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= = = Buildings = = =
| 3af71b9aaa5dbaac4ce470671f6f6095 | 11,574 |
The barracks consists of two levels , with rifle firing holes on all sides . Iron shutters closed on the inside and were locked with wooden beams . In 1885 the verandah facing the manning parade was enclosed with wooden shutters to keep the weather out . These shutters were removed during 20th @-@ century restoration work and the verandah returned to original condition . The roof was at first flat timber overlaid by 12 inches ( 30 cm ) of lime concrete . This first roof leaked and an iron roof was added in 1885 . The first floor of the barracks contains the officer 's rooms and troop 's barracks room . Its eastern ( outer ) wall is not flat , incorporating a design feature known as " hornwork " , which opens the field of fire from the rifle holes . Some of the firing holes were bricked in during the 1930s ; this has been only partly rectified during restoration .
| e91c56beb26912996474da1b1d9c260f | 11,576 |
The basement contains the gunner 's mess , canteen , No. 1 ancillary store , pantry and officer 's kitchen . The canteen sold everyday necessities as well as a few items like biscuits , sweets and tobacco to the stationed troops . Profits from the canteen were used to fund sporting equipment for the garrison . The No.1 ancillary store was used for various pieces of delicate equipment , fuses , friction tubes and rockets . In 1887 an explosion in the room caused a number of injuries , damage to the store and to the above officer 's quarters . The barracks room and officer 's quarters are connected with a door , probably added in the 1930s as it is not part of the original plans . The barracks room accommodated approximately 20 men . For display purposes it is outfitted as for similar period barracks .
| 0879987bcd4ccba902b0dbe791fe42bf | 11,577 |
A laboratory is built into the rear wall , on the forts southern side . This room is set into the end of the rampart and was used to prepare gunpowder charges . A guardhouse was built at the manning parade 's southern end in 1885 . It is now used as a duty room for the drill squad during recreation demonstrations but originally was a guard 's room and separate cells connected by telephone to Fort Largs . Up to three men appear to have been accommodated in the guard 's room . When the fort was converted to use as a caravan park the guard house was converted to an ablution block . A store and ablution block were also built in 1885 between the stockade and rear defence wall .
| befbe0cc7d45a0955e11ba0cff45dcdc | 11,578 |
= = Armament = =
| 23842759e3115563f6e6b61a01f531e8 | 11,580 |
Early plans for the fort 's armament were drawn up by Harding Stewart of the British War Office . They called for four 9 in ( 230 mm ) 12 long tons ( 12 t ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) guns , two mounted in turrets and two behind vertical iron shields . This configuration of siege artillery had not been tried before and the plan was abandoned due to the large expected cost . Two of the 9 in guns had been in South Australia since c.1868 after a Colonial Government request , but were not used in the eventual fort design . The final Jervois / Scratchley design omitted the turret and iron shields . 64 @-@ pounder RML guns were substituted for two of the 9 in guns and 10 in 20 ton RML guns for the remaining two . The 20 ton guns were chosen over the then standard 18 ton gun by Jervois after he saw the plans in England , the decision influenced by the then fully committed nature of the Royal Arsenal . Jervois had originally ordered the 18 ton guns but cancelled the order and changed to the Armstrong 20 ton when the arsenal was unable fulfil the order . He also ordered Armstrong 's mechanical loading and protected barbette system for the 20 ton guns . This original battery of four heavy guns remains in place at the fort .
| b9a6eadb0c113d72a1844ef2525f0797 | 11,582 |
= = = 10 inch RML guns = = =
| 6e2b4dbe008bd65d9aea6bf64f2edb5b | 11,584 |
The fort 's main armament were the two RML 10 inch 20 ton guns — Numbers 3470 and 3472 . They were manufactured in 1879 by WG Armstrong and Company and originally used the Armstrong protected barbette loading system . They were made to the 1878 pattern and supplied on traversing slides . The guns have a 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) calibre , a range of 6 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) with a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 630 feet per second ( 497 m / s ) and are capable of penetrating 11 inches ( 28 cm ) of iron at 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .
| a2429dd2d163b715301e62109224d6fb | 11,586 |
They fire 400 @-@ pound ( 181 kg ) projectiles using a 130 @-@ pound ( 59 kg ) gunpowder cartridge . Though they were insufficient against contemporary battleships , they were seen as adequate for the light cruisers that the fort was expected to face . The carriages weighed 13 long tons ( 13 t ) and moved on semi @-@ circular traverses . The guns were loaded either manually — using the Woolwich ( derrick ) system — or via the Armstrong mechanical loader . The Armstrong system enabled loading of the guns from behind the protection of the rampart whereas the manual system required at least two crew to be exposed on the rampart 's top . Despite this the guns were manually loaded for most of their operational life as the Armstrong cable drive was faulty and too difficult to maintain . The guns had a 14 @-@ man crew and loading took about 2 minutes , a rate of fire that was only slightly faster using the Armstrong equipment .
| 26dc2e615a31af901758a3630b6b6eb3 | 11,587 |
By 1902 the guns had together fired 219 rounds , though not all at full charge with the records showing only 125 effective full charges . The platforms and traverses were scrapped in 1937 but the gun barrels were uneconomic to cut up and were left in place . One gun platform and its equipment was rebuilt in 1997 using money raised by Fort Glanville Historical Association volunteers working at the Australian Grand Prix .
| f950f1323dec4100ad7d7957fe309577 | 11,588 |
= = = 64 pounder RML guns = = =
| fe998088aff102be72a0a2dbb53c5afd | 11,590 |
In the flank barbettes are mounted two mark III RML 64 pounder 64 cwt guns , numbers 462 and 463 . They are rifled muzzle @-@ loading heavy guns weighing 64 long hundredweight ( 3 @,@ 300 kg ) with a 6 @.@ 3 @-@ inch ( 160 mm ) calibre steel barrel . They were made to the model 's 1867 pattern by the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich , England in 1872 . Their intended use was to protect the flanks and approaches to the fort . These smaller guns use an 8 lb ( 4 kg ) charge of gunpowder to send a 64 lb ( 29 kg ) projectile up to 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . There are iron rings fixed in the rampart wall that indicate traversing gun carriages were intended to be mounted , though this never eventuated . The guns were supplied with siege over @-@ bank carriages . The lower carriage sections are the type made for the guns when used as field pieces and the upper sections are brackets that raise the guns to the over @-@ bank firing position . In this particular configuration the two guns are thought to be the last in the world .
| b47fef091ea46d1a534a40071065834a | 11,592 |
By the end of their active use in 1902 together they had fired 1540 rounds in practice , though not all at full power as they are recorded as firing under 300 effective full charges . By then the wheels were significantly rotted and the ammunition limbers had become unserviceable . Less wheels , the guns were removed from the fort in 1909 ; Adelaide 's city council then set them in Brougham Gardens , North Adelaide . Both were returned to the fort in 1976 and remounted on restored carriages of the original design . They are the only two guns of their type remaining in Australia . The southern gun ( Number 463 ) fired three blank charges in 1980 to mark the centenary of the first firing at the fort . This same gun is fired regularly by the volunteers of the Fort Glanville Historical Association ( FGHA ) .
| 865100a4c7bc4b8bc516ebc227816dee | 11,593 |
Both types of heavy guns used where the only ones of their specific series and type to come to Australia . Though they were never fired in anger , the battery is only 40 feet ( 12 m ) above mean sea level which would have limited the accuracy of the mark III depression rangefinders used .
| cf9b57dbf4210ebca56c5e07b65b0521 | 11,594 |
= = = Other weaponry = = =
| 5afae659122370afedda73d2e6c47f60 | 11,596 |
Prior to 1895 two 6 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns had been imported for use in small boats . This use was rejected by military authorities and the guns sat unused . In 1895 the South Australian Defence Committee proposed that the guns be mounted at Fort Glanville , replacing the 64 @-@ pounders whose siege carriages were then unfit for service . This proposal would have greatly extended the useful life of the fort , at little cost . The two military branches , army and navy , could not reach agreement and the proposal was abandoned by 1897 . The gun 's eventual fate is unknown , though a gun found in the Port River later indicates they may have been dumped .
| b95d63870ca7bbdcf2b9343f2ca26c3d | 11,598 |
Gun emplacements were made , about a mile apart south of the fort , for six 16 @-@ pounder field guns to provide close defence in case of an attempted beach landing . From 1890 the fort was equipped with moveable armament . It received an 1867 Whitworth 12 @-@ pounder RML field gun and a 5 @-@ barrel 0 @.@ 45 " Martini @-@ henry cartridge firing Nordenfelt gun . The 12 @-@ pounder had fired 222 effective full charges by 1902 ; at which time both weapons were obsolete and their eventual fate is unknown . A 32 @-@ pounder 56 long cwt ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) smoothbore gun on a stepped wooden carriage was purchased in 1878 . Manufactured by the Royal Arsenal in 1806 , it was the familiar " ships cannon " and came to South Australia with two other identical guns . By 1902 no ammunition was held for it and it was listed as for instruction only . The gun was probably destroyed in the 1930s — certainly by the end of the 1940s — with pieces of such a gun found on site in 1983 .
| 8e350fb8cff27196956920013a8d205a | 11,599 |
In the late 20th century the fort acquired three 16 @-@ pounder RML mark I field guns . They were formerly used by A battery , South Australian Volunteer Artillery from 1880 until 1901 . Gun number 288 is complete and used for blank firings by the Historical Association . Also acquired is a 2 @-@ pounder RML Whitworth mountain gun made in 1867 . It was also used by A Battery , subsequently by Fort Largs as a signal gun . It is one of only two of this type known to exist , the other in the United Kingdom . The visitors centre has two 9 @-@ pounder brass smoothbore field guns made by H & C King in 1819 . They arrived in South Australia in 1857 and were used for practice shoots near the fort c.1860 ; one is known to have been on the manning parade in 1890 though its use is unknown . They later became saluting guns at Fort Largs , moving by 1919 to near the Jervois Wing of the State Library of South Australia . The Art Gallery of South Australia saved them from a 1941 wartime scrap drive and mounted them on reproduction naval carriages in front of Government House in 1962 . The gallery took them back in late 1977 and transferred them to the History Trust of South Australia in 1988 . The History Trust has loaned them to Fort Glanville for display . Outside the visitor 's centre is a 6 in ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading Armstrong 80 long cwt ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) gun ( No.4242 ) that was made in 1884 and used in Victoria . The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) brought it to the state in 1966 for research , subsequently moving it to Perry Engineering at Mile End . In 1984 the CSIRO donated the gun to the park .
| b06044bd0c530a0ad282f2b4a2d11b4c | 11,600 |
= = Defence significance = =
| 5f831ca068b55204d2cfc04c4e49b9d2 | 11,602 |
Work began in 1882 on Fort Glanville 's northern sister Fort Largs — then known as the Port Adelaide battery — to the same specification as Fort Glanville ; its barracks and rear defence wall were finished in 1885 . Though guns had already been purchased specially , plans for the third fort at Glenelg were not proceeded with . South Australia was experiencing a depression in 1886 and that coupled with a report by General James Bevan Edwards scuttled plans for the third coastal fort . As early as 1888 the emphasis for defence of the Adelaide coast had already shifted to Fort Largs ; a fact cited as part of the reason for abandonment of the Glenelg fortifications .
| 5cbf571425fc0578f358622fbd5a1ed0 | 11,604 |
From this point Fort Glanville 's significance declined rapidly . Fort Largs was equipped in 1889 with two 6 inch breech @-@ loading disappearing guns which outranged Glanville 's armament . The decline was also linked to changes in Port Adelaide 's maritime facilities and the consequent northward movement of anchored and berthed vessels . During the 1880s the Port River was deepened enabling large ships to sail up and berth , rather than the former practice of anchoring off @-@ shore .
| 59affab927080d612d45b006e9e4fb58 | 11,605 |
The fort remained as headquarters of South Australia 's permanent military force until the 1890s and as late as 1895 there were still plans to upgrade the 64 @-@ pounder armament , though without result . By 1901 the fort was manned on a caretaker basis only and no permanent forces were stationed . The Federal Government assumed responsibility for South Australian defence in 1903 and took over the fort . Though Glanville by then had no significant defence role , the state received £ 14 @,@ 739 in compensation . From that point its significance was not defence related but as the first and best preserved 19th @-@ century fortification in South Australia .
| 92e9470fc078118480096d5a1f715a84 | 11,606 |
= = 20th century = =
| 15b419ac8051a01af35bcf81ce58ddda | 11,608 |
At Federation in 1901 South Australia 's defences became a federal responsibility . Though both infantry and artillery units were housed at the site on occasion , by 1903 there was no longer a permanent military presence at the fort . For most of the 20th century the site was neglected and largely vacated . It did attract some usage though not always of a military nature . During World War I it was partly revived for a former use , with ammunition stored on site . During the same period however the military used it as a detention barracks . Some or all of the fort was leased for private accommodation during the great depression . During the 1930s the magazine was again used , this time to store small arms ammunition . From June 1931 until the beginning of World War II the site housed a Sea Scout detachment , and was used as a district camp @-@ site for the Boy Scouts . The Department of Defence decided in 1937 that much of the equipment and fittings at the fort were surplus to requirements . Consequent to this the mountings and carriages for the 10 inch guns were removed and sold as scrap ; though effort was made to scrap the barrels it proved uneconomic and they were left in place . In an unusual turn of events , the fort briefly housed refugees . Twenty @-@ nine islanders from the Maldives were rescued from their sinking dhow by a ship bound for Wallaroo . They stayed at the fort for a week in 1938 , before repatriation could be arranged . During World War II the fort again attracted military related use . During 1944 the Proof and Experimental Establishment at Port Wakefield made use of the site to proof ordnance QF 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns manufactured at General Motors Holden in Woodville . The fort was also used as a residence again , with at least two families reported as living in the under @-@ ground sections during the war .
| 00d40337887f7c69a0d8d87bf2541fef | 11,610 |
After the war , the State Government negotiated with its federal counterpart to gain control of Fort Glanville . This eventuated in the 1951 sale of the 13 @-@ acre ( 5 ha ) site , which was subsequently administered by the State Tourist Department as a caravan and camping park . The park occupied the muster ground outside the fort and the fort 's barracks building was used as a manager 's residence . The caravan park has had various managers since establishment : Until 1981 it was managed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( NPWS ) , by Woodville Council until 1986 and subsequently by a private operator under a long @-@ term lease .
| c92a3acc7a7c679cd5e4317cc218274a | 11,611 |
A significant change in the fort 's conservation and preservation outlook was its declaration as a Historic Relic under the Aboriginal and Historic Relics Preservation Act in 1972 . Up to then there had been growing awareness of the significance of the site in terms of the state 's colonial heritage . Control of the park was moved to the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( NPWS ) , and the fort and surrounds became designated as Fort Glanville Conservation Park . The National Estate Grants Program provided funds in 1975 for conservation work ; NPWS began this work in the same year and the caravan park boundary was moved southwards . Though the site had long been neglected , there was minimal permanent damage to its structure . During the 1970s reconstruction , much of the stockade was replaced . The replaced timbers are visibly different as they have shrunk significantly with large gaps that are not evident in the original timber . Adelaide City Council agreed to return the 64 @-@ pounder guns and new wheels were made ; replacing those rotted over half a century before . In a ceremony on 2 October 1980 , the 100th anniversary of the guns first firing , one of the 64 @-@ pounders was fired again ; later a commemoration plaque was added to the fort 's flagpole 's base . Shortly after this firing the Fort Glanville Historical Association was formed , and was incorporated in 1981 . Fort Glanville was opened for public visitation in 1981 .
| 4b6908450c3f436715ebfcc4f4ec5502 | 11,612 |
As part of South Australia 's sesquicentenary , the South Australia Jubilee 150 board granted $ 250 @,@ 000 for work on the fort , allowing construction of a visitor centre . Queen Elizabeth II visited and inspected the site , and newly constructed visitor centre , for almost an hour on 13 March 1986 . For the visit the historical association demonstrated firing of both the 64 and 2 pounder cannons . The visitor centre was officially opened one month after this visit . Governor Dame Roma Mitchell named the old road " Queen Elizabeth II Walk " in March 1991 ceremony , commemorating the 5th anniversary of the queen 's visit . Considerable subsequent restoration work has been completed on the fort , including the barrack 's interior . The portion of the muster ground that is not within the caravan park was returned to its original level in 1993 .
| ecaaefda684a68a950abeee287a9030e | 11,613 |
= = Park and fort today = =
| 92c945e8fcaf219a0dd2963c2b334175 | 11,615 |
Fort Glanville Conservation Park is one of South Australia 's most important heritage sites . It is the premier site in the state , and possibly Australia , for showcasing colonial era defences and fortifications . The fort is listed on both the South Australian Heritage Register and the National Trust 's classified list . It is considered significant , in national historical military terms , for its association with Jervois and Scratchley ; both leading British defence experts who influenced Australian defence thinking in the late 19th century . The fort was very well constructed with high quality materials ; facts that have been noted as contributing to its preservation . The fort is largely intact and in original condition and is , along with Bluff Battery in Hobart , the best preserved Jervois @-@ Scratchley designed fort in Australia . It is the only Australian colonial fort to still have all of its original armament , and the only to have a regular living history program . Its companion Fort Largs does survive but in greatly modified condition , converted for use as the South Australia Police academy . The fort retains its original armament ; armament that is both rare in Australia and worldwide .
| 17ed9421131230fc5b7ced4057b5a076 | 11,617 |
The conservation park is in the suburb of Semaphore Park at the southern end of the Lefevre Peninsula . It covers approximately 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) and is bounded by Bower and Military roads , the Point Malcolm Reserve and Semaphore beach . The land is entirely crown land and is administered by the DEWNR . It is divided into roughly two halves with the northern containing the fort and the southern half containing a caravan park . While it is managed by the DEWNR , the Fort Glanville Consultative Committee and Fort Glanville Historical Association are heavily involved . The committee is appointed by the Minister for Environment and Planning and acts to advise the Minister and liaise with the community . As of 1988 , the fort hosted approximately 7 @,@ 000 visitors annually , and is used as an event venue including the annual City of Charles Sturt citizenship ceremony .
