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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/maagal_hashana/hufshot-tzaaronim/] | [TOKENS: 2268] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฆืืจืื ื ื ืืฆื ืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ื ืืฆื ืื ืชืืื ืืช ื ืืฆื ืื ืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืขืฉืจืชืืช ืืชืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืคืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ, ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืขืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืขื ืฉืขืืช ืืืจ ืืฆืืืจืืื. ืชืืื ืืืช ื ืืฆื ืื ืื ืืืืช ืขื ืืขืฉืจืช ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืกืืืจื, ืืืืื ืช ืืขืืื, ืขืฉืืจื ืืืืืื ืช. ืืฉืขืืช ืืฆืืืจืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืขื ืขืจื ืืื ืืื ืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืืจืชืืื. ืชืืื ืืืช ื ืืฆื ืื ืื ื ืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืฆืืฆืื ืคืขืจืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืื, ืืืืคืื ืชืจืืืช ืคื ืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืืืืง ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืกื ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืงืืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ื ืืฆื ืื ืฉืื ืืืฉ ืขื ืชืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืขื ืืืฆืืข ืขืงืื ืฉื ืกืืจ ืืื ืืฆืืจืื. ืืืกืืก ืืจืืฉื ืื ืงืืืืช ืืืื ื ืฉืชืื ืื ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืขืื ืืืขื ืืฉืืืจื ืขืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืจื ื ืืื ืืจืืืขื ืืืชืจ ืืขืฉืืื, ืืื ืืืคื ืืืฉืคืจ ืืืืืช ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืืฆืืขืืช ืฉื ืืฆืืืชืื. ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืฆืืืชืื ืืชืื ื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืจืื, ืื ืืื ืขื ืืชื ืืขื ื ืืฆืืจืื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืชืื ืืืืืจ ืื ื"ื ืืก' 0236 ืืืื ื' ืืืกืื ืชืฉ"ืฃ, 3 ืืืฆืืืจ 2019: ืืื ื ืืืืืื- ืขื ืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืฉื ืฆืืืช. ืืืืืืื ืชืืืืจ ืขื ืคื ืกืืจ ืืขืืืคืืช ืืื: ื. ืื ื ืช ืืืกืืืช. ื. ืืชืืื. ืื ืืื ืื ืืฆื, ื ืืชื ืืืขืกืืง ืกืืืข/ืช ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืคืงืืช ืื ื ืืืืืื. ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ- ืืื ืืืช ืกืคืจ ืืืื ื ืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืกืืจืช. ืืืจืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจื ืืืืืจ ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืื ืื ืื ื ืืฆื ืื ืืจืฉืืช. ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืขื ืคื ืกืืจ ืืขืืืคืืช ืืื: ื. ืืืจืื ืืขืื ืจืืฉืืื ืืขืืกืืง ืืืืจืื ืื ืืขืื ืชืขืืืช ืืืจืื ื. ืืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืขื ื ืืกืืื ืืขืืืื ืขื ื ืืขืจ ืฉืืื ืกืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืื ืกืืืื ื/ืืืจืื ืืชืื ืืืืจ ืชืืื ืืืช ืืขืฉืจื ืืื ืงืจื, ืืื"ืช ืืืืืื. ื. ืื ืืื ืื ืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืืคืืจื ืืขืื, ืชืชืืคืฉืจ ืืขืกืงืช ืืืจืื ืืืจ ืืืืฉืืจ ืืคืืงืื ืืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืกืคืจ- ืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืฉื ืฆืืืช, ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ื ืืช ืืขืื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื. ืืืฃ ืื ืจืืืื ื ืขืืืจืื, ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืืฆื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ, ืืช ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืฉื ืืฆืืจืื, ืืงืืืื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืขื ื ืืื ืฆืืจืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืืช ืืฆืืจืื. ืืขืื ืืฉื ื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93] | [TOKENS: 3684] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืจืื ืืจืื ืืื ืืชืื ืกืืช ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืฆืืช ืกืืืจื, ืืืกืืจ ืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืืืืืจ. ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืกืื ืฉื ืคืกืืืื. ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืงืื, ืืจืืืื ืืชืื ืกืื ืืืืคื ืื ืื ืื ืฉื ืชื. ืืกืืจืช ืืืจืืืื ืืชืคืชืื ืืืืืคืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืชืืืฉืืช ืืืืคื ื ืจืื ืืืืจืืคื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืคื ืืกืืจืชื ืฉืืจืชื ืืืจืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืจืืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืขื ืฃ ืืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืจืคื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืกืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืชื ืขื ืฃ. ืืืจืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืื ืื ืืคืชืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืคืฆื ืฉื ืืืฆืจืื ืืขืื ืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืกืืจื ืจืื. ืืงืื ืขืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืขืจืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืช ืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืืงืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืช. ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืขืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืจืื ื ืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืจืืืืืช, ืืืืจืืช, ืืื ืื ืฆืืืืจืืื. ืืืืคื ืืกืืจืชื ื ืขืจืื ืืจืืืื ืจืืื ืืืฆืจืืช ืื ืกืืื ืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฆืืืืจืืื ืืกืืื. ืืจืื ื ืขืจื ืืจืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืืืืจืข ืืฉืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืข ืืืกืืืจื ืืงืืื, ืืืืจืข ืขืื ืชื (ืืืฉื, ืชืืืืช ืืฆืืจ ืืขื ืืื), ืื ืืกืืื ืืื (ืืืฉื ืคืืจืื). ืืืจืืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืืชืคืชืื ืืขืืงืจื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืงืืืฉืื ื ืืฆืจืืื. ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืขื ืืืชืจืืืช ืืชืจืืืช. ืืืืืืืช ืืคืขืืืืืืช ื ืืืืืช ืื ืืฆืืช ืืืืช, ืงืืื ืฉืืง, ืืฆืืืช ืจืืื, ืืืืจืืช ืคืืืืืืช, ืืืจื, ืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืจืืืฉืช ืืืื ืจืืื. ืืชืคืงืืืช ืืืคืืืืช ืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืจืื ืขืืจื ืฉืื ืื ื ืจืื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืขื ืืขืืืืช ืชืคืงืืื ืืืืืื-ืืกืืจื ืฉื ืืจื ืืืจืืืื. ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืจืื ืฉืขืฉืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืจืื ืืืืื-ืืกืืจื. ืืฉืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืข ืืืจืชื ืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืจืื, ืืืืืจืื ื ืคืืฉืื ืื ืื ืื. ืืขืืชืื ืืฉื ื ืืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืขืกืงืืช ืืื ืฉื ืขืกืงืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉ, ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืขืกืงืืช ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื-ืกืืื ืืืืืืจื ืื ืขืจื ืืฆืจืคืช ืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืืืืกืื ืืฆืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืจืขืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืืจืช ืืชืงืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืงืฉื ืืงืืืข ืืชื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืื. ืืจืืื ืืขืชืืงื ื ืขืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืจืืืืื, ืืื ืื ื ืขืจื ืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืื, ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืืื. ืืจืืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืคืจืืืื ืฆืืืช ืืจืืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืคื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืจืืฅ ืืืขืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืกืืจืืช. ืขื ืฉืงืืขืช ืืืืืคืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืขืจื ื ืขืืื ืืืขื ืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืกืืจืืช ืืืืจืืคื ืืืชืืื ืื ืืืจืืืื. ืขื ืขืืืืชื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืงืจื ืืืืื ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-7 ืืชืืืฉื ืคืขืืืืช ืืกืืจืืช ืืืืจืืคื ืืืขืจืืืช ืื ืืกื ืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืื โ ืืจืื ืกืืื ื ืื ืืก ืืื ืคืจืื. ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืืฉื ืืชืคืชืื ืขืื ืืืืช ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืจืืคื. ืืงืจื ืขืืื ื ืืฆืจืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืขืจืื ืืจืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืจืขืืช ืืงืกืืื, ืืคืชืืืช ืื ืกืืื, ืื ืฉื ืขืกืงืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืืืจื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืจืืืืชื ืืขืืชืื ืืฃ ืืชืื ืืฆืจ ืืื ืกืืื ืขืฆืื. ืื ืื ืื ื ืคืกืง ืืืขื ืืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืืชื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืื ืจื ื-6 ืฉืื ืืืจืืืื ืืคืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจืืช ืกืืจ ืืืืืืืช. ืืืืืช ืืขืจืื ืืจืื ื ืืชื ื ืืฆื ืืืืืชื ืืืืื. ืืชืืืื ื ืืชื ื ืฆืืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืขืจืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืฉื ืืืง ืื ืื ืืื ืืชื ืืขื ืืฉืคืขื ืจืื ืขื ืืืืืืืกืืื. ืืืืฉื, ื ืืชื ื ืืืชืจืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืื ืืจืื ืฉืืจืืจ ืืกืืจืื ืืืชื ืืกืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืคืจืง ืืื ืืกืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืจืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืฉืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืคืจืง ืืืื ืื ื ืขืจื ืืืจืื. ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืื ืฉื ืงืจื Piepowder Court ืื ื-Pie Poudre ืืื ืืขื ืืืจืืืช ืฉืืคืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืกืืจืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืคืืืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืขืื ืชืืงืฃ ืืฉืคืื. ืืืืง ืืืืจืืืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืื ืืื ืื ืืกื ืืืืืง ืืื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืื ืก ืืชืฉืืื ืืืื. ืืจืื ืืจืืืื ืฉืืื ืืกื ืืืืื ืืืคืฉืืช ื ืืื ืืื ืืืชืืจ ืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืจืืช, ืกืืืจืื ืืื ื ืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืกืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืชื. ืื ืกืืืจื ืฉืืืืชื ืืืื ืกืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืคืืืจื ืืืก ืืขืืืืื ืืื ืืกืืจ ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืจื. ืืจืืืื ืืกืื ืื ืืืฉืจื ืืจืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืกืื. ืืืจืืืื ืชืจืื ืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืคื, ืืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืจืฆืืช ืืจืื ืืืจืืคื ืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืื. ืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืคืืจืกืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืฆืืื: ืืจืื ืคืจื ืงืคืืจื, ืืจืื ื ืืื, ืืจืื ืจืืื, ืืจืื ืืืื ืก ืื ืืจืื ืื, ืืืจืืื ืคืืจืื ืืื, ืืืจื ืงืจืื ืืืืจืืงื. ืืจืื ืืจืชืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืฉืจ ื ืืกื ื-1133 ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืจื ื-I ืืฉืืฉ ืืจืงืข ืืืืื ื ืืืข ืฉื ืื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืขื_ืจืืฉื_ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช] | [TOKENS: 1943] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืขื ืจืืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืขื ืจืืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช (ืืจ"ื) ืืื ืืืฃ ืฉืืืงื ืืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืฉืืืื, ืืจืงืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืชืฉืข ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืฉืจืื: ืืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืืืข, ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื, ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืคื, ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืื-ืืืจืืื ืื ืื, ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืคืชืืื. ืืืจืดื ืขืืกืงืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืชืคืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื: ืฉืืจ ืืกืื ืืืงืืื, ืฉืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืงืฆืื ืืงืจื ืงืฉืจื ืืืข ืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืช ืงืืืช ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื. ื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืคืงืืื ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืื ืืจืฆื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืขืจืื ืฉื ืืกื ืขื ืคื ืืืืืช ืืืืขื ืืฉื ืช 1981. ืืืืขื ืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืชื ืขืช ืืฉื "ืืงืืืื", ืืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืื ืคืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืขื, ืืืืจืื ืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืืขืืช ืขื ืื ืขืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช. ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืจ"ื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืคืจืืค' ืื ืืื ืืืืืืืืฅ, ื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืื-ืืืจืืื ืื ืื. ืงืืื ืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืคืจืืค' ืืจืื ืฆืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื, ืคืจืืค' ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืคืจืืค' ืจืื ืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืคื, ืคืจืืคืณ ืืืกืฃ ืงืืคืืจ ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื, ืคืจืืค' ืคืจืฅ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื, ืคืจืืค' ืื ืื ืื-ืฉืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืคืจืืค' ืจืืงื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืื-ืืืจืืื ืื ืื ืืคืจืืค' ืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืคื. ืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืจืดื ืืื ืืงืืคืืก ืืืขืช ืจื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2012 ืคืขื ืืืืขื ื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื, ืื ืขืืืชื ืื ืืชืงืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2018 ืคืขื ืืืืขื ืืื ืืขืช ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืคืงืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื, ืื ื ืืฉื. ืืืืขื ื ืื ืข ืืืฆืจืฃ ืืช ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืืชืืคื ืืคืขืืื ืืืื-ืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืืื ืืจืื, ืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืื, ืืขื ืฉื ืช 2020 ืืฆืืื ืืื ืืข ืืื ืื ื ืฆืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืืขืื ืืชืื ืื ืืืชืงืฆืื, ืื ืืฉื ืช 2022 ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืขื ืฆืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื, ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืขืช ืืฉืคืืืช ืืงืืืขืช ืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืคืื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ืขืงื ืฆืืจืืฃ ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื. ืืฉื ืช 2018 ืืฆื ืืืืขื ื ืื ืืงืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืขืฆื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืฆื ืื ืืืืขื ื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืจืฆืืื (ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืจืืืืื) ืืคืชืื ืืกืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืืงืืืจ ืืืฉืคืืื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/maagal_hashana/] | [TOKENS: 3483] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืขืื ืืฉื ื ืืขืื ืืฉื ื - ืืื ืขืืจื ืืืืขืื ืืื ืืืืืืจื ืกืคืืจืช ืืฆืืคืืจืื ืืืืืื, 15-31.1 ืฉืืืข ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืคืืืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ื ื ืืขืจ 24-19 ืื ืืืจ 2026 ืื ื ืื ืืื'ืืจ - ืืืืื ืื ืืื, 25.1 ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช, 27.1 ืฉืืืข ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, 30-25 ืื ืืืจ 2026 ืืฉืืืข ืืืืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืฉืช, 13-8 ืืคืืจืืืจ ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื, 12.2 ืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืื-ืืืืื, 20.2 ืืืืืืื AI ืืืื ืื - ืืื ื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืื-ืืืืื, 8.3 ืืื ืื ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืืื 12.3 ืืื ืืคืื ืืืื-ืืืืื, 14.3 ืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืื-ืืืืื, 15.3 ืืื ืืืขืฉืื ืืืืืื, 18.3 ืืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืื 20 ื-23 ืืืจืฅ ืืื ืืืืืง ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืช, 21.3 ืืื ืืืื ืืขืืืื, 22.3 ืฉืืืข ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื 29-23.3.25 ืืื ืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืื, 25.3 ืจืืืื ืืขืื ืื ืคืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืืืืื, 2.4 ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ, 22.4 ืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืขืืื, 24.4 ืืื ื-DNA ืืืื-ืืืืื, 22.4 ืืืื ุนูุฏ ุงููุตุญ - ืคืกืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืