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Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/why-matific/research-and-efficacy/] | [TOKENS: 5096] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืฆื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืงืจืื ืขืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืชืื ืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืคืจืช ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืฉื ืชืืืืืื, ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืชื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืขืืื. ืฉืืคืืจ ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงืจ ืื, ืฉื ืขืจื ืืฉืืื ื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ืืืืกืืจืืื, ืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืคื ื ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืชื ืืืืืช. ืืชืืืืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืฉื 34% ืืฆืืื ื ืืืืื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืื ื ืืขืืืงื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื. ืืืืงืจ ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืชืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคืจืช ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืงืฆืจ. ืืืงืจ ืจืื ืืืงืฃ ืฉื SEG Measurement ืขืงื ืืืจ ืืืขื 1,500 ืชืืืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืกืืื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืจืืจืืช: ืชืืืืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืืื ืืืืคื ืขืงืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืฉืื, ืืืจืื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืชืจ, ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืืืชืืืืงื. ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฆืขืืจืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืชืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืชืจ โ ืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืชืจืื ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืฉืื ืืฆืืื, ืฉืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืขืงืืืืช ืืื ืืจืงืขืื, ืื ืฉืืจืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืขืืืืช ืขืืืจ ืื ืืื. ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืืืช (High Touch High Tech - HTHT), ืืืงืจ ืขืฆืืื ืฉื ืขืจื ืืงืจื ืืืชืจ ื-2,700 ืชืืืืื ืืืชื ื' ืืฆื ืื ืชืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืขื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืฉืื. ืืืืืฆืข, ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืจืืื โ ืืชืงืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืชืืืืงื ื ืืกืคืื ืืฉื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืืช ืืืื. ืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืคื ืืงืืืข ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืืชืงืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืคื ืฉื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ืจืืืืืช. ืืขืืจ ืืฆืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืชืืืืืื ืคืืชืื ืืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืฉืืจื ืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืคืืง ืฉืืจื ืขื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื, ืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืชืืฉืืช. ืืืงืจ ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช (2024) ืืืงืจ ืฉื ืขืจื ืืงืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืกืืืช ืืืชืืืืงื (ืกืคืืจื, ืืืืืจ/ืืืกืืจ ืคืฉืืืื, ืฆืืจืืช, ืชืื ืืืช, ืืืืื ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช) ืืืืจ ืืจืืขื ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง. ืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืงื ืชืืขืืช ืฉืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืขืื ืืคื ืืื. ืืฉืืคืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืงืื ืกืืืืกืืืช, ืืืจืื ืืขืืืืช ืืจืืจื ืืคืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืืื. ืืขืจืื ืฉืขืจื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืืจื ืกืืจืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืขืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืกืงืืื (ืงืืืืจืื, ืืจืืื) ืืฆืื ืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืืขืืจื ืืชืืืืงื ืืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืฉืืขืืจื ืืืืฉืืื. ืืคื ื ืืืืคืืง, 31.8% ืืืชืืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ื' ืขื ื' ื ืืฉืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืื ื ืืงืงื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืฉื ื ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง, ื ืชืื ืื ืืจื ื-4% ืืืื โ ืืจืืื ืฉื 87% ืืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืื ืขืืื ืืกืื ืืจื ืื ืืจืฉ. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืงืืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง, ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืื ืืืื: ืืขืื ืฉืจืืื ืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืืฃ ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืชืืฆืืืช ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ืืฉืชืคืจื ืืื ืืืืชืืช. ืืขืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืงืจ SEG ืืืจื"ื, ืืืขื 9 ืืชืื 10 ืืืจืื ืืืจื ืฉืื ืืืืืฆื ืขื ืืืืคืืง, ื-78% ืชืื ื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืโืืืจ ืืืฉืงืฃ ืฉืืืขืืช ืจืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืชืืฉืืช. ืืืขืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช HTHT ืืืืจืืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืืขืื ื-2,700 ืชืืืืืื, ืืืจืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืืืคืืง ืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืชืืื ืืฉืืืืืช 20% ืืืชืจ ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช. ืืืืงืจ ืืจืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืืื ืฉืืชืฃ ืืืงืจื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืืืงืช ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืฉืคืขื ืืืืชื. ืืืงืจ ืขืฆืืื ืืฆื ืื ืืืืคืืง ืืกืืืขืช ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืจืืจื ืืืชืจ ืืืืคืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืขืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืจืืขืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืจืืช ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื (77%), ืืขืื 82% ืืืจื ืฉืื ืืจื ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืฉ ืืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืืชื. ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืงื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื ืืขืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง. ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืงืจ ืืงืจื ืฉื ืขืจื ื-8 ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ืืืงืฉืจืื ืกืืฆืื-ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืชืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืืคืืง ืืคืืื ื ืฆืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช: ืฆืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืจืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืฉื 34% ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืคืืง ืืคืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืจืชืงืช ืืืชืจ - ืืชืืืืืื ืชืืืจื ืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืโืืื ืโ - ืื ืืืืช ืืจืืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืชืื ืืื ืืฉืืง. ืืืืฉืื ืืจืฆื ื-328 ืืชื ืกืคืจ, ืชืืื ืืช Click Learning ืืฆืื ืฉ-78% ืืืชืืืืืื ื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง โ ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืงื. ืืืืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืขืืฆืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง, ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช. ืขื ืคื ืืืื ืกืืื, ืืืืชืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืคืืง ื ืจืฉืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื 95% ืืืชืืืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืกืงืจื ืืช (84%) ืืืื ืื (98%). ืืื ืืื ืฆืืื ื ืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืืคืื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืืจืืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืคืจืืืงื ืคืืืืื ืฉื ืขืจื ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืคืื'ื, ืืืฉืช ืืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืงืฉืื. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืฉืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื. ืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืชืืื ืจืื ืืืชืจ (ืฆืืื ื GRIT), ืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืชืืืืงื. ืืืจืื ืฆืืื ื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืคืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืชืืจืื ืืืืชืืื ืืืขืืืช โ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืขืืฆืื ืคืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืคืืง ืงืืืื ืืืจืื โืืืืคืชโ ืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืืืจืืืืืช - ืืืืืช ืชืืื, ืืชืืื ืคืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืฆืื - ืืืชืื ืืืกืืจืช EdTech Tulna ืืืืชืืช ื'-ื'. ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืคืืืืืื ืืงืื ืกืืจืืงืืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืืืืชื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืืคืืืืืช ืืืืกืกืช ืืฉืืงืื. ืืืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืขืฆืืื? ืืฉืชืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืงื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/professional-development-webinar/] | [TOKENS: 364] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืฃ ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืื ืชืืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืฃ, ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืคื ืฉืืื ืืืืชืื ืฉืื ืืืืฆืขืื ืฉืชืจืื ืื ืืืื ืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื. ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/microsoft-office-365-teams/] | [TOKENS: 2112] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืืืืช ืขื ื ืืืื ืื โ Microsoft Microsoft 365 for Education ืืื ืกืืืืช ืขื ื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืื ืืืฉ ืชืืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืฉ, ืืื ืืงืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืื: Microsoft Teams, Onedrive, Copilot ืOffice 365- ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืขืืืื, ืฉืืชืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืงืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืฉื ืืกืืืืช ืืขื ื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื ืืชืืฆืขืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืืกืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืจื ืงืืฉืืจ ืืืขืืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืืฉืืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ื ืฉื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื 365 - ืืืฉืืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ื ืฉื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื - ืืืฉืืืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืืืก (Teams) - ืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืชื ืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืชื, ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืชืืฃ ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืืก ืืื ืืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืคืืฉืื ืกืื ืืจืื ืืื.ืืืจืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืฆืืจ ืืืชืืช ืืืจืืืืืืืช, ืืขืจืื ืืคืืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืืืง, ืืฉืชืฃ ืืืืจื ืืืืื, ืืืงืฆืืช ืืฉืืืืช, ืืกืคืง ืืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืขืงืื ืืืจ ืืชืงืืืืชื. ืืืจืืื: ืืืืก - ืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืชื ืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืชื, ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืชืืฃ ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืืก ืืื ืืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืคืืฉืื ืกืื ืืจืื ืืื.ืืืจืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืฆืืจ ืืืชืืช ืืืจืืืืืืืช, ืืขืจืื ืืคืืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืืืง, ืืฉืชืฃ ืืืืจื ืืืืื, ืืืงืฆืืช ืืฉืืืืช, ืืกืคืง ืืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืขืงืื ืืืจ ืืชืงืืืืชื. ืืืื ืงืจืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืงืจืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืืงืืืช ืขื ืืืืื. ืืืืฆืจ ืืืคืฉืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงืืจ ืขืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืคืชืืจ ืืขืืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืฆืืจืชืืช. ืืืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืข ืืกืืืืช ืืขื ื ืชืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ื, ืืืืฉื ืืกืืืืช ืืขื ื, ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืชืืฆืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืืืืงื ืืืจืฆื *6552 ืืืืื ืื ืืคื ืืช ืืจืคืจื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืขืจืืชืืืช, ืื ืืืชืืืขืฅ ืขื ืืคืงืื ืืชืงืฉืื ืืืืืืืื ืขืื ืขื ืกืืืืช ืืืงืจืืกืืคื Microsoft Teams ืกืืืืช ืขื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืืืง. ืืืืขื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืจืื ืืกืืืืช ืืขื ื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื. ืืืจืืื ืกืืืืช ืขื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืืืง. ืืืืขื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืจืื ืืกืืืืช ืืขื ื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืงืจืืกืืคื. ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/group/] | [TOKENS: 564] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืจืืค - ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืกืืค ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืืค ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืงื (ืืืขื ืืืจืฃ) ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืืชืืช ื"ื-ืโื ืืืืจื ืขืืจืืช ืืขืจืืืช, ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจืฃ ืืงืจืื ืืืืื ืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืจืื ืฉื 5 ืื"ื. ืืืื ืชืชืขื ืืื ื ืื ื... ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-240] | [TOKENS: 12221] |
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/teachers/] | [TOKENS: 3767] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืืืคืืืงืฆืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืืช ืืช ืชืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื ืฉืคืจื ืืช ืืชืืฆืืืช ืฉื ืชืืืืืืื ื-34% 50+ ืฉืคืืช 70+ ืืืื ืืช 2000s ืื ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืืื 15000+ ืืืงืืจืืช 5 ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืงื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืชืืจ ืชืืืืืื. ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืฆื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืืืจืื. ืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืกืงืจื ืืืจื ืฉืชืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืคืืง! ืืืคื ืคืขืืืืืืช, ืืคื ืขืืืื, ืืขืื ืืงืฆืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืงืืืช ืืคื ืชืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืฉืคืจืช ืืช ืืชืืฆืืืช ื- 34% ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืชื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืชืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืขืจื ืกืืื ื ืืขืืจืจืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืฉื 89% ืืืืจืื ืืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืขืืืชืืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืื ืืืืชื. ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืจื"ื ืืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ื- 31% ืกืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืฉืชืืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืฉืื "ืจืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืงื". ืืืื ื ืืื, ืืืื ืืจืขืืื ืืขื ืฉืืืื ืื ืคืขืืืืช ืขืืฆืื ืืงืคืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืชืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช - ืืืื ื ืืืื ืฉืื ืขืืฉืื ืืืช. ืืืืคืืง ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืคืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืื, ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจืืื ืืงืจืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืื. ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืฉืื ืืฉืื, ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืคืขื. ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืขื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงื ืืช ืืืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจืืื. ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืกืคืง ืจืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืขืฆืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืขืื ืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืืฆืืจื ืื ื ืืื ื, ืืจืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืขืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืืืฉืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืืืจืืชื ืืืืื ืืกืชืื ืืืืืืจืืชื ืืืื ืฉืื ื ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืืฆืืขืื ืฉื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช. ืืื ืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืงืืงืื ืืืืืื, ืืจืืื, ืืืืืืฆืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืฉืื, ืืืืคืืง ืืกืืืข ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืื! ืืืืจื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืจืืชื ืืืืคืืืื ืฉืื ื, ืื ืฉืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืจืขื ื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืื. ืขื ืืืืคืืง, ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืชืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืช ืืฆืขื ืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ื ืืชืื ืขืืืง ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืคืืง ืฉืืืจ ืจืืฉืืืื ืขื ืื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืืชื ืื ืชืฆืืจืื! ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืคืืจืื, ืืจืืืช ืื ืกืืืื ืืช ืขืืืืชื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืื. ืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืขืจืื ืืขืฆืืช, ืืชืืืื ื ืืื ื ืืขืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืงืื ืืืชืจ. ืืื ืชืืืืืื ืืชืงืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืงืืืช ืืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืื. ืคืืืช ื ืืืื, ืืืชืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืืคืืง ืืฉ ืืืชืจ ื -2,000 ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืืช ืืืืคืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืคืฉืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืชื ืืืืกืื. ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืืืคืืง ืืงืืืช ืืคื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืจืื ืฉืืื. ืื ืฉืขืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืืงืืช ืืช ืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ื, ืืืฆืข ืืกืคืจ ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืคืขืื ืืืชื. ืชื ื ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืืืจ ืืืกืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืื. ืืืืืจื - ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืชืจ! ืืขืกืืงื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื, ืืืืืกืกืืช ืขื ืืฉืืงืื, ืืืคืืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืื. ืืคืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืชืืกืกืช, ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืชืืื ืฉืกืืืื. ืขืืืจ ืืชืืืืืื, ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืืืื ืงืกืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืขืืืจืืช ืืืชืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื. ืืืจืื ืืืืืืชืืช ืชืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืฆืคื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืชืคืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง. ืืืืืคืืง ืืฉ ืืจืื ืื ืืืฆืืข! ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืืืคืืง ืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืืืืืื ืืืฆืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืฉืืื ืืืชืืืืงื. ืืืืืคืืง ืชืืฆืื: ืืืคืื ืืืืจืื ืืชืื ืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืกืื ืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ClassCast ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืืชื ื ืืงืื ืืืืืืื ืชืขืืืืช ืขืืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืคืืืคืืจืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืคืืืงืฆืืืช (ืคืืขืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืจ) ืืืคืืืงืฆืื ืืืื ื ื-40 ืฉืคืืช ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืคืืง ืืืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืคืืชืื ืขื-ืืื ืืืืืื ืืกืื ืคืจื, ืืจืืืืจื, ืืจืงืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืคื ืืืกืคืจืื ืืชืืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืคืืง ืืชืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ื ืืกืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ื'ืืืืคืืง' ืขืืฉืื. ืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืืืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืชืืื ืฉืื ื ืฉืคืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ/ืืืชื ืฉืืื. ืืงืฉื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืืฆื ื ืืชื ืืืคืืง ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืงืืคื ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืขืฅ ืืื ืขืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง, ืืงืืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืคื ืืจืืฉืืชืืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืคืจืกืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/students-online-courses/about/] | [TOKENS: 1531] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช MOOC ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืงืื ืืขื: ืืืจืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื Massive Open Online Course) MOOC) ืืื ืงืืจืก ืืืชื ืื ืืกืืืื ืืงืืื ืช, ืคืชืืื ืืจืืช ืืฉืชืชืคืื. ืชืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ื ืจืฉืืื ืืงืืจืก ืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืง ืืืืคืขื ืขื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืขืืื (ืืืื MIT, ืกืื ืคืืจื, ืคืจืื ืกืืื, ืื, ืืจืืืืจื, ืืืืง). ืืืฉืจืื ืืฆืืจืคื ืืืืื ืื ืืืกืืืช ืืงืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืคืชืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื. ืฉืืืืช ืืชืฉืืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืชืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืช ืืืืื ืืชืืงืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืจืกื MOOC, ืงืืจืกืื ืืงืืืืื. ืงืืืืื ืงืืจืกืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืขืืื. ืฉืืืช ืืคืขืืื (ืืจื ืืืืืื, ืืืชืืืืืืืื) ืืงืืจืก MOOC ืืืืจืช ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืงืืืฆืชื ืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืคืืื ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืฉืื. ืื ืืืคืืช ืืืืชื ืื ืืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืชืื ืงืืืขืช ืืืืื ืืฉืืชืคืช, ืขืจืืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืืชืืฃ. ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืขืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืงืืจืกื MOOC ืืืขืืื ืขื ืชืืืืืืื ืืืืชื. ืื. ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืืจืช ื-30 ืฉืขืืช ืืืื ืืฉืชืืืืช. ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืงืืื ืช. ืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืฉืชืชืคืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืคืฉื ืืื ืฉืขื ืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืืืืจื. ืื ื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืืืจืฉื ืืื ืืงืืจืก, ืืืืืช ื ืืืจืช ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืงืืื ืืคืืฉื ืืืืื ืืฉืืชืคืื. ืฉืื ื: ืืืืื ืืงืืจืก ืืืงืืื ืืขืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืฃ ืื ืคืจืงืฉืื ื: ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืงืืจืก MOOC ืืืืชืืฉืื ื: ืืืฉืช ืขืืืืช ืกืืืื ืขื ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืชื ืชืืืื ืืืื ืชืชืขื ืืื ื ืื ื... ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืฆืื_ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื] | [TOKENS: 912] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืื ืืฆืื ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืงืืืื ืืื ื-8 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1861 ืขื ื-10 ืืืื 1865. ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื ืืกื ืืฉื ืช 1861 ืืืืจื ืืืื ืขื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืงื, ืืฉืจ ื ืืกืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ื, ืืืฉืจ 11 ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืคืจืฉื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืฆืื ื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืขื ืืื 313 ืงืฆืื ืื ืฉืคืจืฉื ืืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ื ืืืงืืชื 82,000 ืืชื ืืืื. ืืืืืืกื 1861 ืืืฉืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืก ืฉื 400,000 ืื ืฉืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืืคืจืื 1862 ืืขืืืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืง ืืืืก ืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืกืืจืชื ืืืืกื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืืื 18โ35. ืืกืคืจื ืืืืืืง ืฉื ืืื ืฉืฉืจืชื ืืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืืืืข, ืฉืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืขืจืื ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืื 500,000 ื-2,000,000 ืืืฉ. ืืืคืงืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืื ืจืืืจื ืื, ืืืืจื ืกืืื ื ื'ืื ืกืืื ืืชืืืืก ื'ืื ืชื ื'ืงืกืื. ืืฆืื ืคืืจืง ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 1865 ืืืฉืจ ืื ืจื ืจืืืจื ืื ื ืื ืข ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืฆืืื ื-ืืจื ืืคื ืชืืจืืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/students-online-courses/courses-self-learning-bagrut/] | [TOKENS: 525] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืงืืจืกื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืื ื ืืชืืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืชืืืืื ื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืงืืจืกื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืงืืจืกืื ืืงืืคืืก IL ืืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ื-ืื ืืืื ืชืชืขื ืืื ื ืื ื... ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%9C:%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 2559] |
ืคืืจืื:ืืืืื ืจืขื ืื ืืคืืจืื ืืืฆื ืืืื ืืขืืืจ? ืืืืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืคืขืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืื ืืืืืจืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืงืืืื ืืจืืืืชื. ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืงืจ ืืขืืกืง ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืชืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืฆืขืื ืืืืจืืื, ืืืืืงืื ืืืืืกืื ืืืืจืชืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืฆืืจื ืืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืงื ืืื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืฆืืจืื ืืื. ืืืืงืจ ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืกืง ืืืืคื ืื ืืฉืืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืกืืจ ืืฉืืฉืื, ืืขืืืืื, ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืืงืฆืื, ืืืคืฆืื ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืฆืจืื. ืืื ืื ืขืืกืงืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืฉืจืื ืืืืกื ืืืืืคืื ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืฆืจืื ืืฆืจืืืชื. ืืื ืืฉืืจ ื ืืืขืื ืชืืืื ืืงืจ ืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืืจ, ืืคืฆื, ืืกืืจ ืืฆืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื. ืืขืจื ืืืื ืืืงืจื-ืืืืื - ืืงืจื-ืืืืื - ืชืืฆืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื - ืชืืฆืจ ืืงืืื ืืืืื - ืืื ืคืืฆืื - ืืคืืฆืื - ืืกืฃ (ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื) - ืจืืืืช - ืื ืง - ืืืงืืฉ - ืืืฆืข - ืชืคืืงื - ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืจืืช - ืืืื ืืืช ืคืืกืงืืืช ืฉืืง ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืกืืจืชื ืืชืจืืฉืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืื ืงืื ืื ืืจืฆืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืฆืื ืฉืืง ืืืคืฉื - ืืืืืืืคืื - ืืื ืืคืื - ืืื ืืคืกืื - ืงืจืื - ืืืืืืืคืกืื ืฉืืง ืืขืืืื ืืื ืฉืืง ืื ืืขืืืืื ืืฆืืขืื ืืช ืขืืืืชื ืชืืืจืช ืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืขืืืื - ืืืืื - ืืืืื ืืงืฆืืขื - ืืืกื ืขืืืื -ืืื ืื ืืฉื - ืืืืื ืกืืืื - ืืคืืื ืืฉืืง ืืขืืืื - ืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืื - ืคื ืกืื ืฉืืง ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืง ืื ืืชื ืื ืืกืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืฉื ื ืืืจืืช ืขืจื ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืคืื ืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืกืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืื ืื ืขืกืงืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืจืืช ืจืืื ื ืืืื -ืืืจืงืืืจืืื - ืืืืื - ืฉืืืืง - ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉ - ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืข- ืืฉืืื ืืืช - ืืืืืกืืืงื - ืืืืืช ืขืกืงืืช - ืืงืจ ืืืฆืืขืื - ืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืช ืืฉืืง ืืฉืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืขืกืงืืืช ืืคืขืืืืช ืื ืืืงืืืช, ืืืื ืงื ืืื ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืกืืืจื ืื ืืืงืืช. ืกืืืจื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ื ืฉืง ืื ืกืืื; ืื ืกืืืจื ืื ืืื; ืื ืกืืืจื ืืืงืืช ืืืืืชื, ืืืฉืจ ืืขืกืงื ืืื ื ืืืงืืช, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืชืฉืืืื ืืืกืื ืื ืืืฉืืช ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืื. ืฉืื ืฉื ืคืขืืืืช ืื ืืืงืืช ืื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืกืื ืืขืกืงืืืช ืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืฆืจืืืืช ืืืืขืฉืืช ื"ืืืฉื", ืืืืฅ ืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืง. ืืขืจื ืืืื ื-1926 ืืงืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืคืขื "ืืืืจ" ืืืฆืืจ ืฉืืงืืื, ืงืคื ืืืืชืงืื. "ืืืืจ" ืืื ืืื ืืืืชืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืกืกืืชื "ืขื ืื ืืฉืื - ืืืืจ ืชืืื ืจืืฉืื". ืขื ืืฃ ืืืืฉื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืคืขื, ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืืืง ืืช ืฉืืงืืื ื"ืืงืืคืืช" ืืืกืืืง ืืืืงื, ืืชืืื ืืืคืขื ืืฉื ืช 1970 ืขื "ืขืืืช", ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืชืจ ืืืืช-ืืืจืืฉืช ืื ืืคืืื ืฉืืืืฆืจืช ืขืืืช ืชืืช ืืืืชื "ืืืืจ". ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื - ืืืง ืืืกืืจืื - ืืฉืืจ ืงืจื ืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืืืช - ืืคืขืื ืขืืง ืืจืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืข ืืื ืืืฉื ืืขื ืฉื ื ืคืืจืืฉืื ืืฉืืืืฉืื ื ืคืืฆืื. ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืข ืืืืืฉื, ืืืจื ืืื ืขืืื ืืขืฉืื ืืชืืช. ืืืฉืืขืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืชืจ, ืืืืข ืืื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื (ืืืกืฃ) ืืจืฉืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืืืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืงื ืืืืชื ืืืื ื. ืืืืื ืื ืืืกืืฆืืคืืื ืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืคืื ื ืกืื, ืฉืืง ืืืื ืืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืขืืื ืืืกืืจื ืฉืืืืง ืืืกื ืขืืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืฉืืชืื โข ืืขืจืืื โข ืืืฉืืื โข ืงืฆืจืืจืื โข ืืืฉืื โข ืืืจืฉื ืืงืืจ โข ืืคืืฉืื โข ืืื ืคืืจืื? โ ืจืฉืืืช ืื ืงืืืืจืืืช ืืืฉื ื ืืืขืจืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืงืชืืจืืช_ืืขืงื_ืืงืืืฉ] | [TOKENS: 2878] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงืชืืจืืช ืืขืงื ืืงืืืฉ ืงืชืืจืืช ืืขืงื ืืงืืืฉ (ืืืจืื ืืช: ีึีขีธึ ี
ีกีฏีธีขีฅีกีถึ ีีกีถึ ีีกีตีธึ, ืกึฐืจึฐืึผืึนืฅ ืึทืืึผืึนืึทึผืื ึฐืฅ ืืึทืื ึฐืง ืึทืืืึนืฅ) ื ืืฆืืช ืืจืืืข ืืืจืื ื ืืขืืจ ืืขืชืืงื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืื ืกืืื ื ืื ืชื ืืืื ื-12 ืขื ืืกืืก ืฉืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื-6, ืืฉืืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืชื ื ืชืงืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืื ื-ืืื, ืืืืืฉ ืืืืกืืื. ืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืื ืืืคืืืจืืช ืฉืงืืืืืช ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื, ืืื ืื ืชืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืขืืื ืจืื ืื ืืืืช ืืฉื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืกืืื ืืืืข ืื ืืฉืืฉ ืฉืืืืฅ ืืืืคื, ืืื ืื ืจืืช ืืจืืื ืืืคืืืจืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืกืืื. ืืืืคื ืืืจืื ืืกืืืช ืืช ืืขืืื ืื ืืฆืจื, ืืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืข ืืืื ืืช/ืขืืืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืช ืืจืืขืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืืชืื ืกืคืจื ืืืฉืืจื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืืฉื (ืืชื, ืืืื ื, ืืืงืืก ืืืจืงืืก). ืืช ืงืืจืืช ืืื ืกืืื ืืงืืคืื ืฆืืืจืื, ืืืืง ืืชืืชืื ืืฆืืืจืื ืื ืฉืื ืืงืืืื ืืืงืืืืช, ืืืืขืื ืืงืืจืืช ืงืืืฉืื ื ืืฆืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืขืืืืืช ืฉืืคืืฅ ื ืจืืืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-18 ืขื ืืื ืืคืืจืืืจื ืืืจืื ื ืืจืืืืจื "ื ืืฉื ืืฉืืฉืืช", ืืฉืจ ืงืืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืฉื ืขื ืฆืืืืจื ืืจืฆืื ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืขืืื ืขื ืืฉืจ ืืฉืื ืืกืคืื ืืืืืจืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืฉืงืขื ืืงืืืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืจืืฉืืืืช. ืืกืขื ืืจืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืขืืจ ืืฆืคืื, ืขื ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืกืฃ ืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืืข ืืืจืื ื. ืืงืืจ ืืฆืคืื ื ืืฉืืคืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืก ืจื, ืืื ืืืชืืช ืืขืฅ ืืืฉืืืฆืืช ืฆืืคืืช ืืฉืจืืื ื ืฆืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืงืคืืช ืกื ื ื'ืืืืก ืืืฆืืืจื ืขืฅ ืืืจืื. ืืื ืืืจื ืงืคืื ืื ืืืช ืืืืจ ืื ืฉืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืื, ืืืืจ ืืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืืืจืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืขืงื ืืงืืืฉ (ืกื ื ื'ืืืืก) ืฉืขื ืฉืื ื ืงืจืื ืืื ืกืืื, ืืื ืืขืงื ืื-ืืืื ืืืืื ื "ืืขืงื ืืืืื", ืืื ืืฉื ืื ืขืฉืจ ืืฉืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ื. ืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืืคืก ืืจืืฉืื ืืฉื ืช 44. ืขื ืคื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืจืืฉื ืืขืจืืฃ ืืื ืกืืื ืื ืืงืคืื ืฉืืงืืจ ืืฆืคืื ื (ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืกื), ืืฉืืจ ืืืคื ืืกื ืืืืื ืื ืงืืืคืืกืืื ืฉืืกืคืจื. ืงืคืื ืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืงืืืฉ ืืื ืกืืื. ืืขืงื ืืืจ, ืืงืื, ืืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืืืฉืืฃ ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืกืืื ืื ืืชืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืฉื (ืืคืกืืก), ืฉื ื ืงืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉื ืกืงื ืืืืคืชื ื ืืจืงื ืืืจ ืืืืช ืื ืื ืงืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืช ืฉื ื. ืืืืื ืืืคืกืืก ืืืจืืื, ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืืขืงื ืืงืื ืืื ืืฉื, ื ืืฆืืช ืงืคืื ืงืื ื ืืืืงืืฉืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืงืคืื ืืืืื ืืจืื ืืงืืืฉื, ืืืชืืื, ืืืืื ื. ืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืกื ืื ืืื ืกืืื ื ืงืืจื ืืขืืจ ืคืืจืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืจืื ืื. ืืืืงื ืืงืืจ ืืขืืืื ืื ืงืืืขืืช ืืฆืืืช ืขื ืืืืืคื ืฆืืืื ืืขืืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆ'ืงืจืื. ืืืฆ'ืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืกืืจืชืืช ืืืจืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืงื ืื ื ืืืืช ืฉื ืื. ืืื ืกืืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืฆืื, ืืืืจ ืืื ืืกื ืืืืฅ ืืื ืกืืื, ืืืืฆืจ, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืืฉื ื ืฆืื ืืื ืืกื ืฉื ื ืืืืืช ืขืฅ (ืืืืื) ืืืจืื (ืืฉืืื) ืืชืืืืื ืขื ืืืืื. ืืื ืื ื"ื ืืงืืก" (ืืขืจืืืช), ืื ืืฆืืืชืืื. ืขื ืืืฆืข ืืืื ืืชืฉืข ืขืฉืจื ืืกืืฃ ืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื ืขืื ืืืฆืจื, ืืกืจื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืื ืขื ืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืคืขืืื ื ืื ืกืืื (ืื ืขื ืืืืืืื ื ืืกืจ ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืืคืจ ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืกืืืืืช). ื ืงืืฉื ืืคืืืฉื ืขืฅ ืขื ืื ืืงืืก, ืงืืจื ืืขืฅ ืงืฉื ืชืืืื ืขื ืืืืื, ืฉืืืฉื ืชืืืืฃ ืืคืขืืื ื ืืื ืกืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืคืขื ื ืงืจืืื ืืืืจืื ืืชืคืืื ืืขืืจืช ืื ืืงืืก. ืฆืืื ืื ืืงืืก ืืืง ืื ืขืื (ืืื ืงืกืืืืคืื ืขื ืฆืืื ืืื). ืืืื ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ื ืืงืืก ืืื ืกืืื ืื ืืจืืืข ืืืจืื ื, ืืื ืกืืืช ืืงืืจ ืืืื ืืจ ืกื ืื ืงืชืจืื ื. ืืื ืกืืื ืคืชืืื ืืงืื ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืขื 15:00, ืืืืฆื ืฉืขื, ืืืืื ืฉืืช ืื ืืื ืืฉืขืืช 8:00 ื-10:00. ืืืจืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gershwin] | [TOKENS: 6220] |
Contents George Gershwin George Gershwin (/หษกษหrส.wษชn/; born Jacob Gershwine; September 26, 1898 โ July 11, 1937) was an American composer and pianist whose compositions spanned jazz, popular and classical music. Among his best-known works are the songs "Swanee" (1919) and "Fascinating Rhythm" (1924), the orchestral compositions Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and An American in Paris (1928), the jazz standards "Embraceable You" (1928) and "I Got Rhythm" (1930) and the opera Porgy and Bess (1935), which included the hit "Summertime". His Of Thee I Sing (1931) was the first musical to win the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. Gershwin studied piano under Charles Hambitzer and composition with Rubin Goldmark, Henry Cowell, and Joseph Brody. He began his career as a song plugger but soon started composing Broadway theater works with his brother Ira Gershwin and with Buddy DeSylva. He moved to Paris, intending to study with Nadia Boulanger, but she refused him, afraid that rigorous classical study would ruin his jazz-influenced style; Maurice Ravel voiced similar objections when Gershwin inquired about studying with him. He subsequently composed An American in Paris, returned to New York City and wrote Porgy and Bess with Ira and DuBose Heyward. Initially a commercial failure, it came to be considered one of the most important American operas of the 20th century and an American cultural classic. Gershwin moved to Hollywood and composed several film scores. He died in 1937, only 38 years old, of a brain tumor. His compositions have been adapted for use in film and television, with many becoming jazz standards. Biography Gershwin's parents were both Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire. His paternal grandfather, Jakov Gershovitz, was born in Odessa, then part of the Russian Empire, and had served for 25 years as a mechanic for the Imperial Russian Army to earn the right of free travel and residence as a Jew, finally retiring near Saint Petersburg, Russia. Jakov's teenage son, Moishe, George Gershwin's father, worked as a leather cutter for women's shoes. George's mother, Roza Bruskina, was born in Saint Petersburg. Moishe met Roza in Vilna, Russian Empire (now Vilnius, Lithuania), where her father worked as a furrier. She and her family moved to New York because of increasing anti-Jewish sentiment in Russia, changing her first name to Rose. Moishe, faced with compulsory military service if he remained in Russia, moved to America as soon as he could afford to (arrived on August 14, 1890). Once in New York, he changed his first name to Morris. Gershovitz lived with a maternal uncle in Brooklyn, working as a foreman in a women's shoe factory. He married Rose on July 21, 1895, and Gershovitz soon Anglicized his name to Gershwine. Their first child, Ira Gershwin, was born on December 6, 1896, after which the family moved into a second-floor apartment at 242 Snediker Avenue in the East New York neighborhood of Brooklyn. George was born on September 26, 1898, in the Snediker Avenue apartment. His birth certificate identifies him as Jacob Gershwine, with the surname pronounced "Gershvin" in the Yiddish-speaking community. He was named after his grandfather, and, contrary to the American practice, had no middle name. He soon became known as George, and changed the spelling of his surname to "Gershwin" around the time he became a professional musician; other family members followed suit after Ira and George, another boy, Arthur Gershwin (1900โ1981), and a girl, Frances Gershwin (1906โ1999), were born into the family. The family lived in many different residences, as their father changed dwellings with each new enterprise in which he became involved. They grew up mostly in the Yiddish Theater District. George and Ira frequented the local Yiddish theaters, with George occasionally appearing onstage as an extra. George lived a boyhood not unusual in New York tenements, which included running around with his friends, roller-skating and misbehaving in the streets. Until 1908, he cared nothing about music. Then, as a ten-year-old, he was intrigued upon hearing his friend Maxie Rosenzweig's violin recital. The sound, and the way his friend played, captivated him. At about the same time, George's parents had bought a piano for his older brother Ira. To his parents' surprise, though, and to Ira's relief, it was George who spent more time playing it as he continued to enjoy it. Although his younger sister Frances Gershwin was the first in the family to make a living through her musical talents, she married young and devoted herself to being a mother and housewife, thus precluding spending any serious time on musical endeavors. Having given up her performing career, she settled upon painting as a creative outlet, which had also been a hobby George briefly pursued. Arthur Gershwin followed in the paths of George and Ira, also becoming a composer of songs, musicals, and short piano pieces. George studied with various piano teachers for about two years (circa 1911) before finally being introduced to Charles Hambitzer by Jack Miller (circa 1913), the pianist in the Beethoven Symphony Orchestra. Until his death in 1918, Hambitzer remained Gershwin's musical mentor, taught him conventional piano technique, introduced him to music of the European classical tradition, and encouraged him to attend orchestral concerts. In 1913, Gershwin left school at the age of 15 to work as a "song plugger" on New York City's Tin Pan Alley. He earned $15 a week from Jerome H. Remick and Company, a Detroit-based publishing firm with a branch office in New York. His first published song was "When You Want 'Em, You Can't Get 'Em, When You've Got 'Em, You Don't Want 'Em" in 1916. It earned the 17-year-old 50 cents. In 1916, Gershwin started working for Aeolian Company and Standard Music Rolls in New York City, recording and arranging. He produced dozens, if not hundreds, of rolls under his own and assumed names (pseudonyms attributed to Gershwin include Fred Murtha and Bert Wynn). He also recorded rolls of his own compositions for the Duo-Art and Welte-Mignon reproducing pianos. As well as recording piano rolls, Gershwin made a brief foray into vaudeville, accompanying both Nora Bayes and Louise Dresser on the piano. His first song to appear on Broadway was "Making of a Girl", written in 1916 with Sigmund Romberg and lyrics by Harold Atteridge. It was sung in The Passing Show of 1916. His 1917 novelty rag, "Rialto Ripples", was a commercial success. In addition to his musical activities, he took over the management of the popular and famous gay bathhouse Lafayette Baths together with his brother Ira. In 1919, Gershwin scored his first big national hit with his song "Swanee", with words by Irving Caesar. Al Jolson, a Broadway star and former minstrel singer, heard Gershwin perform "Swanee" at a party and decided to sing it in one of his shows. In the late 1910s, Gershwin met songwriter and music director William Daly. The two collaborated on the Broadway musicals Piccadilly to Broadway (1920) and For Goodness' Sake (1922), and jointly composed the score for Our Nell (1923). This was the beginning of a long friendship. Daly was a frequent arranger, orchestrator and conductor of Gershwin's music, and Gershwin periodically turned to him for musical advice. Beginning in the early 1920s, Gershwin frequently worked with the lyricist Buddy DeSylva. In 1922, they created the experimental one-act jazz opera Blue Monday, set in Harlem. It is widely regarded as a forerunner to the groundbreaking Porgy and Bess introduced in 1935. In 1924, Gershwin composed his first major work, Rhapsody in Blue, for orchestra and piano. It was orchestrated by Ferde Grofรฉ and premiered by Paul Whiteman's Concert Band, in New York. It subsequently went on to be his most popular work, and established Gershwin's signature style and genius in blending vastly different musical styles, including jazz and classical music, in revolutionary ways. In the same year, George and Ira Gershwin collaborated on a stage musical comedy Lady Be Good, which included such future standards as "Fascinating Rhythm" and "Oh, Lady Be Good!". They followed this with Oh, Kay! (1926), Funny Face (1927) and Strike Up the Band (1927 and 1930). Gershwin allowed the latter song, with a modified title, to be used as a football fight song, "Strike Up The Band for UCLA". In the mid-1920s, Gershwin stayed in Paris for a short period, during which he applied to study composition with the noted Nadia Boulanger, who, along with several other prospective tutors such as Maurice Ravel, turned him down, afraid that rigorous classical study would ruin his jazz-influenced style. While there, Gershwin wrote the tone poem An American in Paris. This work received mixed reviews upon its first performance at Carnegie Hall on December 13, 1928, but it quickly became part of the standard repertoire in Europe and the United States. In 1929, the Gershwin brothers created Show Girl; the following year brought Girl Crazy, which introduced the standards "Embraceable You", sung by Ginger Rogers, and "I Got Rhythm". 