| fb5e2c272e0d90b3987e5c1894f79dc3 | 11,618 |
The historical association is an incorporated body of volunteers who use the fort under licence from the Minister . The association operate the fort and visitor centre , holding monthly public open days at which the history of the fort is recreated ; this includes drill demonstrations and firing of the fort 's weapons . The association maintain static displays of the fort 's active period and sell souvenirs . The association 's goal is to have the site open as a fully operational fort for interpretation , tourism and education . The volunteers are involved with recreation , living history and ceremonial work outside the fort . They act as guards of honour at some Government House functions and attended the restoration opening of the Albany , Western Australia fort , and the annual re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Waterloo in Keyneton , Victoria . The fort has living history displays , including the barracks laid out and furnished in period detail . The visitor centre has displays showing the development of South Australia 's colonial defence from 1836 and artifacts found on site during restorations .
| 1549f3b1b01355056fd78df06322b88b | 11,619 |
Connecting the fort to Semaphore jetty is the Semaphore and Fort Glanville Tourist Railway , a 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) gauge steam train operated by volunteers from the National Railway Museum . The railway opened in December 1992 and , as of 2002 , carried over 16 @,@ 000 passengers annually .
| e1ff4126b33c33d8d32c63b82868fcaf | 11,620 |
= Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom =
| 481c0befbc8bfaad0313126dd46ec9c9 | 11,623 |
The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority , privilege , and immunity , recognised in the United Kingdom as the sole prerogative of the Sovereign and the source of many of the executive powers of the British government .
| 478acfc05a0eb516f9178efc9a3804a7 | 11,625 |
Prerogative powers were formerly exercised by the monarch acting on his or her own initiative . Since the 19th century , by convention , the advice of the prime minister or the cabinet — who are then accountable to Parliament for the decision — has been required in order for the prerogative to be exercised . The monarch remains constitutionally empowered to exercise the royal prerogative against the advice of the prime minister or the cabinet , but in practice would only do so in emergencies or where existing precedent does not adequately apply to the circumstances in question .
| 7ab736b3c34b68012b58e2c9948729e3 | 11,626 |
Today the royal prerogative is available in the conduct of the government of the United Kingdom , including foreign affairs , defence , and national security . The monarchy has a significant constitutional presence in these and other matters , but limited power , because the exercise of the prerogative is in the hands of the prime minister and other ministers or other government officials .
| 67d453b3fb11408caac2b9da07eb01b1 | 11,627 |
= = Definition = =
| 072ebb44a589eec98e0746894f2ce987 | 11,629 |
The royal prerogative has been called " a notoriously difficult concept to define adequately " , but whether a particular type of prerogative power exists is a matter of common law to be decided by the courts as the final arbiter . A prominent constitutional theorist , A. V. Dicey , proposed in the nineteenth century that :
| 68a868f4944934f25fb5cdd57548b38c | 11,631 |
The prerogative appears to be historically and as a matter of fact nothing else than the residue of discretionary or arbitrary authority which at any given time is legally left in the hands of the crown . The prerogative is the name of the remaining portion of the Crown 's original authority ... Every act which the executive government can lawfully do without the authority of an Act of Parliament is done in virtue of the prerogative .
| 01c44b3d29218f12bbdcb445c197f5d5 | 11,632 |
While many commentators follow the Diceyan view , there are constitutional lawyers who prefer the definition given by William Blackstone in the 1760s :
| 5e83c035bc1ab37c485e4da6f29694a7 | 11,633 |
By the word prerogative we usually understand that special pre @-@ eminence which the King hath , over and above all other persons , and out of the ordinary course of common law , in right of his regal dignity ... it can only be applied to those rights and capacities which the King enjoys alone , in contradiction to others , and not to those which he enjoys in common with any of his subjects .
| fd8e43057c0754a434f33985e68ccdbd | 11,634 |
Dicey 's opinion that any action of governance by the monarch beyond statute is under the prerogative diverges from Blackstone 's that the prerogative simply covers those actions that no other person or body in the United Kingdom can undertake , such as the dissolution of Parliament . Case law exists to support both views . Blackstone ’ s notion of the prerogative being the powers of an exclusive nature was favoured by Lord Parmoor in the De Keyser ’ s Royal Hotel case of 1920 , but some difficulty with it was expressed by Lord Reid in the Burmah Oil case of 1965 . A clear distinction has not been necessary in the relevant cases , and the courts may never need to settle the question as few cases deal directly with the prerogative itself .
| 6fb48ea1394d6c02be8b3bee894d6428 | 11,635 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 11,637 |
The royal prerogative originated as the personal power of the monarch . From the 13th century in England , as in France , the monarch was all @-@ powerful , but this absolute power was checked by " the recrudescence of feudal turbulence in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries " . An early attempt to define the royal prerogative was stated by Richard II 's judges in 1387 .
| 91f79cb1911c4f5be733c1165bbd0c7a | 11,639 |
During the 16th century , this " turbulence " began to recede , and the monarch became truly independent . Under Henry VIII and his successors , the king was the head of the Protestant English church , and therefore not answerable to the clergy . The rise of Parliament in this period , however , was problematic . While the monarch was " the predominant partner in the English constitution " , the courts stopped short of declaring him all @-@ powerful , recognizing the role that Parliament played . In Ferrer 's Case , Henry recognised this , noting that he was far more powerful with the consent of Parliament than without . Nowhere was this more apparent than in the matter of taxation : Sir Thomas Smith and other writers of the period pointed out the monarch could not impose taxation without Parliament 's consent .
| 0319f04a3e3c0027cb1389461a51cc5c | 11,640 |
At the same time , Henry and his descendants normally followed the will of the courts , despite the fact they were theoretically not bound by judges . William Holdsworth infers that by regularly asking the legal officers of the crown and judiciary for legal advice and consent , Henry recognised the need for a stable government to follow the law . He also contends that the view that the law is supreme over all " was the view of all the leading lawyers and statesmen and publicists of the Tudor period " . It was accepted that while the King had " unfettered discretion " , he was limited in areas where the courts had imposed conditions on the use of the prerogative , or where he had chosen to do so .
