
| 0ae43f3d660912b8c7288d1f2bf26e1f | 11,555 |
Battery Sergeant Major Charles Moritz , who initially joined the volunteer artillery and was the Permanent Artillery 's first recruit .
| ead522a151ce670f82cfe98897f4b654 | 11,556 |
Joseph Maria Gordon ( 1856 – 1929 ) , the fort 's first commander and later military commandant for South Australia . Gordon retired in 1914 as Chief of the General Staff , Australian Military Forces .
| 7f08da97965330a641e4f6c68ffc2df5 | 11,557 |
= = Structure = =
| e86941bee721ef15e6abd6a93e41179a | 11,559 |
The fort is designed as a defensible battery , rather than a defensive strongpoint . The faces of the fort join to form a half @-@ moon shape or lunette . The guns ' primary role was to defend Port Adelaide and the Semaphore anchorage rather than the fort itself , and the design reflects this . It was intended to be supported by field artillery , cavalry and infantry for self @-@ defence and to repel landings . While the fort retains its original form , the ditch and glacis ( embankment ) have been modified and are largely non @-@ existent in some areas . Ground levels have been changed to accommodate paths and a caravan park , and the original western fence no longer exists .
| 14745f6dcea11676a2c1d053554714df | 11,561 |
The entrance road was constructed from Military Road to the fort 's rear gates . Its path is largely followed by the modern Queen Elizabeth II walk , though the former road was slightly to the south . This walk links the conservation park 's visitor centre to the fort gates ; some of the old road can still be seen close to the gates . What was the muster ground is partly taken up by the caravan and camping park and a car park . It was levelled and filled in the 1950s for this use . What remains of this ground , north of the caravan park , was returned to its 1880s profile in 1993 funded by a Federal Government grant . In the 19th century , the muster ground was used for training of the Volunteer Military Force including artillery , who camped on the site . As designed the fort 's rear was protected with a wooden palisade or stockade . In 1881 a masonry wall was added , greatly strengthening defence . Most of the stockade was reconstructed in the 1970s ; some of the original wooden structure is visible in the fort 's north .
| 75fac236722768fa914f133f902e7342 | 11,562 |
= = = Fortification = = =
| d986b6162ba05a32fa25b81e116331e5 | 11,564 |
The main defensive structure is a revetted lunette shaped earthwork . It has a 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft ) thick rampart with 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) of concrete and 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft ) of brick forming a retaining wall for the earth fill . The rampart is covered by natural vegetation and , in both the 19th and 21st century operation , is closed to access to preserve this . The glacis gives extra protection to the fort and was designed to blend the fort into the landscape . It surrounded the fort on the north , south and seaward sides and was made by forming the surrounding sandhills . The side facing the fort — the scarp — is steep and , with the front face of the rampart , forms a 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide ditch that can be raked by rifle fire from the caponier or the stockade 's sides . The outer face is a gentle slope and is designed to be covered by case shot fired from the fort 's 64 @-@ pounder guns . The southern glacis section was removed during sand mining and construction of the caravan park , both after World War II . The western glacis is changed , but still visible , and the northern glacis was recreated in 1993 — showcasing the purpose of the glacis and the function of the caponier . Access to the fort is via double gates at the fort 's rear , one each through the stockade and the rear defence wall . Both gates were removed or destroyed over time and the 21st century gates are reconstructions . The formal parade ground or manning parade lies between the rear walls and barracks , and the raised terreplein . It was formerly used for drill training , assembly and formal parades . First gravelled when constructed , it was paved with tar in the 1890s to solve drainage problems . Around the seaward side of the manning parade runs the terreplein . It is a raised crescent shaped level on which the guns platforms sit , and is ascended from the manning parade by ramps and stairs .
| 8b5d9c9210225fdaee491d8915306ea2 | 11,566 |
After numerous proposals the sand hills rear and north of the fort were removed in 1882 , improving the fort 's land defence and allowing the 64 @-@ pounder guns to sweep the Semaphore jetty . This now levelled area was used as a bivouac and exercise area for the colony 's volunteer troops . A stable , office , shed and gunner 's store were also erected north of the fort . The gunner 's shed was damaged by fire in 1895 and replaced further eastward . These buildings did not survive into the 21st century .
| 8c116d4a19cbee07c4fd439e37660540 | 11,567 |
= = = Internal rooms = = =
| 070d2dc10398eb771112d0ad6a646b46 | 11,569 |
On either side of the terreplein , wide of the 64 @-@ pound guns , are two small rooms known as the expense stores . They were used for ready @-@ to @-@ use ammunition for the adjacent guns , except for armour piercing shells which were stored in the rear @-@ defence wall 's archways . Between the 64 @-@ pounders and the 10 " gun positions are two raised observation platforms set into the structure for gun commanders to spot the fall of outgoing shells . Ranging was either performed from here or from a ranging position set in the sand hills to the fort 's north . Between the 10 " guns is a T @-@ shaped loading gallery that draws shells and gunpowder via a hoist system from the magazine below . Either side of the gallery was installed the Armstrong mechanical loading systems for the 10 " guns . These mechanical systems proved unsuccessful and were removed in the 1890s , though the southern one has been reconstructed . The magazine is accessed from the manning parade and is directly beneath the 10 " gun loading gallery . Voice pipes and hoists originally installed have been removed but their remains are visible .
| 3800f3c3592b9af9497a1a6cd48dc758 | 11,571 |
The caponier ( rifle gallery ) extends into the ditch between the rampart and glacis from the fort 's north west corner . It is connected to the fort via a tunnel , running under the rampart from the manning parade . For blast protection and defensibility the tunnel was built with a dogleg . The caponier has rifle firing ports and was originally protected from direct artillery fire by the glacis . Early plans showed the caponier extending from the fort 's south west , and a tunnel linking the magazine and southern guns .
| 60e74d1cb04026bf1f512f09421cc599 | 11,572 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.