1931's Of Thee I Sing became the first musical comedy to win the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; the winners were George S. Kaufman, Morrie Ryskind, and Ira Gershwin. Gershwin spent the summer of 1934 on South Carolina's Folly Island after he was invited to visit by DuBose Heyward, author of the novel Porgy. It was there that he was inspired to write the music to his opera Porgy and Bess. Porgy and Bess was considered another American classic by the composer of Rhapsody in Blue โ even if critics could not quite figure out how to evaluate it, or decide whether it was opera or simply an ambitious Broadway musical. "It crossed the barriers," per theater historian Robert Kimball. "It wasn't a musical work per se, and it wasn't a drama per se โ it elicited response from both music and drama critics. But the work has sort of always been outside category." After the commercial failure of Porgy and Bess, Gershwin moved to Hollywood, California. He befriended Arnold Schoenberg, with whom he played tennis. In 1936, he was commissioned by RKO Pictures to write the music for the film Shall We Dance, starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. Gershwin's score, which married ballet with jazz in a new way, runs over an hour. It took Gershwin several months to compose and orchestrate. George and Ira also wrote the songs for A Damsel in Distress, like Shall We Dance released in 1937, and some of the songs for The Goldwyn Follies. After George's death in 1937 Ira continued working with Vernon Duke on the latter film and it was released in 1938. George and Ira's songs for those three films included an extraordinary number of popular hits and future jazz standards: "They All Laughed", "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" and "They Can't Take That Away from Me" from Shall We Dance, "Nice Work If You Can Get It" and "A Foggy Day" from A Damsel in Distress, and "Love Is Here to Stay" from The Goldwyn Follies. Early in 1937, Gershwin began to complain of blinding headaches and a recurring impression that he smelled burning rubber. As early as February 1934, he had said he smelled burning garbage at the Detroit railway station, though those with him did not. On February 11, 1937, he performed his Piano Concerto in F in a special concert of his music with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra under the direction of French maestro Pierre Monteux. Gershwin, normally a superb pianist in his own compositions, suffered coordination problems and blackouts during the performance. He was at the time working on other Hollywood film projects while living with Ira and his wife Leonore in their rented house in Beverly Hills. Leonore Gershwin began to be disturbed by George's mood swings and his seeming inability to eat without spilling food at the dinner table. She suspected mental illness and insisted he be moved out of their house to lyricist Yip Harburg's empty quarters nearby, where he was placed in the care of his valet, Paul Mueller. The headaches and olfactory hallucinations continued. On the night of July 9, 1937, Gershwin collapsed in Harburg's house, where he had been working on the score of The Goldwyn Follies. His last words were "Fred Astaire". He was rushed to Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles, and fell into a coma. Only then did his doctors come to believe that he was suffering from a brain tumor. Leonore called George's close friend Emil Mosbacher and explained the dire need to find a neurosurgeon. Mosbacher immediately called pioneering neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing in Boston, who, retired for several years by then, recommended Walter Dandy, who was on a boat fishing in the Chesapeake Bay with Harry Nice, the governor of Maryland. Mosbacher called the White House and had a Coast Guard cutter sent to find the governor's yacht and bring Dandy quickly to shore. Mosbacher then chartered a plane and flew Dandy to Newark Airport, where he was to catch a plane to Los Angeles; by that time, Gershwin's condition was critical and the need for surgery was immediate. Before Dandy could arrive, in the early hours of Sunday, July 11, 1937, doctors at Cedars removed a large brain tumor, believed to have been a glioblastoma, but Gershwin died that morning at the age of 38. The fact that he had suddenly collapsed and become comatose after he stood up on July 9 has been interpreted as brain herniation with Duret hemorrhages. Gershwin's friends and admirers were devastated. John O'Hara remarked: "George Gershwin died on July 11, 1937, but I don't have to believe that if I don't want to." He was interred at Westchester Hills Cemetery in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. A memorial concert was held at the Hollywood Bowl on September 8, 1937, at which Otto Klemperer conducted his own orchestration of the second of Gershwin's Three Preludes. Gershwin had a ten-year affair with composer Kay Swift, whom he frequently consulted about his music. The two never married, although she eventually divorced her husband James Warburg to commit to the relationship. Swift's granddaughter, Katharine Weber, has suggested that the pair were not married because George's mother Rose was "unhappy that Kay Swift wasn't Jewish". The Gershwins' 1926 musical Oh, Kay! was named for her. After Gershwin's death, Swift arranged some of his music, transcribed several of his recordings, and collaborated with his brother Ira on several projects. Musical style and influence Rodney Greenberg writes of Gershwin: "Rhythmic and melodious, Gershwin's music fuses popular elements from the American melting-pot: the flattened notes and syncopations of African-American blues and ragtime; Hispanic rhythms; the aching cadences of Hebrew chant. More classical ingredients range from the harmonies of Chopin, Liszt and Debussy to the sprightly patter of Gilbert and Sullivan. ... His passions in classical music ranged widely, from Bach to Alban Berg." Gershwin was influenced by French composers of the early twentieth century. In turn, Maurice Ravel was impressed with Gershwin's abilities, commenting, "Personally I find jazz most interesting: the rhythms, the way the melodies are handled, the melodies themselves. I have heard of George Gershwin's works and I find them intriguing." The orchestrations in Gershwin's symphonic works often seem similar to those of Ravel; likewise, Ravel's two piano concertos evince an influence of Gershwin. Gershwin asked to study with Ravel. When Ravel heard how much Gershwin earned, Ravel replied with words to the effect of, "You should give me lessons." (Some versions of this story feature Igor Stravinsky rather than Ravel as the composer; however Stravinsky confirmed that he originally heard the story from Ravel.) Gershwin's own Concerto in F was criticized for being related to the work of Debussy, more than to the expected jazz style. The comparison did not deter him from continuing to explore French styles. The title of An American in Paris reflects the very journey that he had consciously taken as a composer: "The opening part will be developed in typical French style, in the manner of Debussy and Les Six, though the tunes are original." Gershwin was intrigued by the works of Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Dmitri Shostakovich, Darius Milhaud and Berg. He also asked Schoenberg for composition lessons. Schoenberg refused, saying "I would only make you a bad Schoenberg, and you're such a good Gershwin already." (This quote is similar to one credited to Ravel during Gershwin's 1928 visit to France โ "Why be a second-rate Ravel, when you are a first-rate Gershwin?") Gershwin was particularly impressed by the music of Berg, who gave him a score of the Lyric Suite. He attended the American premiere of Berg's Wozzeck, conducted by Leopold Stokowski in 1931, and was "thrilled and deeply impressed". Russian Joseph Schillinger's influence as Gershwin's teacher of composition (1932โ1936) was substantial in providing him with a method of composition. There has been some disagreement about the nature of Schillinger's influence on Gershwin. After the posthumous success of Porgy and Bess, Schillinger claimed he had a large and direct influence in overseeing the creation of the opera; Ira completely denied that his brother had any such assistance for this work. A third account of Gershwin's musical relationship with his teacher was written by Gershwin's close friend Vernon Duke, also a Schillinger student, in an article for the Musical Quarterly in 1947. What set Gershwin apart was his ability to manipulate forms of music into his own unique voice. He took the jazz he discovered on Tin Pan Alley into the mainstream by splicing its rhythms and tonality with that of the popular songs of his era. Although George Gershwin would seldom make grand statements about his music, he believed that "true music must reflect the thought and aspirations of the people and time. My people are Americans. My time is today." In 1983, Broadway's Uris Theatre was renamed the Gershwin Theatre in honor of George and Ira Gershwin. In 2007, the Library of Congress named its Gershwin Prize for Popular Song after George and Ira Gershwin. Recognizing the profound and positive effect of popular music on culture, the prize is given annually to a composer or performer whose lifetime contributions exemplify the standard of excellence associated with the Gershwins. On March 1, 2007, the first Gershwin Prize was awarded to Paul Simon. Recordings and film Early in his career, under both his own name and pseudonyms, Gershwin recorded more than one hundred forty player piano rolls which were a main source of his income. The majority were popular music of the period and a smaller proportion were of his own works. Once his musical theater-writing income became substantial, his regular roll-recording career became superfluous. He did record additional rolls throughout the 1920s of his main hits for the Aeolian Company's reproducing piano, including a complete version of his Rhapsody in Blue. Compared to the piano rolls, there are few accessible audio recordings of Gershwin's playing. His first recording was his own "Swanee" with the Fred Van Eps Trio in 1919. The recorded balance highlights the banjo playing of Van Eps, and the piano is overshadowed. The recording took place before "Swanee" became famous as an Al Jolson specialty in early 1920. Gershwin recorded an abridged version of Rhapsody in Blue with Paul Whiteman and his orchestra for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1924, soon after the world premiere. Gershwin and the same orchestra made an electrical recording of the abridged version for Victor in 1927. However, a dispute in the studio over interpretation angered Whiteman and he walked out on the session. Victor's staff conductor and arranger Nathaniel Shilkret led the orchestra, though Whiteman is still credited as conductor on the original record labels. Gershwin made a number of solo piano recordings of tunes from his musicals, some including the vocals of Fred and Adele Astaire, as well as his Three Preludes for piano. In 1929, Gershwin "supervised" the world premiere recording of An American in Paris with Nathaniel Shilkret and the Victor Symphony Orchestra. Gershwin's role in the recording was rather limited, particularly because Shilkret was conducting and had his own ideas about the music. When it was realized that no one had been hired to play the brief celeste solo, Gershwin was asked if he could and would play the instrument, and he agreed. Gershwin can be heard, rather briefly, on the recording during the slow section. Gershwin also appeared on several radio programs, including Rudy Vallee's, and played some of his compositions. This included the third movement of the Concerto in F with Vallee conducting the studio orchestra. Some of these performances were preserved on transcription discs and have been released on LP and CD. In 1934, in an effort to earn money to finance his planned folk opera, Gershwin hosted his own radio program titled Music by Gershwin. The show was broadcast on the NBC Blue Network from February to May and again in September through the final show on December 23, 1934. He presented his own work as well as the work of other composers. Recordings from this and other radio broadcasts include his Variations on I Got Rhythm, portions of the Concerto in F, and numerous songs from his musical comedies. He also recorded a run-through of his Second Rhapsody, conducting the orchestra and playing the piano solos. Gershwin recorded excerpts from Porgy and Bess with members of the original cast, conducting the orchestra from the keyboard; he even announced the selections and the names of the performers. In 1935, RCA Victor asked him to supervise recordings of highlights from Porgy and Bess; these were his last recordings. RCA Victor issued a 5 record 12-inch 78 rpm Memorial Album (C-29) recorded from the RCA Magic Key program broadcast on July 10, 1938, over the NBC Radio Network. It featured the Victor Salon Group conducted by Nathaniel Shilkret and singer Jane Froman. A 74-second newsreel film clip of Gershwin playing I Got Rhythm has survived, filmed at the opening of the Manhattan Theater (now The Ed Sullivan Theater) in August 1931. There are also silent home movies of Gershwin, some of them shot on Kodachrome color film stock, which have been featured in tributes to the composer. In addition, there is newsreel footage of Gershwin playing "Mademoiselle from New Rochelle" and "Strike Up the Band" on the piano during a Broadway rehearsal of the 1930 production of Strike Up the Band. In the mid-30s, "Strike Up The Band" was given to UCLA to be used as a football fight song, "Strike Up The Band for UCLA". The comedy team of Clark and McCullough are seen conversing with Gershwin, then singing as he plays. In 1945, the film biography Rhapsody in Blue was made, starring Robert Alda as George Gershwin. The film contains many factual errors about Gershwin's life, but also features many examples of his music, including an almost complete performance of Rhapsody in Blue. In 1965, Movietone Records released an album MTM 1009 featuring Gershwin's piano rolls of the titled George Gershwin plays RHAPSODY IN BLUE and his other favorite compositions. The B-side of the LP featured nine other recordings. In 1975, Columbia Records released an album featuring Gershwin's piano rolls of Rhapsody in Blue, accompanied by the Columbia Jazz Band playing the original jazz band accompaniment, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas. The B-side of the Columbia Masterworks release features Tilson Thomas leading the New York Philharmonic in An American in Paris. In 1976, RCA Records reissued a collection of Gershwin's original recordings on the album Gershwin plays Gershwin, Historic First Recordings (RCA Victrola AVM1-1740). Included was the first LP release of the 1924 recording of Rhapsody in Blue with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra and Gershwin on piano; An American in Paris, from 1929 conducted by Nathaniel Shilkret with Gershwin on celesta. Also included were Three Preludes, "Clap Yo' Hands" and "Someone to Watch Over Me", among others. The soundtrack to Woody Allen's 1979 film Manhattan is composed entirely of Gershwin's compositions, including Rhapsody in Blue, "Love is Sweeping the Country", and "But Not for Me", performed by both the New York Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta and the Buffalo Philharmonic under Michael Tilson Thomas. The film begins with a monolog by Allen, in the role of a writer, describing a character in his book: "He adored New York City ... To him, no matter what the season was, this was still a town that existed in black and white and pulsated to the great tunes of George Gershwin." In 1993, two audio CDs featuring piano rolls recorded by Gershwin were issued by Nonesuch Records through the efforts of Artis Wodehouse, entitled Gershwin Plays Gershwin: The Piano Rolls. In 2010, Brian Wilson released Brian Wilson Reimagines Gershwin, consisting of ten George and Ira Gershwin songs, bookended by passages from Rhapsody in Blue, with two new songs completed from unfinished Gershwin fragments by Wilson and band member Scott Bennett. Compositions Orchestral Solo piano Operas London musicals Broadway musicals Films for which Gershwin wrote original scores Legacy Gershwin died intestate, and his estate passed to his mother. The estate continues to collect royalties in the United States from licensing the copyrights on his post-Rhapsody in Blue work. The estate supported the Sonny Bono Copyright Term extension Act (that extended the U.S. 75-year copyright protection an additional 20 years) because its 1923 cutoff date was shortly before Gershwin had begun to create his most popular works. The copyrights on all Gershwin's solo works expired at the end of 2007 in the European Union, based on its life-plus-70-years rule, and in the U.S. on January 1, 2020, on Gershwin's pre-1925 work. In 2005, The Guardian determined using "estimates of earnings accrued in a composer's lifetime" that George Gershwin was the wealthiest composer of all time. The George and Ira Gershwin Collection, much of which was donated by Ira and the Gershwin family estates, resides at the Library of Congress. In September 2013, a partnership between the estates of Ira and George Gershwin and the University of Michigan was created and will provide the university's School of Music, Theatre, and Dance access to Gershwin's entire body of work, which includes all of Gershwin's papers, compositional drafts, and scores. This direct access to all of his works provides opportunities to musicians, composers, and scholars to analyze and reinterpret his work with the goal of accurately reflecting the composers' vision to preserve his legacy. In 2023, The Gershwin Critical Edition, "the first-ever scholarly edition of the music and lyrics of George and Ira Gershwin", was published. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/students-online-courses/independent-learning-courses-7th-9-graders/] | [TOKENS: 707] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืงืืจืกืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืืืชืืช ื-ื ืงืืจืกืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืงืืจืกืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืืชืืช ื | ื | ื | ืืืชื ื ืจืื ืืฆืืืฆืืช ืืืคื ืืืช ืืงืืจืกืื, ืืคื ืชืืืื ืืขืช, ื ืืฆืืืช ืืชืืชืืช ืืขืืื. ืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืช ืืงืืจืกืื, ืืคื ืชืืืื ืืขืช, ื ืืฆืืืช ืืชืืชืืช ืืขืืื. ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืช ืืงืืจืกืื, ืืคื ืชืืืื ืืขืช, ื ืืฆืืืช ืืชืืชืืช ืืขืืื. ืืืื ืชืชืขื ืืื ื ืื ื... ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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Contents Halifax Resolves The Halifax Resolves was a name later given to the resolution adopted by the North Carolina Provincial Congress on April 12, 1776. The adoption of the resolution was the first official action in the American Colonies calling for independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The Halifax Resolves helped pave the way for the presentation to Congress of the United States Declaration of Independence less than three months later. Background The creation and ratification of the resolves was the result of a strong movement in the colonies advocating separation from Great Britain. These separatists, or "American Whigs" (later, "Patriots"), sought to mobilize public support for a much discussed and all encompassing declaration of independence. The primary impediment to an outright declaration of independence from Great Britain was that none of the delegates to the Second Continental Congress were authorized by their home governments to take any action that would lead to such a declaration. Advocates of independence therefore sought to revise the instructions to each congressional delegation and remove any restrictions regarding a declaration of independence.[citation needed] History The resolution of April 12, 1776, became known as the Halifax Resolves because the Fourth Provincial Congress of North Carolina adopted them while meeting in the town of Halifax, North Carolina. The 83 delegates present unanimously adopted the resolves, which encouraged delegates to the Continental Congress from all the colonies to finally push for independence. The adoption of the Halifax Resolves was the first official action in the colonies calling for independence from Great Britain. Drive to independence The Halifax Resolves only empowered North Carolina's three delegates to the Second Continental Congress (Joseph Hewes, William Hooper, and John Penn) to join with those from other colonies to declare independence from Great Britain's rule. With the passage of the resolves, North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly permit their delegates to vote in favor of independence. The Halifax Resolves, however, stopped short of instructing North Carolina's delegates to introduce a resolution of independence to Congress, a step which was taken by Virginia in June with the adoption of the Lee Resolution. The Second Continental Congress issued the United States Declaration of Independence the following month, in July. Legacy Every year, on April 12, the Halifax Historic District, a historic site operated by the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, celebrates Halifax Day. Interpreters in period costumes provide guided tours of historic buildings, demonstrate historic crafts and teach about colonial activities. Occasionally, reenactors portray revolutionary-era soldiers and demonstrate the use of historic weapons during the Halifax Day events. References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื ืืจ_ืืคืืืืืง] | [TOKENS: 5928] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืคืืืืืง ื ืืจ ืึทืคึผืึนืืึนืึทืง[ื] (ืืื ืืืืช: Potomac River) ืืื ื ืืจ ืจืืฉื[ื] ืืขืืืจ ืืจื ืืืจืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืกื. ืื ืฉืคื ืืืคืจืฅ ืฆ'ืกืคืืง ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืื, ืืืืคื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืืจ ืึพ616 ืง"ื, ืขื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืงืื ืฉื ื-37,600 ืงื"ืจ, ืืืื ืื ืืจ ืืจืืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืคื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืื, ืืึพ21 ืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื. ืื ืืจ ืืื ืืื ื-14 "ื ืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช" ืฉืืืฉื ืงืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืฉืืืืจื, ื ืืงืืื ื ืืฉืืืืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉ. ืืืืืจืคืื ืืื ืื ืืงืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืืง ืืฉืชืจืข ืขื ืคื ื ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืจืืข ืืืื ืืช: ืืจืืื ื, ืคื ืกืืืื ืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืื ืงืืืืืืื. ืืืฆื ืื ืืจ ื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืฉื 933 ืืืจืื ืืขื ืคื ื ืืื, ืืืงืืจื ืืืกืคืจ ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืื ื (ืื ') ืฉืืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืฉื ืืืฆืืื ืฉื ื ืขื ืคืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืง: ืฆืคืื ื (ืื ') ืืืจืืื (ืื '): ืืขื ืฃ ืืฆืคืื ื ืืืจื ืืืคืืจืง ืืืืื ืชื "ืืื ืคืืืจืคืงืก" (ืื ') ืฉืืืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืื ืืคืืฉื ืขื ืืขื ืฃ ืืืจืืื; ืืขื ืฃ ืืืจืืื ืืืจื ืืฆืคืื-ืืขืจื ืืืื ืืืืื ื (ืื '), ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืื (ืื '), ืืืืืจื ืืงืฆื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ื (ืื '). ืฉื ืืื ื ืคืืฉืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืกืคืจืื ื (ืื ') ืืืืื ืืืคืฉืืืจ (ืื '), ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืืืืฆืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืง. ืืคืืฉ ืื ืืืืงื ืืขืจื ืฉืืืฉื ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืกืคืจืื ื, ืขื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืืืขืจื ืืืจื'ืื ืื[ื]. ืืืื, ืืคืืืืืง ืืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืชืจ, ืืคื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฆื ืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืืจื ืืจืืืชื ืงืืื ืื ืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืืขืืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืจืืื ื ืฉืื: ื ืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื, ื ืืจ ืืื ืืงืืกื (ืื '), ื ืืจ ืื ืงืืกืืื, ื ืืจ ืืืงืืงืืืื (ืื '), ื ืืจ ืงืืงืืคืื (ืื ') ืื ืืจ ืกืืืื' (ืื '), ืื ืงืืืืื ืืืืืื ืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืื ืื ืงืื ืื ืืืชืจ (ื ืืืื - Creeks)[ื]. ืื ืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืชืืชืื[ื] ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ื ืืืืื ืงืืืืืืื - ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืกื ืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืืงื ืืขืืืื[ื] ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืจืืื ื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช. ืื ืงืืืช ืืืคืืฉ ืืื ื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืื ืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืืจื ืืขืืืจื ืืจืคืจืก ืคืจื, ืืชืงืืื ืืืคืืฉ ืืื 3 ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืช: ืืจืืื ื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืข ืืฉื "ืื ืงืืื" (The Point). ืืืืฉื ืืืจืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืงืืื ืืก, ืื ืืจ ืืืฆืจ ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื. ืฉื ืืฆืืืฆื ืจืืื ืื ืืจ ืื-330 ืืืจ, ืืืฉ ืืขื ืืืคืืื, ืืจืืื ืฉืืื 20 ื-33 ืืืจ, ืืฉืืื ืืืจื ืืขืืฆืื ืืืืืืจืืช ืืจื ืขืจืืฅ ืึธืืชึถึผืจ (ืื ') ืืฆืจ ืืื, ืืืืจืืง ืงืฆืจ ืืชืืช ืืืคืืื. ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืง ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืงื ืืืคืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ื ืืจืืช ืืืจื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืชืงืจืื ืืืืงืืื ืืก, ืื ืืจ ืืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืข ืืจืืื ืฉื ื-17 ืง"ื ืืืืฆื ืื ืืจ ืืื. ืืืจื ืฉืคื ืื ืืจ, ืขื ืคืืชืืืื ืืืืข ื-189 ืงืืืืืืจ ืืขืจื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืื ืืจ ืขืฆืื ืื ืืคืืืช 3.5 ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื, ืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืขืฉืจื ืขื ืขืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืจื, ืืืฉืจ ืืคืืก ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืื ืืจื ืืืฉืฃ ืืฉืงืขื ืืืฃ ืืืืจื ืงื ืื ืคืืื. ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืื, ืฉื ืฉืืง ืืฆืืจืชื ืื ืืืืืช ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืงืจื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ืฉืืคืืข ืื ืื ืืจ ืืืืืฆืข ืืื ื-0.14%, ืืจืืื ืฉื 930 ื' ืขื ืคื ื 652 ืง"ื. "ืคืืืืืง" ืืื ืืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืฉื Patawomeck - ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืงืืืืื ื (ืื ') ืฉื ืืคืจ ืืื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืจ. ืื ืืื ื ืืช ืื ืืจ ืฉืืขื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืื Cohongaroton - ืืฉืคืชื "ืืืืืื ืฆืืคืจืื" ื-"Patawomke" ืืงืืข ืฉืืชืืช ืืืคืืื, ืืืืืจ "ื ืืจ ืืืจืืืจืื" ืืฉืคืชื. ืืฉื ืช 1608, ืงืคืื ื'ืื ืกืืืช' ืืงืจ ืืช ืื ืืจ ืืืืืข ืืืื ืืคืืืืืง ืืขืจื ืฉืจืืืืื ืฉื ืชืฆืคืืืชืื ืืฉืจ ืงืืืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืืคืืจืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1612. ืคืจื ืื ืืืคื ืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืฉื ืืืงืืื "Patawomeck". ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืฉ ืฆืืจืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื ื"ืคืืืืืืง" (ืืื ืขื ืืืคื ืฉื ืงืคืื ื'ืื ืกืืืช') ื"Patomake", "Patowmack", ืืขืื ืืจืืืฆืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื "ืคืืืืืง". ืขื ืฉืื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืจืฉืื ื"ืคืืืืืง" ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืจืคืืื (ืื ') ื-1931. ืืืืืชื ืืืืงื ืืืืืจ ืขืฉืืจ ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืจืฉืช ืืืจืืงืืืช, ืืื ื ืื ืืจ, ืืื ืืฉืื ืืกืืื, ื"ื ืืจ ืืืืื". ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ื ืืื ืืืื ืืคืืืืืง, ืืืืื ืืช ืจืื ืืืื ืฉื; ืขืืจ ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ื ืืฆืืช ืื ืืื ืืชืื ืืื ืื ืืงืื ืืงืจืื ืฉื ืื ืืจ; ืืืฆืืจ ืขื ืืจืคืจืก ืคืจื ื-1859 ืืืคืืฉ ืื ืืจ ืขื ื ืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืงืจืืืช ืืคืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืกืืืืชื, ืืืื ืืงืจื ืขื ืืื'ืก ืืืืฃ (ืื ') ื-1861 ืืงืจื ืฉืคืจืืกืืืื (ืื ') ื-1862. ืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืืงืื ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืง ืืื ืืืง ื ืืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืงืจืื Tidewater (ืื ') ืฉืืคื ืืืจืื ืืืืขื ืืืง ืืคืืืจืื ืฉืืขืฉืืจื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืื. ืืื ืืืจื ืืคืืืืืง - ืืืฆืืืืจ ืืฆืคืื ื ืฉื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืขื ืืขืืืจื ืกื ื ืืจื'ืก ืกืืื ืฉืืืจืืื ื (ืื ') - ืฉืืฉืื ืืฉืคืืืช: ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืื, ืงืจืืจ, ืืื ืจื, ืืืืกืื, ืืืืืืจ, ืงืืืจื ืืืจื ื. ืืื ืืงืื ืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืฉืืืคื ืื ืื ืืจืื ืื ืืืืื, ืขืืจืื ืืื, ืคืืืืกืืคืื, ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ื-Tidewater ืฉื ืืคืืืืืง. ืืื ืขืจืฉ ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืคืื ืืืืืช ืืืชื ืจืืืื ืืืงืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืง ืื ืืืืืื ืืืชื, ืจืืืฉืช ืงืจืงืขืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉื ืืขืืฉืจ. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืคื ื ืขืื ืืื ืืืจืฅ ืฉืืืืืจื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืืื. ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืขืจืื. ืืื ืืชืคืขื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืจ ืืช ืื ืชืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืจ ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืจืื. ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืืื ื, ืืืืฃ ืืชืขืื ืกืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืงืืืจืื ื ืฉืืืื ื-1787 ืืืฉื ืืชื ืืขื ืืขืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช (1861โ1865), ืืคืืืืืืง ืืชืืงื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืชืจ - ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง. ืืืืจื ืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืจ ืชืคืงื ืืจืืื ืืคื ืฉืืื ืชืืื - ืื ืชืื ืืชืืืืจื. ืืืืจืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืคืืืืืง ืืืืืฆืข ื-486 ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืื (1,840,000 ื"ืง) ืืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืื ืืกืคืงืื ื-78 ืืืื ืืืื ืฆืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจ. ืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช ื-80 ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืคื ืืขืจืืืช ืขื ืืื ื-6.1 ืืืืืื ืชืืฉืื ืืืืืจ .ืืื ืื ืชืืื ืื ืืื ืืืฆื. ืื ืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืืืื ืืืื ื-20, ืืืื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืฉื ืืชืืขืืฉ ืืืืงืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืืจ. ืืคื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืฉื ืช 1965, ืืืชืืื ืฉื ื ืงืืื ืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื ื ืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจื ืื ืืืืกืชืื ืขื ื ืืจ ื ืงื ืืืชืืง ืืืืืจ. ืืืืจืื, ืขืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-20, ืื ืฉืื ืชืืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ื ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืคืืืืืง, ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืชื (ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืื) ืืืืจืื, ืืคืืืืืง ืืื ื ืืจ ืฉื ืืืื ืืชืคืืจืจ ืืืฆืืช ืจืงืืืืช, ืืืืืื "ืืืฉื ืืืืื". ืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืฉ"ืื ืืจ ืืขืฉืืจ ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉืืืจื ืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืื ื ืฆืจืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืขืจืื ื ืืฃ ืื ืืคืฉ ืขืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืื". ืืื ืืฆื ืืคืจืืืงื ืื ืืงืื ื ืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืจืื ืขื ืืืง ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1965, ืฉืืชืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืจืืฉืื ื ืื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง. ืืืืจื ื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืงืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืกืืจืื, ืืืงื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืงื ืื. ืืฆืืจื ืืื ืืืช ืกืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืฉืืืคืื ืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจ, ืขืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืืคืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฅ 1936. ืืฉืืืคืื ืื ืฉื ืืจื ืืืคืฉืจื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืฉืื ืืงืจื, ืืื ืขื ืืฉื ืืืขืคืืช, ืกืคืืงืช ืื ืืจ ืืืืชื 275 ืืืืืืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืขืืืช ืืืืฆืข ืจื ืฉื ืชื ืฉื ืืขืจื 7 ืืืืืืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืื. ืื ืืง ืฉื ืืจื ืืฉืืืคืื ืื ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืจืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืืชืจืืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืงืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืง. ืืืื ืืกืืจืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืืจื ืื ืืจ ืืืชืคืงืืื[ื]: ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/sherutey-tiksuv-bachinuch/computer-science-robotics-distance-learning/] | [TOKENS: 1287] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืืืืืืงื - ืืืืื ืืจืืืง ืกืืืืช ืืืืืื Scratch Scratch ืืื ืคืืืคืืจืืช ืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืขืืจืช ืงืื ืืฉืืงืื, ืกืืคืืจืื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืื, ืื ืืืฆืืืช, ืกืืืืืฆืืืช ืืขืื. ืกืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืช ื- Scratch ืคืชืืื ืขืืืจ ืืื ืชืืืืื ืืืชืืช ื'-ื'. ืืื ืืกื ืืกืืืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืจื ืืืจืฉ ืืืฉืืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืืกืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืืืื Scratch ืืกืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืขืืืจืื ืืืืจืื: ืื ืืกืฃ ืขืืื ืืจืฉืืชืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืฉืืืืจืื ืืฆืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืืืืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืง: ืชืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืืช. Mood ืฉื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืงืืืื ืืืชืืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืกืงืจืืฅ' ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืืื ืืกื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืจื ืืืจืฉ ืืืฉืืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืืกืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืฆืจื ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืื ืืืืืง: ืืืฉืืง ืืืคืืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืกื, ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืคืืก ืืื ืฉืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื. ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืฉืืงื ืืฆืืื ืืชืคืืก ืืืื - ืืืืื ืืชืคืืฆืฅ ืืืฉืืืข ืงืื ืขืืจืืช | ืขืจืืืช ืฆืจื ืืฉืืง ืื ืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืฅ ืขืืจืืช | ืขืจืืืช ืฆืจื ืคืจืืืงื ืงืกืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืืืื ืื ื"ืคืืจืง ืืงืกืืื" ืืืขืืจืช ืงืกื ืืขืื ืืกืื ืขื ืคื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืคืืจืง ืขืืจืืช | ืขืจืืืช ืชืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืงื ืชืืืื ืืืืคืื: 03-6225395 ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืจืกื] | [TOKENS: 3422] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืจืกื ืึทืึฐืจึทืกึทื (ืืขืจืืืช: ู
ุฏุฑุณุฉ, ืจืืืื: ู
ุฏุงุฑุณ โ ืึทืึทึซืืจึดืก) ืืื ืืืื ื ืืขืจืื ืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ, ืืืืื ื ืื ืืชื (ืฉื ืื ืืช). ืฉืคืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ื ืืืข ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืช ืืืจืฉ ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื. ืืืื ืืืื ืืื "ืืืจืกื" ืืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืกืืื, ืืืงืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืช. ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืจืกื ืืงืืจื ืืฉืืจืฉ ืืขืจืื ื.ืจ.ืก. ( ุฏ-ุฑ-ุณ) ืืืชืืืืก ืืคืขืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืื (ืืืื ืืฉืืจืฉ ื.ืจ.ืฉ. ืืขืืจืืช), ืืฉื ืขืฆื ืฉืืฉืืขืืชื "ืืืงืื ืฉืื ืืคืขืืื (ื.ืจ.ืก.) ื ืขืฉืืช". ืืื, ืืืจืกื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืืืืช ืืื "ืืืงืื ืฉืื ืืืืื/ืืืจืื ื ืขืฉืืช". ืืืื ื ืืฃ ืืืฉืื, ืืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืืืช, ืืฉืคืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืฉืคืขืืช ืื ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืื ืื, ืคืจืกืืช, ืืืจืงืืช, ืืืจืืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืืช, ืืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืช. ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืกื ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช ืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืืฉืืขืืช ืืืืื "ืืืช ืกืคืจ" ืืฉืคื ืืขืืจืืช. ืื ื ืืชื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืื ืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืฉื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืฆืืืืจื, ืคืจืื, ืชืืืื ื, ืืกืืื, ืืงืฆืืขื, ืืชื ืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืืฆื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืจืกื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืชื ืืงืืจ ืฉืืื ื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืื "ืืืจืฉื" ืืฉืคื ืืขืืจืืช. ืืืืจืกื ืืืชืืช ืืืจืกื ืืืืกื ืืืืื ืืืกืืื-ืืชื ืืฆืืขื ืืืืคื ืืืคืืกื ืฉื ื ืืกืืืื ืืืืื: ืชืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช, ืืืืืื ืชืคืกืืจ (ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืงืืจืื), ืฉืจืืขื (ืืืฉืคื ืืืืกืืื), ืืืืช' (ืกืืคืืจ ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื), ืึทึซื ึฐืึดืง (ืชืืจืช ืืืืืืื), ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืกืืืืช. ืืืืง ืื ืืืืจืกืืช, ืืืชืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช, ืงืืืืช ืืืจืื ืฉื ืกืคืจืืช ืขืจืืืช, ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืช ืืฉืคืืช ืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืข ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืช. ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืจืกื ืื ืื ื ืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืงื ืืกืืืืื ืืช ืืกืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืืืืืืื. ืืืกืืื ืืขืืึดื ื ืืฉืืช ืืืจื ืืื ื-12 ืฉื ืืช ืืืืื. ืจืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืจืกืืช ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ื"ืืืคื". ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืืจืกืืช ืืชืงืืืืื ืืฃ ืืืืืื ืขืจื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืืงื ืงืืืืื ืืขืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืฉืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืจืกื ืืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืจืชื: ืืืืจืกื ืืฉืืฉืช ืื ืืืช ืืืืช ืืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืื, ืืชืื ืืืจื ืืืงื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืื. ืงืืืืืช ืืืจืกืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืืฉืขืจืืื ืืฃ ืชืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืคืจื ืื ืืชืืืืืื. ืงืืืืืช ืืฃ ืืืจืกืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืจืกืืช ืื ืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืกืืื. ืืงืืจ ืืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจืกืืช ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืืกืืื ืืขืชืืง ืืืชืื ืก ืืืกืื ืืืฉืืื ืขื ื ืืฉืืื ืืชืืื, ืืื ืืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืช. ืืืจืื ืืืชื ืคืืจืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืฉื ืฉืืื'ืื, ืืฉืืื'ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืงืืืขื. ืฉืืขืืจืื ืืื ื ืงืจืื ืืฉื ืื'ืืก. ืืฉื ืช 859 ื ืืกืื ืืขืืจ ืคืืก ืฉืืืจืืงื ืืืจืกืช ืื-ืงืืจืืืืื, ืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืจืกื ืืขืชืืงื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืกืืื, ืืืืืกื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืชืืง ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืฉืคืืขื ืืจืฆืืคืืช ืขื ืืืื ื. ืืชืงืืคืช ืฉืืืื ืืืช ืขืืืก, ืืกื ืืืืืืจ ืืกืื'ืืงื ื ืืืื ืื-ืืืื ืืช ืืืกื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืขืืชื ืืจืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืืืข ืืฉื "ืืืจืกื ื ืืืืืื", ืืฉืจ ืืชืืกืก ืขื ืฉืืขืืจืื ืื ืคืืจืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืื'ืื. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉื ืืืจืกืืช ืฆืืืืจืืืช (ืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืืืืื "ืื ืืืืืื", ืขื ืฉืื) ืืขืจืื ืฉืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืชืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืช ืขืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืื ื-11. ืืืืกืืืจืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืงืืืกื ืขืจื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืกื ืืืืจืกื ืฉืืชืคืชื ืืืืื ืืืื ื-11 ืืขืืื ืืืกืืื, ืืืคืจื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืกื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืฉืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืืขืจื. ืืืืจืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืจืจืื, ืจืืืืื ืืคืืจืืื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ื ืชืื ื ืืคืืงืื ืฆืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืกืืื, ืืืืจืกืืช ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืื ืืืคืฉืืืช ืืคืืงืื ืฉื ืื'ืืืคืืช. ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื, ืืืกื ืืืืจืกื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืขืื ืขื ืืกืืก ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืื ืคืืจืืืืืช, ืืื ืขื ืืกืืก ืื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืชืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืฆื ืฉืื. ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืคืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืจืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืฉืืื ืืกืื ืืืจืกืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืงืืฉ (ืืงืฃ). ืืืืจืกื ืืืืชื ืื ืจืง ืกืื-ืืขืื ืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืกืื, ืืื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืืขืื ืืืขืืจืช ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืฉืจืืฉ ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืชื. ืืืืืช ืืฉืจื ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืกื ืฉืืกื ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืื. ืืืช ืืืืจืกืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจืกื ืฉื ืกืืืืื ืืกื ืืงืืืจ. ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืจืกื ืืืืืื ืืชืงืฉืจ (ืงืืจืก ืืืืืช ืขืจืืืช) https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCQ9R24MMV1Wx8ilfezb6Qfg ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/mechnanim-mitztaynim/] | [TOKENS: 980] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ื ืื ืืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืจืื ืคืจืืืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืื ืื ืชืืื ืืกืชืืจืื ืืื, ืืืฉ ืืื ืขืื ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฆืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืคืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืื ืขืืฉืื ืืืชื? ืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื ืฆืื ืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืืคืืื ืื ืจืืฉืืื ืืืืจืชืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืช? ืื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืฆืืืื ืื? ืืจืืื ืืจืคื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืฆื ืื ืจืืฆืื ืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืื ืจืขืืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืื ืืฉื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืกืื ืืืงืจ ืืืขื. ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืชืืืืก ืื ืืกืื ืืืืจื ืืืคืืจืกื. ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืงืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืื ืืกืื ืืืืืจืื ืขืืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืฉืืฅ ืื ืฉืืื ื ืืกืคืจืื ืืืขืืื ืขืืงืืื ืืงืืืงืืื ืงืืืืื, ืื ืฉืกืืื ืืืกืคืจืื ืืื ืคืื ืฉืืื? ืื ืื, ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืช? ืืืืจืช ืืืคืืฉื ืงืืืืช ืืืจื ืืืื ืืกืืืงื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืื ื ืื ืืืฆืืืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืขืืืื_ืืงืืืืช] | [TOKENS: 3634] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืื ืชืจืืื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืคืืฆืืช ืืืืชืจ (ืืฆื ืืืื) ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื. ืืืจืชื ืืืขืืืจ ืืืืข ืืืืคื ืืกืืืจ ืืืืืจ, ืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืื. ืืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจื, ืืฉืืืคื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืื ืืขื ื ืืงืืจืืช ืื ืืืืกืกืช. ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช, ืืฉ ืืืชืขืืง ืื ืืฉื, ืืืืืช ืืคืืกืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืชืืงื ืืจืขืืื ืืื ืืชืืื. ืืขืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืฉืชื ื ืืืืจืื, ืฉืืืื ืื ืืข ืืื ืขืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืชืื ืื ืืืงืืืจื. ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืชื ืื ืืกืื ืืืจืื ืืงืืืช ืชืืืจ ืืงืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืื ืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืืช ื ืืชืื ืืกืืกืืืช, ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืงืช ืืืืืืช ืืกืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืจ, ืื ืืืช ืฉืืืืช, ืืขื ืืช ืืืฉืขืจืืช ืืืงืจ, ืืืืืช ืืกืงืช ืืกืงื ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืืืงืจ ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืงืจืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื. ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืจืืืช, ืืืคืจื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืื ืชืื ืื ืืืงืืืจื, ืืืืืช ืืขืืชืื ืืกืืก ืืืืงืจื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืฆืืช ืกืคืจ ืืืืฆืืช ืกืคืจืื ืืงืืืืช. ืกืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืงืืืืื ืกืืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช. ืืืืื ื ืืืกืืกืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืขืืืืืช ืื ืขืฉืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืงืืจืก (term paper) ืืขืืืืืช ืืืงืจ (research paper) ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืงืืคืืช ืืจืฆืื ืืืช ืืืชืจ ืื ืขืฉืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืจืื ืืชืงืืืื. ืืจื, ืืืืื ื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืื ืชืื ื ืืคืจืฉื ืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืงืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืงืืจืก ืฉืืื ื ืืงืืืืืช, ืืขืืืืืช ืืืงืจ ืฉืืื ื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืืช. ืืจื ื ืืกืคืช ืืกืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืคื ืกืื ืืืืฉืืจืื ืื ืืจืฉืื (ืขืืืื ืชืืืจืืืช, ืืืคืืจืืช ืื ืืขืืช ืืืื ื ืืขืฉื) ืืืคื ืืฉืื ืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืขืืืื. ืืืื ืกืืืื ืขืืงืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืื ืคืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื: ืืื ื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช, ืืื ืืฉืชื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืชืื ืืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ื ืืคืงืืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืขืืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืคื ืืืงืจื ืืื ืืกืืื ืจืืื ืงืืืืช ืชืื ืืช ืฉืืืืจืช ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืจืืืช ืืืขืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืืืคืืื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืืจื. ืืืื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืงื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืชืืืจืืืื ืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืืขื ืืจืื ืืืืง ืืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืงืจืื ืืืคืืจืืื ืืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืืืงืจ ืฉืื (ืืืืืชื ื ืื ืืืืชื) ืืืืคืืื ืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืจื. ืืืืงืจ ืชืืืจืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืื ื ืงืืืข ืืืงืืื ืืืชืื ืคืจืงืื ืืคื ืชืช-ืื ืืฉื ืฉื ืืืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืฆืืช ืืืืฆืืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืื. ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืืคืืจื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืคืจืงืื. ืืืคืืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืขืืจืช ืืกืจ ืืืืจ, ืืืืงื ืืืงืืจื. ืขื ืื ืช ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช, ืขื ืืขืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉืืช. ืขื ืืขืืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืงืืช. ืขืืื ืืืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืืชืืื ืืืกืื ืื ืืชืืื ืชืงืื ืืงืืืงืืช. ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืข, ืืฉ ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช ืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืืจืคืื ืืืืืงืฉืื (ืืืืืื: APA ืื MLA). ืืฉืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืข ืืื ืื ืกืคืจืืชืืช, ืืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืื ืจืขืืื ืืืืืกืก ืขื ืืงืืจ ืืืืข. ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขืืืืช ืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืชืืคืขื ืฉื ืืืฉืช ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืกืืืื ื, ืชืื ืืฆืืชื ืืืงืืจืืืช. ืืืืจ ื ืขืฉื ืขื ืืื ืงื ืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชืื ืืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืชืืืจืช ืชืฉืืื. ืื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืืจืื ืืชืงืืืื ื ืงื ืืช ืืขืืชืื ืืฉืืจ. ืขืืื ืืืื ืืจื ื ืืืื ืืืชื ืชืืคืขื ืฉื ืืชืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืืื, ืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืจืืืฉ. ืืื ืืขืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืงื ืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืงืืฉื ืืืืคืืื ื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืชืืืขื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืงืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืชืืืจ, ืืื ืื ืืงืืช ืืืืื ืืืงืฉื ืขื ื ืืกืื ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช. ืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืช ืฉืืงืฆืชื ืืชืขื ืืื ืช ืืืฉืืช ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืื ืืงืืจืืช, ืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืงืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืชืื ืืขืืื ืืืงืืื. ืืืฉืช ืขืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืชื ื ืืฉืืช ืืขืืืจื ืืฉืืขืชืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืงืืืืื, ืฉืขืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืขืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืฉื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืฆืืืชืืช. ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืงืจืื ืืืืขืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืงื ืืืช ืขืืืื ืืงืืืืช. ืืืคืืจืกื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉื ื"ื ืืืืจ ืคืจืฅ (ืฉ"ืก). ื-23 ืืืจืฅ 2006 ืืืื ืคืจืฅ ืืงืืืช ืืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืืกืืจืช ืขืกืงืช ืืืขืื, ืขืงื ืงืืืช ืชืืืจ ืืงืืื ืืืจืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืื ื ืืืื ื-12 ืืืืฉื ืืืกืจ ืขื ืชื ืื ืืงื ืก ืฉื 6,000 ืฉ"ื. ื ืืื ื-2011 ืื ืืืืจืฉืขืื, ืืืขื ืืื, ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืขืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืชืื ืืขืืืืืช. ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื ืืืื_ื ืชื ืืื#cite_note-185] | [TOKENS: 76002] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืึดึผื ึฐืึธืึดืื (ืึดึผืืึดึผื) ื ึฐืชึทื ึฐืึธืืึผ (ื ืืื ื-21 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1949, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ื'ืชืฉ"ื) ืืื ืคืืืืืืงืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืคืืืช "ืืืืืื" ืืืฉืจ ืืคื ืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื (ืื ืคืงืื). ืืฉื ืื 1984โ1988 ืืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืื"ื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืคืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืชืื ืขืฉืจื ืืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ. ื-1993 ื ืืืจ ืืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืฉืฉ ืืืื ืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืฉืืืฉ ืชืงืืคืืช ืื ืจืฆืืคืืช: ืืื 1996โ1999 ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉืืข; ืืื 2009โ2021 ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืชืืื, ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉ, ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืจืืข ืืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ; ืืืื ืืฆืืืจ 2022 ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืข. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ, ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชืคืงืืืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืืืงื ืืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื. ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื, ืืืขื ืืฉื ืื 1999โ2002 ืืื ืคืจืฉ ืืืคืืืืืืงื. ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ืืชืฉืขืื ืืชื ืขื ืืกืื ืืืจืื ืืืกืื ืืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืืื ืืฉื ืื 2003โ2005, ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืงืืื ืืคืจืื, ืืืจืืช ืืืกืื ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืงืฆืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืืขืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืฉื ืช 2018, ืืืขืืจื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืชื ืืืืืฉืืช, ืืกืคืืืืจ 2020, ื ืืชืื ืืกืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืื ื ืื ืืชืืจืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืคืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืื ืืืจืขื ืืืฆืข ืขืืื ืขื ื, ืืืฆืข ืฆืืง ืืืชื, ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืช. ื-2023 ืืืจืข ืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืจืื, ืื-2025 ืชืงืคื ืืฉืจืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืฆืข ืขื ืืืืื. ืืืจืืขืื ืืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืกืชื ื ืืช ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื 2005 ื-2013 ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืโืืฆืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืขืกืงืช ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืช 2011, ืืชืคืจืฆืืช ืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื ืืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืช 2020, ืงืืืื "ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช" ืืฉื ืช 2023 ืืืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืื ืจืืืช ืืขืงืืืชืื. ื-24 ืืืื 2020 ืืืืฉื ื ืืื ืืชืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืชื ืื ื ืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืืืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืคืจืฉืืืช ืฉืื ืืช: ืชืืง 1000, ืชืืง 2000 ืืชืืง 4000. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืื ืื ืืฉืคื ืคืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืชื. ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2024 ืืืืืข ืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื (ICC) ืื ืืืฆืื ืฆืืื ืืขืฆืจ ื ืืื, ืื ืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืืื ืคืฉืขื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืขืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืจืื. ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื, ืฉืืจืืชื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืื ืืื ืฉื ืฆืืื (ืืืืช ืกืื; 1912โ2000) ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืื ืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื (1910โ2012) ืื ืงืจื ืขื ืฉื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืคืจืืกื ืื ืืืื ืกืื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืชืืืื ืืฉืืื ืช ืชืืคืืืช ืื-1955 ืืงืืืื. ืืงืืจ ืืฉื "ืืืื" ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืจืื. ืืืืชื ื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืื[ื] ืืืืจ ืืฉืื "ืื" ืืงืจืืืช ืืืจื ืืืืชื. ืืืื ืื ืืืง ืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-50 ืืชืืืืช ื-60 ืืืืชื ืืืฉืคืื ืืกืืจืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื, ืขื ืฉืืฉืคืืชื ืขืืจื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืช 1963, ืืขืงืืืช ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืฉืคืื ืืจื ืืฆ'ืืื ืื, ืคืจืืืจ ืฉื ืคืืืืืคืื ืฉืืคื ืกืืืื ืื, ืฉื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืคืขืื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื, ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ื-1967 ืืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืฆื"ื, ืืขืื ืฉืืฉืคืืชื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉื ืฉื ืชืืื ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืกืืืจืช ืืื"ื, ืฉืื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืขืื. ืืื ืขืืจ ืืกืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืื ืืืืคืงื ืืืชื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืขืืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืืง ืงืืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืฆืข ืชืฉืืจื, ืืืืฆืข ืชืืคืช ืืืืืฆืข ืืืืืืก 4 ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชืฉื. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืข, ืืืืจ ืฉืืฆืื ืืืฆืจื ืคืชื ืืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืขื ืฉืืืืช 13, ืืขืช ืฆืืืืช ืชืขืืช ืกืืืฅ ืขื ืืื ืกืืจืืช ืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืฉืืืืชื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืฆืจืืื. ืืืืฉื, ืกืืื ืงืืจืก ืงืฆืื ื ืื"ืจ ืืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืคืงื ืฆืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืคืงื ืฆืืืช ืืฉืชืชืฃ ื ืชื ืืื, ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืืฆืข ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืขื ืืืืก "ืกืื ื", ืฉืขืืื ืคืืงื ืืคืงื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืจืง. ื ืชื ืืื ื ืคืฆืข ืืคืขืืื ืื ืืคืืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืคืขื ืืืจืช, ืืืืจื ืืคืขืืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืจืื, ื ืชืงืข ืืฆืืืช ืฉืขืืื ืคืืงื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืื ืกืืื ืืชืฉืืฉืืช ืืืงืืจ. ืืคืงื ืคืืืชื, ืขืืื ืืืื, ืืฉ ืืขืืจืชื ืืืืืฅ ืืืชื. ืืงืืฅ 1972 ืืฉืชืืจืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆื"ื ืืืจืืช ืกืจื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืจื ืืฆื"ื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช MIT ืฉืืืกืฆ'ืืกืืก. ืขื ืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืคืืจืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1973, ืฉื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืงืืืฆื ืืืืืชืจืช ืฉื "ืืืืจืื" ืืืืืืื, ืฉืฉืืจื ืขื ืื ืืื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืืฉืืืข ืืฉื ื ืืืืจืชื ืืืขืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื. ืืคื ืืืืืืื, ื ืจืื ืื ืคืืงื ืขื ืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฆืคืื. ืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืฉืจืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืขื 1981. ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืืจ, ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉื ืงืืื ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืืจืืืืืช (B.S.A.D) ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช MIT ื-1974, ืืชืืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื ืื ืขืกืงืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืื MIT ืกืืืื ื-1976. ืขืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืฃ ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืืจ, ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืจ ืชืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืึพMIT ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืืืจื ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืื ื. ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืขืื ืืฉื ืชืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืขืืฅ ืขืกืงื, "ืืืกืืื ืงืื ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืค". ืืืืชื ืขืช ืืื ื ืขืฆืื "ืื ื'ืืื ื ืืชืื" ืื "ืื ื ืืชืื". ื ืืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืขื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืชื ืืขืืชืื ืขื ืืืืจืื. ื-1976 ืฉืื ืืช ืืืื, ืืื ื ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉื ืืจื ืืืืื ืืืฆืข ืื ืืื, ืืขืช ืืืืชื ืืคืงื ืกืืืจืช ืืื"ื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1977 ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืกืืฃ 1976 ืืขื 1980 ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืงืจ ืืืจืืจ, ืฉืขืจื ืืกืคืจ ืื ืกืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืจืืจ. ื-1980 ืืื ืขื ืืืื ืขืื ืืคืจืก ื'ืืืืื ืกืงื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืืงืจ, ืืขืืืจ ืืืฆืืช ืืืชืื ืืื ื. ืืื 1979โ1982 ืขืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืง ืฉื ืืืจืช ืืจืืืืื "ืจืื ืชืขืฉืืืช". ืืืกืืจืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืงืจ ืืืจืืจ, ืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืืืืืืงืืื, ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืฉื ืืจื ืก, ืฉืืื ืืกืึน ืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืืืืฅ ืืื ืืชื ืืฆืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืกื., ืชืคืงืื ืฉืืืื ืืื 1982โ1984. ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืจื ืก ืืฉืืจืืจ, ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืงืืื, ืขื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืจืืื ืืชืคืงืื. ืืื 1984โ1988 ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืื"ื ืืืื ืืืืคืขืืชืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืขืืืืืช. ืืืจื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืฃ ืืช ืขืืจื ืฉื ืืื"ื ืืื"ื, ืงืืจื ืืืืืืื, ืฉืฉืืจืช ืืงืฆืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื, ืชืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื"ื, ืืืืื ืจืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื, ืืืฉืืฃ ืืกืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืคืืฉืขื ืืืืื ื ืืฆืื ื ืืกืคืื. ื-1988 ืืืขื ืง ืื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืจ ืืืงืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื. ืงืจืืืจื ืคืืืืืืช ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืชืื ืขืฉืจื ื-1988, ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืคืืืช "ืืืืืื". ืืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืืฆื ืืืงืื ืืชืฉืืขื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืืืฅ. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ื-12, ืืืชืื ื ืืกืื ื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืฉื ืืจื ืก, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืื ื ืืฆืจ ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืฆืฆื ื ืืฆื ื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืืชืขืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืื. ืืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืื"ื, ืื ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืคืขืืชืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืชืืืช. ื-1991 ื ืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืจืืฉืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืืืืขืืื, ืขืงื ืืืชื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื, ืขืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื. ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืขืฉืจื, ืฉื ืขืจืื ื-1992, ืืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืฉื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืคืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืฉืชื ืฉื ืฉืืืจ, ืืชืืืื ื-1993 ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื. ืืืืื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช, ืืชืคืจืกืื "ืคืจืฉืช ืืงืืืช ืืืืืืช". ืืืืคืขื ืืืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืจืช ืืื ืืืืฉืืช, ืืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืื "ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืืืืจืช ืคืืฉืขืื" ื ืืกื ืืกืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืจืืืืช ืืืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชื. ืืจืืืื ืืืคื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืคืจืฉื, ืืขืืืงื ืืช ืืงืจืข ืืื ืืฉื ืืื. ืืงืืืช ืื ืืืฆืื ืืขืืื, ืืืืืื ืืชื ืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืคื ืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื, ืื ื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืงืฆื, ืืืื ื-52.1% ืืืงืืืืช (72,705 ืืชืื 139,522 ืงืืืืช ืืฉืจืื). ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื, ืืืงืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืืคืืช ืืช ืืกืืื ืืืกืื ื-1993 ืืืืืืจ ืฉืืืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืืจืืจ ืืืคื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืืจืืช ืคืืืืขื ืืจืืจ ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืื, ืงืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช, ื ืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื. ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืชื ืืคืื ืช ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืฆืืื ื ืื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืืกืื ืืืกืื ื', ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1995. ืืฉืชืชืคืืชื ืืืคืื ื ืืฆืืืช ืจืขื ื ื ืฉืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืชืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืจืื ืงืืืจื ืฉืขืืื ืืืืชืื "ืจืืื ืงืืืจ ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืช", ืืืชื ืืคืจืกืื ืจื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืขื ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืื ืจืื ืืช ืืืจืื. ื-29 ืืืื 1996 ื ืขืจืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืจืืข-ืขืฉืจื, ืืคื ืฉืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืฉืืจื. ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืขืื ืคืจืก, ืฉืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฆืื, ืืจืื ืืืืง ืฉื ื-29,000 ืงืืืืช. ื ืืฆืืื ื ืืชืงืื ืืืคืชืขื ืืงืจื ืืคืจืฉื ืื. ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืฅ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืฆื ืคืจืก ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 1.4%, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืงื ืฉื ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืคื ืืช ืืืงืจ ืืชืืคืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืช ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืกืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืชืืกืก ืขื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืกืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืขืงื ืืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืคืืืืขื ืืชืืืืืช, ืืฆื ืืืืืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืกืืื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืจ ืคืขื ืืจืขืช ืคืจืก, ืขืงื ืืขืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคืขื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืจืฆื ืจืืื, ืืืชื ืืื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืชืืจืื ืืช, ืืืชื ื ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืกืืขืืช ืืืชืืจืืช ื"ืืืืืื-ืืฉืจ-ืฆืืืช". ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉื ืืื, ืคืจืก ืืืคืืข ืขืืืฃ ืื ืจืื, ืื ืฉืคืืข ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืชื ืืขืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืงืจื ืืืืขืืืื ืคืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืขืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืขืจืืืช ื ืื ืขื ืืืชืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฆืข "ืขื ืื ืืขื" ืืืืคืืื ืขื ืืคืจ ืงืื ื ืืืื ืื, ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืขื ืชืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืื ืงืืคืืื ืฆืขืืจื ืืืืืช ืื"ื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืง: "ื ืชื ืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืืืืื", ืืืืจืืช ืืจื ืืจื ืฉื, ืื ืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืฆืืืข ืื ืชื ืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืื ืื ืืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืขืฅ ืืจืชืืจ ืคืื ืงืืฉืืืื ืืงืืคืืื ื ืืืืื ืขื ืกืืกืืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืื "ืคืจืก ืืืืง ืืช ืืจืืฉืืื", ืฉืืื ืืคืงืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ื ืืืืจ ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืืงืจื ืขืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจืืื. ื ืืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืชื ืืืื 47 ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืขืืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืจ ืงืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืึพ18 ืืืื ื 1996 ืขื ืึพ6 ืืืืื 1999. ืืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืขืกืง ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืื-ืคืืกืืื ื. ืืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืืกืืื ืืืกืื, ืชืื ืืฆืืจื ืขื ืขืืงืจืื ืืคืื ืืงืืื ืืชืืืืืืืืช ืื ืกืืืืช ืจืง ืืืงืืื ืืงืืื ืืชืืืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืืชืื ืืื, ืืชืขืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืคืืกืืื ืืช, ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืืจื ื ืืกืจื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืืืกืืื ืืืกืื ื'. ืืชืืืืช ืกืคืืืืจ 1996 ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืกืจ ืขืจืคืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืจื, ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืคืืืฉื ืืกืืืืช. ื-24 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1996 ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืคืชืืืช ืื ืืจืืช ืืืืชื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืจืฆื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืจืช ืืืืชื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืฆืคืื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืืื ื ืืจืื 17 ืืืืื ืฆื"ื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืจืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืืืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืืขืงืืืช ืคืชืืืช ืืคืชื ืืฆืคืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืจืช ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืจืืืข ืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืฉืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืฉืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืชืืช ืืกืืื ืืจ ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืขืจืขืจ ืืืชื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืชื ืืคืชืืืช ืคืชื ืืื ืืจื ืืืชืื ืืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจืช "ื ืืืขื ืืกืืข ืงืืืื ื". ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืืข ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืื ืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืคืืกืืื ื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืคืืช ืฉื ืขืจืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืคืจืืช ืกืืจ ืืขืจืื ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืขืืจืืืช, ืฉื ืคืกืงื ืชืื ืืืื ืกืคืืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืงืจื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืขืจืคืืช ืืคืกืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืกืืื ืืื ืืจืื. ืืคืกืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืชืืืช "ืืกืื ืืืจืื" ืืื ืืืจ 1997. ืืืกืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืช ืืจืื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืขืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืืขื ืืืืจ ืืขืจืช ืืืืคืื ืืืืืจืื ืกืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืชืื ืืืืืืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืงืืื ืฉืชื ื ืกืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉืืืื ืขื ืื ืกืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืงืจืื "ืฉืืืฉ ืืคืขืืืืช". ืื ืกืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืขื ืืืืชื ืืืืฉ. ืืงืืฅ 1997 ืืชืจืืฉื ืฉื ื ืคืืืืขื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืขืงืืืชืืื ืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืื'ืืื ืืฉืขื, ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืก ืืืจืื. ืืคืขืืื ืื ืขืืชื ืืคื ืืกืืื ื "ืืืืกื" ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืืชื ื ืชืคืกื. ืืชืืืจื ืืฉืืจืืจื, ืฉืืื ืืฉืจืื ืชืจืืคืช ื ืื ืฉืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืขื ืืฉืืจืจื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืกืืจืื ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืจืืฉื ืฉืืื' ืืืื ืืืกืื. ืงืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืช ืืกืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืกื ืืื ืืจืืืง, ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืก ืฉืืืจืฉ ืืืจืื ืื ืขืฆืจ ืื ืืืชืชื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืฉืคืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืคืืืืขืื. ืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืืขืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉื ื ืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืืืช ืฉืืคื ืื, ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืฉืืขืื ืคืจืก ืืืฉื ืืื ืฉืืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืจืง ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 1999, ืฉื ืช ืืืื ืชื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ื ืจืฆืื 4 ืื ืฉืื ืืคืืืืขืื, ืืืกืคืจ ืื ืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืชืืคืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืขื 2008. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืืช ืืืืืฃ ืืื ืขืืจื. ืืงืืช ืืืืขืฆื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืืชืื ืืืืืฆื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืงืช ืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืคืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืขื ืืื ืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืืืช ืฉืงืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืงืืคืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืกืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืกืื ืืืจืื ืื ืกืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืื ืก ืื ืฉืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืืช ืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1998. ืืืืขืืื ืืกืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืฉืืชืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืคืืจ, ืื ืกืืื ื ืืกืคืช, ืฉืืืื 13% ืืฉืืื C ืฉืืืื ืฉืืืขืืจื ืืฉืืื A ื-B,โ 1% ื-12% ืืืชืืื, ืืืคืชืืืช ื ืื ืชืขืืคื ืืื-ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืชืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืชืืื ืืช ืกืขืืคื ืืืื ื ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืงืืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืื ืืชืื ืกื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืขืื ืื ืืืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืงืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืื ืคืืจืกื ื ืืกื ืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืื ื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืกืขืืคืื ืืงืืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืจื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืจืง ืืืง ืงืื ืืื ืกืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืจื: โืืชื ื โ ืืงืืื, ืื ืืชื ื โ ืื ืืงืืื.โ ืชืงืืคื ืื ืืชืืคืืื ื ืืืชืืงืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืื ืกืืืืช ื"ืคืขืืืืช" ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืคืขื. ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื, ืื ืงืืคืืื ืืืืขืื ืขื ืกืืจืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืื ืจืื ืืืืืจ, ื ืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืก ืจืืก ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืืืืจ ืืฉืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืจืื, ืืืืชื ืืืกืืืชื, ืืืื ื ืกืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืงื ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืืืืช 1967, ืชืื ืฉืชืืืื ืืงื ืืืืืืง ืืืงืืข ืืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืื. ืืืขื ืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืืื ืืชืขืงืฉ ืขื ืื ืฉืงื ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืฉืืืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืงืืจืื ืืช ืจืืื, ืืื: ืืกืื ืืืกืืงืื (4 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1997), ืืืช ืฉืืืฉื ืงืฆืื ืื ืืกืืืจืช ืฆื ืื ืื ืืืืชืงืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืื (23 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1997) ืืืกืื ืืฉืืืืช (5 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1997) ืฉืื ื ืืจืื 12 ืืืืื ืฉืืืืช 13 ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืกืื ืืืกืืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืกืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืช ืืคืงืคืืง ืฉืืฉืืืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืืงืืช ืืจืืื ืืจืืข ืืืืืช ืฉืคืขืื ืื ืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื. ืืขืงืืืช ื ืคืืืช ืืงืฆืื ืื ืืืืืข ืื"ืจ ืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื, ืืืื ืืจืง, ืขื ืืชืืืืืืชื ืืฆืืช ืืืื ืื ืชืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืืจื, ืขืืืฃ ืชืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืกืืจืื. ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืช ืืืชืช ืขื ืื ืกืืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ, ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืืื ืื ืืฆืจื ืืฉืืจื ื ืืืืจืืงื ื. ืคืขืืืืช ืื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื'ืจื ืคืืืืื (ืื ') ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืฆืจื, ืขืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืฉืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืจื ืืืฆืจ: ืื ืืจืืืืจ, ืืขืงื ื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืช โ ืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืคืจืง ืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ื. ืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืชื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืื ืืจืืืืจ, ืื ืืฉื "ืจืฆืืขืช ืืืืืกืื" ืืืืื ืืืชืคืืจืืช ืืืืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืฉื ื ืืื ืืกืชื ืืชืคืงืื. ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืื ืืื ืคืจืฉ ืืืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืฆืขืืื ืืืืืืืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืฉื ืงื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืช 1998, ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืฉืืื ืจืขืืขืื ืขืื. ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืกืืืืช ืฉืืง ืืืคืฉื, ืืขืื ืขื ื ืก ืืช ืขืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืืช ืืืช ืืืคืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืฉ ืชืคืืกื ืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื. ืืืืฉืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืคืืชืช ืืืจืขืื ืืชืงืฆืืื. ืืืฉืืชื ืืืฆืขื ืืคืจืื ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช ืืืืืจืืืืฆืื ืืืืืข ืืืืฅ, ืืืื ืืืืื "ืจืฆืืขืช ืืืืืกืื", ืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืืชืคืืจืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืจืืืืจ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืจื ืจืคืืจืื ืืคื ืกืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืคื ืกืื ืชืงืฆืืืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืฆืืืจืช, ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืืืกืคืช ืืคืขืื ืกืืืืจื ืฉืืืฉื, ืชืืืืช ืฉืืจืืชื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืช "Yes" ืืืืกืคืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืง ืฉืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืื-ืืืืืืืช. ืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืงื ืืขืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืืขืื ืืจืืชื ืืคืืืืืืื ืึปืึผืึผ ืืขืืชืื ืืืจืืงืืช ืืฆืจืืืืช. ืื ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืื ืืืง ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืืจื ืฉืืคืฉืจื ืืช ืจืฆื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื. ืืกืื ืืื ืืจื ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืง ืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืคืืืืช ืืฉืืื ื ืื ืขื ืืืกืคืง ืื ืจืฉืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืกืื, ืืืขืงืืืช ืืชืงืคื ืฉืื ืขืืืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืืขืืื. ืืฉ ืืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืคืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืขื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืคื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืืืขื ืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืขืงืืืช ืืชืจืกืืชืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืื ื.[ื] ืขื ืืืช, ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืืจืชื. ืืืคืขืชื ืืชืงืฉืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืฉืช ืืืืื ืื ืชืืืืื, ืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืขืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื. ืืืชืืจืืจืืช ืขื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืจืื ืื. ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืืฉ ืขืฉืจื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ื-21 ืืืฆืืืจ 1998 ืืฆืืืขื ืืื ืกืช ืืงืจืืื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืขื ืคืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืจื ืกืืื ืชืืจืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืงืืจื, ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืขืช ืื-ืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ื ืืกืืื ืืชืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืชื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืชืืืืื ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืง, ืืืขืื ืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื; ืืฆืืง ืืจืืื, ืฉืืืชื ืคืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืคืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืฅ ื ืืื; ืื ื ืืืื, ืฉืขืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืขืืื ืืฉืืจื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืคืจืฉื ืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืจืืฅ, ืืืื ืชืื ืืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืชืืื ืืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืง, ืฉื ืืฆื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืื 1999, ืืฉืืื ืืจืื ืฉื 56% ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืืืกืชื ืขืื ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืกืืคืืืช ืืืืืืข ืขื ื ืืืืช ืคืกืง ืืื ืืืคืืืืืืงื, ืืฉืืฆืืื ืขืืื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืฉืืืฆื ืืืืืืคื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืชืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื ื ืืงืื ืฆืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจืชื ืืฉืื ืฉืืขืจ ืขื ืืื ืขืืืงืื ืืงืจืข ืืขื ืืืืื ื ืฉืจืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืจ ืฉืืคืกืื ืืืืืจืืช 1999, ืคืจืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืชื ืืื ืกืช. ืืืืืืกื 1999 ืืื ื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืืจืช ืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชืงืืืช ืืืืืจืช "ืืืงืืจืืง ืคืืื". ืขื ื ืคืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืจืง ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 2000, ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืคื ืืืืืจ ืืคืืืืืืงื. ืขื ืคื ืืืง, ืืชืคืืจืืช ืืจืง ืืืืจื ืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืฉ ืฉืืชืงืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืืจืช ืื ืชืชืืคืฉืจ ืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืฆืืื. ืืคืืืช ืฉ"ืก, ืฉืื ืจืฆืชื ืืืกืชืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืื, ืกืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืคืืืืจ ืืื ืกืช, ืื ืกืืืขื ืืืขืืจืช ืืืง ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืชืืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืขืืืืชื ืืืคืชืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืืชื ืขืช ื"ืืืชื ืืืืจ" ืืืคืืคืืืจื ืคืืืช ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืืจื ืืืฆืข "ืืืืช ืืื", ืชืงืฃ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืจืื ืืื ืืคืืืืขืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืกืช ืฆื"ื ืืขืจืื ืืคืืกืืื ืืืช. ืืื ืงืจื ืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืขืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืคื ืฉืื ืืืขืชื ืฆืจืืื ืืืชืืฆืข ืืคืจืื ืืืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ, ืขื ืคืืจืืง ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืคืจืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2002 ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืคืืืฉ ืืขืืจืืง. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืฉืืืขื ืืืื ืืคืืืฉื ืืื ืืขืืช ืืคืืงืื ืืืจืคืืจืื ืฉื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืขืืืชื ืืขืจืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื "ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืชืื, ืคืขืืืืชืื ืืืชืงืืืืชื ืฉื ืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืืคืืชืื ื ืฉืง ืืจืขืื ื" ืืืืกืืฃ ืื ืชืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ื ืฉื ืกืืื, ืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืชืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขืฆืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืื. ืืคืืขื ืืชืืจืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืขืืจืืง ืื ืืืื ืขืืจืืง ืื ืืื ืื ื ืฉืง ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืจืืื ืืขืจืืืื ืื ืืฉืคืขืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืฉืืืืืช ืืกื ืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 2002 ืืฆืืจืฃ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืฉืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ. ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืื ืฉืจืื ืขื ืื ืืืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืืคืกืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 24%. ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืช ืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืืืืช 2003, ืืืฆืข ืื ืชื ืืื ืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ. ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉืืคืฅ ืืชืืง ืืืืฅ, ืกืืจื ืชืืืื, ืื ืืืกืืฃ ืงืืื ืืช ืืชืคืงืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืงืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฆืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืก ืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืง ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืฉื ืชืืื ืืืฆื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืฆืจ, ืขืจื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืจืืืงืืช ืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืืง ืืืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืงืคืืืืืกืืืช ืชืงืืคื, ืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืคืืชืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืงืืฆืืฆืื ื ืจืืืื ืืชืงืฆืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืคืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช. ืืื ืืืืจ ืจืืืช ืขื ืืฆืืจื ืืงืฆืฅ ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฉืง ื"ืืืฉ ืืจืื (ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื) ืืกืืื ืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืืฉ ืืฉืื (ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื)". ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืชื, ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืฉืืื ืื ืงืืืื, ืกืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืืคืืชืช ืฉืืขืืจื ืืก ืืืื ืกื. ืืืงืืื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืกืืก ืืืก ืืืืื ืคืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืืืก ืืชืืฉืื ืืชื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืฆืข 2004 ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืคืืชื ืืืจืืชืืช ืื ืื ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืืก ืืืืจืืช (25% ืืขืืืช 36%) ืขื ืฉื ืช 2010 ืืืคืืชืช ืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืืื (44% ืืขืืืช 50%). (ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืชื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืช 2012 โ ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืขืื ื-48% ืื-50% ืืฉื ืช 2013, ืืืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืก ืืืื ืกื ืขื ื-40,000 ืฉ"ื ืืืืืฉ ืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช.) ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืื ืืคืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืฉืืจ ื ืืื, ืื ืืชืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืจืง ืขื ืืขืื ืืื ืกื ืืื ืื ืืช ืืืขืื. ืขืจืื ืฉื ื ืงืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืก ืืื ืกื ืืืงืคื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืช. ืืืกืืจืช ืชืืงืื 147 ืืคืงืืืช ืืก ืืื ืกื, ืืืขืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืก ื-15% ื-20% ืขื ืจืืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืช ืืืืจืกื ืืจืืืืืช ืขื ืคืืงืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืฉื ืช 2007 ืื ืขื ืฉืื ืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืชืืืืช 2004 ืืืืื ืงืืฆืืฅ ืืืืกืื ืขื ืงืฉืช ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืจื ืฆืจืืื, ืืืงืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืช ืืืข"ื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืฉื 17%. ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืืงืืืช ืงืฆืืืืช ืจืืืื ("ืชืฉืืืื ืืขืืจื") ืืืืื ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืงืฆืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืช ืื ื ืืขืื, ืืืืจืื, ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืงืฆืืืืช ืืฆืืช ืืขืืืื. ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืงืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉืืืคืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช, ืฉืืืืคื ืืกืืจืชื ืคืขืื ืืืืืืช ืงืฆืื ืื (ืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืคืจื), ืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืงืืืืืฆืื. ืืงืืฆืืฆืื ืืงืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืคืืขื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืขืจืื, ืฉืืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืช. ืงืืฆืืฆืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืงืฆืืืืช ืคืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืื-ืืืจืืืช, ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืฉืืฉืื ืืขืืจืจื ืื ืฉื ืฉืืืชืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืื ืฉื ืืืงื ืงื ืคื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื, ืืืขืืจื ืืืจืืช ืจืืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืคืื ืคืจืืืื. ื-2003 ืืื ืคืงื ืืืืจืกื ืื ืืืช "ืื ืขื", ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืงืืืฆืช "ืื ืคืืื" ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืืฅ ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืชืืืืช 2004 ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืื ืืืชืื ืืืืจืช ืืกืคื ืืช "ืฆืื" (50% ืืืืืจื) ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืขืืคืจ ืชืืืจืช ืืืฆื ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื. ืืืืื, ืฉืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืืงื ืจืืื ืื "ืขืกืงืช ืืฉืงืฉืืงื", ืขืืจืจ ืืืงืืจืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ืจืื, ืื ืืชืื ืขืืื ืืขืจื ืืื"ื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื. ืืจืขืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืง ืืืกืงืื ื ื ืืืจ ืืงืืืฆืช ืืฉืงืืขืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืชืื ืืจืื ืคืื, ืชืืืจืช 1.3 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื, ื-80% ืืฉืืื ืืฉืืง, ืขื ืคื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืกืืจื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืืืจืกื. ืืืจืช ืืชืงืฉืืจืช "ืืืง" ื ืืืจื ืืงืืืฆื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืกืื ืืืืืคืงืก, ืืืืืจ ืืงืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจืกืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืงืืืืื ืืืืืืคืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืจืขืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืง ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืื ืืื ืืื ืง ืืืืืื ืคืจืืืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืคืืืช ื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืฆืืจ ืชืืจืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืขืื. ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืกืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืืขืืืืื, ืฉืื ืชืืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืกืื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืืช ืขืืืจ ืื ื ืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2009, ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคืขืื ืืื ืืืช ืืจืคืืจืื, ืืืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืชื ืืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืงืืข ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืื ืืจืคืืจืื ื ืืฉืื. ืืื ืืื ืคืชืจืื ืืืฉืืจ ืงืจื ืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืืืช, ืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืงืจื ืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืืืืืจืช ืืงืจื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ืืกืืืข ืืคืฉืจื ืืงืจื ืคืืขืื ืืื ืืื, ืฉืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืคืจืขืื, ืืช ืชืฉืืื ืืคื ืกืื ืืืืจืื. ืฆืขื ืื ืืืื ืืืขืืื ื ืืืจืช ืฉื ืืคืจืฉืืช ืืขืืืชืื ืืงืจื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืช ืืืขืืืืืื ืืฆืืฆืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืืชืื. ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืืืื ืชื ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืจืคืืจืื ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช "ืืขืืช ืืืจ". ืืืชืื ืืืืืฆืืชืื, ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ื ืืืฆื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืงืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืงืจื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืืขืืืชื. ื ืชื ืืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืชืืื ืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืขืื ื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืื ืืื-ืฉืืืืื ืืืฉืง. ืขื-ืคื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืขืืจ ืืขืื ื ืืื 2002 ื-2004 ืขืื ืื-10%, ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืขื ืืืช ืขืื ื-12%. ืืจืืื ื ืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืืจืืฉืช ืื ืืงืงืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจืืคืืช, ืื ืืงืจื ืืืจืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืงืจื ืืืจืืื ืขืืืืื ืื ืคื ืกืืื ืจืื. ืืขืื ื ืืชืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืืงืืฆืืฆืื ืืชืฉืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืงืฆืืืืช. ืืฆื ืืืืงืืจืช, ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืืฉืชืคืจื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืง ืืืฉืจืื: ืืกืืฃ 2002 ืืชืงืฉืชื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืก ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืช, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืืคื ื ืืืจ. ืืื"ื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืคืื ื ืกืืช ืฉื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืช 2003 ืฆืืื ืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืงืื ืืคืื ื ืกืืื ื ืืข, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืฉื, ืืฆืืื ืืืขืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืงืืฆืืฆืื ืืชืงืฆืื (ืืฃ ืฉืขืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืขืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืฉื ื), ืืืช ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืจืืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืฆื ืืฉืืืงืื ืืขืืื, ืงืืืช ืืขืจืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืืช ืืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืฆื ืืืืืืื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2007 ืคืจืกืื ืืืืงืช ืืืืงืจ ืฉื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืงืจื-ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืจืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืคื, ืืจืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืง ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฆืื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืฆื ืืืืืืื ื ืืฆืืืืช ืืกืืจ ืืขืืืื ืืจืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืฆืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืืก ืื-ืขืจืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืชื ืชืงืืช. ืืื ืชืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืืข ืืขืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืงืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืง ืืืชื ืชืงืืช ืืื ืกืช. ืขื ืืืช ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืข ืืกืชืืืืืืืช, ืืคืจื ืื ืกืืื ืืฆืืจ ืคืืืืืคื ืืืฆืืข ืขืจืืืช ืืฉืื ืขื, ืืฃ ืื ืืฆืืืจ ืฉืืืฉืื ืืฆืืืข ืืขื ืืชืื ืืช. ืืฉืขืืชื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืกืช, ืืฆืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืื, ืื ืืฆืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืคืื ืืชืคืืจ ืื ืื ืืืืฆืข ืืฉืื ืขื. ืืืืฉื ื ืกืื ืื ืืืืืืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืื ืืชืงืืื ืืฉืื ืขื. ืืช ืืชื ืขืจืืชื ืืืืืืืืืืื ืฉืืฆืื, ืืืืก ืืืืจืคืช ืืฆืื ืืจืคืืื ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืขืจืคืืช. ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืชืืข ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืขื, ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฆืืืข ืืื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืขืืช ืฉื ืขืจืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืกืช. ื-7 ืืืืืืกื 2005, ืขืจื ืืืฆืืข ืืคืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืขื ืคืื ืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืชืคืืจืืชื. ืืื ื ืืืง ืืช ืืืืืชื ืืืชืคืืจ ืืืฉืฉื ืฉืืขืื ืฆืคืื ืืงืื "ืืกืืก ืืจืืจ ืฉืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืจืื" ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ืจืคืืจืืช ืืืจ" ืืื ืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืฉืืืงืฉ ืืขืจืื ืืืกืืจืช ืชืคืงืืื. ื-30 ืืืืืืกื 2005 ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืื ืชื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืขืืืืชื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืจื ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืืื ืกืคืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืขืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืืขืืืืชื ืืชืคืงืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืื "ืฉืืืื ืืืจืฆ". ืืกืคืืืืจ ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืื ืขื ืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืจืื, ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืคืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืจืื ืืชืคืงืืื. ืืืฆืขื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืงืืืืช ืงืื, ืื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืชืคืงืื ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืชื ืืขื. ืืชืืืืช ืืฆืืืจ 2005, ืืขืงืืืช ืคืจืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืฉื "ืงืืืื", ืืคื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืืข ืขืฉืจื. ืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืกืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืฉืจืื ืืฅ ืืืฉื ืคืืืืืื. ืขืืื ืื ืืื, ืฉืืชืืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืกืืจ ืืช ืืืขืืืืชื ืืืืืืข ืขื ืชืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคื, ืฉืืชืืืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืื, ืขืืจ ืืืคืืืช "ืงืืืื". ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช ื ืขืจืื ื-19 ืืืฆืืืจ 2005, ืื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื ืขื 44% ืื ืืงืืืืช (ืืื 33% ืืฉืืื, 12% ืืคืืืืืื ื-9% ืืืฅ). ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2006 ืืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืขืชื ืืืืขืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืขื ืืืคืืื ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืคืชืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืชื ืืขื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืืขืฉื ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืชื ืืขื, ืฉื ืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืงืืจ ืืฉืืืชืืช ืืชื ืืขื[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ]. ืืชืืืืืช ืืฆืขื ืื ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืขืืจืืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืืืืช ืขื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืคืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืขื ื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืงืืกืืื ืืืื, ืืืฆืืืขื ืขื ืืขืืืื ืื ืืฆืขื ื ื ืงื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจ ื ืืืจื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืช ื-17, ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืฆื ืืงืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช. ืืคืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ื"ืฆืขื ืงืืกืืื" ืืืชื ืืื ืคืจืืืืจืื ืจืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืชื ืืขื ืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-17 ืืืืื ืขืื ืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉืืื ื-12 ืื ืืืื, ืืืช ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืขืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื ืืขื ืืฃ ืขืืืืช ืืืืก ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืจืื, ืฉื ืจืื ืืืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืคืืื. ืื ืืื ืืชืืืกื, ืงืฉืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืฉืคืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืช, ืื ืงืืข ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืืช ืืืขื ืืฆืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืข ืฉืืืฉืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืชื ืืขื. ืืื ืกืช ื-17 ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื. ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืฉื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืื ื ืื ืฉืงืคืช ืืืืจืื ืืืชืืืฉืช ืืคืฆืฆืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืฆืืช. ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืฉืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืฆืขืช ืืืง ืคืจืืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืขืกืงื ืืืืกืืจ ืืฉืงืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืงืฉืจ ืขื ืืืจืื. ื-14 ืืืืืืกื 2007 ื ืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื. ืืจืืื ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคืืื, ืกืืืื ืฉืืื, ืคืจืฉ ืืืคืื ืชืืืช ืืืืจืืฅ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื ืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืืคืจืืืืจืื, ืชืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืขืืงืจื ืืืื ืืื ืคืขืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืคืืื, ืืฉื ืคืืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉื 72.8% ืืืืกืก ืืช ืืขืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืขืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืงืืจืื, ืืืคืืจ ืืงืื ืืก, ืืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืคืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืขืืืื ืืืงืื ื-36, ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืืจ ืืืงืื ื-20. ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืฉื ืชืคืกื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืื, ืื ืชื ืืื ืืจืฉ ืืงืืช ืืขืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืงืจ ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจื ื ืืฉื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืขืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืฉืืกืืคื ืืชืคืืจ. ืืืืืคืชื, ืฆืืคื ืืืื ื, ืืฉืื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืคืืืจื ืืื ืกืช. ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืืื ื ืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืจื ืืงืกืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืก ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืข ืขืืคืจืช ืืฆืืงื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืข ืืช ืขืืืชื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืืืง ืืฉ ืืืคืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขื ืืชืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืฆืข. ืืงืืคืืื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืคื ืืื ื ืืกืืกืืืืช ืืื "ืืืง ืืืืืืื, ืืืง ืืืืืื". ื-3 ืืคืืจืืืจ, ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืจื ืชืื ืืืฆืข "ืขืืคืจืช ืืฆืืงื", ื ืคืื ืืืฉืงืืื ืจืงืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืงืจ ืืขืืจ, ืืืืื ืฉืืืฉืืชื ืชืคืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขื, ืืชืงืฃ ืืช ืืืฉืืช ืงืืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ืขืฉืชื ืืืช. ืืฉืจืื ืืืจ, ืฉืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืกืืจืืื ืฉื ืืงืืคืืื, ืกืืคืจ ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืชื ื-2020 ืฉืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจื ืืืืชื ืฉืื, ืขืงื ืกืงืจืื ืคื ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืขื ืืชืืืงืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื ืืฉืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืื ืืขืฉื ืืืจ ืืื, ืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืฉืชืื ืข. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-18 ืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ื-27 ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืกืืขื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืจื ืงืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฆืืคื ืืื ื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ื-ืืชื, ืฉืืืืืฅ ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืจืื ืืื ืกืช (65 ื"ืืื), ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืขืื ืคืจืก ืืืื ืขืืื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืื ืงืืืืืฆืื ืฉืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื, ืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื, ืฉ"ืก, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื. ื-31 ืืืจืฅ 2009 ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืื 30 ืฉืจืื ื-9 ืกืื ื ืฉืจืื. ืืืื ื 2009 ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช "ื ืืื ืืจ-ืืืื", ืฉืืืจืืื ืืืืข ืืกืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืช ืืคืืจืืื, ืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืช ืืขื ืืืืืื, ืืืชืืจ ืขื ืืืืช ืืฉืืื. ืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืขืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืืจ ื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืงืืืจ, ืืืื ืงืฉืืจ ืืืืขืื ืขื ืืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจ-ืืืื ื ืชืคืก ืืฆืืืืจ ืืชืคื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืก ืืขืืืืชืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืคื ืชืืืื ืืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2010 ืืืืืื ืืขืืช ืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืชืื ืืช ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืคื ืื ืืฆืืง ืืืจืื ืืืืฅ' ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืืขืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืืจื ืืืฆื ืฉ"ื. ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื "ืงืืืืชื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืืืืืื... ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืกืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื". ืืขืงืืืช ืฆืขื ืื ืคืกืงื ืืืกืชื ื ืืช ืืืขื ืืืืจื. ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืจืืฃ ืืืฉืืจ ืืืชืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืจืงืื, ืืฉืืจ ืฉืืื ืืขืช ืืืื ืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื, ืืืืจ ืืืฆืข ืขืืคืจืช ืืฆืืงื, ืืืืจืืฃ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉื ืืขืื ืืกืืฃ ืืื 2010. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010, ืืขืงืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืืขืื ืขื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืืงืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืกืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืื-ืคืืกืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉื ื ืขืืื ืืชืื ืืกืชืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืก, ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืช ืืขื ืืืืืื. ืืืงืืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฆืื ืืฆื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืคืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื 10 ืืืืฉืื. ืืืืืืกื 2011 ืืืจืขื ืืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืืจืฅ ืฉืืืื ืืคืืืืข ืงืืื ื ืืืืืจ ืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืจื ืกืื ื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืงืคืช ืจืงืืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืจืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2011, ืื ืืื ืืื"ื, ืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืขื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืืจืืฉ ืืืื"ื ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืฉืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืงืจื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืช ืฆืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืงืืื, ืคืขื ืืืืืจื ืืงืืขืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืจืื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฆื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืจืฃ ืคืขืืืืช ืืื, ื-29 ืื ืืืืืจ 2012 ืืืฉืจื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืื (ืืืืืื 67/19 ืฉืื) ืืช ืืืืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืฉืงืืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืื"ื. ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืืืืื ืืคืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก, ืืคืืขื ืืืจ ืืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืง ืืืชื. ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืข ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืกืืจ ืงืืข. ื-11 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2011 ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืืช ืขืกืงืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืก - ืืืกืืจืชื ืฉืืืจืจ ืืืขื ืฉืืื ืชืืืจืช 1,027 ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื. ืื ืืืืืจ 2012 ืืืกื ืฆื"ื ืืช ืืืื ื'ืขืืจื, ืจืืฉ ืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืก, ืืขืงืืืช ืืจื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืคืชืืืช ืืืฆืข ืขืืื ืขื ื, ืฉื ืืขื ืืื ืืข ืืจื ืจืงืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืข, ืืคืฉืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ื'ืืื ืืฉืขื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืืืจื ืขืืื ืืจื, ืฉืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื 2011, ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืข ืืกืืจืื, ืืชืืืื ืืืจืืงืื, ืืกืื ืืืืื ื ืกืืื ืืืงืืช ืืจืืช ืืืืื, ืชืื ืืฉืืจืช ืจืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืื ืืจืื ืืืงืืื. ืืคื ืืืฆืขื ืืจืื ืชืืกืืจ ืืกืืจืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืจืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืชืืฆืข ืืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืื ืขื ืกืขืืืื. ืืืฆืขื ืืืชื ืืืจืืช ืืจืื ืื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืกืืจืื. ืกืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืื ืขืกืง ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืื ืกืืืืืช ืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ืืชืงื ื ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื. ืขื ืกืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืชืจืืข ืืืจ ื-1993. ืืคืชืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืื ืกืช, ื-31 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2011, ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืื โืืืจืื ืืจืขืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืขื ืืขืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืขืืื ืโ. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืจืขื ืืืืืช ืืืชืงื ืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืื 3, ืืืงื ืืืืกื ื"ืืืกื", ืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืืื ื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืื ืื, ืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ื-27 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2012 ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืื"ื. ืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืชืืืข ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืขืฉืจ ืืจืื ืฉื 90% ืชืืื ืื ื ืงืืืช ืืื-ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืงื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืข ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืฉ ื"ืฉืจ ืืืกืืจืืืื ืืืืืืช". ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจื ืืืจืืื ืืืื ืกืืช ืืืกืื, ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืขืืชื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืชื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขืจื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืื 2010 ืืืขืื ืื ืืืก ืขื ืกืืืจืืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืข ืืืื ืืช ืขื ืื"ืจ ืืืกืชืืจืืช, ืขืืคืจ ืขืื ื, ืขื ืขืกืงืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืง. ืืฉืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืืฉืง ืฉืื ืฆืื ืืขืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืฉืงื ืืชืืืง ืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืงื ืืืช ืขืชืืืืช ืื"ื ืืฉื ืื ืืขืช ืืืกืืฃ. ืืืื ืืืช ืืืจืืจืืกืคืงืืืื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืฉืืจ, ืืืืืช ืืฆืืืชื ืืื ืืขื ื ืจืืืช ืฉื ืคืืืขื ืืืฉืง ืืืืื ืืงื ืืื ืืืฉืจืืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืกื ืืงืื ืจืคืืจืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืง ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืงื ืขื ืงืืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืื ืืื. ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืืขืงืืืช "ืคืจืฉืช ืืืืืื ื", ืืืฉืฉืืช ืื ืืืข ืืืจื ืคืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืคืื ืืช ืืจืคืืจืื. ืืืื 2010 ืืฆืืจืคื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืคืืชืื ืืืืื (OECD). ืืืืื-ืืืืืกื 2011 ืคืจืฆื ืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืกืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืช ืืจืืื ืืจื ืืืืืืฉ ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉืขืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืฅ ืืช ืจืื ืืืืฆืืชืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืฆืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื 3, ืืืขืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืข"ื, ืืก ืงื ืืื ืขื ืืืง ืืืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืก ืืื ืกื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2012 ืืืืข ืืืืจืขืื ืืชืงืฆืื ืืืืื ื ื-39 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื, ืืคืืืื ืืืืชืืื ื. ืืืจืขืื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืกืื ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืืชืื ืืืกืื ืืงืืืืืฆืืื ื, ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืฉืจ ืืจืืืืช ืืืืฉืืชื ืืืขื ืืง ืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืกืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืงื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื. ืขืชืืจื ืฉื ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืจืคืืืืช ืืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืืกืืจ ืื ื ืืืชื. ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืืืคืช ืฉืคืขืช ืืืืืจืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืจื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืกืื ืื ื ืื ืฉืคืขืช ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืชืืฉืื ืืืืื ื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืชืืกื ื ืจืง ื-700,000 ืืฉืจืืืื (ื-10%) ืืืืืื ื ื ืืชืจื ืขื ืขืืืฃ ืฉื ื-4.5 ืืืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืกืื. ืืฉื ืช 2010 ืคืจืฆื ืืฉืจืคื ืืืจืื ืื ื ืกืคื 44 ืื ื ืืื, ื-17,000 ืืืฉ ืคืื ื ืืืชืืื ืืงืจืื ื-25 ืงื"ืจ (25,000 ืืื ื) ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ื ืขืฆืื ืขืื ืืืฉ. ืฉืจืคื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืืชืจืืฉ ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืืชื ืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2011 ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืืื ื, ืฉืขืกืงื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืงืืช ืืขืืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืืืชืืืช ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืกืืืืืืชืื ืืืืฃ ืืืฉืจื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2012 ืืืงื ืืื ืืกืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืจื ืืืคืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืกืืืืจ, ืืืชืื ืืืืืฆืืช ืืขืื ืฉืขืื ืืจืืฉื ืืืืืฃ ืืืื' ืืฆืืง ืื ืืฉืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืฉืืข ืชืืคืื ืืืืจืช ืืกืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืชืื ืืื ืชืืงืฆืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืจ ืฉืืข ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืืจืืื ืื"ืค ืกืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืข. ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืืจ 2012 ืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืคื ืืืืืช ืขื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืคืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืงืื ื-36 ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช 2008, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจ-ืื ืกืช. ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืชืคืงืื, ืืฉืืฆืืืขื ืื ื-75% ืืืืชืคืงืืื. ืืืืงืืืืจ 2012 ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืขื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืชืืืืช 2013, ืืืื ืฉืงืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืช "ืืืืืื" ื"ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื" ืืจืฉืืื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉืืื ืชื "ืืืืืื ืืืชื ื" ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืืจืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืชื ืืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ื-31 ืื ืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-19 ืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืชื ืืฉืืืฉืืช. ืืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืขื ืื ืืืืืจ 2013. ืืืจืฅ 2013 ืืืืกืืจืช ื ืืกืืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืง ืืืืื - ืฉืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืืจืงืื, ืจื'ืค ืืืืค ืืจืืืื ืขื ืืฉืืช ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื, ืืืจื ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืฉืืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืืืจืืขื ืืืฉื ืืขืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืืืจืืขื ืืืฉื, ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืกืืืืช, ืฉืืืคืจืื 2014 ื ืจืื ืืงืจืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชืืื ืขื ืืกืื, ืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฆืข ืฆืืง ืืืชื, ืืืืกืื ืืืจืืจื ืฉืื. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืชืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืคื ืืจืืฃ ื ืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืจืงืื ื ืขืจืื ืืคืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืฉืจืื, ืฉืฉืืื ืืื ืืชืงืคื ืื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืจืืจืืช, ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืคืืืช ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื, ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืจืช ืืกืข ืืืืจืงืื. ืืืืง ืืืืกื ืืจืื ืืโืืฉืจืื ืืืืกื ืืฉืจืืโืืฆืจืื ืืกืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืืฉืืืืช ื-ืกืืกื. ืืืจืฅ 2019 ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืกืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืจืืฉื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืคืช ืืจืฆื ืฉืืืฉื ื ืขืจืื ืืืืืื ื-12 ืืืื ื 2014 ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืก, ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืคืชืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืืจ ืืืืืคืื ืืืคืืืขื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืก ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืฆืข ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืขืื ื-400 ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืจืืืชื ืื ืฉื ืืืืก, ืืจืืืช ื-50 ืืกืืจืื ืฉืฉืืืจืจื ืืืืื ืขืกืงืช ืฉืืื. ืืื ืื, ื ืืฉืคื ืขืฉืจืืช ืกืืืงืื ืชืช-ืงืจืงืขืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืฆืจื ืขืฉืจืืช ืจืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืื. ื-8 ืืืืื 2014 ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืืืฆืข ืฆืืง ืืืชื ืืชืืืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืืืฆืข ืืื ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืกื ืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืจืืง ืฉื ื-3 ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืชืงืคืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืืก. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืจื ืืืืก ืืืคื ืจืงืืืช ืืคืฆืฆืืช ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืฉืจืื. ื-30 ืืืืื ื ืืืคื ืืืคืืชืืื ืฉื ืกืื ืจืืฉืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืกืื ืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืฉื'ืืขืืื, ืื-7 ืืืืืืกื ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืื ื ืืกืืืข ืืืฉืืช ืืืคืืชืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืข ืืืชืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช ืืืคืกืงืืช ืืฉ ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืฆื ืืืฉืจืื ืืงืืื ื ืชืืื ืืืืจืคืช ืืืขืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ื ืืืจื ืืชืืืืช ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืจืง ืืืืื. ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืจืฉ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืกืืื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืืงืื ืืช ืืืจืงืื ืืงืืจ ืืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืกืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืกืืจื, ืื ืืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืฆืข ืืกืชืืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืขื ืฉืืืขืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื-26 ืืืืืืกื, ืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืืืฆืข ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืืื ืืฆืืขื ืืงืืื ื ืืืืื ื-ืืืืืื ื, ืฉืื ืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืฆืข, ื ืชื ืืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืขื ืื ืืฆืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืงืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืชืงืืคื ืืคื ื ืืืืฆืข. ืืืืื 2014 ืืื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืคืืืืขื ืืจืืจ ืืฆื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืืงืืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืฆืขื ืืืืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืคืืืืขืื ืฉืฉืืื ืืื ืืคืืืืข ืืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืงืืืืช ืื ื ืชืืจื ืืืื ื ืจืฆืื 6 ืืฉืจืืืื. ื-3 ืืืจืฅ 2015 ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืจืืข ืืคื ื ืืืกืื ืืืชืืืฉ ืืื ืืืขืฆืืืช ืืืืจืื, ืืืกืืจ ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ืืขืฆื ื ืฉืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืชืืื ืื ืืื ื ืื ืก ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืจืง ืืืืื. ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืจืขืื ืฉื 40 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื ืืชืงืฆืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืฉื ืช 2012, ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืืืช ืืฆืคื ืืืืจืขืื ืชืงืฆืืื ืืจืื ืฉื 4.9% ืืฉื ืช 2013, ืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืชืงืฆืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืกืื, ืืืงื ื-2013 ืืืืงื ื-2014. ืืืคืจืื 2013 ืืืฉืจื ืจืคืืจืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืชืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืกืืช ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืขืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ ืฉื ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืืฉืจ ืืืง ืืจืืืืืืืช ืืคื ืืกืงื ืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืืชืืจืืชืืืช ืืืฉืง. ืืืื 2014 ืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ืช ืชืงืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืฃ ืืืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืงืจ, ืืฉื ืืืื ืช ืชืงืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืขืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืฆืืชืื ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื 2015, ืืื ืฉืงืืคืืช, ืฆืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืงืืข ืืจืคืืจืื ืืคื ืกืืืช. ืืื ื ืชืงืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืจืืื"ื ืืื ืืืื ืงืื. ื-2 ืืืฆืืืจ 2014 ืคืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืฆืืคื ืืื ื ืืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืจืฉื ืืืืืฉืื ืืชืจ ืฉืจื "ืืฉ ืขืชืื" ืืืื ืกืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ื-17 ืืืจืฅ 2015. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืื ืขืฉื ืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืืคืื ืืืื ื ืชืื ื ื "ืคืืืฉ" ืฉื ืืขื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืคืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืจ ืื ืขืฉื ืืืช ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืืืชื ืืืืง "ืืฉืจืื ืืืื". ืืืืื ืืกืคืจื "ืืืื: ืกืืคืืจ ืืื" ืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืื ืขื ืฉืคืืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืคืื ืืืื ื "ืขื ืกืื ืฉืืืขื ืงืื ืกืคืืจืืืืืช ืฉืืกืจื ืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืืขืงื ืืืฆืื ืืคืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืื ื ืื ื ืืื ืคืืืฉ". ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืคืืืชื ืืืืืื ื-30 ืื ืืืื. ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืจ ืฉืืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืฆืจื ืืฉื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืช ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืคืืกื ืฉืคืจืกื ืืืฃ ืืคืืืกืืืง ืฉืื ืืชื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืฆืืง ืืจืฆืื ืืืื ื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืชืืจ ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืืืฆืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืง ืืงืืคืืื ืืืจืฆืช ืืืฆืืขื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืื, ืคืจืกื ืกืจืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืขืืื ืืื ืืืจ: โืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืกืื ื. ืืืฆืืืขืื ืืขืจืืื ื ืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืคื. ืขืืืชืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืืืืกืื. ืจืืืชืื ืื ื ืืื V15, ืืฉ ืื ื "ืฆื 8", ืืฉ ืื ื ืจืง ืืชืื, ืฆืื ืืงืืคืโ. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืข ืฆืขืจ ืขื ืฉืืืจืื ืคืืขื ืืขืจืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืกืืฃ ืฉืืขืฉืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, "ืืืื ืืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืืขืืืื", ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืื ืืื. ื-14 ืืืื 2015, ืืืฉืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ื-34 ืืจืืฉืืชื, ืืืฉืื ืฆืจื ืฉื ืฉืขื ื ืขื 61 ื"ืืื. ืืขืืืจ ืืฉื ื, ื-26 ืืืื 2016, ืืฆืืจืคื ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขืื ื-66. ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืืฃ ืืคืืจืืืจ 2017 ืืืืคื ืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืฆืื ืื ืืื (ืจืื ืืืื). ืขื ืกืืฃ 2016 ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืืืืืฃ ืขื ืืื ืฆืื ืื ืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2019 ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืืขืื "ืืืื" ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืืขืืื. ืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 2015 ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืืคืืืืขืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืขื ื ืฉืืคืื ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืื ืช ืืคืืืข ืืืกืื ืื-ืืงืฆื, ืืืืืฉืื ืชืืืจื ืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืขื ืืฉื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืช. ืื ืืืจืืจ ืืขื ืืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ, ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืฉ ืืื ื ืขืื ืฉืื ืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืืขืื, ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืจืืืื. ืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉื ืืืืขืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืื ื ืืขืืืื ื-37, ื-20 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2015, ืืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืื' ืืืื ืื-ืืืกืืื ื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืชืืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืชืื ื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืืจืฉ ืืืชื, ืื ืืืืคืชื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืฅ ืื ืืฉืจืืฃ ืืืชื. ืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืขืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืขืืื, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืฉืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืกืชื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืชื ืืืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืื-ืืืกืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืจ. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืฆืข ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืช ืชืงืืคืืช ืฉื ืฆื"ื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืจื ืืื ืืข ืืขืืจืช ื ืฉืง ืืืืืืืื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืกืืจืื. ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืกืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืจืืกืื ืืืคืจื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืฉื ืฉืชื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืฉื ืื, ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืคืขืืื ืืืืืช, ืืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 2015, ืขื ื ืฉืื ืจืืกืื, ืืืืืืืจ ืคืืืื. ืืืื 2016 ืืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื, ืฉืืชืคืืจ ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืกืช ืืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืคืื "ื ืืจืจืช ืืืชืืืืช". ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืคืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื. ื-2018 ืืกืืกืื ืืืืจืื ื-ืืฉืจืืื ืืคื ืืขืืืืช ืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืืืจืช ืื"ื ืืชืืื ืืืจืื ื ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืจืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืฉืื ืืชืขืืคื T-4 ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืกื ื ืืชืืืืฉืช ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืฉ ืืคืจืื, ืืชืงืคืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืจืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืืขืืืช. ื-30 ืืืคืจืื 2018 ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืื ืืฉืฃ ืืืืข ืืืจืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืคื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืืกืืืื ืืงืืฆืื ืฉืืืฆืื "ืืืืกื" ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืืจืื ื ืืกืชื ืืืกืชืืจ ืืช ืชืืื ืืืชืื ืืคืืชืื ื ืฉืง ืืจืขืื ื. ืืืจืชื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืขื ืืืจืื. ืืืื ืืจื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืช 20 ืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืฆืื ืฆื"ื ืืืจืืื ืืืชืืืื ืชืงืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืขืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2018 ืืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืฉืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืก. ืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืืชืจ ืฆื"ื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืืจืืช ืืจืืจ. ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ 2018 ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืคืจืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืช ืขื ืืืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืกืืื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืก. ืืืืืืืช ื ืืจืื ื-220 ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืจืืื ืคืขืืื ืืจืืจ. ืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืขืื ืืืฉ ืืืคื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืืืืจืฉ ืืขืืืฃ ืขืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืช ืขืคืืคืื ื ืชืืขืจื, ืืืื ื ืชืืขืจื ืื ืคืฅ ืืจืงืืืช ืฉืฉืืืจื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืื ืืจืฆืืขื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2018 ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืืืืืช ืคืืงืื ืืฆืคืื, ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืงืจืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืืืืขืื ืืืืฆืข ืืื ืฆืคืื ื ืืืืชืืจ ืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืจืืจ ืืชืงืคืืืช ืฉืืคืจ "ืืืืืืื" ืืฉืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืโืืื ืื. ืื ืืืืืจ 2019 ืืืกื ืฆื"ื, ืืืืฆืข ืืืืจื ืฉืืืจื, ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืื-ืขืื, ืืคืงื ืืืืจื ืืฆืคืื ืืช ืฉื "ืคืืืืืช ืื-ืงืืืก", ืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื "ืื'ืืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ื". ืืชืืืื ืืจื ืืืจืืื ืืืืช ืจืงืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืฉืจืื, ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืคืฆืืฅ ืืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืืจื ืืืกืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืจ 2018 ืืืืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืขื ืืืืืก. ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืฆืื ืืจ ืืืกืคืื ืืงืืจ ืขืืืจ ืืืืืก, ืื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืงืืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืืกืืื ืฉื ื-30 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืขืื ืืคืื ืืขืืจืช ืืืกืฃ ืชืกืืืข ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืจืืืค, ืกืืืื ืื ืืฆ'ืื, ืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืงืืจืื ืฉืืืกืคืื ืฉืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืก ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืจ. ืืจืืฉืืช 2019 ืืกืืืจ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืคื ืืจืืื ืืืืก: "ืื ืฉืจืืฆื ืืกืื ืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืฆืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืืก ืืืืขืืจืช ืืกืฃ ืืืืืก. ืื ืืืง ืืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉืื ื โ ืืืื ืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื". ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืชืื ืชืคืืกื ืื ืืคืืืื ืืคื ืื ืคืืกืืื ื ืืื ืข ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืื ื ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืืกืฃ ืืงืืจ ืืืืืก ืืชืคืืจ ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืคืืืช "ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื" ืืจืืฉืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืืงืืืืืฆืื. ืืฉื ืื ืฉืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ื-18 ืื ืืืืืจ 2018 ืืึพ17 ืืืฆืืืจ 2018 ืืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืคืืจ ืืชืคืงืื ืื ื-10 ืื ืืืืืจ 2019 ืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืคืชืื ืื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2019 ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืจืขื ืืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื ื ืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืข ืืื ืฉืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืก ืืฉืชืืืช ืขื ืืืง ืืืืกืฃ ืืงืืจื. ืืฉื ืช 2020 ืื"ื ืฆืืื ืื ืืคืืืช ืืจืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืข ืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืก ืืื ืืืืฉ. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2019 ืืืื ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขืืื ืืืืื ืขืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืื ืข ืืืืจืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืขื ืคืืจืืืจ 2019. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืช ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืื, ืืชืงืืื ืืืืื 2334 ืฉื ืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื"ื, ืืืืจืฉืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืคืกืงืช ืื ืืืช ืืชื ืืืืืืช "ืืฉืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืืื ืืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื". ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืื ื ื ืงืื ืฆืขืืื ื ืื ืกื ืื, ื ืื ืืืื ื ืืืืงืจืืื ื ืืืืคืกืงื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืื"ื, ืฉืืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืขืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค ืืืืืข ืขื ืืืจื ืืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื, ืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืืืืืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืฉืืจืืจืืชื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื-14 ืืืื 2018 ื ืขืจื ืืงืก ืคืชืืืช ืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืจืืืค ืคืจืฉ ืืืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืคืขืื ืขืืื ืกื ืงืฆืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืคืกืืง ืืืืื ืืืกืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืจ"ื, ืคืจืฉ ืืืื ืกืง"ื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืื"ื ืืกืืจ ืืช ืืงืื ืกืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืคืจืืฉืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืืื ื, ืื ืืฉ ืืจืืืื ืืคืจืืฉื ืคืืืขื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืจืฅ 2019 ืืชื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืขื ืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืจืืงืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืืืืช ืขื ืจืืช ืืืืื. ืืืื ืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืขื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืขื ืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืืฆืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ("ืขืกืงืช ืืืื"). ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืชืงืจืจื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืจืืืค ืื ืชื ืืื. ื-4 ืืืืื 2017 ืืืงืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืืื, ื ืจื ืืจื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืืืง ืืงืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืกืืืข ืืฉืจืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืืืชื ืืืืฉ ืืืงืจ ืืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืคื. ืืื ื ืคืืฉ ืืคืจืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืฆืจืคืช ืขืื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืคืฉื, ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืื ืืจืื. ืืื ืืชื ืขื ืฉืืจื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืืื-ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจืื. ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฆืื ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืงืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืงื: ืืืืื 2016 ืขืจื ืกืื ืืืงืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืงืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืจืื 40 ืฉื ื ืืืืฆืข ืื ืืื, ืืฆื ืคืกืื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืงืืืืช, ืืืงืืจ ืืงื ืื ืขื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืงืืจ ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืชืืืคืื. ืืืื ื 2017 ื ืื ืืคื ื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืจื ืืคืจืืงื (ืื ') ืืื ื ืคืืฉ ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืืงืืจื ืืงื ืื ืื ืืืืืจ 2017 ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืขืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืจื ืงื ืืืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2017 ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืงืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืคืืฉ ืขื ืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืื ื, ืงืืืืืืื ืืืงืกืืงื. ืืฉื ืืื ืืก ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืคืืฉ ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค ืื ืืืข ืืืฆื ืืืืืคืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช. ืืกืืฃ 2017 ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื ืืจืื ืืจืขื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืคื ืื, ืืืขื ืืจืื, ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืชืงื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืฉืืืช ืืช ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืจืืชืจืืื ืืืกืืืื ืฉืืฉืจืื ื ืื ืขืช ืืืืืืืจื ืืืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืขื ืง ืืืืืจืฉืื ืืืืืื ื ืืงืืืืช. ื-2 ืืืคืจืื 2018 ืืืจื ืจืืื ืื ืืืกืืืชื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืฉืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืงืจื ืืืืฉื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืคืขืืื "ืืืฅ ืืืจืืคื ืขื ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื ืื" ืืกืืช ืืืืกืื, ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืื ืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื ืื. ืืืงืื ืืืช, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืฉ ืขื ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื, ืืจืื ืืจืขื, ืืื ื ืฆืืืืช ืืื"ื ืืคืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืื ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืจืืคื ืืขืื ืืืืงืืื ืืคืืจ ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืฉืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืชืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืชืงื ืืืืืช, ืื ืืืชืงื ืื ืฉื ืืคืขืืืืช. ืขื ืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืช ืจืืฉ ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืคืืืืจ ืืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช.ืืืกืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืกืืขืืช ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืืฉืืง ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืืืฉืื ืชืงืื ืื ืืกืจ ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชื ืื ืืืืื. ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืขืงื ืงืฉืจืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ' ืืืขืื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืืืืืืกื 2016 ืืืกืืื ืืช ืฆืื ืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืง, ืืืคืืจืืืจ 2017 ืืคื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืขืงืืืช ืขืชืืจืืช ืืื"ืฅ ืื ืืฉื. ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืงืจื ืืฉืจ ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืงืืืข. ืืืืื 2015 ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืืจ: ืืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืืืืืื ืืืงืืช ืชืืืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืงืืื. ืืืื ืืชืืืืช 2017 ืคืขื ืืกืืืจืช ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืกืคืื ืืืืื ืคืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืชื ืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืฉืืจ ืืืกืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืงืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืชืืงื ืืืืฃ ื ืคืจื. ืชืืงืื ืืืงืืงื ืขืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืขืจื ืืงืืช ืืชืืืื, ืื ืืืงืคื ืืืื ืื"ืฅ (ืื-2018 ืืฃ ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืกืช), ืื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืืงื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช. ืขื ืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช, ืื ืืคืืขื ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ื ืืชื ื ืืกืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืงื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื. ืืืืืืกื 2015, ืืขืงืืืช ืขืชืืจื ืฉืืืืฉื ืกืืขืช "ืืฉ ืขืชืื", ืงืืข ืื"ืฅ ืื ืืืฆืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืขืื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืขืืื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืฉืจ. ืืขืงืืืช ืื, ืืืขืฆืช ืืืืื ืืชืืจื ืฉื "ืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื" ืืชืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช. ืืชืืืืช 2020 ื ืืจืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื. ืชืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืฉื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืจืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืขืช ืืชืคืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืื ืกืืจ ืืจืฆื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคืืข ืชืืืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืื ืชื ืืืืขืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืขื ืฆืขืื ืืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืื. ืืืืฉื ืฆืืฆื ืืช ืืืคืขืืชืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืจืขืื ืืชืงืฆืืื ื-29.9 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 2014, ื-54 ืืืืืืจื ืืืื ื 2019, ืืจืืื ืฉื 14 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื ืืขืืืช ืืืขื ืืชืงืฆืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืืื ืืื, ืฉื ืืขื ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืคื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืคืจื ืกืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืจืื, ืืืฆืื, ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืจื. ืืืืง ืืคืขืืืืชืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืชืืื ืืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืื. ื-27 ืืืจืฅ 2016, ืคืกื ืื"ืฅ ืืช ืกืขืืฃ ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืชืืื, ืื ื ืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืชืืงืื ื. ืืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืขืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื, ืขื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืกืขืืฃ ืื. ืืฉื ืช 2016, ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืกืื ืคืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2019, ืคืืจืกืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ื ืืฆืจื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืืืช ืืชืืงืฆืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืกืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจ. ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืืจ 2016 ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฉืื "ืืชืืื ืืืืชื" ืืคืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจื ืืืชืจืื ืขืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืชืคืืื ืืขืืจืืช, ืื ืืืื ืืืขืฆื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ื ืฉืืช ืืืืชื. ืืืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืงืืืืืฆืื, ืืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืขืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืฉืช ืฉื ืืืชืืื, ืขื ืฉืืืงืคื ืืืื ื 2017. ืืชืืงืื ืืคืงืืืช ืืก ืืื ืกื ื ืงืืข ืฉืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืืคืืืจ ืืืก ืืื ืกื ืืชืฉืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ื, ืฉืืื ื ืืฉืืืจืช ืื ืงืฆืื, ืืืืื ืืคืืืจ ืื ืืชื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืจืืฉื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืก ืขื ืืืืืช ืืกื 600,000 ืฉ"ื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืชืืืืงืช ืืืชื ืืคืจืื ืืงืืกืจืื, ืืืืืื ืืขืืช ืืืกืคืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืชืืื ืจืืจืืืงืืืืืช ืืช ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืื ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืื ืงืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืชืืงืื ืืงืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืืฆืืืจ 2015 ืืงืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื, ืืืงืฉืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืืช ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืจืืืง ืืืืชื ืืขืช. ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืจ 2016 ืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืืืืืืข ืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืืื. ื-24 ืืืฆืืืจ 2018, ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืช "ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื" ืืืงืืืืืฆืื, ืขืงื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืืืืืคืงืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืจ ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืืืงืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-21. ื-26 ืืืฆืืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืช ืคืืืืจื ืืงืืขื ืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืขืจืื ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 2019. ืืงืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืช, ืขืืื ืืช ืจืืฆืชื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืคืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืื ืืฃ ืฉืจืืื ืืช ืืืงืื ื-28 ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืืชืงืืืื ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 2019, "ืืืืืื" ืืื ื-35 ืื ืืืื ืืงืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืจืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืงืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื. ืกืืื ืืคืงืืขืช ืคืจืง ืืืื ืฉื ืงืฆื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืืช ืคืืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืืฉื ืื, ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืืขืืจ. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉืชืืื ืฆืืจืฃ ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืช "ืืืื ื". ืื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืื ืข ืืช ืืคืืืช "ืืืืช" ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืืืืจืืช, ืืชืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืฉื ืคืืืืืื ืืืงืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืจืืื ืืคืืืช ืืืืืื ื-32 ืื ืืืื, ืืขืืืช 38 ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืคืืืช "ืืืื ื" ืืืื ืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืื ืื-ืืื, ืฉืืืจ ืืืคืืืช "ืืืืช ืืืืืื". ื-25 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2019 ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืจืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืื, ืืืืจ ืฉื ืชืื ืืืื 55 ืืืจื ืื ืกืช, ืืขืืืช 54 ืฉืชืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ื ืื ืฅ. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืจืืื ืื ื ืื ืฅ, ืืฉืจ ืื ืขืื ืืฃ ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื. ืืฉืื ืืชืคืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืืื ืฉืืืืขื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2019 ื ืขืจืื ืคืจืืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืช "ืืืืืื", ืืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ื-72.5% ืืืงืืืืช, ืืฉืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืกืขืจ. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื, ืฉื ืขืจืื ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2020 ืืืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื-36 ืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืฅ ืืื ืืืืืฆืชื ืฉื 61 ืืืืจื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืื ืขืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืืจื ืกืืฃ ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืฅ, ืืขื ืจืงืข ืืชืคืจืฆืืช ืืงืืจืื ื, ื ืืชื ืืกืื ืงืืืืืฆืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื. ื-7 ืืืื, ืืืืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืืชืืื ืฉื 72 ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืงืฉืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืขืงืืืช ืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืื ืื. ืืคื ื ืื ื ืืืชื ืขืชืืจื ืืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืื ื ืืฉื ืืคืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืื ืคืืจืกื ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืขืช ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืขืกืืง ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฉืคืื. ื-17 ืืืื 2020 ืืืฉืืข ืืงืื ืฆืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ. ืืืืชื ืืขืื ืืืฉืืข ืื ื ืื ืฅ ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืคื, ืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืขืืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืฆื, ื-17 ืื ืืืืืจ 2021, ืื ืืืืืคื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืชืืืฉื. ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืง ืืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืืืืชืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืกืืืข ืืืขื ืงืื ืืืืจืืื. ืืืจื ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืืฆืืื, ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืฉืช ืืชืืืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืืกืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื ืชืฉืจื. ืืืงืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืืช ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืขื ืจืงืข ื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉื ืืืฉื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉื. ืืขืงืืืช ืขืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืชืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืกืืฃ ืืฆืืืจ. ืืืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืจืื, ืื ื"ื ืคืืืืจ, ืขื ืจืืืฉืช ืืืกืื ืื. ืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืืฉืจืื ื ืขื ื ืืงืจืืืืช ืืืชืืกื ืืืคืจืง ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืชืืกื ืื ืื ืคืฉ. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืขื ืฆืขืืื ืืกืืคืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืฅ ืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืฉืืื ืชื "ืชืืื ืืช ืืืื". ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืจืื ืืืคืจืง ืขื ืืชืืืช "ืืกืืื ืืืจืื" ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืืจืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืขื ืืจืืงื ืืกืืื, ืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืกืืื ืื ืืชืืืฉ. ื-13 ืืืืืืกื 2020 ืืฆืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค, ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืื' ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืช ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช-ืืฉืจืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช. ืืคื ืืคืจืกืืืื, ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืคืื. ื-11 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2020 ืืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืจืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืืกืื ืืืคืืืืืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืื ื ืงืจืื "ืืกืืื ืืืจืื". ืืืกืื ื ืืชื ื-15 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2020 ืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (ืืืชืืืืช) ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช, ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ื-10 ืืืฆืืืจ 2020 ืืืืจื ืืืืืฉ ืืืกืื ืขื ืืจืืงื ืืืฆืืจืคืืชื ืืืกืืื ืืืจืื. ื-22 ืืืฆืืืจ 2020 ื ืืชื ืืจืืื ืืกืื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืงื. ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืฆืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืกืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืื ืืืืจื ืืจื ืขืจื ืืกืขืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืงื ืืจื ืกืืืื. ื-24 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2020 (ืฉืขืื ืืฉืจืื), ืืืืืข ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืจืืฉ ืืืขืฆืช ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืขืื ืื-ืคืชืื ืื-ืืืจืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืกืืืื ืขืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืจืฉืื ืื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืืืื ืืืื ื ื ืืืกืื ืืืคืืืืืืื ืืืืื. ื-6 ืืื ืืืจ 2021 ืืชืื ืืืฉืืช ืกืืืื ืขื ืืฆืืจืช "ืืกืืื ืืืจืื". ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2021 ืืืืืขื ืืชืืืขืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืขื ืืงืืจืช ืืืจืืขืื ืฉืืชืจืืฉื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืื ื-13 ืืืื ื 2014. ืืืื ื"ื ืืขืืืจ, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ื'ืชืฉืค"ื, 30 ืืืคืจืื 2021 ืืชืจืืฉ ืืกืื ืืืจืื, ืื ื ืกืคื 45 ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืคืฆืขื 102 ืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืชืืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ื-6 ืืืจืฅ 2024 ืคืจืกืื ืืขืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืืงืจ ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืจืื ืืช ืืกืงื ืืชืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืฉืืืข ืื ืืื ืืคืืืช ืืื ืขืืื ืืืขืช ืขื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืื ืฆืืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืขืฉืืช ืืฉื ืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื. ืขืงื ืืขืืืืชืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืื โ ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืจืงืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืฉืจืื, ืคืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืช. ืืืงืืื ืืืืฆืข ืคืจืฆื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฉืจืื. ื-23 ืืืจืฅ 2021 ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืจืืข, ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื"ืจ ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืจื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื-36 ื-30, ืื ืืืคืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืช. ืืืคืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉ ืขืชืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืจ ืืคืื, ืขื 17 ืื ืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืจืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืขื ืืง ืชืืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืื ืชื ืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืคืื, ืฉืืฆืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืคืื, ืืื ืขื ื ืคืชืื ืื ื. ื-13 ืืืื ื ืืืฉืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืฉ, ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืจืืฉืืช ื ืคืชืื ืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืคื ืืืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืืชืจ ื-12 ืฉื ืืช ืืืื ื ืจืฆืืคืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืฉืืฉ ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื, ืืฉืจ ืชืืช ืื ืืืชื ื ืื ืขื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืขื ื ืืงืืคืื ืืืืฆืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืจืฉ ืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืคืืืืืกืืจืื ืจืืื. ืืืจื ืื ืกืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืขืืจื, ืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื, ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืฆืืืขื ืื ื ืื ืืืงืื ืฉืืื ืชืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืชืงื ืืช ืฉืขืช ืืืจืื ืืฉืืคืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืื ืื ืจืืฆืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืืจื ืฉื ืืคืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืงืื ืกืคืฆืืคืืื ืฉืืงืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืขืฆืื ื ืื ืข ืืืืืืข ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฆื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ื ืคืชืื ืื ื. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฆืข ืขืืืช ืืฉืืจ, ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืข ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฆื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื. ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืคื ืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืชืืจืืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืกืืืืช ืืขืื ืืกืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ. ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืื ืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืชืงืฆืื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2021 ื ืื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืขืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ื-2019. ืืืงืก ืืื ืืื ืืืง ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ื ืื ืฅ ืฉืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืฉืืืฃ ืืช ืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืชื ืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืจ ืื "ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืจื", ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืืื ืจืืื. ืืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืฉ, ืืืงืจ ืืช ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืื ืขืื ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืืื. ืืื ืืฃ ืืฉืืืข ืืชืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืื-ืืืืื ืืืกืื, ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืจืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืืืชืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืขืจ ืืช ื ืืงืื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืกืื. ื-29 ืืืฆืืืจ 2022, ืืืฉืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืข. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืคืกืง ืื"ืฅ ืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืจืขื ืืฉืจ ืืืงื ืืืืกืจ ืกืืืจืืช ืงืืฆืื ื, ืขื ืจืงืข ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื ืืืฉื ืืฆื ืฉืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืื ื ืืขืืืจืืช ืืก. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืจืขื ืืฉืืืฉืช ืืชืคืงืืืื ืฉืืืขื ืื: ืืืฉื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช. ืึพ4 ืืื ืืืจ 2023 ืืืจืื ืฉืจ ืืืฉืคืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืชื ืืงืื ืจืคืืจืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืืช ืืืงืื ืืคืกืงืช ืืชืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืื ืกืช ืืจืื ืจืืื, ืืืืื ืขืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืืืืจืช ืชืคืงืื ืืืืขืืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืืขืฅ ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉืืคืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืจืื ืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืคืจืกืื ืืจืคืืจืื, ืงืืขื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืืืจื-ืืืืจื, ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืข ืืืืชืขืจื ืื ืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืจืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืขืงื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื, ืืืืืชื ื ืชืื ืืืฉืคื ืคืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืงืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืช "ืืืง ืื ืืฆืจืืช", ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฆืจืืช ืขืงื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืงืืงื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืืชื ืืืื ืคืืืื. ืืจืคืืจืื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืฆืจื ืืชื ืืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ื ืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืจืืืช ืืืงืฃ. ืืืืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืืืืื ืคืืืขื ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืฉืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืกื ืืืืืื ืืคืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืฉืชืืืื ืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช, ืขื ืืื ืืคืืืชื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืื. ื ืฉืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืกืชืจ ืืืืช ืืืงืืขื ืืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืชืคืืข ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช. ืขื ืืฃ ืืืช, ืืืืฉืื ืื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืฉืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืงื ืืจืคืืจืื, ืชืื ืืชืขืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืื, ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืคืืืื ืงืฉื ืืขื. ืืืง ืืืชื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืจืฅ ืืงืืืฆืช ืงืฆืื ืื ืืฆื"ื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืื ื ืืืื "ืืืืช ืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืื" ืฉืืืืื ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืืื. ื-25 ืืืจืฅ ืงืจื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืงืืงืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืืืืจ ืืกืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื. ืืชืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืคืืืืจืื, ืขืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืขืฆืืช ืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืกืคืื ืื ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืฅ ืฉืืื ื "ืืื ืืื ื". ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืจืืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื ืืืืืขื ืขื ืืฆืืจืคืืช ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืง. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืืื ืืกื ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืืคืืืืฆืื. ืืื ืชืืื ืคืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืงืืื ืืฉืืืืช, ืงืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื "ืชืจืืื" ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืช ื ืฆืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉืืคืืื, ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืขื ื ืื ืื ืืืืขืืืื. ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืจืฉื ืฉืชืืืื ืืืืจืช ื ืฆืืืช ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืืขืื, ืืืชืื ืื ืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ื ืืืจื ื ืฆืืืช ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืงืจืื ืืืืจืจ, ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืืจื ืงืืืืืฆืื, ืื ืืืขื ืขื ืืชืจืืื ืืืื ืืืงืคืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืช ืื ืฉืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืงืงื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืื ืขืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืขืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืขืฉืจืช ืืืคืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืข ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืื ืคืืืืขื ืืจื ืืืจืืกื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืฉืื ื ืงืื ืืฆืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืื ืืืคืืขืื. ืึพ9โ13 ืืืื, ืืืืจ ืขืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืฉืืืืจื ืจืงืืืช ืืขืืจ ืขืืืฃ ืขืื, ืืื ืฆื"ื ืืช ืืืฆืข ืืื ืืืฅ ืืกืืืื ืืืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืื-ืงืืืก. ืืกืืคื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืฆืข "ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืจืชืขื". ืืืืื 2023 ืืืืจ ืขืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืืขืื ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืฆื ืฆื"ื ืืืืฆืข ืืืช ืืื ืืขืืจ ื'ื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืคืืืืื ืฉืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2023 ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืก ืืงืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืขื ืกืขืืืื, ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืฆื ืืืจืฉ ืืขืฆืจ ืฉื ืขืจื ืืกืขืืืืช, ืืืืื ืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืกืขืื. ืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืช ื ืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช. ื-26 ืืืฆืืืจ 2023 ืืืืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืืช ืฉื 60%. ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืงืื, ืืคื ืคืจืกืืืื ืืจืื, ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืืจื ืืื. ืืชืืืืช 2024 ืคืืจืกื ืื ืืืจืื ืคืขืื ืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืจืืืืื ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืคืฆืฆื ืืจืขืื ืืช. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2023 ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืื"ื, ืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืฉืจืื ื ืืฆืืช "ืขื ืกืืคื ืฉื ืคืจืืฆืช ืืจื - ืืกืื ืืืกืืืจื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืขืืืื" - ืืกืื ืฉืืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืขืืฆืืื. ืืืื ื 2024 ืฉืืื ืืขืืช ืืจืื ืืก ืืืงืจ ืคืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืจืืขื ืืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืฆืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืื. ืืืืก ืื ืชื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืขืช ืืืืขืื: "ืืืชืืื ื ืืืฆืืืืจืช ืืคื ื ืืืืขืื ืืฉืื ืื ืขืืื, ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืงืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืขืืืง ืืชืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืื ืื ืื ื ืงืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืกืืืืืช ืจืืืฉืืช. ืืืช, ืชืื ืืฆืืจืช ืกืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืื ืคืืืขื ืืืืกื ืืืืฅ ืืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื". ืืกืคืืืืจ 2025 ืคืจืกืื ืืืืขืื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืกื ืืื ืืกืชืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืขืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืฆืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืจืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืืฆืจืื. ืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืจืืืฉ ืฉืืืฉ ืฆืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืืขืืืช ืืงืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืืชืืช. ืืืืื 2024 ืืืจืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืจืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืืช (ืืืื'ืก, ืคืืฅ' ืืกืื ืืจื ืื ื ืคืืจืก) ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื, ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืชืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืฉื ืช 1988. ืืื ืื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืฉื S&P ืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืกืืืื ืื ืืืืืคืืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืขืืืืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืชืงืฆืื ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืช 2025. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2024 ืืืจืืื ืืืื'ืก ืืช ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืขื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉื ื ืืืืืคื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืชื ืืจืืืช. ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืกืื, ืืื ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืก ืขืจื ืืืกืฃ ื-17% ื-18%. ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืขืืืช ืืืืกืื, ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืคื ืืืขืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืฉืจืื ืืืืชื ืืงืจื ืืืชืจ ื-38% ืืขืืืช ืืืืฆืข OECD. ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืงืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืฆืขืืื ืฉืงืฉืืจืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช. ืืืฉื, ืฉืื ืื ืืืง ืืกืื: ืืฉืคืืื ืฉืื ื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืืงืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉืืคืืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืจื-ืืืืจื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืคืืฃ ืืืกืืจ ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืขืกืืง ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืชืืงืื ืืคืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืืคืจืื 2025, ืืงืจืืช ืคืจืกืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืืจืืืค, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืขืงื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืกืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืก ืืืืื 17% ืขื ืกืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืืืืืช. ื-25 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2025 ืงืืขื ืืขืืช ืืจืื ืืก ืื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืืฉื ืฉื"ื ืืคืขืื ืืืืคื "ืฉืืื ื ืจืืื ืืืืืงืจืืื". ืืฉืืชื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืื ื-2018 ืงืืื ืืขืืจื ืืจื ืืฉืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืงืื, ืืงืืจ ืืืื ืืืืก. ืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉืืื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืงืืจ ืืงืื ืืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืกืคืื ืืืืคื ืกืืืจ, ืืชืื ืืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืกืืื. ืืืฉืืืช ืกืืขืช ืืืืื ืืืจืฅ 2019 ืืขื: "ืื ืฉืจืืฆื ืืกืื ืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืฆืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืก ืืืืขืืจืช ืืกืฃ ืืืืืก." ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจืจ ืฉืืชืคืืกื ืืฉืื. ืืชืื ืืืืฆืข, ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืจืื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืฉืงื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืจืช ืขืื ืืืชื ืื ืืืฆืขืช ืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื, ื ืื ืืจืืื, ืืืกื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืก ืืขืื. ืืืฉืจ ื ืืืจ ืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืืกืคืืช ืืืกืืจืช "ืืืืขืื ืืงืืจืืช".[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืื 2023 ืชืืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืขืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืื ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืขืงื ืืฉื ืช 2004, ืืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืชื ืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืื ืคืงืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืฉื ืืืชืจื ืขืืืื. ืืืืชื ืืืืืฉ ืฉืื ืืฉื"ื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืกืื ืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืจืชืขื ื ืื ืืืืก ืืืืฆืขืืช โืกืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืก, ืืจืืืช ืืกืืืืืื ืืืืืงืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืชืจืขื, ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ 1". ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืฆืืช ืืืืืฉืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืกืื. ืืืื ืชืฉืจื 2023 ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืืื ืืืืก. ื-1 ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืื ืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื ืจืื ื ืืจ ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืืช ืชืืื ืืช "ืืขืจืืคื" ืืืืจืื ืืืืช ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืืก, ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืจื ืืื ืื ืืงืื ืืกืืจื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืก. ืืืืงืจ 7 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2023, ืืื ืฉืืช, ืฉืืืช ืชืืจื, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ื'ืชืฉืค"ื, ืคืชืื ืืจืืื ื ืืืจืืจ ืืคืืกืืื ืื "ืืืืก" ื"ืื'ืืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ื" ืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ. ืืืกืืช ืฉืืืืจ ื-4,300 ืจืงืืืช, ืืืจื ื-6,000 ืืืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืื, ืืืขืจ ืืืจื ืืืืชืงื ืื ืฆืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืขืืืฃ ืขืื ืืืกืืืืชื, ื-119 ืคืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืจ, ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืื, ืชืื ื ืืืื ืงืจืืืช ืืจื ื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืขื ืืขืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืก, ืจืฆืื ืืืจืื 1,173 ืื ื ืืื, ืืชืืื ืืืื ื-779 ืืืจืืื, ืืืืคื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ื-251 ืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืจืื, ื ืฉืื, ืงืฉืืฉืื ืืชืื ืืงืืช. ืืฉืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืชืืช ืืืื ื ืืช, ืฉืืืจื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืื ืืื"ื ืืืืืื ืฆื"ื, ืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืืช ืืกืคืจืืช. ืืงืจืืืช ื ืืจืื ื-1,609 ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืฆื ืืืฉืจืืื ื ืืจืื 329 ืืืืืื, 58 ืฉืืืจืื ื-10 ืื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืจืื. ืืฉืจืื ืคืื ืชื ืืืืฉืืืื 29 ืืืฉืืืื ืืขืืืฃ ืขืื ื-22 ืืืฉืืืื ืืฆืคืื ื. ืืืืืื ื ืืจืื ืจืืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืื, ื ืืจื ืืจืก ื ืจืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืจืฆืืขื ื ืืืฆื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืชืืืจืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื. ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืขืื, ื ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืฆืืจ ืืืชื ืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืืช'ืื ืืืืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืืชืขืฆืืืช ืืืืืก, ืืจืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืขื ืื ืฉืกืืจื ืืงืืช ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืก, ืืื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืฉ ืืขืจืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืืช ืืืืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืกื ืืืง ืืืืืจืื. ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืฆืืืืจื ื"ืฉืืืช ืืืืจืืืช" ืืคืจืืฆืชื ืื ืชื ืืื ืกืืจื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืช ืืืจืืืช, ืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืชืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืชืช ืชืฉืืืืช ืขื ืื. ืขื ืืืช ืื ืืืืืจ, ืืฉืื ืืจืืืื ืืจืฉืช NBC ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืืจ: "ืืืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืจืืืช [...] ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื ืงืจื". ืื ืืืืืจ 2025 ืคืจืกื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืื"ื ืืฉื "ืืืขืืจ ืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืคืขื ืขื ืชืืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืืฆื"ื", ืืืกืืจืช ืกืืจืช ืื"ืืืช ืขื ืืฉืื 7 ืืืืงืืืืจ, ืืื ืงืืข ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืืจืืืชื ืืืื ืช ืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืื "ืืืชืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืืจืช ืืกืืจืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืกื"ื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืคื ืืคืขืืชื, ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืืขืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืขืื ื-7.10.23". ืืืืื 2024 ืืก ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืงืืจ ืืืื ื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืงืืจ ื ืื ืืคืขื ืืจืืืขืืช ืืคื ื ืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืจืืฉืื ืืขืฉืืช ืื, ืืงืืื ืคืืืฉืืช ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื'ื ืืืืื, ืกืื ืืช ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืงืืื ืืืจืืก ืืืืืขืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค. ื-19 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2024, ืืฉืขืืช ืืืืงืจ, ืฉืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืื"ื ืืืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืืกืจืื, ืืืื"ื ืคืืข ืืืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ื. ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืคืืืขื ืืื ืืื ื ืคืืขืื ืืืืจืืข. ื-4 ืืคืืจืืืจ 2025 ืืืงืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืฆื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค. ืืืืงืืจ ืืชืืงื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืฉืืชืคืช, ืืจืืืค ืืฆืืข ืืฆืขื ืืคืชืืขื ืืคืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืืงื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืชืคื ื ืืช ืืชืืฉืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืชืฉืงื ืืช ืืืืืจ ื"ืจืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื" ืชืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืฆืขื ืื ืขืืจืจื ืชืืืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืืืชืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื-21 ืืืื 2025 ืืื ืก ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื, ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื. ืืืกืืืช ืืขืืชืื ืืื ืืชืืืืก ืืคืกืืงืช ืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืคืืืืจื ืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื ืจืื ื ืืจ, ืืกืืืืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ื, ืืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืืืจืขื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืจ ื"ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ". ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื "ื ืืื ืืืคืืคืื" ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื: โืขืืฉืื ืื ื ืฉืืื ืืชืื, ืขื ืื ืชืงืคื ืืืชื ื ื-7 ืืืืงืืืืจ? [...] ืขื ืืืืกื F-35? ืขื ืื? ืขื ืื ืงืื? ืขื ืื? ืื ืชืงืคื ืืืชื ื ืขื ืืคืืคืื, ืงืืฆ'ื ืืงืืืื ืืื ืืจืื. ืื ืขืืื ืคืจืืืืช.โ ื-12 ืืืคืจืื, ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืกืื ืืจืขืื ืืืฉ ืืืงืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืืืืื 60 ืืื. ื-2015 ืขื ืคืจืืฉืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-2018 ืืืืกืื ืืงืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืืืจืื ืืืคืงืืื ืืกืื"ื ืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืงื ืื, ืจืืช ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืชื ืขื 3.67%, ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืขืฉืจ ืืืืชื ืขื 300 ืง"ื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืืค ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืืกืื ื-2018 ืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืกื ืงืฆืืืช, ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืืฉืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืช ืฉืื. ื-31 ืืืื ืคืจืกืื ืกืื"ื ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืจืื 408.6 ืง"ื ืืจืืช ืืขืฉืจื ืฉื 60%. ืืคื ืืขืจืืืช, ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ืื ืขืฉืจ ืคืฆืฆืืช ืืจืขืื. ืืฉื ืืจืืืช ื ืฉืง ืืจืขืื ื ืฉืืืฉ, ื ืืชืจ ืืืืจืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืจืืื ืฉืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืจืขืื ืืช ืืคืืฆืืฅ. ืืกืืฃ ืืฆืืืจ 2025 ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืืค ืืืืืืชื ืืคืืืจืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืขื ืืืขืืจ ืืฉืื ื' ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืก, ืกืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืืคืืจืืง ืืืืืืื ืื ืฉืงื, ืืืืกืืจ ืืืคืฉืจื ืืื ืกืืจืื. ืื ืืืืชื ืคืืืฉืชื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืืค ืืฉื ืช 2025. ืื ืืืืืจ 2025, ืืกืขืืืื ืืืืืจืืงืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืกื F-35 ืืงืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืจืขืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืืฉื ืช 2023. ืืืื 13 ืืืื ื 2025 ืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืื ื ืืืืื ื-ืืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืฆืข ืขื ืืืืื, ืฉืืืจืชื ืืื ืกืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืื ืชืงืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืขืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืชืงื ื ืืจืขืื ืืืชืจื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืชื ืงืฉ ืืืื ืืจืืฉื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืช, ืืื ืืคืงื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืกืืื ืกืืืื, ืจืืื"ื ืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืงืจื, ืืืืขื ื ืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืกืืืืืื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื 30 ืืืจืืื ืืฉืจืืืื ืืืจืกื ืื ืืื ืื ืืชืฉืชืืืช. ืืืื 22 ืืืื ื ืืฆืืจืคื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืงืืคืืช ื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืชืงืคื ืืชืงื ื ืืืจืขืื. ื-24 ืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืืืช ืคืกืงื. ื-5 ืืคืืจืืืจ 2026 ืคืจืกื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืชืฉืืืืชืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืงืช ืืืืงืจ ืืช ืืืจืืขื ืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ. ืืืกืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืืขืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืืก ืื ืกืืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืช 2000 ืืืืชื ืชืงืืช ืืฉื ืช 2005. ืืชืืืื ืืืกืื ืคืจืกืื ืืกืคืจ ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืขื ืืช ืฉืืืกืื ืืืื ืกืืืืคืื ืืฉืงืจืื. ืืจืืื"ื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืงืื ืืขื ืฉืืืกืื "ืฉืงืจื ืืื ืืคืืืืืื", ืืื ืืขื ืื ื"ื ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืื"ืจ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืคืจืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืกืื. ืคืจืฉืืืช ืคืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืขืืื ืืขื ืืช ืืคืืืืื: ืฉืฉ ืคืจืฉืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืจื, ืืชืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืชืืงืื ื ืกืืจื ืืืฉืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืืข ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืชื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืคืจืฉืช ืืจ-ืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืจ 1997, ืืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืฉืืืช ืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืงื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ื ืคืชืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืขืงืืืชืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื. ืืืกืืฃ, ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื, ืฉืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืคืจืฉื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืง ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืจืืืืช, ืื ืฆืืื ืื "ืืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืขืื ืชืืืืืช". ืืคืจืฉืช ืขืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 1999, ืืืขืื ืืฉื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืจ ืขืืื, ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืฉืืืฆืข. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2000 ืืืืืฆื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืขืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉืืื, ืืจืื ืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืงืืจื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืงืืจืช ืคืจืฉืช ืขืืื, ืขืื ืืฉื ืฉืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืฉืืช ืืชื ืืช ืฉืืืชื ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืจืืืฉ ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืฉ ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืชื ืืคืจืฉืืช, ืื ืืืืง ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืจืืืืช, ืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืจืฅ 2011, ืคืจืกื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืจืืื ืืจืืงืจ, ืชืืงืืจ ืืชืืื ืืช "ืืืงืืจ", ืฉืื ืืขื ืื ืืฉื ืื 1999โ2008 ื ืกืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืืคืื ืคืจืืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืืจืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคืืืืืืงื ื-2002. ืืชืืงืืจ, ืฉื ืืืข ื"ืคืจืฉืช ืืืืืืืจืก", ืืืื ืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืงื ืืฉืืจืชืืช. ืืื ืืืจ 2017 ืงืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืกืืืจืช ืืืืืงื. ืืื ืืื ืืืจ 2017 ื ืืงืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ื ืืฉืืื: "ืชืืง 1000", ืืืืื ืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจื ืื ืืืืฆ'ื ืื'ืืืืก ืคืืงืจ ื"ืชืืง 2000" ืืขืืกืง ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืื"ื "ืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช", ื ืื ื ืืืืก, ืฉืืื โ ืขื ืคื ืืืฉื โ ืืฆืืข ืืืืก ืื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืงื ืืกืืงืืจ ืืืืกืคืช ืืชืืื ืืืขืื ืืชืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืช ืืคืฆืช "ืืฉืจืื ืืืื". ืขื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืคืื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช "ืื ืืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืื". ืืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช, ืืขืื ืืืจื ืื ืกืช ื"ืืืืืื" ืืฆืขืืช ืืืง ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืืฉืืจื ืืืื ืืฆืขื, ืฉื ืืืขื ืืฉื "ืืืง ืืืืืฆืืช", ืฉืืคืื ืชืืฆืืืชืื ืฉื ืืงืืจืช ืืฉืืจื ืืืขืืจื ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืืฉืืจื ืชืฆืืื ืขืืืชื ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืฉืื. ืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืื ืืขื ืืืคืืื ืื ืื ื ืืขืื ืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2017, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืช ืื"ืจ ืืขืืช ืืคื ืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืื ืืืกืื, ืืืืืืื "ืืืง ืืืืืฆืืช", ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืฆืขืช ืืืืง ืื ืชืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืชืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2018, ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืืฆื ืฉื ืืงืืจืืช, ืืืืขื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืกืงื ื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืชืฉืชืืช ืจืืืืชืืช ืืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืืชืืงืื. ื"ืชืืง 1000" ืืืืกื ืื ืชื ืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืงืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ื"ืชืืง 2000" ืืืืกื ืื ืชื ืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืงืฉืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืขืช ืืืฉืืจื, ืืกืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืคืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืชื ืืืชืคืืจ. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืขื ืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืืขืจืขืจ ืขื ืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืงืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืฆืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืืืืจืื "ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืจืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืฉืคืขื ืืชืืืฉืืช ืืกืจืืช ืืกืืก ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืงืืจื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืคืขืืชื ื ืืื" ืจืื ืืืจื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืืคืจื ืจืืฉื ืืืคืืืืช ืื, ืืชืืืฆืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืงืช ืืืคืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง "ืชืืง 4000", ืืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื 433 ืฉื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืขื ืจืฉืืช ื ืืืจืืช ืขืจื, ืืื ืืืื ื 2017. ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืคืจืฉื ืื: ืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจืช "ืืืง" ืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ', ืื ื"ืืืช "ืืืง" ืกืืื ืื ืืืจ, ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืื ืคืืืืจ ืืืืขืฅ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ื ืืจ ืืคืฅ. ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2018 ืืจืืฉืื ื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืืจื ืืืงืืื ืืคืจืฉื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืจื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืฉืืื. ืฉื ืืื ืืืืฉืืืื, ืคืืืืจ ืืืคืฅ, ืืชืื ืขื ืืกืื ืขื ืืืื ื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืกืืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืจื. ื-2 ืืืฆืืืจ 2018, ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืช ืขืืืชื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืชืฉืชืืช ืจืืืืชืืช ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืงืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืช ืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืขื ืฉืืืืืืชืื ืืชืงืืื ืืืืืฆืช ืืืจืื ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืฉืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืฃ ืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืกืื ืืคืกืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืฅ' ืืืืื ืืชืจ 'ืืืืื' ืกืืงืจ ืืืชื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืืจืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืขื ืฉืืืงืืจื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืช, ืขืงื ืกืืจืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืขืืช ืืืชื ืคื ืื ืืื ืคื ืื ืขื ืขืื ืืืืื ื. ืขื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืชืืงืื 1000, 2000 ื-4000 ืืฆื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืจืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืคืืฃ ืืฉืืืืข ืื ืชืคืืจืกื ืืคื ื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืข ืืคื ื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืขืื ืืืชื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื, ืืืชื ืืช ืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืืืืงืืืกืงื ืืืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืกืคื ืกืจ ืคืจืืจืืื'. ืืืืขืื ืงืืขื ืื ืื ืขืืื ืืืืืืจ 300 ืืืฃ ืืืืจ ืฉืงืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ. ื ืชื ืืื ืขืชืจ ืืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืคืกืง ืฉืืืืขืื ืชืงืืื ืืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืฉืื ืืฆืื ืืคื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืคืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืืฉื ืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืขื ืืื ื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2019 ืืืืืข ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืงืื ืืขืืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืคืืฃ ืืฉืืืืข, ืืฉืืืฉืช ืืชืืงืื: ืืชืืง 1000 ื-2000 ืืืฉืืช ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื, ืืืชืืง 4000 ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืกืข ืฆืื ื ืืื ืืืืคืขืืช ืืืฅ ืคืกืื ืขื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืคืจืงืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ื ืืฆื ืืขื ืืคืจืงืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจื, ืฉืืืืจืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ืงืืฆืื ืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืขืืืชื ืืืื. ืืฉืืืืข ืืชืงืืื ืืืฉื ืืจืืขื ืืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืฉื ื. ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2019 ืืืืืข ืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืชื ืืืฉืื ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืชืืง 4000 ืืืขืืืจืืช ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืชืืงื 1000 ื-2000. ืืชืืืื ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืขื ืฉืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืืจืืคื ืขื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง (ืืืฉืืจื, ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื). ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืืืืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืขืืื ืืืฉืคื ืชืื ืืื ืืืื ืชื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืฉืื, ืืืืฉื ืขืชืืจื ืืื"ืฅ ืฉืืจืฉื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจ, ืืืชืื ืืืืืช ืืจืขื-ืคื ืืกื. ื-2 ืืื ืืืจ 2020, ืืชืคืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืืงื ืืฉืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืง โ ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืงืืืืช, ืฉืจ ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช. ื-1 ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืฉื ืืื"ืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืงืืืช ืืกืื ืืช ืืืขืืืชื ืืืื ืคืืืื. ื-28 ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืืืืจ ืฉืจืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืจืื ืืืืขืื ื ืื ืืชื ืืืกืื ืืช, ืืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืงืฉื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืขืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื-24 ืืืื 2020 ืืื ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืชื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืื. ื-30 ืื ืืืืืจ 2025 ืืืืฉ ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืฉืช ืื ืื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื, ืืฆืืง ืืจืฆืื. ืืช ืืงืฉืชื ื ืืืง: ืืืื 2024 ืืืืฉ ืืชืืืข ืืจืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืืื ืืงืฉื ืืฆื ืืขืฆืจ ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืืจืช ืคืฉืขืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืจืขืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืฆืขื ืืืืื, ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืจืฆื, ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืื ืืช ื ืื ืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืจืืืช ืืืงืฉืจ ืฉื ืืจืขืื. ืืืงืฉื ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืคื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืืืงืืื ืืืืฉื ืืงืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืขืฆืจ ืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืก - ืืืื ืกื ืืืืจ, ืืกืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฃ. ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2024 ืืืืืข ืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืฆืืื ืืขืฆืจ ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืคืฉืขื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืขืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืขื ืคื ืืืช ืืืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืจืืืื ืืคืฉืขืื ืฉื ืืจืขืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืื, ืจืฆื, ืจืืืคื ืืืืืื ืช ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ื ืชืืืื. ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืฆืืช ืฆืืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืืื ืฉ-124 ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขืฆืืจ ืืืืกืืืจ ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืกื ืืชืืืื. ืืฆืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืงืืืฆืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืชืคืกืืช ืืืคืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืง ืืืื-ืืืืื. ืชืคืงืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืฆืืื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืกืืืจืื ืื ืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ื, ืืื ืืคืงื ืกืืืจืช ืืื"ื ืฉื ืืจื ืืืืฆืข ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืขืืจ ืขืื, ืืื ืจืืคื ืืกืืคืจ. ืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืฉืข, ืืื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืขืื ืฉื ืฉืืคืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื, ืฉืืฉื ื ื ืชื ืืื. ื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืื (ืืืงื) ืืืืกืื (ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืจื) ืืฉื ืช 1972. ืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืช, ื ืืขื, ืฉืืืืื ืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืจืื, ืืืฉ ืขืกืงืื ืืกืื ืืจืกืื; ืืืชื ื ืืขื ืืฉ ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืฉื ื ืืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1979 ืืชืืจืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืกืื. ื-1981 ื ืืฉื ืืคืืืจ ืงืืืืก, ื ืืฆืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืขืืจื ืืืืจ ืงืื ืกืจืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืื"ื, ืขืืจื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืชืืืืงืกื. ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืืจืฉื ื-1989. ืืืจืฅ 1991 ื ืืฉื ืืฉืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจื ืื ืืจืฆื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืชื ืขืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืจ ื"ืื ืขื". ืฉืจื ืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืกืืคืจ, ืืืฉืืจืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืจืฆื, ืฉืืืฉื ืืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืื, ืืืืจ ืืืื ืจ. ื-2002 ืจืืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืืกืจืื ืืกืืื ืฉื 1.8 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ. ื-2007 ืจืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื 1.7% ืืื ืืืช ืืืจืช NMDM, ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืชื ืืืืืงืืืกืงื, ืชืืืจืช 600 ืืืฃ ืืืืจ. ื-2010 ืืืจ ืืืชื ืชืืืจืช 4.3 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ, ืืืฉืงืคืื ืจืืื ืฉื 13.2 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื. ืขื ืคื "ืคืืจืืก ืืฉืจืื", ืืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2019 ื ืืื ื-50 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื ืืืืื ืืืจื ืืช ืฉืชื ืงืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืจื ืขืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืกืจืื, ืฉืขืจืื ื-25 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื. ืืขืฉืืจ ืืฉืืื ื ืืืืื, ืืฉื ืื 2023โ2024, ืขืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืชืืช ืงืืฆื ืื, ื ืืชืื ืืชืืงืื ืืงืข ืืคืฉืขืชื ืื ืืชืื ืืืกืจืช ืืืืืช ืืขืจืืื ืืช. ื-17 ืืืืื 2024 ื ืืฉืฃ ืื ืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืคืืชื, ืืื ืืฉื ืื 2018โ2023, ืขืืื ืขื 30 ืืืืืื ืฉืงืืื. ืืืจืฅ 2016 ืคืจืกื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืกืจื ื ืกืืืืก ืืคืืืกืืืง ืฉืื ืืขื ืื ืฉืืืจืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืฉ 1 ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืืง ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืชื ืฉืจื. ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืช ืืืื ืขื ืกื 279 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื. ื-11 ืืืื ื 2017, ืงืืข ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืจืข ืฉืคืืจืกื ืืืืจื ืืคืืืข ืืืืื ืืช ืกืจื ื ืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืืคืืฆืืืื ืืขืื 15 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืคื. ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืคืืืจ ืกืจื ื ืืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช. ืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืกืจื ื ืขื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืกืจื ื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืฃ ืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2018 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืช ืืืื ืขื ืกื 200 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ื ืื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืื ืืกืคืืช, ืฉืคืจืกื ืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืื ืื ืื ืงืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืืืช ืืคื ืกืื, ืืชืืืจื ืืื ืฉืืช ืืืื ืขืืืช ืืจืจื, ืืืฉื ื ืืืืขื"ืฉ ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื, ืชืคืขื ืืืืืชื ืืชืืงืื. ืืืื 2023, ืืืฉืื ืคืฉืจื, ืฉืืืกืืจืชื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืชืืืขืชื ืืืกืคืืช ืืคืจืกื ืืืืจื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืก ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืจืจื ืื ืืช ืื ืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2022 ืืืื ืืืชืืจืจ ืชืืืขืช ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจ ื ืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืจื, ืขื ืฉืืขื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืฉืื "ืืืื ื ืคืฉ ืืืงืืงืื ืืืืคืื ืคืกืืืืืืจื". ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2022 ื ืคืกืง ืฉืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืจืข ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืช ื ืชื ืืื 62,500 ืฉ"ื ืคืืฆืืืื ืืชืืกืคืช 35,000 ืฉ"ื ืฉืืจ ืืจืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืคื. ื-16 ืื ืืืืืจ 2023 ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืจืฆื ืืชืฉืืื ืคืืฆืืืื ืืกื ืืืขืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื ืืืื ืฉืืจืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืฆื ืืขื ืื ืืฉ ืืกืื ืกืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืชืคื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืคืกืง ืื ืืกืฃ 50 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืจืฆื ืขืจืขืจ ืขื ืคืกืง ืืืื, ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืคืกืง ืืืื ืื ืงืืข ืฉืืจืฆื ืืฉืื ืืฉืืจืื 290 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2025 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืืช ืืฉืื ืืจืข ืืืืืช, ืืื ืชืืืขืืช ื ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื, ืืืืขื ืฉืจืื, ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื. ืืืคืจืื 2025 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืช ืืฉืื ืืจืข ื ืื ืคืขืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืงืื ืืจืกืืจ, ืขื ืกื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื. ืืชืืืขื ืขืืกืงืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืคืจืกืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืืจื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืฉืืื ืืงืืจ, ืื ืืขื ืื ืื "ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืืจ ืคืืืข ืืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืงืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืงืจืืื". ืืืืืื ืืื ืชื ืคืชืื ืืจืกืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื, ืฉืชืื ืคืืืช ืืฉืขื ืืืืก 500 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื, ืืืืืฉื ืฆืื ืืืืชืจ ื-750 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืฉืชืจืื ื-4,800 ืืืฉ. ืกืคืจืื ืกืคืจืื ืืขืจืืืชื: ืืขืงืืืช ืืืื ืชื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืขืกืง ื ืชื ืืื ืืืชืืืช ืกืคืจ ื ืืกืฃ, ืฉื ืงืจื ืชืืืื "ืืฉืื ืืืจืื" ืืืืืฉื ื ืงืจื "ืื ืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื", ืืืฃ ืงืืื ืืงืืื ืขื ืคืจืกืืื ืืืื"ื, ืืืฆืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช, ืื ืขื ืื ืืกืชื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืืช, ืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืคืจืกืื ืืืืงืจื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื ืฉืจ ืืืืจืฉืช ืขืืืื ืืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืืงืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจ ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืื ืืืกืื โข ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืื ืืืืจ โข ืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืชืขืฉืืื ื ืืจ ืืจืงืช โข ืืฉืจื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืจืชื ืืงืืืื ืืขืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืืื โข ืฉืจืช ืืืืฉื ืืช, ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ โข ืฉืจ ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืกืจืืืืฃ โข ืฉืจ ืืชืจืืืช ืืืกืคืืจื ืืืงื ืืืืจ โข ืฉืจ ืืื ืจืืื ืืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืื ืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช, ืฉืจ ืืจืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืฉืจ ืืชืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืฅ โข ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ื"ืฅ โข ืกืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืฉืจ ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืฉืจ ืืืฉืคืืื, ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืช ืืจืื ืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืคืืจ ืกืืคืจ โข ืฉืจืช ืืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืกืืจืืง โข ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ืขืืืืช ืกืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืกืืืืจืืฅ' โข ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืืขืื ืกืขืจ โข ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืงืืฉ โข ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืื ืงืจืขื โข ืฉืจืช ืืชืืืืจื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืจื ืจืื โข ืฉืจ ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื: ืืืืื ืืืืื โข ืืฆืืื ืกืืืืจืืฅ' ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ: ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืช โข ืืฉืืื ื ืืจื โข ืืฆืืง ืืื โข ืืื ืขืืืจ โข ืืื ืืืงืื ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื: ืืืื ืืืกืื ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื: ืืืื ืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืงืชืืจื_(ืืงืืืื)] | [TOKENS: 798] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงืชืืจื (ืืงืืืื) ืงึธืชึถืึฐืจึธื (ืืืืื ืืช: (kathedra) ฮบฮฑฮธฮตฮดฯฮฑ โ ืืืกื, ืืืฉื; ืืื ืืืืช: Chair) ืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืงืจ ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืชืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืช ืืืืืืฉื ืืชืื ืคืงืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืื ืชืื ืฉืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืงืจ ืืคืงืืืืืช ืืืืืงืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืจืืฉ ืืงืชืืจื ืขืืื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืงืื ืืืจื ืื ืืขืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืื ืงืจื "ืืืคืงื ืืงืชืืจื". ืืขืืชืื, ืงืชืืจื ืืื ืฉืื ืจืืฉืื ืืขืืกืืง ืืชืืื ืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืืืื ืืืืงื ื ืคืจืืช, ืืืขืืชืื ืืื ืชืืืจ ืืืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืืืืขื ืง ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืจ (ืืืฉื "ืืงืชืืจื ืืืชืืืืงื ืขื ืฉื ืืืงืืก" ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืืืืืจืืื' ืืจืืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืืืง ื ืืืืื, ืคืื ืืืจืืง, ืกืืืื ืืืงืื ื ืืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื). ื ืืื ืฉืืงืชืืจื ื ืงืจืืช ืขื ืฉื ืชืืจื ืื ืงืจื ืืืืื ืช ืืืชื, ืื ื ืงืจืืช ืขื ืฉื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืื ืฆืื. ืืฉื ืืงืชืืจื ืืืืืจ ืชืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืขื-ืืืงืจื ืขืืื ืืื ืืืคืงืืช. ืืชืืจื ืื ืืงืจื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉื ืชืืกืคืช ืชืฉืืื ืขื ืืฉืืืจืชื ืืืงืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืคื ืืชืงื. ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/future-trend/] | [TOKENS: 366] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืชืื ืคืจืงื ืืืื ืืคืจืงื ืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืขืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/special-education/] | [TOKENS: 427] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ื- 10.2.2026, ืืื ืืฉืขืืช 15:00-13:30 ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืคืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืจืืืจื_ืื] | [TOKENS: 50967] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืจืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืื ืจืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืื (ืืื ืืืืช: Robert Edward Leeโ; 19 ืืื ืืืจ 1807 โ 12 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1870) ืืื ืงืฆืื ืฆืื ืืืจืืงืื, ืฉืขืจืง ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช, ืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืฉื ืืืกื ืืขืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืื, ืื ืื ืืืคืกืืื ืฆืืจืืื, ืืืขืืงืจื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืกืืจื, ืฉืขืฆืจ ืืช ืคืืืฉืช ืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืคืื. ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืคืงื ืืืืื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืื ืข ืืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 1865, ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืงืจื ืืคืืืืืงืก. ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืืช ื ืฉืงื, ืคืขื ืืคืืืก ืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช "ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื" (Washington and Lee University). ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืจืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืฆื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืจืืื, ืืคืงื ืืืขืจื ืฉืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืจืฉืืืื, ื"ืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืื" ืฉืืืข ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืืคืกืื, ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืื. ืงืจืืืืชืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืขืืจ "ืืจืคื ืืช ืืคืฆืขืื" ืฉื ืืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืืขื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืชืืก "ืืืืจื ืืืืืื" ("Lost Cause") ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืจืืจืฆืื, ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืขื ืขืืืืช, ืืื ืขื ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืชืจืืืช ืืืจืื. ืื ืชืืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืชื ืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืฉื, ืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืชื ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืกืืง ืขืงื ืืืงื ืืืืืง ืขื ืฉืืืจืช ืืขืืืืช. ืืืงืจืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืืจ ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉ ืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืืจ ืืขืืืืช, ืืืจืืช ืฉืืืฆืข ืื ืืคืงื ืขื ืฆืื ืืืืืื. ืืฉ ืืกืืืื ืฉืืขืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืืง ืขืืืื ืืขืฆืื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืขืืื ืืืืงืืจืช, ืฉืื ืชืงืืคืืชืื ืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืจื. ืื, ืืชืืจ ืงืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืฉืืข ืืืื ืขื ืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืื ืขืจืง ืืืจืื. ืืืืจ ืืืช, ืขืืืจ ืืืง ืืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงืื ืื ืืคื ืืกืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืขื ืืช ืืืฃ ืืืืื. ืชื ืืขืืช ืืืจืชืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ื'ืืจื' ืคืืืื ืคืขืื ืืืกืจืช ืคืกืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืฉื ืืชืื ืืืืงืืืืช ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืกืืจืืคืืจื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืกืืืืจืื ื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืฉืคืืช ืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืคืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืช ืืฉืคืขื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืืขื ืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช, ืื ืจื ืื (ืฉืืื ื "ืืืจื ืกืืก ืงื") ืืืฉืชื ืื ืืื (ืงืจืืจ) ืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืคืจืืฉืชื ืืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืื, ืืืื ืฉื ืจืืืจื, ืื ืจื ืื, ื ืื ืก ืืืืืืช ืืกืคืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืื ืงืืื ืฉืืื ืขืืื ืืฉืจืช ืืืื ื ืืืกืจ ืืขืืืืืช ืืคืืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื. ืจืืืจื ื ืืื ืืชืื ืืืฆืืงื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืื ืืจืืืง ืืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืืืงืืืช. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืืจืจ ืืืื ื ืืขืืืื ืจืื ืื ืจื ืื ืืจืืฉ ืกืืจ ืขืืืคืืืืชืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ื. ืื ืจื ืื ืืื ื ืืช ืื ื ืจืืืจื ืื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืขืฆืืืืช, ืืชืงืืื ืฉืจืืืจื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืื, ืื ืจื ืื ืืื ืชืืื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืคืืจืืืกืืืช, ืืฉืจ ืชืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืกื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืชโืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืขื ืืขืืชืื ืืื ืกืื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืชื ืืจืืืคืืช ืฉืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช-ืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืกืืกื ืืืืชื ืื ืื-ืคืืจืืืกืืืช. ืืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืช 1812 ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืคืจืื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืืชื ืืคืืืืื ืืชืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืจืง ืืืืืจ. ืืืืืืช ืคืจืฆื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืืืืจ ืืืจืืื ื ืืืฉืจ ืขืืชืื ืคืืจืืืกืื ืคืจืกื ืืืืจ ืฉืืชื ืื ืืืืืื. ืืชืืืื ืชืงืคื ืชืืืืื ืงืืฆืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช-ืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืขืืชืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืคืจื-ืืจืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืื ืงืืฆืื ืืื ื ืื ืคืจื-ืคืืจืืืกืืื ืืคืจื-ืืจืืืื. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืขืืชืื ืคืชื ืกื ืืฃ ืืืฉ ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืื ืจื ืื ืขื ืื ืช ืฉืืื ืขื ืืขืกืง ืฉืื ืืคื ื ืคืืจืขืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืจืื ื ืื ืจื ืื ืืืกืคืจ ืื ืฉื ืฆืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืื ืขื ืืกื ืืฃ, ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืืชืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืช ื ืฉืงื. ืื ืจื ืื ืืืื ืืืืขืกืงืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ื ืืงืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจ ืืืืืืืืืจ ืืืื ืฉืจืืฉ ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืจื ืืืื ืกืืืจืื ืืคื ื ืคืืจืขืื, ืืื ืฉืขืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืคืจืฆื ืืืืช ืคืืจืขืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืจ ืืืืฆืขื ืืื ืฅ' ืื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืขืืช ืืืกืืจืื. ืื ืจื ืื ืืจื ืืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืงืจืืืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืืื ืฉืกืืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืจื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืชื ืื ื ืคืืจ ืืืจืื ืืขืืื ืื'ืืจื'ืื. ืจืืืจื ืืื ืื 11 ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื, ืื ืกืืคืจ ืื ืขื ืื ืจืง ืืืื 12. ืจืืืจื ื ืืชืจ ืืืกืืช ืืื, ืื ืืื (ืงืจืืจ) ืื, ืืืฉื ืืขืืช ืขืจืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืงื ืืช ืจืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืงืจืื ืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืืฉืืจืื ืืืืจืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืื. ืืืืชื ืืขืช ื ืื ืจืืืจื ืืงืจืื ืืจืืฉืืืื ืืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืื, ืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืื ืขืืื ืืืืืช ืืขื ืขืจืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืืงืจื ืื ืืืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืืชื ืืื, ืจืืืจื ืืคื ืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืคืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืชื ืืงืื ื. ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืกืืจื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืชืืคืฉืจื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืืชืืฉื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคืื. ืืืกืคืื ืืืขืืื ืฉื ืืชืจื ืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืฆืจืืื ืืกืืกืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืชืฉืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืฉืคืืชื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆื ืื ืจื ืื ืืจืืืขื (ืฉืืื ื "ืืืจื ืกืืก ืฉืืืจ"). ืื ืจื ืื ืืจืืืขื ืขืกืง ืืืชืืืช ื ืืืืื ืขืืืจ ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื, ืื ืืจื ื'ืงืกืื ืืกืื ืื ืฉืื ื'ืื ืงืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืขืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืจ ืงืจืืืจื ืขืชืืืืช. ืงืจืืืจื ืฆืืืืช ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจืชื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืื ืืืชืืฉื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืชื ืืืืฉืืขืช ืฉืืคืืื, ืืื ืืชืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืฆืืื. ืื ื ืจืฉื ืืืงืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืกื ืคืืื ื ื-1825, ืฉืืืืชื ืขืช ืฉืื ืืืฉ ืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืืกื. ืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1829 ืืืงืื ืฉื ื ืืืืชืชื. ืื ืืจืืืื ืืช ืงืืืชื ืืืกื ืคืืื ื ืืจื ืงืฉืจืื ืขื ื'ืื ืงืืืื, ืฉืฉืืจืช ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืฆื ืืืื ืืื ืืกื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ื ื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืื. ืืืื ืืขื ืงืช ืืืืจืืืืช ื ืืฉื ืืืืฉืืื, ืืืืืืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืชื ืืืืืชื ืขื ืขืจืฉ ืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืชื ื-10 ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืงืืจ ืืฆื ืงืจืืื ืืฉืคืื ืืืืงืจ ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืื, ืืืืชื ืฉื ืคืืจืง ืงืืกืืืก, ืื ื ืืืืืืฅ ืฉื ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืฉื ืืืืจ ืื ืืืจ ืืชื ืฉื ืงืืกืืืก, ืืจื ืื ืจื ืืืืฃ ืงืืกืืืก (1873-1803), ื ืื ืชื ืฉื ืืจืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืชื ืืืืจ ืื ืขืื ืืืืืืชื ืืืื ืืคืขื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืืืงืฉ ืืืื ืฉื ืื, ืืื ืกืืจืื ืื ืขืงื ืืืกืชืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ื ืฉื "ืืกืืก ืืงื" ืืืืฉืคื, ืืืจื ืื. ืื ืฉืืจืช 17 ืืืืฉืื ืืคืืจื ืคืืืกืงื ืืืื ืงืืงืกืคืืจ, ื'ืืจื'ืื. ื-1831 ืืืขืืจ ืืคืืจื ืืื ืจื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืขืืืจ ืืื ืืก. ืืืืื ืฉืืจืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืืกืืฃ ืงืืกืืืก ืืช ืืกืืืชื ืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืชืื ื ืืชืงืืืื ืืฉืืจืื ืคืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืฆ'ืืจืืก ืกืืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืงืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื. ืื ืืชืืืจืจื ืืืืืืช ืงืืกืืืก, ืขื ืืืืช ื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืืืจืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืงืืืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืฆืื. ื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืื ืื ืืืจืืข ืื ืืช - ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงืืกืืืก, ืืืืืื ื. ืคืืฆืืื, ืจืืืจื ืืืืืจื, ืืืจื, ืืื ืก, ืื ื ื ืืืืืืจื. ืืฉืืืืชืื ืืฆืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืกื, ืขืืจื ืืชืื ืื ืืงืืช ืคืืจื ืคืืืืกืงื ืขื ื ืืจ ืกืืืื ื ืื'ืืจื'ืื (1829โ1831) ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืจื ืืืืื ืคืืื ื ืงืืืคืืจื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื (1831โ1834). ืืคืืจื ืืื ืจื, ืื ื ืกืข ืืืืืืกื 1834 ืืคืืจื ืงืืืื ืขื ืจืืค ืจืืคืก ืืืจืื ืืืคืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืคืืจื ืืื ืจื ืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืฆื ืืืคืงืืช ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืื ืฉืืจืช ืืขืืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืืก ืืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1834 ื-1837, ืคืจื ืืงืืฅ ืฉื ืฉื ืช 1835, ืื ืกืืืข ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืฉืืื. ื-1837 ืงืืื ืืช ืืคืืงืื ืืืฉืืขืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืื, ืืืืืื ื ื ืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืงืืืฆืช ืืื ืืกืื ืืคืืงื ืขื ืขืืืืืช ืื ืืกื ืื ืื ืกื ื ืืืืืก ืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืกืืกืืคื ืืืืืืืจื. ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืงืคืื ืื-1841 ืืืขืืจ ืืคืืจื ืืืืืืื ืื ืื ื ืื ืืืจืง, ืฉื ื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืืช ืืืืฆืืจืื. ืืื ืืกื ืืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืืืขื ืงืฆืื ืื ืฉืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืกื ืคืืื ื ืืืื ื 1844 ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืื ืืกืื ืืืื ืช ืืืืฃ ืืืืื ืื ื-8 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1845. ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืชโืืงืกืืงื (1846-1848). ืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืื ืจื ื'ืื ื. ืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืงืกืืงื (ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืื ืชืืช ืืคืืงืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืจ; ืืืคืงื ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืงืกืืงื). ืงืืื ืืงืจื ืืืื ื ืืืกืื ืขืจื ืื ืกืงืืจื ืื ืืกืืช ืฉื ืชืงืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืจืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช, ืฉืืืืชื ืืขืืช ืชืคืงืื ืืืจืืข ืื ืืฆืืื ืขื ืืืงืกืืงื ืื ืืงืจื. ืืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืืขืืจ ืืืขืจืื ืืืจืื ืืงืกืืงื ืืืื ืืฉืจืช ืืืื ืืืขืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืื ืคืืื ืกืงืื ืืืืื ืืฆืขืื ืืืจืืงืจืืก ืืืงืกืืงื ืกืืื. ืงืคืื ืื ืืชืืืขืฅ ืืงืคืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืฆื ืืืืืืช ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืืืข ืืืฆืืช ืืืจืืืืจืื. ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืื, ืื ืืื ืืืืกืืจืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืกืงืื ืืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืขืืจ ืืงืกืืงื ืกืืื. ืืื ืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืขืื ืฉืืกืฃ - ืืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืชืงืคื ืฉืื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืงืกืืงื ืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืฉืื ืืืชื ืขืืืจ. ืืืืื ืงืจื ืฆ'ืจื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืื 1847 ืืื ืื ืงืคืื ืื ืืฆืขืืจ ืฉืคืืงื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉืคืจืฆื ืืจื ืืืฉ ืืจืฆืืคื ืืชืงืคื ืืช ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืืืงืกืืงื ื, ืชืืจื ืืกืืจ ืืืงืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืจืื ืืืจืืงืืืช ืขื ืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืืช, ืื ืืชื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืจืื ืกืชืจ ืืขืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืงืกืืงื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื'ืืจ ืืืืจ ืงืจื ืฆ'ืจื ืืืจืื. ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืืืืืื ืงืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ื ื ืงืืืื ื. ืืืืืืกื ืืืชื ืืฉื ื ืคืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืฉืืื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืชื ืืขืืจ ืืืงืกืืงื ืื ืืงืจื ืงืื ืืจืจืก. ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืืขืื ืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืจื ืืขืืจ ืื ืืืืจ ืืกืืื ืืืื ืืืขืฉืืช ืืืื ืืคืชืืข ืืช ืืืงืกืืงื ืื ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช. ืื ืขืฆืื ืืฆื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืคืืจืื, ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืช ืืชืืืืจืช ืืงืจืื, ืืืชื ืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืจื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืขื ืืืงืกืืงื ืื. ืกืงืื ืืขืืจ ืขื ืื ืื ืคืขืืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืชื ืืืื ืืื โืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืืฅ ืืืคื ื ืืืืกืจื ืฉืืืฆืข ืื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืขืชื, ื ืืื ืืืืืื.โ ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืื ืืืืจืฉื ืืืืืขื ืฉื ืืื ืคืืื ืกืงืื ืืชืืจ ืืคื ืื ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงืื. ืืฉืืืืข ืืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ื-29 ืืืื ื 1848, ืืืืฉ ืื ืืช ืชืคืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืขื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืฃ ืืืืื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืชืคืงืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืกืืื ืืคืืืจืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืืื. ืืืคืจืื 1849 ืืื ืืงื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืช ืืฆืืื ืฆืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ื ืื ืืืืืืืืจ (ืืืฆืืื ื ืงืจืื ืคืืจื ืงืจืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1850). ืืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืื ืืฆืื ืจืื ืืื ืงืฆืื ืืขื ืืืืืฆืข ืืืืืืืชืื; ื-27 ืืืื 1852 ืืื ืืื ื ืืืคืงื ืขื ืืืกื ืคืืื ื. ืืื ืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืื ื-1 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1852 ืขื 31 ืืืจืฅ 1855, ืืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืืขืช ืืฆืืขืจืื, ืฉืืืขืชื ืืืืชื ืจืืคืคืช ืืืืคื ืืืจืื, ืื ืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืชื ืงืืืข ืืืงืืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืืช ืคืืงืืื ืคืขื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืื ืื, ืืงืืจืกืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืจื ืขื ืืฆืืขืจืื. ืื ื ืืืืืจ, ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงืืกืืืก ืื ืืื ืืืืกื ืคืืื ื ืืชืงืืคื ืื. ืงืืกืืืก ืื ืกืืื ื-1854, ืจืืฉืื ืืืืชืชื. ืขื ืืืืชื ืืขืช, ืื ืืื ืืงืฉืจ ืืืขื ืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืขืจืื. ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืคืงื ืืืืกื ืคืืื ื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืฆืืื ืฉืกืงืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืื ืจืืืื ืฉื ืจืืฉื ืืืงืกืืงื ืืืกืื ืืืืืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืฉืช ืืืกืื. ืืฉืื ืื ืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืกืื ืืืืืื ืืขืฆืื ืืงืฉื ืขื ืืืืคืช ืืกืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืงืื ืฉื ื ืจืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืคืจืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืฉื ื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืช ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื ืืงืืื. ืืืืืืืก ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืขื ืืจืืืื ื ืืคืจืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืงื; ืืืืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืฆืจ, ืืื ื ืืืืจื ืกืืื ื ื'ืื ืกืืื, ืืืืื ืืงืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืก ืืืื ืืืกื ืคืืื ื, ืืืืืช ืืคืงืื ืืจืืฉื, ืืืืื ืื ืืคื ืืกืื ื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืืื ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืจืืืื ื. ืื ืฉืืจืช ืขื ื'ืื ืกืืื ืืกื ื ืืืืืก, ืืืจืืืืจืื ืฉื ืงื ืืก, ืืืืื ืขืืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืงืกืก ืืคื ื ืฉืืชืืืฆื ืืคืืงืื ืืกื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืฃ ืืช ื'ืื ืกืืื ืืคืืงืื. ืืกืืืจืื ืฉืืืฆืข ืื ืื ืคืืงื ืขืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืืื ืืจืืฃ ืืืจื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื "ืขืืื ืื" ืื ืืจืืคืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืฉืื ืฉืงื. ืื, ืขื ืืืช, ืืื ืืืงืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืฆื ืืืชื ืื ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืกืื ืงืฉื. ืืืจืชื ืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืกืืืข ืืืื ืช ืืืชืืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืคื ื ืืชืงืคืืช ืืืคืืฆ'ื ืืืงืืืื ืฆ'ื. ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืฉืจืืช ืขืืืจ ืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืจืืืง ืืืฉืคืืชื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืขืงื ืืฆืื ืืืจืืืืชื ืืืืืจืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืชื. ืืื ืื ืืืงืจื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ. ืืืงืจื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืขืืืืช ื'ืื ืืจืืื ืขื ืืจืคืจืก ืคืจื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื (ืืืื ืืขืจื ืืืจื'ืื ืื) ื-1859 ืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืกืืจ. ืืื ืขืฉื ืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืงืกืก. ืืฉืืงืกืก ืคืจืฉื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-1861, ืื ื ืงืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืชืื ืืงืืืช ืืืจืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืืืง ืืืืจืืกืืืงืจืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืื ืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืขืืืืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืืืืง ืืืชืจ ืืืฆื-ืชืจืืกืจ ืขืืืื ืชืืช ืฉืื. ืืืขืฉื, ืื ืืื ืืืืข ืขื ืืฃ ืขืื ืืืขืืืชื, ืขื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืฆืืืืชื (ืืฉื ืช 1846) ืืจืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืจืืงืืจืืื', ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉืคืื ืืฉื ื ื ืกื ืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืขื ืืืชื ืฉื ืื. ืืืชื ื ืฉื ืื, ื'ืืจื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืคืืจืง ืงืืกืืืก, ืฉืืช ืืืืงืืืืจ 1857, ืืืจืืฉ ืื ืจืืืฉ ืจื (ืืจื ืืฉืชื), ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืขื 63 ืขืืืื - ืืืจืื, ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืฉื ืฆืืืืชื ืฉื ืงืืกืืืก. ืืคื ืืฆืืืื ืขื ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืืขืืืื ื"ืืืคื ืฉืืจืื ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืืืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืืชืจ", ืืชืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืชื. ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืขืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืจื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืฉื ืื ืืืืชืจืืช ืืฆืืืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืจ ืจื ืืงืจื ืืขืืืื, ืฉืฆืืคื ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืื ืขื ืืืชื ืฉื ืงืืกืืืก. ื-1859, ืฉืืืฉื ืืืขืืืื - ืืกืื ื ืืจืืก, ืืืืชื ืืืจื ืืื-ืืืื ืืจืื ืืฆืคืื. ืืืชื ื-1859 ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืจืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืขื ื ืืจืืก ืืฉื ืช 1866 ืืืืื ืื ืืขืืืื ื ืชืคืกื ืืกืคืจ ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืคื ืกืืืื ืื ืืืืืืจื ืืื. ืื ืืืจื ืืืืงืืชื, ืืืฉืคืฉืฃ ืืช ืืืืื ืืคืฆืืขืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืงืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืขืืืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืจื ื ืืจืืก ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืืืจ 1863 ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืชื. ืื ืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืฉืืจ ืขืืืื ืฉื ืงืืกืืืก ืืืืจืฃ ืฉื 1862, ืืชืื ืืืฉ ืืฉื ืื. ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืื ืืชื ืื ืืคืจืืฉืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื, ืืืชื ืืื ื, ืืืืชื ืืฉื ืช 1861, ื"ืืืคืื" ืืืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืืืกืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืื, ืื ืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืขืชื ืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืช ืชืจืื ืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืื ืขืฆืื ืชืฆืืง ืืช ืืืืื ืืชืืื. ืืคื ืจืืืืช ืขืืืื ืฉื ืื, ืคืจืืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืื ืืืงืืื ืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืชืงืื ืขื ืืืขืช ืืืืื ื ืืืกืจืืช ืฉืืืืฉื ืืคืืจืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืื ืชืื ืฉืคืืืืช ืืืื ืคื ืืืืช. ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืชืขืจืขืจื ืขืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืขืฆืื, ืืจืฅ ืืืืืชื, ืืชื ืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืคืจืืฉื ืืืฆืืจืคืืช ืื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืงื. ืืืชืืฉื ืืขืจืืื ืืืฉืคืืชืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืขืืื ืืขืืื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืจื'ืื ืื - ืืืืืชื - ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืฆื ืฉืื ืชืืืจ ืืืืืื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ, ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืืื ืช ืืืืืชื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืจืื ืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ื-18 ืืืคืจืื 1861, ืขืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช, ืืฆืืข ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืจืืืจื ืื ืืช ืืจืืช ืืืื'ืืจ ื'ื ืจื ืืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืคื ืืื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืขืงืืคืื, ืืจื ืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืกืืืืื ืงืืจืื ืืืจื ืืชืืื, ืืคืืืืืืงืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืืขื ืืจืืื ื, ืคืจื ืกืืก ืค. ืืืืืจ, ืืืืช ืื ื ืฉื ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืืืืจื, ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืขื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืื ืกืืจื ืืืชืคืืจ ืืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืคืืื ืกืงืื ืขืฆืื ืืฆืืข ืืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืช ืืช ืื ืืืคืงื ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชื-ื ืื ืขืช ืืงืจืืช ืื ืืื ืคืจืืฉืช ืืืจืื. ืฉืืืขืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืคื ื ืคืจืืฉืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืืจื: โืืื ื ื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืกืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืคืจืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืงืจืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืื, ืขืืื ืฉืืืืจื.โ ืชืืืื, ืขื ืคืจืืฉืชื ืืฆืื ืืืืืื, ืคืขื ืื ืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืฆื ืืืืืฉืืจ ืื ืืขืืจื ืืืืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืฉืชืื ืข ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืื ืืชื ืขื ืื: โืขื ืื ืืกืืจืืชื ืืืืืื ืืชืืืฉืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืจืืงืื, ืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืื, ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืืชื. ืขื ืื, ืืชืคืืจืชื ืืืฉืจืชื ืืฆืื. ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืืงืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืจืื ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช.โ ืืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืคืงื ืืืืืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืื ืกืืจื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืื ืจื, ืืืืืจื ืฉืืชืื ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืงืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฆืื ืจืง ืืช ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืื ืงืืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืขื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืื, ืฉืืืืจืื ืืืขืื ืืืจืืช ืื ืจื. ืืืืจ ืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืขืจื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืคืืงื ืขื ืืื ืช ืืืคื ืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช, ืื ืขืฉื ืืืืขืฆื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก, ื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืชื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืกื ืคืืื ื. ืืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืขืจืืช ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืงืฆืจื ืฉืชืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื. ืื ืืืง ืขื ืื ืืืขื ืื: ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืง ืืื ืฆืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืชืืืฉื ืืจืืข ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืช. ืคืืืืืืงืืื ืฆืคืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืขืจืืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืืืจืื, ืืคืืืืืืงืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืื ื ืืขืจืืืื ืืช ืืืกืคืจืื, ืืืกืคืงื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืกืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืฆืคืื. ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืืจืืงืืื. ืื ื ืืืื ืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืกืืจืื ืืจืืจืื. ืืชืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืืคืจื ืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืืื. ื-1 ืืืื ื 1862, ื ืคืฆืข ืืื ืจื ื'ืืืฃ ื' ื'ืื ืกืืื ืืงืจื ืฉืืขืช ืืืืจื ืื. ืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืื ืฆืื ืืงืจื. ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืขื ืื ืืืชืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืคืืงืื ืืื ืจื ื'ืืจื' ืืงืืื ืฉืืืืื ืขื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืืืจืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืชืืช ืืงืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืขืืจ ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืจื ืืฆื ืืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื (ืขื ืฉื ืื ื ืงืจืื ืืืขืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืืฆื ืืื) ืืืชืืืงื ืืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ื ืคืจืืืช ืฉืืชืงืืื ืืขืืจ ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืืชืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืฉืขืจืื. ืืืืืื ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืงืืื, ืืชืงืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืจ ืขื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ื ืืกื ืืงืจื ืืช ืืชืืชืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืขืืจ. ืื, ืืื ืชืืื, ืืื ืืชืื ื ืืชืงืคืช ื ืื, ืืืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืข ืฉืื ืืฆืืจ ืขื ืืืจืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืขื ืกืืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืชืืืืก ื'ืื ืชื "ืกืืื ืืื" ื'ืงืกืื, ืื ืืข ืืืจืื ืืขืืง ืฉื ื ืืืื - ืฉื ืื ืขื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืช ืืงืืื - ืืฉืื ืคืจืฉืื ืชืืช ื'ืืืืก ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืกืืืืืจื ืืจืืืื ืืจืืื ืกืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืจืืช ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืขืื. ื-25 ืืืื ื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืืง ืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืฆ'ืืงืืืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืชืงืฃ ืฆืคืื ืืช ืืขืืจ ืืื ืืขืืืจื ืืื ืืงืกืืืื. ืื ืจื ืืืืืื ื'ืื ืคืืจืืจ ืฆืื ืืืชืืื ื ืืช ืืคื ื ืืชืงืคืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืืืขื ืืืืฃ ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืกืคืืงื ืืืจืื ืืขืจื ืืื ื ืืฆืื. ืืืื ืืืช, ืืงืืื ืจืื ืืช ื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืชืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืคืฉืจืืช, ืืืื ืืืจื ืขื ื ืกืืืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืคืืจืืจ. ืื ืื'ืงืกืื ืืืืฆื ืืืกืืฃ ืืช ืคืืจืืจ ืืกืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืง ืคืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืงืกืืืื ื-27 ืืืื ื. ืืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืฉ ืืงืืื ืืช ืงื ืืืกืคืงื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืกืืช ืืจืื-ืืืจื ืื'ืืืืกืืืื. ืื ืจืืฃ ืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื-29 ืืืื ื ืืฆื ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืชืงืคื ืขื ืืขืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืชืื ืช ืกืืืื'. ื-30 ืืืื ื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืชืง ืืืฆืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืื ืชืื ืื ืกืืื ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืกืืจืช ืืชืงืคืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืขืืจืฃ. ืืกืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืืจืืืง ืืช ืชืืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื, ืืชืงืคืืชืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืชื ืืืจืืช ืคืจืืฆืช ืืจื ืืื ืืช. ื-1 ืืืืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืืงืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืขืช ืืืืืจื ืืืฉืงืืคื ืขื ื'ืืืืกืืืื. ืื ืืขืจืื ืฉืจืืืื ืืจืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืขืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืจืืฆืช ืืจื ืฉืชืืจืฉ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืชืงืคืช ืืืจืืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืจื, ืืืืืฉื, ืขืงื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืกืืืืช, ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืชืงืคื ืขืืื ืืืขื ืืืชื ื ืืชื ืช ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืกืคืื ืชืืืกื ืงืฉื. ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืงืืื ื ืกืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื. ืงืจืืืช ืืื ืืจืื ืื ืคืืขืื ืจืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืขืงื ืชืคืงืื ืืงืื ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืคืงืืืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืคืขืืืืชืื ืืืชืงืคืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืขืจืขืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืงืืื, ืืืื ื ืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืขืจืื. ืืชืื ืืื ืงืฆืจ, ืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืฉื ืืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืช ื'ืื ืคืืค ืชืงืคื ืืจื ืืจื ืืืคืืฆ'ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืขื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืฆืคืื. ืื ืืืข ืฉืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืคืืงืืื ืืืืชื ื ืชืื ื ืืืฆื ืืกืืื ืืื ืคืืค ืืืงืืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืืืื. ื-13 ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืช ื'ืงืกืื, ืขื ืืืืืช ืฉืืกืชืืื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ื-24,000 ืืืฉ, ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืชื ืฉื ืคืืค. ืืืืจ ืืชืืชืฉืืช ืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืจืืช ืืืจ ืืกืืืจ ื-9 ืืืืืืกื, ืืืืืชืืื ื'ืงืกืื ืืคืืค ืืื ืืืฆื ืฉื ืกืืืืก ืงืื ืืืฉื ืฉืืืข. ืื, ืืขืช ืฉื ืืืข ืื ืขื ื ืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืงืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืฆื ืืื, ืคื ื ืขื ืฉืืจืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืื'ืงืกืื ืืืืจืืื ืกืืืื, ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืฉื ืคืืค, ืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืืช ืืกืคืจืืช, ืืื ืืกืคืืง ืื ืชืง ืืช ืืขืจื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืคืืค ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืืชืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืขื ืืืื ืืจืืื ื-ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืจืฆืฃ ืฉื ืคืงืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืืื ืืืคืืค ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ื. ืืคืืค ืืชืืจืจ ืื ืื ืืชืื ื ืืืงืืฃ ืืืืคืื ืืืชื ืืจืคืืืื ืืง ืืขื ืื ื ืกืื ืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืืืช. ืื, ืฉื ืืืข ืื ืฉืฉื ื ืงืืจืคืืกืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืฆืืจืคื ืืคืืค ืชืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื, ืคืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืฅ. ืืื ืฉืื ืืช ื'ืงืกืื ืืชื ืืขืช ืคื ืืื ืจืืื ืืจื ืืขืืจ ืฆืจ ืืืจื ืืื ืจืื ืกืืื ืืืืฃ ืืฆืคืื ื ืฉื ืฆืื ืคืืค. ืคืืค ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื, ืื ืชืืืื ืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืคื ื ืืขืืจ ืขืืง ืฉื ื ืืืื. ื'ืงืกืื, ืฉื ืข ืขื ืืืืืชืื ืืืขื ืืื ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืชืื ืืืืืื, ื ืข ืืืืืจื ืืืขืจื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืคืืค ืืื ืกืืก ื-26 ืืืืืืกื, ืืจืก ืฉื ืืช ืืกืืก ืืืกืคืงื ืฉืื ืื ืกืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื, ืืคื ืชืืืื ืขื ืื, ื ืขื ืืืกืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืคืกื ืืืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืคืืค. ืืืงืืื ืืคืงื ืืืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืจืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ื ืื ืก ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืชืจ ืฉืื ืืงืจื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืกืืก - ืืื ืจืื. ืคืืค ืชืงืฃ ืืช ื'ืงืกืื, ืืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืขืืจืฃ ืืืขืจื ืฉื ืืืืืชืื ืืืจืืฅ ืืืื. ืขื ืื ืืงืืจืคืืก ืืืืืฉื ืฉื ืคืืจืืจ ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืข ืืฉืื ืืงืจื ืื ืฆืืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืืฃ ืืืื (ืืืจืืื) ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื. ืืฉืื ืื, ืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืืืืก ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืืจืจื, ืืืชืคืจืกื ืืืืื ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืชื ืืขืช ืืงืืจืคืืก ืฉื ืคืืจืืจ. ืืืืจืช, 30 ืืืืืืกื, ืืืืฉ ืคืืค ืืช ืืชืงืคืืชืื ื ืื ื'ืงืกืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืขืจืื ืื ืืื ื ืกืื. ืขื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืคืืค ืืขืืจ ื'ืงืกืื, ืื ืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืฆืข ืืชืงืคืช ืคืชืข ืขืืืื ืืจื ืืืืขื ืืขืืจ ื'ืงืกืื. ืืืืจ ืฆืืืืช ืืชืงืคืช ืืคืชืข ืืกืืื ืงืจื ืืื ืจืื ืืฉื ื, ืืื ืขื ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืคืืค ืืกืืช ืืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืกื. ืื, ืืชื ืืขื ื ืืขืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืคืืงืืื, ืืืืก ืืืฆืืื ืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืขืฉื ืืืช ืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืืื ืขืื ืืืชืจ. ืืื ืจื ืืืคืงื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืจื ืืืืง, ืื ืืชืขืจื ืืืขืจืื ืืื ืืชืื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืคืืค, ืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืฉืืชืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืฉ ืื ืืืืจื ืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืจ ืกืืจืช ืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 1862 ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืช ื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืืขืืจ ืืจืืื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืกื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช. ืืืขืืจ ืืืชืงืคื ืขื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืกืืจืืืืื, ืืืืืกืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืคืืค ืืกืจื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืฆืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืชืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืชืงืคื ืืืฉื ืืืขื ืืืืืื. ืื ืืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืขืืืช ืืื ื ื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืื ืืื ื ืืืฅ ืืืืื ืืชื ืืขืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ื ืื ืืคื ืกืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืชืงืคืืช ืขืฆืื. ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืืช ื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืฆืขืื ืืช ืฆืื ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืจื ืืจืืื ื. ืืคื ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืคื ืงืฆืจื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืื ืชืกืคืืง; ืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืชืืื ืืืคืชื ืืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืื ืงืืืื ืืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืฆืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืง ืืืื ืืืกืชืื, ืื ืืชืื ืืืื ื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืืืง ืฉืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืกืืจืช ืืขืืื ืืกืืจืืืืื ืืื ืืคืืืช ืงืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืกืืจืช "ืคืงืืื ืืืืืืช 191" ืงืืข ืื ืืช ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืคืืืฉื ืืขืืจ ืืจืืื ื. ืืื ืืขืืชืงืื ืฉื ืืคืงืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืืฉื ืืชืืื ืืืืคืฃ ืืชืื ืกืืืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืืฆืื ืืืืืื. ืืคืงืืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืกืขืืคืื: 1. ืืกืืจืช ืืืก ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืคื ืชืืฉืื ืืขืืจ ืคืจืืจืืงืกืืจื ืืงืจืืช ืืงืื (ืืขืจื ืืจืืื ื). 2. ืื ืืื ืืืืื'ืืจ ืืืืืืจ ืื ืืข ืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืงื ืืืกืคืงื ืขื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืขื ืืขืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืืจืืืื. 3. ืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืชืืืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืืืจืช (10 ืืกืคืืืืจ) - ืฉืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืขืจืื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืืืช ืืืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืืช. 4. ืืื ืจื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืื ืืข ืืขืจืื ืืืื ืกืืืจืื ืืืฉื ืืชืืื ืืืจืืืช ืงื ืืกืคืงื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจืืืื. 5. ืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืื ืจื ืืงืืืืก ืืื ืจื ืื ืืจืกืื ืื ืืขื ืชืืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืืืื (ืืจืื ืืจืืื ื; ืืฆืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื) ืืื ืืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืืขืืช ืฉื ืืจืืื ื. 6. ืื ืจื ืืืืงืจ ืื ืืข ืขื ืืืืืชืื ืืขืืจ ืื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืืจื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืืกืืืื ืืืชืืื ืขื ืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืงืืืืก ืื'ืงืกืื ืืื ืืข ื ืกืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื. 7. ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืจื ื. ื. ืืื ืชืงืื ืืช ืืขืจื ืืื ืช ืืขืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื. 8. ืืื ืจื ืกืืืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืืืืช ืคืจืฉืื ืืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื, ืืงืืืืก ืืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืฆืข ืกืงืืจื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืื ืืฆืขืืื. 9. ืืืืจ ืืฉืืช ืืืจืืชืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืคืืงืื ื'ืงืกืื, ืืงืืืืก ื-ืืืืงืจ ืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืืื, ืืืขืจื ืื ืืืืืืจืกืืืื. 10. ืื ืจืืืื ื ืืืฉื ืืืจื ืืื ืกืืจืช ืืจืื ืื ืืืชื, ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืจืืืฉืช ืขืฅ ืืื'. ืื ืืืืง ืืืืฉ ืืช ืฆืืื ืื-11 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืจืกืืืื, ืืจืืื ื. ืืื ืืืฆื ืืคืืจืื ืืขืืงืฉ ืืืืฆื ืืคืจืก ืืจืคืจืก ืงื ื ืขืืืจ ืืงืืื ืืื ื ืืกืฃ, ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืง ืืืจื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื - ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื - ืืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืฉืชืืงืฆื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืื. ืืฉืืื ืืืจ ืืฉ ืฉืชืืื ืืช ืืคืืืฉื ืฉืื ืืฉืชืืฉื, ืื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืื ืกืืื ืืจืืื ืขืืืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืฆื ืืืืืฉืช. ืืืงืืื ืืืจื ืื ืืื ืจื ื. ื. ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืขืืจื ืืืืขืืช ืืืจ ืกืืืช'. ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืข ืืจื ืืขืืจืื ืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืืืืฉ, ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืขืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืจืก. ื-13 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืขืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืจืืืื ืืคืจืืจืืง, ืืื ืฉื ืจืืืื ื ืื"ืจ 27 ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืชืง ืฉื ืคืงืืืืช 191 ืฉื ืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืืืขื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืื, ืืขืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืืืืืชื ืืื ืืืช ืืื ืงืฉื ืขื ืื. ื-14 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืื ืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืจืื ืืืจ ืกืืืช'. ืืงืจื ืขื ืืืจ ืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืฆืืืื ืืขืื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืกืคืืง ืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืคืืืจืื. ืืืืงืจ 15 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืื ืืขื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื 12,000 ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืจืก ืืจืคืจืก. ืืงืจื ืืกืชืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืคืืืช ื-300 ื ืคืืขืื ืืฆื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืื ื'ืงืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืืืจ ื'ืงืกืื ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืืชืืื ืขื ืืืืืชืื. ืืืงืืื, ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืฉื ืืงืืื ื ืขื ืืจื ืืขืืจื ืืจ ืกืืืช' ืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืฉื ืื, ืฉืื ื ืืืื 11,000 ืืืฉ ืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืฉื 15 ืืกืคืืืืจ, ืืฉืื ืขื ืืืืขืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืจืคืกืืืจื (ืื ืืืืื). ืืงืืื ืืขืจืื ืื ืืืืืชืื ืืืคืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืกืชืืื ื"ืื ืคืืืช ื-120,000 ืืืฉ" - ืืขืจืื ืฉืืืชืจ ืืืืคืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืขื ืฉื ืืืจืืืื - ืืืื ืืืื ืืช 16 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืกืืืจืื ืขื ืขืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ื'ืงืกืื, ืืืจื ืฉื ืฆืขืื ืืคืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืืืข ืืฉืจืคืกืืืจื ืืฉืขืืช ืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืฉื 16 ืืกืคืืืืจ, ืืืืคืื ืืืขืฉื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืื. ืืฉืขื 05:30 ื-17 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืชืืช ื'ืืืฃ ืืืงืจ ืืืชืงืื ืืจืืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืคืจืืคืจืื ืืืืงืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืขืืจ ืฉืืจืคืกืืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืื ืืืืื. ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืื, ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืขืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืขืจื ืืขืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืฉืื, ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืกืืจืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืชืืชืื ื. ืืืืงืจ 17 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืจื ืืื, ืขื ืื ืืชืจืื ืืืืืืชืื, ืืืชืงืื ืืืืคืืื ืืขืืจ ืื. ืืงืืื ืชืื ื ืงืจื ืืชืฉื ืฉื ืืขื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืืืคืื ืฉื ืืขืจื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืืื ืืข ืืชื ืืฉืืช ืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื. ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืชืงืืื ืืขืืจ ื'ืงืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืจืืฅ ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืฉืื ืชืืจืก ืืืงืจ ื ืืืฃ ืขื ืืืืื ืจืืข ืืื ืฉืื. ืืืงืจ ืขืฆืื ื ืืจื ืืจืืื ืื ืืงื ืืืฉืื. ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืชืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืจืืืืืจ ืื ืจื ื'ืืจื' ืืื. ืืงืืจืคืืกืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืกืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืขื ืืช ืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื. ืจืง ืืืขืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืื'ืงืกืื ืืืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืื ืืื ืื ืกืืืช ืืื ืงืจ. ืืืืฉื ืชืงืฃ ืืงืืจืคืืก ื-12 ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืื ืืฆืจ ืืฆื ืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืื-ืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืขืงื ืงืฉืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืก ืงืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืืืช ื'ืงืกืื. ืื ืจื ืืืืืื ืกืืื ืจ ื ืื ืก ืืขืช ืืคืขืืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืจืื ืืืขืจื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืฉืกืคืื ืืืืืช ืงืฉืืช ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืกืืช ืืืจื. ืฉืจืืื ืืงืืจืคืืก ื-12 ื ืขื ืืืืืจ ืื ืกืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืื. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืชื ืืจืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืชืงืคื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื, ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืชืฉืื ืืืืชื ืื ืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืฉืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื "ื ืชืื ืืืืื", ืืืฉืจ ืืืกืืฃ ืืื ืขื ืืืจืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืกืืช ืืืจื. ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืกืคืจื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื, ืืืื 25 ืืชืื 34 ืืงืฆืื ืื ืืฉืื. ืืงืฉืืื ืืืืืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืฉืืชืงืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืขืงื ืืืกืกื ืืช ืฉื ืืงืืื, ืืืืืื ืืงืืฉื ืืคืจืืฆืช ืืืขืจื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืื. ืืื ืจื ืืจื ืกืืื, ืืงืฆื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืขืจื ืืืืืื, ืงืืื ืืช ืคืงืืืืชืื ืืืืืืจ ืืคืขื ืขื ืคืืื ืืืืฉื. ืืงืจื ืืกืชืืื ื"ื ืชืื ืืืืื" ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืคื ื ืฉืืจื ืกืืื ืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืงืจืืช ืฆืืจืื ืืืื, ืืืืืชื ืืขืช ืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืขื ืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืืจืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืื'ืงืกืื ืืฆืคืื. ืืืกืืฃ ืืจื ืกืืื ืืชืงืื, ืื ืืชืงืืืืชื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืช ืขืงื ืืชื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืืฉืจ ืืงืจื ืืจื ืกืืื ืืจืืื' (ืืฉืจ ืืจื ืกืืื). ืืืจืืช ืืกืคืจื ืืืืขื, ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืืฉืจ ืืฆืืืื ืืืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืช ืืืชืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืจื ืกืืื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืขื ื ืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืขืื ื-8,000 ืืืฉ, ืืืกืืืืืช ืืฉืขื 15:00 ืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืืื ืคืชื ืืืชืงืคื ืขื ื-2,000 ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉืืชืคืจืฉื ืขื ืืืืขืืช ืืืืจื ืืฉืืจืคืกืืจื. ืืจื ืกืืื ืืื ืืกืืืง ืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืื, ืื ืจืื ืืื ืื ืกืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืฉืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื, ืืืืจ ืืชืืจืื ืืช ืืืืฉ, ื ืขื 27 ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืชืื ืฉืขืชืืื ืืืืืขื ืืขืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืจื ืกืืื. ืืืชืงืคื ืฉื ืืื ืจืืกืงื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืฉืขื 16:30 ืืืฃ ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืกืืื ืืื ืื ืกืืื ืืืื. ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืกืืื ืกืืืื ืืืขืฉื ืืช ืืงืจื. ืืืฅ ืืืคืขื ืขื ืืงืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืชืงืฉืจืืช ืืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืกืืืื, ืื ืืื ืกืืจื, ืืื ืืฆื ืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืจื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืืงืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืฉื ืื, ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืจื ืกืืื ืืืคืงื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง. ืืจื ืกืืื ืืืจื ืขื ืืชืงืคื ืืขืืจ ืื ืืจ ืืจืคืื ืืง ืืคืจืืจืืงืกืืืจื. ืืื ื ืชืื ื ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืงืืื ืขืืจื ืืืืชืืื ืืจื ืืื ืจื ืืืคืงื ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืื ืจื ืืืืง. ืขืืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืื ืืจ ืืคืฉืจื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืื. ืืขืืืจื ืคืจืืจืืงืกืืืจื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืืืช ื ืืจ ืจืคืื ืืง ืืืืจืื-ืืขืจื ืื ืืชืืฆืจื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืื ืื ืจืง ื-25 ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืกืืื ืืืชืงืื ืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืืช ืื ืืจ. ืื ืืื ืืฆืืืช ืื ืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ื-11 ืืืฆืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืืจืืืืจื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืชืื ืืขืืจ ืคืจืืจืืงืกืืืจื. ืืืจืืืืจืื ืืขืืืคื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืชืืคืฉืจื ืืกืชืขืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืจื ืขืฆืื. ืื ืชืืืื ืคืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืจ, ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืขืืืจื ืืืจื ื"ืกืืื ืืื" ื'ืงืกืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืจื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืขืจื ืืืืงื ืฉื ืงื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืจื ืืขืืืจื ืคืจืืจืืงืกืืืจื ืขืฆืื. ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืคืจื ืงืืื ืืฆืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืชืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืืฆืจืื ื-13 ืืืฆืืืจ. ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืคืจื ืงืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืจืืช ืฉืื ืคืจื ืงืืื ืืืกืก ืื ืืื ืืคืงืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืจืืช ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืกืืื. ืืงืฉืืื ืืืืืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืื'ืงืกืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืืงืจืืช ืืชืงืคืช ื ืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืืื ืืฉ ืืจืืืืจืื. ืืืืฉื ืืืฆืข ื ืืกืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืฉืจ ืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืฆืืจืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืจืืจืืงืกืืืจื ื ืขื ืืขืืจ ืคืืจืืง ืืืฃ ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืื ืืฆืืื. ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฆืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืคืฉืืืืช ืขื ืฉืืืช ืคืชืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืืฆืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืจื ืืื ืืจืฃ ืืขืืจื. ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉืฉืืืจื ืืช ืืืืฆืืจืื ืชืจืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืืงื ืืื ืขื ืืชืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืงืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืจืืฅ ืืืื ืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืชื ืืจืกื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืืืข ืืงื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืฃ ืืืขืฅ ืืื: โืื ืชืฉืื ืื ืืื ืขืืฉืื ืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืง ืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืืชืงืจื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืชื ืงื ืืชืืชื ืื ืชืืืืฉืช ืจืื, ืื ื ืืคืื ืืช ืืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืืืขื ืืงื.โ ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืคืงื ืืืฉ ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง, ื'ืืืฃ ืืืงืจ, ืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืกืืื. ืืืงืจ ืื ื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืคืกื ืืงืฉื ืืชืื ื ืืช ืืืืงืชื ืืงืจืืช ืืชืงืคื ืืชืืืืช ืขื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืื. ืืืงืจ ืชืื ื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืื ืืืจืืืื ืื ืฉืืคืจืฉืื ืื ืชืงื ืืช ืงืืื ืืืกืคืงื ืืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉื ืื ืขื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืื"ืจ ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจื ืืช ื ืืจ ืจืคืื ืืง ืืืืืคื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืขืืจืฃ. ืืงืจืืช ืืงืจื ืืื ืืจืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืงืจ 97,382 ืืืืืื ืืขืืืช 57,352 ืืจืฉืืชื ืฉื ืื. ืื ืืขืจืื ื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืืชืืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืจืื ืืขืืจ ืื ืืจ ืจืคืื ืืง, ืืื ืืขืืืจื ืฆ'ื ืกืืืจืกืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฆืจืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืื ืืืืฃ ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ื-1 ืืืื 1863 ืืคืชืืขื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืจืื. ืืืงืจ ืืืจื ืขื ื ืกืืื ืืขืืจ ืืขืืืจื ืฆ'ื ืกืืืจืกืืืื ืืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืง ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืชืงืคืชื. ืืืืชื ืืขืจื ืื ืื'ืงืกืื ื ืคืืฉื ืืชืื ื ืืช ืืขืจื ืืงืจืืืช ืืืื ืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืืืข 2 ืืืื ืื ืชืงืฃ ืืืืชืืช ืืช ืืขืจื ืืืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืฆ'ื ืกืืืจืกืืืื ืขื 15,000 ืืืฉ ืืืื. 30,000 ืืืืื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืชืคืฆืื ืืืคืืงืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืฆืขื ืืืืืฃ ื ืจืื ืฉื ืฉืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืขืืจืฃ ืืืื ืืืคืชืืข ืืช ืืืงืจ. ืืฉืขื ืืืฉ ืืคื ืืช ืขืจื ืืืจื ื'ืงืกืื ืขื ืืชืงืคื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืชืื ืืขืืจ ืืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืขืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืชืงืคืช ืคืชืข. ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืื ืื'ืงืกืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ื ืกืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืฉื 2 ืืืื, ืืืฉืจ ืจืื ื'ืงืกืื ืืืฉืื, ืืื ื ืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืื ืคืฆืข ืื ืืฉืืช. ื'ืงืกืื ื ืคืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืืชื ืคืืข ืืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืงืืจืคืืกืื ืฉืขืืจื ืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืื. ืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืื ืื ืืชืืง ืงืืื ืืืกืคืงื ืฉื ืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืงืจืื ืืฉืื ืืืจืืื ื ืืคื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืข ืืืืจื. ื-5 ืืืื, ืืืืขืืื ืขื ืืคืงืื ืืงืืจืคืืกืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง, ืืืงืจ, ืชืืช ืืืฅ ืืืืคืงืืื, ืืืจื ืขื ื ืกืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืจื ืืืจืืื ื ืืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืคืกื. ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืื ืขื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืชืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉืื ืืจืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืชื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื ืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืื ืงืฉื ืืคืืงืื ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืจ ืืืคืกื ืืฆ'ื ืกืืืจืกืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืงืืื ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืคืืงืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืืืืืฃ ืืช ื'ืืืฃ ืืืงืจ ืื'ืืจื' ืืื. ืืืืจ ืื ืืฆืืื ืืฆ'ื ืกืืืจืกืืืื ืขืืื ืื ืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขื ืฆืืืช ืืจืืื. ืื ืฉืื ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก ืงืจื ืืชืืืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืขื ืืืงืกืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ื ืคืืืช ื ืืจ ืืืืกืืกืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืขืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืื ืืขื ืื ืื ืขืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืฉื ืืื ืจื ืืืชืจ, ืืคืจืฉ ืืืกืคืงื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืฉืจืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืื ื. ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืืืก ืืกืืื ืืชืืื ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืื ืื ืกืืช ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืืคืืืฉ ืืฆืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืฆืืืืช ืขื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืกื. ืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืง. ืื ืชืื ื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจื ืคื ืกืืืื ืื. ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืงืืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืคืฉืืืช ืฉืืืฉื ืจืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืคืจืฉืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื.ื.ื. ืกืืืืจื ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืขืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืืืข ืืืืืขืื ื ืืืื ืืคืืงืื ืฉื ืื ืื ืืืข ืืชื ืืขืช ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืข ืืืจื ืขื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืขืื ื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืงืจืืช ืืชื ืืขื ืฆืคืื ื ืืขืืจ ืคื ืกืืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืชื ืฉื ืื 71,699 ืืืืืื ืืขืืืช 93,921 ืืืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ื'ืืจื' ืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง. ืืงืืฅ 1863, ืื ืคืืฉ ืืฆืคืื ืืฉื ืืช. ื-15 ืืืื ื, ืฉืืืฉื ืงืืจืคืืกืื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืื ืืฆื ืืช ื ืืจ ืืคืืืืืง ืื-28 ืืืื ื ืื ืืืืขื ืื ืืจ ืกืืกืงืืื ื ืืคื ืกืืืื ืื. ืืขืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืงืจ ืืืืชื ื ืืืืืืขืื ืขื ืขืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืคืงื ืืคืจืฉืื ืกืืืืืจื, ืืจืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืข ืื ืขื ืื ืฉืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืจืืืื ืืืืืจ. ืืจื ื ืืฆืื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืงืืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื, ืืืชืื ืกืื ืื ืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืขื ืชื ืืขืช ืฆืืื ืืืชืขืืชืืช ืืืืชืืช ืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืฉื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืกืืจื. ืืืงืื ืืืืงืจ 1 ืืืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืคืืงืื ืื ืจื ืืืช' ืืขืืจ ืืืืกืืจื ืืืฉืชืื ืขื ืงืืื ืืกืคืงื. ืืืชืงืฉืจืืช ืื ืืชืืื ื ืช ื ืคืืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืช' ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืืจ ืื ืจื ื'ืื ืืืคืืจื ืืฉืจ ืฆืืื ืืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืืืขืช ืชืืืืจืช ืื"ืจ ืืฆื ืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง. ืื ืจื ืืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืก ื ืืจื ืืืืื ืืงืจื. ืขื ืืืจื ืชืืืืจืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืชืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืจืืฆ'ืจื ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืงืื. ืืฉืขืืช ืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืืืืืืจืืช, 30,000 ืืืืื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืืขื ืืืืืืืช 20,000 ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืขืืจ ืืืืกืืจื ืขืฆืื ืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฆืจื ืืช ืืืช ืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืื ืืขืืจ. ืืืื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืงืจื (2 ืืืืื), ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืื ื ืืืื ื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืืขืืช ืืจืืกืื ืืฆืืจืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืจื ืขืฆืื, ืืฉืจ ืืคืื ืืฉืื ืงืจื. ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืืืช ืขืืืคืืช ืืช ืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืืืืชื ืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืื ืืืจื ืขื ืคืชืืืชื ืฉื ืืชืงืคื ืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืขื ืืืฃ ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืขืื ืืฉืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืื, ืืกืื ืืงืื, ืืืืืืคืืื, ืืคืจืืก ืืืคืจืกืง ืืืืืช ืืงืืจืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืชืงืจืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืื ืืคื ืื ืืงืฆืจืื ืืืชืจ, ืืคืงื ืงืืจืคืืก ืืคืืืืืง ืืฉื ื, ืืื ืจื ืืื ืคืืื ืกืงืื ืื ืงืืง ืืืืจืื ืืขืืืจื ืชืืืืจืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืงืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืขืจื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืฆืืื ืืคืืขื ืืชืงืคืืช ืจืืืืช ืืืงืฃ ืืืืขืช ืืงืืจืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืืขืช ืงืืืคืก ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืขืจื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืื ืืคืจืฆืืช ืืฉื ื ืงืฆืืืช ืืงื, ืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืงื ืืขืืืืช ืืฆืืืืช ืขื ืจืืช ืืืฉืื. ื-3 ืืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉ, ืื ืคืขื ืื ืฆื ืืช ืืจืืืืื ืืืกืืจืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืงืืื ืขื ืืชืงืคืืช ืืืืืฉืืช ืขื ืงื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืคืจืฆืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืชืืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืฉื ืืืืขืช ืงืืืคืก ืืฉืืืืืช ืืืืืื ื ืืกื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขืื ืืืื ืืงืืื. ืงืจืืืช ืืคืจืฉืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืืจืื ืืืจืืื, ืื ืืืืจืืข ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืชืงืคื ืืืืชืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฉื 12,500 ืืืืื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืคืืงืื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ื ืื ืืจืื ืขืืืืช ืงื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืจืืก ืืืืขืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืืช ืืขืืืื. ืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืชืืงืคืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืื ืจื ืคืืงื. ืคืืงื, ืฉืงืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืชืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืจื ืงืืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืช, ืกืืจื ืืืืขื ืืช ืืคืงืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืคืจ ืืืชื. ืืืืื ืืืจืืฅ ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืคืจืืจืืงืกืืืจื, ืืืื ืืคืื ืืชืจืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืกืืจื ืืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืขืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืื ืคืชืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืข ืืงื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืขืจื ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืจื ืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืช, ืืชืื ืืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืชื ืื ืฆื ืืงืจื ืืืืืฉืื ืื ืืข ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืคืจืืฅ ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืชืืช ืขื ืืจืื ืงื ืืฆืคืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช. ืื ื ืกืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืื, ืืื ืืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืื ืืืืื, ืื ื ืจืืฃ ืขื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื. ืขื ื'ืืจื' ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืงืืจืช ืืจืืคื ืขื ืฉืื ื ืข ืืืจื ืื ืืืืืืชืื ืื ืกืืืื. ืืช ืืคืกื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืงืจื ื ืืชื ืืงืฉืจ ืืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืื, ืจืืื ืืงืืฉืจืื ืื ืื ืขืฆืื. ืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืืฆื ืืจืืืืชื ืืขืืจืขืจ ืืืืชืื ืฉืกืื ืืชืขืืงืช ืื. ืืืืชื ืื ืฉืื ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก ืืืืข ืื ืชืฉืืฉืืช ืืงืืืช ืืืฉืื ืฉืืจืื ืืื ืฉื ืขืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืฉื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืฆื ืืฉืื ืืงืจื. ืขื ืื ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืฉืืขืช ืืฆื ืืืง ืืืคืงืื ืืงืืจืคืืกืื ืฉืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืงืกืื. ืืชืจื ืืืืชืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืคืืงื ืืืืจืืชื ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืื, ืืื ืืคืงืืื ืฉืคืืจืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืช ืืคืงืืืืช ืฉื ืื. ืืชืจ ืื ืื, ืื ืื ืืขืจืื ื ืืื ื ืืช ืืขืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืืงืจื, ืืืช ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ื'ืืจื' ืืื. ืืืขืฉื, ืื ื ืฉืขื ืืืขืจืืืชืื ืืฆืืืืืช ืขื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืงืืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืคืกืื ืืืืืกืืจื ืฉืื ืื ืืืชื ืืชืคืืจืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก, ื-8 ืืืืืืกื 1863, ืื ืืืืืืืก ืกืืจื ืืืงืฉืชื. ืืืงืืจืช ืจืื ืืืืขื ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืจืกืืืืืช ืฉื ืื, ืฉืืื ื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืจืืื. ืืืงืืจืช ืืืช ืื ืืืคืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืื ืจืง ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ, ืฉืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืคืกื ืขืืืื ืืืขืจื ืืื ืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ื-1864, ืืืคืงื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืืช, ืืื ืจื ืืืืืกืก ืก. ืืจื ื ืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืช ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื. ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืขืฆืจื ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืฆืคืื, ืื ืืขืืจืช ืชืืืืจืืชืื ืืฆืืื ืืจื ื ืืืชืงืื ืื-ืื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืืืจื. ืืงืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืงืจื ืืฉืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืฉืื ืฆื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืข ื ืืฆืืื, ืกืืื ื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืืืืื 1864. ืืจื ื ืืื ืืืืข ืืืคืจืฉ ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืกืื, ืืฉืื ื ืืงืืืืื, ืื ืืืจืืฆื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืฉืืื, ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืงืื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืืช ืืงืจื. ืฆืื ืืืืืื ืกืคื ืืืชืจ ื-17,500 ืืจืืืื ืืืฉื 48 ืฉืขืืช, ืืืคืื ืืืชืจ ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืคืื ืืืงืจ ืฉื ืืงืจื, ืืจื ื ืกืืจื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ื ืกืืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื ืื ืืื ืงืฉืจ ืืชืืฆืื, ืืื ืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืฆืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืฉื 7 ืืืื, ืฉืขืืช ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื, ืืื ืืจื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืงืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืชืงืืืืชื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืขื ืคืจืฉืช ืืืจืืื ืืกืคืืืกืืืื ืื ืืืืชืื ืืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื. ืื ืฆืคื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืจ ืืฉืืช ืืืืืขืื ืืืคืจืฉืื ื-8 ืืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืคืืจ ืงื ืืืฆืืจื ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ื-6 ืง"ื ืืฆืคืื ืืกืคืืืกืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืชืืชืฉืืืืช ืจืืฉืื ืืช, ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืชืงืคื ืืจื ืคืจืฆื ืืงื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื-10 ืืืื. ืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืฉืื ืฉืืกืชืขืจื ืืจืืฆื ืืืจื ืืช ืงืืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืื ืืชืงืคืช ื ืื ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืกืืฃ ืืืชื ืืืื. ืืฉืืจื ื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืงืจืืช ืชืงืืคื ื ืืกืคืช, ืื ืื ืืขืจืื ืืฆืืจื ื ืืื ื ืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืข ืงืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืคืืืฉ ืชืืจืื ืืืืืฃ ืคืืื ืฆืืืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื, ืืชืงืคืชื ืฉื ืืจื ื ื-12 ืืืื ืืืชื ืืชืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืคืจืฆื ืืช ืงืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืื ืืข ืืื ืืกืชืื ืืช ืืคืขืจ. ืืงืจื ืืฉืชืืื ืื ืชืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืฉ ืืขื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืฉืืื ืืช ืื ืืฃ ืืฉืืืืืื ืขืกืงื ืืืืืื ืคื ืื ืืื ืคื ืื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืฉืืฆื ืืฉื "ืืืืืช ืืืืื". ืืฉืขืืช ืืืืงืืืืช ืฉื 13 ืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืื ืืืช ืชืขืืช ืืืฆืืจืื ืืืฉื ืื ืกืืื ืืืื. ืืชืงืคืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืงื ืืืฉ ืื ื-18 ืืืื ื ืชืงืื ืืืจื ืืจืืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืคืืขื ืขื ืืืืฆืืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืฉืืืืื, ืืจื ื ืืื ื ืืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจื ืืคืฉืจืืช. ืืจื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ื ืืจ ืื ื ืืฆืคืื ื, ืฉื ืืื ืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืจื ื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืืืืช ื ืคืจืืืช. ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืืืช ืื ืืจ ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืื ืจื ืืื ืืื ื ืืชืขืืื ืขื ืืืฆืื ืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืจืืฉื ืืืฉืจ ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืื ืืจ. ื-24 ืืืื, ื ืืืคื ืืชืงืคื ืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืืงืืจืคืืก ืืชืฉืืขื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืงืฆื ืงื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืงืก-ืคืืจื. ืื ืงืืื ืืืช ืจืื ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ื ืืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืื ืฆืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืชืืฆืื ืื ืืฉืืขืืช ืืื 28 ืืืื ื-30 ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืคืืืืืื, ืื ืืืจื ื ืืืจื ืืืืืืชืืื ืื ืืข ืืืืืื ืงืืื ืืืจืืืจ ืืืจืื-ืืืจื. ืืืจืืื ืืฆืืืช ืงืจืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืืืงืืจืืช ืืกืคืงื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืงืืฉืจืืช ืืืจืื ืืืกืคืงื ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืคืจืฉื ืืืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืคืืืืค ืฉืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืชืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืคืจืฉืช ืืืจืืื ืืืกืืจืืืืช. ืืจื ื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืืืฅ ืฆืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืชืื ืขื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื. ืืชืืชืฉืืืืช ืงืืืช ืฉืืจืจื ืืืจืืื ืขืืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ื-31 ืืืื, ืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืฉื ืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืชืจืืฉื ื-3 ืืืื ื, ืืืฉืจ ืืจื ื ืคืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืชืืช ืขื ืืขืจื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืจื ื ืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืชืื ืืชืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืงื ืืืื ื ืืืจืื, ืื ืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืชืงืคื ืฉื ืืจื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืชืืืืจืช ืืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืืชืื ืืืืชื ืงืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืช ืชื ืืขืชื ืืขืืจ ืงืืื ืืืจืืืจ; ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืื ื ืคืื ืืืืจื, ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืฉืขืืจื ืืช ืงื ืืืื ื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืคืื ืชืื ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืื ืืื ืงื ืืืื ื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืขืื ื-7,000 ืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืจืื ืื ื ืคืฆืขื ืฉืขื ืืืช ืืคื ื ืฉืืจื ื ืขืฆืจ ืืช ืืืชืงืคื. ืืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ื ืคืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืคืชืื ืืืืคืืช ื ืจืงืื ืืชืืช ืืฉืืฉ ืืงืืฆืืช ืืืืงืืช. ืืืืจ ืคืจืง ืืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืขืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืช, ืืจื ื ืืื ื ืืืื ืกืืฃ ืกืืฃ ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืคืื ืื ืืจืืืื ืืคืฆืืขืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉืื ืืงืจื. ืขืืืจ ืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืคืฆืืขืื ืฉืฉืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืืช, ืืืคืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืืจ ืืื. ืืืืืฅ ื ืืกืฃ ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืกืชืื ืืงืืื ืืืจืืืจ, ืืจื ื ืคื ื ืฉืื ืืชืืจืื, ืืคืขื ืขื ืืืืื ื ืื ืชืง ืืช ืงืืื ืืืกืคืงื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืื ืชืง ืืช ืืืืจื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืขืฆืื. ืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืจืืื ืืขืืจ ืฉืืจืืืืกืืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืจืืก ืืช ืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืง ืฉื ื ืืืื ืคื ื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืฆ'ืืืจื, ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืชืขืืช ื ืืจ ื'ืืืืก. ืฉืื, ืื ืคืขื ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืจื ื. ืคืืงืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืจื ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืช ืืงืืจืคืืก ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืื ืจื ื'ืืื ื. ืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืฆ'ืืืจื ืืฉืื ืคืจืฉืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืฉืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืชืขืืชื ืืืกืืฃ ืืชืื ืช ืืจืืืืืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืื ืืจ. ืืจื ื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืื, ืืฉืืขืืืจ ืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืื ืืจ ื'ืืืืก. ืืืืจ ืฉืขืฆืจื ืืช ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืคืืจืกืืืจื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืื ืงืืืช ืงืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืช ืขืืืจ ืจืืืืช ืืกืคืงื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืื ื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืชืขืืืช ืืฉืืืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืชืืช ืืฆืืจ ืืคืืจืกืืืจื. ืื ื ืืกื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืงืืคืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ื'ืืื ื. ืืจืื ืืคืฉืืื ืขื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจื, ืืขืืจ ืืขืืง ืฉื ื ืืืื, ืื ืืจืื ืืืืก ืขื ืืื ืืืืืชืื ืืขืืืคืื ืฉื ืคืืืืค ืฉืจืืื. ืืืฆืืจ ืขื ืคืืจืกืืืจื ืืื ืืืื ื 1864 ืืืกืชืืื ืืืคืจืื 1865. ืขื ืืืฆืข ื ืืืืืจ 1864, ืืืจืื ืืคืกืื ืืืขืฉื ืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืืืืืช, ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืงืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืื. ื-31 ืืื ืืืจ 1865, ืงืืื ืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืคืงื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืชืืืืช 1865 ืงืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืชื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืชืืืจืช ืืืจืืชื. ืืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืงืฆืจ ืฉื ืืชืจ ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืงืืื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืกืืื ืืขืืจ ืคืืจืกืืืจื ื ืื ื ืืืืจื 56 ืงืืืืืืจืื. ืคืืจืกืืืจื ืขืฆืื ืืืืชื ืืืืงืืช ืืืจืืง 37 ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืืืืชื ืืงืืฉืจืช ืืืื ืืืกืืืช ืืจืื. ื-29 ืืกืคืืืืจ ืืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืคืืจื ืืจืืกืื ืื ืืชืงืืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืฉื ื ื ืขืฆืจื. ืืชืืืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืื 62,000 ืืืืื ืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืช 42,000 ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืฆืืจ ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืขืจืงื ืืฉืืจืืชื. ืืจื ื ืงืืข ืขืืืจื ืงืื ื ืืคืจืืจื ืคืืจืกืืืจื ืืืื ืืคืืงืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืจ. ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืชืจ ืื ืคืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืจ, ืคืขื ืืืช ืืืื ื 1864 ืืคืขื ืืืช ืืจืฅ 1865. ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืก ืืช ืืคืงืื ืืืืืื ืืจื ื, ืืืืืื ืืงืืืกื ืฉืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืคืืจืืจ ืืงืืข ืืืชื ืืช ืชื ืื ืืื ืืขื ืฉืงืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืื ืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืืจื ืืื ืืืขืช ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืกืืจืืจื ืืืืจืฃ 1864 - 1865 ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืขืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืืืฆืขืื ืืฆืืืืื, ืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืงืจื ืกืืื ืคืืจืกืืืจื. ืืฉืืืข ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืจ, ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ื ืืืื ืคืฉืืื ืขื ืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืงืื ืืื ื ืืืืงืฉืืช ืขืื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืคืงื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืขืื ืฉืฉืื ืืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืฅ ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืขืืืจ ืืขืืจื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉื ืืกืคืงื ืืืกืืืช ืืืจืื. ืชืื ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืฅ ืืชืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืื ืืข ืืจื ื ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืฅ ืืงืืื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืืฉ ืืงืจืฉ ืืคืืจืืืจ 1865. ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจื ื ืชืื ื ื ืืืฆืข ืืืืืฃ ืืื ืฉื ืคืืจืกืืืจื. ืืขืช ืืืขืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืฆ'ืจ ืืื ืืื ืช ืืจืืกืืจืื ื ื-5 ืืคืืจืืืจ ืื ื ืคืืฉื ืืืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืงืจื ื ืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืชืื ืขื ื ืชืื ืืื ืืงืืื. ืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ ืืชืืื ืืืฉืืขื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื. ืืกืคืงื ืื ืืกืคืงืช, ืืืืข ืขื ืืฆืืงื ืืฉืคืืชืืช ืืืืช, ืืชืืืฉื ืืืฉืจืช ืืืื ืขื ืชืืืกื ืืชืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืจืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืืจื ื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืกืืคืืช. ืืจื ื ืืืจื ืขื ืืจืืื ื ืฉื 50,000 ืืืืื ืจืืืื, ืืชืืืืช ืคืจืฉืื ืืืจืืืืจืื, ืืงืจืืช ืืชื ืชืงืืชื ืืงืืื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืฉื ืืืฆืืจ ืขืืืจ ืชืคืืกืช ื ืชืืื ืืืกืคืงื ืื ืืชืจืื ืฉื ืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืขืืจ. ืขืื ืงืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืจื ื ืืคืืขื, ืื ืชืื ื ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืืฅ ืืืขืจื ืืขืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืฆืืข ืืชืงืคืช ืคืชืข ืขื ืืืืง ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืงื ืืคืืจื ืกืืื ืฉื ืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืื ืืืืืื. ืืคื ื ืืืจืืื ื-25 ืืืจืฅ, ืืืง ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืช ืชืงืืคืชื ืืืืืจืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืฆืจ ืืืืืื. ืืฆื ืชืงืืืชื ืืฉืืคืชื ืืช; ืกืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืงืืืฉืื. ืืชืงืคืช ื ืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืื ืืกื ืืช ืืชืงืคืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื - ืืืืจืื ื ืืกืืื ืฉืงืืื ืื - ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืจื ื. ืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืง ืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืงืจืืืช ืืจืืืื, ืืฆืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืคืืจืกืืืจื ื-2 ืืืคืจืื 1865. ืื ื ืืฉ ืืช ืืืื ื ืขื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืคืขื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืขื ืืืืืชืื ืื ืืชืจืื ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืจื ื'ืืืฃ ื' ื'ืื ืกืืื ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช. ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืืจื ื ื ืงื ืืืืืื. ื-29 ืืืจืฅ ืืืื ืคืจืฉื ืืืืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืคืืืืค ืฉืจืืื ืืงืืจืคืืก ืืจืืืื ืืืืืฉื ืื ืืข ืืจืืืืช-ืืขืจืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืกืืืช' ืกืืื. ื-1 ืืืคืจืื, 21,000 ืืืืืื ืคืืจืืืื ืืชืืชืฉื ืืืื ืืขื ืืช 11,000 ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืืจื' ืคืืงื ืืฆืืืช ืืจืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืืช. ืืจื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืจ ืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืืืช ื ืื ืงืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืกืืืื ื-2 ืืืคืจืื. ืขื ืฆืืฆืื ืงืืื ืืืกืคืงื ืฉืื, ื ืืจืฉ ืื ืืงืจืื ืืชืืืืจืช ืืฆื ืืืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืืจืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืื ืืื ื. ืืืงืืจ ืชืื ื ืื ืืืจืื ืืขืจื ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืฆืื ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉ, ืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืชืืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืชืื ื ืืฆืขืื ืืืืจื ืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืคืืืฉ ืืช ืืฉืจ ื ืืชืจ ืืฆืื ืื ืกื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืืื ืฉืืืืข ืืฆืคืื ืงืจืืืืื ื. ืืื, ืฉืชื ืืจืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืฉืืื ืจืืืงืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืงืืจื ืืฉืื, ืชืื ื ื ืืืกืืืจ ืงื ืืื ื ืืื ื ืืจ ืจืืื ืืง, ืืืฆืืช ืืืชืงืคื ื ืื ืฉืจืื. ืืฆืขืื ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื ืืคืืจืกืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืฆืื, ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืื ืืงืฆืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืื, ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืื, ืื ืืืืจ ืืฆืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืคืืข ืกืืื ื ืขืืืคืืช ืืจืขื. ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื-4 ืืืคืจืื, ืืื ืืฆื, ืืืืจืช ืจืืื, ืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืขื ืขืงื ืงืืืขืช ืงืืื ืืืกืคืงื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืฆืขืื ืืืืืจื ืฆืืื, ืืืืืืื ืืจืขืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ื ืืงืงื ืืืกืคืงื. ืืขืืื ืืืชืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฆ'ืืื ื, ืฉืืชืขืื ืืชื ืื ืฉืืืคืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืฆืขืื ืืืฉืืื ืงืจืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืคืจื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืฆืจืืื. ืืืงืืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืขื ืืชืช ืืืงืจืื ืืช ืืืจื ืจืืงืื ืืืขื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืฉื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืฆืขืื ืืืื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืืืคืื ืืื ืืืชืงืจื. ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืื ืงืืืช ืืืคื ื ืฉื ืืืขืจืื. ืืืฆืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื-5 ืืืคืจืื, ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืื ื ืขื ืจืง ืืื ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืคืจืฉืื ืืืจืืืื ืฉื ืฉืจืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืชื ืืขื ืฉืืื ืืขืืจ ื'ืื ืกืืื. ืืืงืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืขืืื ืืคืืจืืืช ืืืืืกืกืช, ืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืชืืื ืืชื. ืืื ืชืื ื ื ืื ืืฆืขืื ืืช ืฆืืื ืืขืจืื, ืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืื ืกื ืืืืื ืืกืคืงื ืืืืืืื ืืคืจืืืืื ืืืืจื ืชืืืื ืืจืืืช ืฉื ืกืืืช' ืกืืื. ืื ืกืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืชืืช ืืืฅ ืคืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืงืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืื ืฆืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืจื ืืขืืืจื ืืคืืืืืืงืก. ืืจื ื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืคืื ืืืืจืืข ืฉื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืคืจืืืืื ืฉืื ืฆืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืชืงืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืฆืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืข ืืช ืืขืืจื. ืืงืจื ืขื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืฅ ืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืืช. ืขืืืคืื ืืืืกืจ ืฉืื ื (ืื ืืืจื ืขื ืฆืขืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืคืขืจ ืืืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืื) ืืจืขืืื, ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืืืคืื ืืขืืืืชืืื. ืคืจืืืช ืืกืืกืื, ืื ืื ืืืจืขืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืงืจืกื ืชืืช ืืขืืืก. ืืฉืฆืคื ืืืชืจืืฉ ืืืืขื ืกืืืื, ืงืจื ืื: โืืืืืื ืืืืจืื! ืืื ืืฆืื ืงืืจืก?โ ืืืขื 8,000 ืืืฉ ืืฉืืื ื ืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืช, ื ืืจืื, ื ืชืคืกื ืื ื ืคืฆืขื ืืืฉืจ ืืงืืจืคืืก ืืฉืืฉื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืฉื ืืืืืื ืชืงืฃ ืืขืืจืคื. ืฉืจืืื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืคืจืืืืื ื-7 ืืืคืจืื ืฉื ืืืชืื ื ืืื ืืกืคืงื, ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืฉืจืืื ื ืขื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืจืื ืขื ืื ืคืจืฉื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืชืืืฆื ืืจืืืืืช ืืขืืืจื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืกืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืช ืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืกืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืืื ืฉื ืืจื ื, ืื ืฉื ืืืกืชืืื ืืขืจืื ืืชืงืืื ืฉืืืื ืืกืคืง ืืืื ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืฉื ืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืืคื ืืช ืืจืืื. ืฆืคืื ืืช ืืคืจืืืืื, ืื ืคื ื ืืขืจืื ืืืืืฉ ืจืืฆ'ืืื ื-ืืื ืฆ'ืืืจื. ืืงืืจืคืืกืื ืืฉื ื ืืืฉืืฉื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืขืงืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืืข ืืืช, ื ืขื ืื ืืืืืช ืจืืืื ืืคืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืจื ื ืืจ ืืืคืืืืืืงืก ืืฉืืื ืืงืืืข ืืช ืืชืงืืืืชื. ืืืืืชื ืืคืจืืืืื ื-7 ืืืคืจืื ืฉืื ืืจื ื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืช ืื ืืขืช ืฆืืื. ืื, ืืกืืืืช ืื ืกืืืช ืงืืืืจืื ื, ืงืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืงืจื ืืืชื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืชื ืื ืืืืื ื ื ืื ืจื ืืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืขื ื ืืืืืจื "ืขืืืื ืื." ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืฉืื ืืฆืขืืชื ืืขืจืื ืืื ืืืข ืขื ืืื ืืฆื ืฆืืื ื ืืืฉ. ืืื ืงืืืื ืืืืืข ืืชืื ืช ืืคืืืืืงืก ืืคื ื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืจืืืื ืืืงืื ืืช ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืฆ'ืืืจื ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืช ืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืขืงืืคืืช. ืื ืื, ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืจืืจื ืืื ืืืืื ืข. ืืืจ ืืฆืืจืืื ืฉื 8 ืืืคืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื ืขืฆืจื ืงืืืืืืจ ืฆืคืื ืืช-ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืงืก. ืืืืชื ืืืื ื ืฉืืขื ืืฉ ืืจืืืืจืืช ืืชืื ืช ืืคืืืืืงืก, ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืกืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืคืื ืืืขืืจืคื. ืืคืจืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืื, ืฉืฆืขืื ืืืจืืื ืงืฆืจืืช ืืืชืจ, ืืกืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืจืืื ืืืขืจืื. ืื ืืชืืืขืฅ ืขื ืคืงืืืื ืืงืืข ืฉืืฉ ืืขืฉืืช ื ืืกืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืข ืืืกืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืืื. ืขื ืฉืืจ ื-9 ืืืคืจืื ืชืงืฃ ืืื ืืคืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืคืงื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ื'ืื ื. ืืืจืืื ืืช ืคืจืฉื ืืืืืื ืฉืืกืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืคืืืืืงืก, ืื ืืืืจ ืืฆืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืช, ืืืจืืื ืฉืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืฉืขื 8:30 ืืคื ืืช ืืืงืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืคืงืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืขืืื 30,000 ืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืจืื, ืืชืืื ืจืง ืืืฆืืช ืืขืจื ืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืขื ืืคื ื ืืืชืงืคื ืืกืืคืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืืง ืขื ืื ืืชืจืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืจืฉืื ืืฆืืช ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืคืฃ ืื ืืจืืืืช ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ืื ื ืื ืข ืืื ืจื ืืจื ื ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 1865, ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืคืืืืืงืก, ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืื ืกืืจื ืืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืคืงืืืื (ืืืขืงืืคืื, ืฉื ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืืืืืืก), ืฉืจืฆื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืื ืืขื ืืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืืืช ืงืื ืืช ืืืกืชื ื ืืืจืื ืืืฉื ืืคืชืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืื. ืืืื ืืืจ ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืงืจืืื ืืืขื ืืืจื ืืืืื. ืื ืืขืช ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ื'ืื ืกืืื ืื ืฉืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืฉ ืืชืงืืืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืื. ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืงืฉื ืืงืืืช ืื ืื ื ืจืฉืืืช, ืื ืืขืืื ืื ืงืืื ืชืฉืืื, ืขืงื ืืขืืช ืจืืฉืื. ืื ืื ืื ืฉืืืกืจ ืืชืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืฉืื ื ืืข ืืจืฆืื ื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืชื ืืชืืืข ืืืชื ืืขืชืื. ืื ืืฉื ืืงืฉืช ืืื ืื ื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืื ืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืจืืื ืืืจืื. ื-1975 ืื ืฉืื ื'ืจืื ืคืืจื ืืขื ืืง ืื ืื ืื ื ืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฉืื ืื ืืช ืืืจืืืชื, ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืืขืช ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1970. ืืืืืช ืงืืกืืืก-ืื, ืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืฉืชื ืืคื ื ืืืืืื, ืืืืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืง ืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืคืกืงื ืืชื ืืืฉืคื ืื ืืคืงืขืช ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉ ืืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืฉื ืื. ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืืขื ืืจืืืฉ ืืช ืืงืจืงืข, ืืืื ืืกืืื. ืื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงืืื' (ืืืื - ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื) ืืืงืกืื ืืืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืื ื-2 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1865. ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืคื ืืช ืืงืืื' ืืืืช-ืกืคืจ ืงืื ืืืกืจ ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืงืืื'ืื ืืืืจืืงื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฆืืขื ืงืืจืกืื ืืขืกืงืื, ืขืืชืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจืืืช. ืืื ืื, ืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืคืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืช, ืจืขืืื ืชืืื ืืืื ื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืฉืคื ื ืชืคืฉ ืืขืืกืืง ืืื ื, ืื ืืื ืืืงืืืืื. ืื ืืฆืจ ืงืื ืืืื ืคืฉืื ืืืคืืื ืืงืืื' - "ืืฉ ืื ื ืืืง ืืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืื ืกืืืื ื ืืื ื'ื ืืืื". ืืืง ืื ืขืืืื ืงืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชื-ืกืคืจ ืืืจืื. ืืืืช ืืคืขืืืืชืื ืืืฉืืืืช, ืืืงื ืื ืืช ืืืืฆื ืืงืืื' ืืืฉืืืช ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืคืื. ืืจื, ืืฉืชื ืฉื ืื, ืืขื ื ืื ืืืข ืืืชืคืืจืืช ืืขืื ืืคืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืจื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื: ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืขืืช ืฉื ืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืจืื ืืืช. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืื, ืืืืฉ ืืืื, ืืื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืจื ืืจืฆื. ืืื ืื ืืืืืง ืืงืฉื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืื - ืืืชืคืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืื ืืืืืง ืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉืื ืฉื ื. ืืขืจื 28 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1870, ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืคื ืื ื ืืืจ. ืจืืคืืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืช ืืืคืื ืคืจื ืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ. ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืงื ืืฉืืฅ, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืจืืคืืื ืื ืืืื ื ืืืช. ืืฉื ืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืชืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืื (ืืื ืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ื ืคืงืืืจืืก) ืืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืชืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืขืืชืื ืืฉื ืจืืืื. ืกืืืจ ืฉืกืื ืืืจืฉืช ืขืืจืงืื, ืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืคืจืขื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืื ืืื, ืฉืชืืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืืื. ืืฉื ืชื ืืืืจืื ื ืืชืืืื ืื, ืืืงื ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืจืืข. ืืฉืืฅ ืคืืข ืืืื ืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืจ. ื ืืกืฃ ืืื, ื ืืฆืจ ืืื ื ืืืฉืชืขื ืืืืจืืง, ืืขืื ืฉืชืชืืื ืืงืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืง ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืจืื ืืจืืืืชืื ืืืจืื ืืืืงืช ืจืืืืช. ืื, ืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืชืขื, ื ืคืืจ ืืืฉืคืขืืชืื ืฉื ืืืงืช ืืจืืืืช, ืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืฅ, ืืืืงืจ 12 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1870, ืืืงืกืื ืืืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืื ื ืงืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืงืื ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืื ืืื ืื ืื ื ืงืจืืื ืขื ืฉืื (ืื ืืฆืืจืืฃ ืฉืื). ืกืืกื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืื, ืืจืืืืจ, ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงืืื' ืืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืื ืฉืขืจืืช ืจืืืช ืืื ืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืขืจืืฆืื ืจืืื ืจืฆื ืืืืจืช ืืืกืืก ืืืคืืจืกื. ืืฉื ืช 1870, ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ืื, ืฆืขื ืืจืืืืจ ืืืืืจื ืงืจืื-ืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืจื. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ืื, ืืจื ืืจืืืืจ ืขื ื ืขืฅ ืืืื ืืืื ืืฆืคืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืืช-ืืจืคื ืืขืช ืืืื, ืืืจืืืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจืื. ืืื ื ืงืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืชืืชืื ื ืงืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื. ื-1907 ืืืฆืื ืฉืจืืืื ืืืงืืจ, ืืืืฆืื ืืืืื. ื-1971 ื ืงืืจื ืืืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืฆืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืื. ืื ืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืชื ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืฆืืขื ืื ืืฉืืช ืืช ืืจืื ืฉื ื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืฆืขื ืื ืื ืกืืจื. ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืงืจืืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ืืชืฉืข ืืืื ืืช, ืืื ืง M3 ืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืงืกืื ืืืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื: ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืืง ืืืื ืื-ื'ืงืกืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืกืืกืืคื ืืืคืืืจืืื, ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืชืจ ืงืื ื. ืืืืืช ืงืืกืืืก-ืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืชืืืจืจ ืื ืืืฉื ืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืจืื, ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืฆืื ืืืืืืืื. ืืืชืจ ืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืคืืจืงืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืื ืืจืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืงืืื ืื ืื ื ื ืฉืืืืชืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืคืืจื, ืื ืฉืื ืจืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื, ืืืจืฉืื ืืืกืืจ ืืช ืืคืกืืื ืืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืืงืืฉืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื ืื ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืกืจืช ืคืกืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉืืจืืืืกืืืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืคืื ืืช ืจืืืช ืืืจืืฉื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืกืจืช ืืคืกื ืืืื ืขืฆืจืช ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืขืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืจืืงืืืื. ืืืคืื ื ื ืื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืชืืฆืข ืคืืืืข ืืจืืกื ืื ื ืืจืื ืืืฉื. ื-20 ืืืจืฅ 2018 ืืืืจืืช ืจืืฉ ืืขืืจ, ืืืฅ' ืื ืืจืื, ืืืกืจ ืคืกืื ืฉื ืื ืืขืืจ ื ืื ืืืจืืื ืก. ื-3 ืืืื ื 2020 ืืขืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ื'ืืจื' ืคืืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืจืืืฃ ื ืืจืชื, ืืืกืืจ ืืช ืคืกืื ืืื ืฆืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืชื. ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืฆืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ื ืืชืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืขืื ืฉื ืื ืืกืคืจ ืจื ืฉื ืกืคืจืื, ืืืืืจืคืืืช ืืืืงืจืื ืืงืืืืื. ืืืืื ื ืืงืฆืืขืืช, ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืื ืฉืชื ืชืคืืกืืช ืขืืงืจืืืช ืืืคื ืื. ืืืืช ืืืจืกืช ืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืื ืื ืืขื ืชืคืืกืืช ืื ืืจืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืืก ืืชืงืืคืชื, ืืืืืจืช, ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืืชืจ, ืืืขื ืช ืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืฆืื ืืืืฉื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืกืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืงืื ืื ืื ืืขืจืื ืจืืืช ืืืงืฃ. ืืืจืฉืช ืจืืืจื ืืืืืจื ืื ื ืืชืจ ืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืืจ ืืจืืื โ ืืคืงื ืืืขืจื ืื ืขืจืฅ ืฉืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืฆืื ืืืจืื ืชืื ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืฃ ืงืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืขืืืืชืื ืืคืืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืชืืืช โ ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืขืืืืช ืฉืืืคืืคื ืืช ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืฉืืืจืื ืชืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืืจืืช ืฉืืืืืื ืืขืื ื ืจืืื ืืืฆื ื"ืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืื" ืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืื ื ืขื ืชืจืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืจืงืข ืขืืืืชืื ืืื ืจืขืืื ืืช ืืืขื ืืื ืฉืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืชืืื ืืืกืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื. ืื ืื ืจืง ืฉืืืจ ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืคืขื ืืืขื ืืืืืง ืืขืจืืช ืฉืขืืงืจื ืืื ืืฉืขืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืืขื ืขืืืืช ืฉื ืขืืืื ืืช ืืื ื. ืืืืฉ ืฆืื, ืื ืื ืืกืก ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืฉืืืืช ืงืจื ื ืืขืืืช, ืฉืืขืืชืื ืืจืื ืืืจืก ืจื ืืืืืื ืืช ื ืืจืืืื. ืืืืื, ืืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืื, ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืื ืข ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ื"ืฉืืื ืฉืืื" ืืืจืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืกืชืืจ ืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืขืจืืช ืฉืฉืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื. ืขื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืชื ืืขืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืชืืช ืืืืขื ืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืจืฆื ื'ืืจื' ืคืืืื, ืืืจ ืืงืจืืืืช ืืืคืกืืง ืืื ืฆืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืืกืืจ ืคืกืืื. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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