| bdf34957a89554465faefca2f9fa1494 | 11,641 |
The first dent in this stability came about in 1607 , with the Case of Prohibitions . James VI and I claimed that as monarch , he had a divine right to sit as a judge and interpret the common law as he saw fit . Led by Sir Edward Coke , the judiciary rejected this idea , stating that while the monarch was not subject to any individual , he was subject to the law . Until he had gained sufficient knowledge of the law , he had no right to interpret it ; Coke pointed out that such knowledge " demanded mastery of an artificial reason ... which requires long study and experience , before that a man can attain to the cognizance of it " . Similarly , in the Case of Proclamations in 1611 , Coke held that the monarch could only exercise those prerogatives he already had , and not create new ones .
| 39cf7fb1266adab053540a45761a2590 | 11,642 |
With the Glorious Revolution , King James VII and II was replaced by Queen Mary II and her husband King William III . At the same time the Bill of Rights 1689 was drafted , which cemented the monarch 's subservience to Parliament . It specifically limited the royal prerogative , with Article 1 holding that the " power of suspending the laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal " , and article 4 confirming that " levying money for or to the use of the Crown by pretence of prerogative , without grant of Parliament , for longer time , or in other manner than the same is or shall be granted , is illegal " . The Bill also confirmed that Parliament had the right to limit the use of remaining prerogatives , as evidenced by the Triennial Act 1694 , which required the monarch to dismiss and call Parliament at certain times .
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= = Prerogative powers = =
| 1b226be8e1d42dcee3615d1afb78ccca | 11,645 |
= = = Legislature = = =
| f8e2c3161ac1fb0d9caa24568e89a6c6 | 11,648 |
One of the monarch 's historic prerogatives was the dissolution of Parliament , which was " perhaps the most important residual prerogative exercised personally by the sovereign , and represents the greatest potential for controversy . " This prerogative was normally exercised at the request of Parliament and the prime minister , either at his or her discretion or following a motion of no confidence . Constitutional theorists have had differing views as to whether a unilateral dissolution of Parliament would be possible today ; Sir Ivor Jennings wrote that a dissolution involves " the acquiescence of ministers " , and as such the monarch could not dissolve Parliament without ministerial consent ; " if ministers refuse to give such advice , she can do no more than dismiss them " . A. V. Dicey , however , believed that in certain extreme circumstances the monarch could dissolve Parliament single @-@ handedly , on the condition that " an occasion has arisen on which there is fair reason to suppose that the opinion of the House is not the opinion of the electors ... A dissolution is allowable , or necessary , whenever the wishes of the legislature are , or may fairly be presumed to be , different from the wishes of the nation . "
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The monarch could force the dissolution of Parliament through a refusal of royal assent ; this would inevitably lead to a government resigning . By convention , the monarch always assents to bills ; the last time the royal assent was not given was in 1704 during the reign of Queen Anne . This does not mean that the right to refuse has died : George V believed he could veto the Third Irish Home Rule Bill ; Jennings writes that " it was assumed by the King throughout that he had not only the legal power but the constitutional right to refuse assent " . The royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament was abrogated by the Fixed @-@ term Parliaments Act 2011 . Section 6 ( 1 ) of the Act however specifically states that the monarch 's power to prorogue Parliament is not affected by the Act .
| 9aa262c061f4242ad3d6cd8bcc8884aa | 11,651 |
The appointment of the prime minister is also , theoretically , governed by the royal prerogative . Technically the monarch may appoint as prime minister anyone she wants to appoint , but in practice the appointee is always the person who commands a majority in the House of Commons . Usually , this is the leader of the political party that is returned to Parliament with a majority of seats after a general election . Difficulties may result with a so @-@ called hung parliament , in which no party commands majority support , as last occurred in 2010 . In this situation , constitutional convention is that the previous incumbent has the first right to form a coalition government and seek appointment . If the prime minister decides to retire in the middle of a parliamentary session , as Anthony Eden did in 1957 , the monarch has no discretion . There is usually a " prime minister @-@ in @-@ waiting " who commands the support of the majority of the Commons ; he or she will near @-@ automatically be appointed .
| 7208b85f9503137d22df878688169a85 | 11,652 |
= = = Judicial system = = =
| a9fa0d9ee9b308b442914272048491d3 | 11,654 |
The most noted prerogative power that affects the judicial system is the prerogative of mercy , which has two elements : the granting of pardons and the granting of nolle prosequi . Pardons may eliminate the " pains , penalties and punishments " from a criminal conviction , though they do not remove convictions themselves . This power is commonly exercised on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Home Department ; the monarch has no direct involvement in its use . Exercises of this power may also take the form of commutations , a limited form of pardon where the sentences is reduced , on certain conditions . The granting of a pardon is not subject to judicial review , as confirmed by Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service , but the courts have chosen to criticise its application or lack thereof , as in R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Bentley . Granting nolle prosequi is done by the Attorney General of England and Wales ( or the equivalent in Scotland or Northern Ireland ) in the name of the crown , to stop legal proceedings against an individual . This is not reviewable by the courts , as confirmed by R v Comptroller of Patents , and does not count as an acquittal ; the defendant may be brought before the courts on the same charge at a later date .
| f71398c289d939ef5bfd5490b060e30c | 11,656 |
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
| d9035e826dcf31f66f8bb3fb5e625ee1 | 11,658 |
The royal prerogative is in much use in the realm of foreign affairs . It is the monarch who recognises foreign states ( although several statutes regulate the immunities enjoyed by their heads and diplomatic representatives ) , issues declarations of war and peace , and forms international treaties . The monarch also has the power to annex territory , as was done in 1955 with the island of Rockall . Once territory has been annexed , the monarch has complete discretion as to the extent to which the government will take over the former government 's liabilities ; this was confirmed in West Rand Central Gold Mining Company v The King . The monarch also has the power to alter British territorial waters and cede territory . Her freedom to do these things in practice is doubtful , in that they might deprive British citizens of their nationality and rights . When the island of Heligoland was ceded to Germany in 1890 , Parliamentary approval was first sought . The monarch can also regulate colonies and dependent territories by exercising the prerogative through Orders in Council . The courts have long fought against the monarch 's use of this power : in R ( Bancoult ) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs ( No 2 ) , the Court of Appeal ruled that using Orders @-@ in @-@ Council to frustrate judicial rulings was an unlawful abuse of power , although this ruling was later overturned .
| 320f2818bccff97189a15b6bdcb418d9 | 11,660 |
British passports are also issued under the prerogative , though these are also covered by statute law . Under the common law , citizens have the right freely to leave and enter the United Kingdom . In R v Foreign Secretary ex parte Everett , the courts held that it was their right to review the granting of passports to , and the withholding of passports from , British citizens . The writ of ne exeat regno is also used to prevent a person leaving the country . The right to make treaties is a disputed prerogative power : under Blackstone 's definition , a prerogative power must be one unique to the monarch .
| ce2e5eb9d967660111e201f3dc6762ca | 11,661 |
= = = Other prerogative powers = = =
| c417d67accc087fe34edf2bc395ee219 | 11,663 |
The monarch also has power to exercise her prerogative over the granting of honours , the regulation of the armed forces and ecclesiastical appointments . Although the granting of most honours is normally decided by the executive , the monarch is still the person who technically awards them . Exceptions to this rule are membership of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Order of Merit , the Royal Victorian Order and the Royal Victorian Chain , which the monarch has complete discretion to grant . In relation to the armed forces , the monarch is the Commander in Chief , and members are regulated under the royal prerogative . Most statutes do not apply to the armed forces , although some areas , such as military discipline , are governed by Acts of Parliament . Under the Crown Proceedings Act 1947 , the monarch is the sole authority for the armed forces , and as such their organisation , disposition and control cannot be questioned by the courts . This exercise of prerogative power gives the Crown authority to recruit members of the armed forces , appoint commissioned officers , and establish agreements with foreign governments to station troops in their territory . The prerogative empowers the monarch to appoint bishops and archbishops in the Church of England , and to regulate the printing and licensing of the authorised Church of England version of the Bible .
| 2d2ecf52bb9ccd488a718a0d4ee333c6 | 11,665 |
R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Northumbria Police Authority , recognised that the prerogative also includes the power to " take all reasonable steps to preserve the Queen 's peace " , and in Burmah Oil Co. v Lord Advocate , the House of Lords took the view that it extended to " doing all those things in an emergency which are necessary for the conduct of [ the Second World War ] . "
| f6e28eb17c00cf8625b01b78752bd677 | 11,666 |
= = Use = =
| 5acbfc2738aaa442b416d286e596ff04 | 11,668 |
Today , the monarch exercises the prerogative almost exclusively in line with the advice of her government . Leyland notes that :
| a7c2ac5f5c49bfcc83f5e261f616c1b5 | 11,670 |
The present Queen ... is kept very closely in touch with the exercise of governmental power by means of a weekly audience with the prime minister during which she is fully briefed about the affairs of government ... [ But it ] should be emphasised that the prime minister is not under any obligation to take account of royal opinions .
| 7cad993c0ddb76cd6f22aff61336929e | 11,671 |
In simple terms , the prerogative is used to govern the realm in the name of the Crown ; although the monarch has the " right to be consulted , the right to encourage , and the right to warn " , her role involves no exercise of discretion .
| 50986b8de84c2f11798d7950d70600f9 | 11,672 |
Today , some prerogative powers are directly exercised by ministers without the approval of Parliament , including the powers of declaring war and of making peace , the issue of passports , and the granting of honours . Prerogative powers are exercised nominally by the monarch , but on the advice of the prime minister ( whom the monarch meets weekly ) and of the cabinet . Some key functions of the British government are still executed by virtue of the royal prerogative , but generally the usage of the prerogative has been diminishing as functions are progressively put on a statutory basis .
| 67cad12d76b10736b49b43311c4b5e20 | 11,673 |
= = = Limitations = = =
| 5cdf0a300e3d08afdd8596aadb285bc4 | 11,675 |
Several influential decisions of the House of Lords have determined the limited scope for the use of prerogative powers . In 1915 , an appeal was made to the House of Lords , Re Petition of Right ( ' Shoreham Aerodrome Case ' ) , but during the appeal the case was settled and the appeal withdrawn when the Crown agreed to pay compensation . The appeal was from a unanimous decision of the Court of Appeal that the Crown , both under the statutory Defence of the Realm Regulations and by the royal prerogative , was entitled to take and occupy , for military purposes in wartime , a commercial airfield on the south coast . The government argued that this action was to defend against an invasion ; the courts held that for the prerogative to be exercised , the government must demonstrate that a threat of invasion exists . This was backed up by The Zamora ( 1916 ) , where the Privy Council , on appeal from the Prize Court , held generally that to exercise a power not granted by statute ( such as a prerogative power ) the government must prove to the court that the exercise is justified . The next decision came in Attorney General v De Keyser 's Royal Hotel Ltd ( 1920 ) , where the House of Lords confirmed that a statutory provision in an area where prerogative powers are in use " abridges the Royal Prerogative while it is in force to this extent – that the Crown can only do the particular thing under and in accordance with the statutory provisions , and that its prerogative power to do that thing is in abeyance " .
| 06940a25be5b19fa4ffa6e66aa2da4aa | 11,677 |
This principle of statutory superiority was extended in Laker Airway Ltd v Department of Trade , concerning the revocation of a commercial airline operator 's licence ( December 1976 ) , where it was confirmed that prerogative powers could not be used to contradict a statutory provision , and that in situations to which the power and the statute both applied , the power could only be used to further the aim of the statute . Another extension came with R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Fire Brigades Union , where the Court of Appeal held that even if a statute had not yet come into force , the prerogative could not be used to alter this statute to " conflict with Parliament 's wishes " .
| e8035f1ad3b35574f936111c60685945 | 11,678 |
= = = Judicial review = = =
| 54dfefa8f6c4439064dfadc1022356e3 | 11,680 |
Before the modern judicial review procedure superseded the petition of right as the remedy for challenging the validity of a prerogative power , the courts were traditionally only willing to state whether or not powers existed , not whether they had been used appropriately . They therefore applied only the first of the Wednesbury tests : whether the use was illegal . Constitutional scholars such as William Blackstone consider this appropriate :
| 58658002530ee1fa8289fff901cfafd3 | 11,682 |
In the exertion therefore of those prerogatives , which the law has given him , the King is irresistible and absolute , according to the forms of the constitution . And yet if the consequence of that exertion be manifestly to the grievance or dishonour of the kingdom , the Parliament will call his advisers to a just and severe account .
| 94650970d14381391791f9477cbe3306 | 11,683 |
During the 1960s and 70s this attitude was changing , with Lord Denning saying in the Laker Airway case that " seeing that the prerogative is a discretionary power to be exercised for the public good , it follows that its exercise can be examined by the courts just as any other discretionary power which is vested in the executive . " The most authoritative case on the matter is Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service , generally known as the GCHQ case . The House of Lords confirmed that the application of judicial review would be dependent on the nature of the government 's powers , not their source . Foreign policy and national security powers are considered outside the scope of judicial review , while the prerogative of mercy is considered within it , as per R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Bentley .
| d50a42418c5ecf984cdb0f15cfc6ab16 | 11,684 |
= = Reform = =
| b2f624283711db2b63079f984db1282a | 11,686 |
Abolition of the royal prerogative is not on the immediate horizon , and recent movements to abolish the role of the monarchy and its royal prerogative in government have been unsuccessful . The Ministry of Justice undertook a " review of executive Royal Prerogative powers " in October 2009 . Former Labour MP and cabinet minister Tony Benn campaigned unsuccessfully for the abolition of the royal prerogative in the United Kingdom in the 1990s , arguing that all governmental powers in effect exercised on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet should be subject to parliamentary scrutiny and require parliamentary approval . Later governments argued that such is the breadth of topics covered by the royal prerogative that requiring parliamentary approval in each instance where the prerogative is currently used would overwhelm parliamentary time and slow the enactment of legislation .
| 23d3ec87ad5e6a1f007ab0b9c7416362 | 11,688 |
= Mount Jackson ( Antarctica ) =
| 695ca3fd3b13349e2e733ece7f8bcec7 | 11,691 |
Mount Jackson ( Mount Andrew Jackson and Mount Ernest Gruening ) is a mountain that dominates the upland of the southern part of the Antarctic Peninsula . It is located in Palmer Land , within the Antarctic claims of Argentina , Chile and the United Kingdom . With an elevation of 3 @,@ 184 metres ( 10 @,@ 446 ft ) , Mount Jackson is the highest mountain in the Antarctic Peninsula and the British Antarctic Territory . Discovered by members of the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 – 41 , it was named for Andrew Jackson , the seventh President of the United States . The first ascent of Mount Jackson was made by a team led by John Crabbe Cunningham of the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) in 1964 . Mount Jackson 's geology was studied in 1972 as part of the Palmer Island investigations by a team of geologists .
| d9e5dc24e9d8212467e8460a01236fca | 11,693 |
Mount Jackson and the Welch Mountains demarcate the central Black Coast , which is dissected by many inlets and is bounded on the west by Dyer Plateau of central Palmer Land . The two mountains rise above the ice shelf with reliefs of about 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) towards the east . They are interconnected by icefall zones forming a plateau with steep snow slopes . Mount Jackson rises from its southeast flanks , displaying a steeple summit , while the north flank is occupied by a vast cirque . Supraglacial moraines on the mountain 's east side measure between 1 – 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 11 mi ) in length and display boulders at their distal ends .
| 0c4a567aadbc50bb5012826a141cc6be | 11,694 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 11,696 |
The first topographic mapping of Mount Jackson was carried out in November 1940 by a sledge party of the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) . The ground survey was facilitated by aerial photographs and aerial observations . The height was estimated at 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) , and the mountain was named Mount Ernest Gruening after the Governor of the Alaska Territory at that time , Ernest Gruening . USAS later renamed it Mount Jackson for the seventh President of the United States . President Jackson signed the bill into law authorizing the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 – 42 . The expedition , led by Lt. Charles Wilkes , included exploration and surveying of the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands , including Antarctica .
| 86bbdd84be1538f093626b774167310a | 11,698 |
In November 1947 , a Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) ground party based at Stonington Island observed Mount Jackson and estimated its height at 3 @,@ 050 metres ( 10 @,@ 010 ft ) , considerably lower and more accurate than the first estimate in 1940 .
| 97fd79251b3a18673be3247f72f6663a | 11,699 |
After the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey was renamed British Antarctic Survey in 1962 , a series of depots were developed , including one at Mount Jackson . BAS members were successful in making many first ascents of the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula , and John Cunningham , who served at the BAS base at Adelaide Island , was the first to climb Mount Jackson . Traveling by dog sled for 640 kilometres ( 400 mi ) , his team reached the summit on 23 November 1964 .
| b99347c73f175900475ce57ec2e5ca1f | 11,700 |
A precise height of the summit was determined by a BAS survey party who ascended the peak during the austral summer of 1996 – 97 .
| a8bea674dd5060cc6181e600f5fb3bfb | 11,701 |
= = Geography = =
| 6d0e383f9b97b9a3074b3db80f26a479 | 11,703 |
The mountain is 3 @,@ 184 metres ( 10 @,@ 446 ft ) in height , with a prominence of 2 @,@ 187 metres ( 7 @,@ 175 ft ) and a saddle DEM of 997 metres ( 3 @,@ 271 ft ) . Mount Jackson and the Welch Mountains demarcate the central Black Coast , which is dissected by many inlets and is bounded on the west by Dyer Plateau of central Palmer Land , with elevation ranging between 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , and on the west side of the central Black Coast . The two mountains rise above the ice shelf with reliefs of about 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) towards the east . They are interconnected by icefall zones forming a plateau with steep snow slopes . The northern part of the mountain system , which extends over 1 @,@ 590 kilometres ( 990 mi ) , covers most of the Antarctic Peninsula , and Mount Jackson is its highest peak .
| 383b4c769bb68170e1ac3c596f150b6f | 11,705 |
Mount Jackson rises from its southeast flanks , displaying a steeple summit , while the north flank is occupied by a vast cirque . Supraglacial moraines on the mountain 's east side measure between 1 – 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 11 mi ) in length and display boulders at their distal ends . Mount Jackson and the Rowley Massif are separated by Odom Inlet . Cline Glacier drains eastern Mount Jackson before arriving at Odom Inlet .
| 113903ae7b6ad018a8ae78f9dd2105f7 | 11,706 |
Mount Jackson 's geology was studied in 1972 as part of the Palmer Island investigations by a team of geologists . They identified various rock types and underlying volcanic activity . The relief of the west facing slopes is gentler when compared to the eastern side , characterized by a steep rocky face . Rock weathering is intense in the area spread with scree and felsenmeer . Fresh rock formations and bedrock disintegration are noted .
| 2de71ea4a49f9eb2769e23d890c732fb | 11,707 |
= Italian cruiser Aretusa =
| 7b143fa67b8a9ced4ab22d3c22526800 | 11,710 |
Aretusa was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . Laid down in June 1889 at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard , she was launched in March 1891 and was commissioned in September 1892 . Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Aretusa spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , she was assigned to the Red Sea Squadron in Italian Eritrea . She bombarded Ottoman positions in the Arabian Peninsula and took part in a blockade of the coast . Worn out by the end of the war in October 1912 , Aretusa was sold for scrap that December and broken up .
| dc9ecba98581539c6a4bb8f12ab5404d | 11,712 |
= = Design = =
| 27a68d88afcf8b73909bed8e24598173 | 11,714 |
Aretusa was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 833 metric tons ( 820 long tons ; 918 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Aretusa 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 and 121 .
| 5dab8b1aa0f95e4ea219bf8b03dee21c | 11,716 |
Aretusa was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her five 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
| df0128cbd26519d0f86e525fd431e85f | 11,717 |
= = Service history = =
| 23e5a754ef5bf8e29b4df264b6ec61aa | 11,719 |
Aretusa was laid down at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando ( Orlando Brothers ' Shipyard ) in Livorno on 1 June 1889 , and was launched on 14 March 1891 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 September 1892 . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Aretusa served with the 3rd Division of the Reserve Squadron , along with the protected cruisers Vesuvio and Ettore Fieramosca and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron , which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet . In 1895 , Aretusa was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Minerva , Euridice , Iride , Urania , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli . As of 1898 , Aretusa was assigned to the Active Squadron , with included the ironclads Sicilia and Sardegna and two other cruisers .
| 6822b178929eab1b2350a01d7d29f74d | 11,721 |
At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Aretusa was stationed in Italian Eritrea in the Red Sea Squadron . Italian naval forces in the region also included five protected cruisers and several smaller vessels . Shortly after the start of the war on 2 October , Aretusa and the gunboat Volturno encountered the Ottoman torpedo cruiser Peyk @-@ i Şevket off Al Hudaydah . In a short engagement , the Italians vessels forced the Ottoman ship to flee into Al Hudaydah , bombarded the port facilities , and then withdrew . Peyk @-@ i Şevket was later interned in British @-@ controlled Suez The threat of an Ottoman attack from the Arabian Peninsula led the Italian High Command to reinforce the Red Sea Squadron ; the additional ships included another cruiser and several destroyers . The protected cruiser Piemonte and two destroyers annihilated a force of seven Ottoman gunboats in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay on 7 January 1912 .
| b18c2678af858456adf5515cfbfcf2f1 | 11,722 |
Following the neutralization of Ottoman naval forces in the region , Aretusa and the rest of the Italian ships then commenced a bombardment campaign against the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . On 27 July and 12 August , Aretusa , her sister ship Caprera , and Piemonte conducted two bombardments of Al Hudaydah . During the second attack , they destroyed an Ottoman ammunition dump . With the threat of an Ottoman attack greatly reduced , the High Command thereafter began to withdraw forces from the Red Sea Squadron . By the end of August , the unit was reduced to three protected cruisers , Aretusa , Caprera and two auxiliaries . On 14 October , the Ottoman government agreed to sign a peace treaty , ending the war . Aretusa 's career ended shortly thereafter ; the Regia Marina discarded the ship in December and she was subsequently broken up for scrap .
| e32679f42a2659868d12ee9a7d5fe1e5 | 11,723 |
= M @-@ 6 ( Michigan highway ) =
| 8e07dc24b31294fb0411826a78ed5c33 | 11,726 |
M @-@ 6 , or the Paul B. Henry Freeway , is a 19 @.@ 696 @-@ mile ( 31 @.@ 698 km ) freeway and state trunkline highway in the United States that serves portions of southern Kent and eastern Ottawa counties south of Grand Rapids , Michigan . Although the freeway is named for Paul B. Henry , local residents and the press continue to use the original name , South Beltline as well on occasion . The freeway connects Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) on the west with I @-@ 96 on the east . M @-@ 6 also provides a connection to U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in the middle of its corridor while running through several townships on the south side of the Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan . Each end is in a rural area while the central section has suburban development along the trunkline .
| 7d6ae6a157248e77bcc732ba8b1c057f | 11,728 |
The freeway was originally conceived in the 1960s . It took 32 years to approve , plan , finance , and build the freeway from the time that the state first authorized funding in 1972 to the time of the ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony in 2004 that opened the South Beltline to traffic . The project cost around $ 700 million or around $ 35 million per mile ( approximately $ 22 million per kilometer ) . Initial construction started in November 1997 , with the first phase opened in November 2001 . The full freeway was opened in November 2004 . The first phase of construction was completed in asphalt , while the second and third phases were built in concrete . The project was built with two firsts : the first single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ; / ˈspuːiː / ) in Michigan , and a new technique to apply the pavement markings , embedding them into the concrete to reduce the chance of a snowplow scraping them off . In advance of the opening of the freeway to traffic , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) allowed the public to walk or bike the South Beltline in an open @-@ house event called the " Southbelt Shuffle " .
| 96cc0061620f5f7e83f76690bfa387c9 | 11,729 |
= = Route description = =
| 492dd728c7998b12b26ca6c56c46440f | 11,731 |
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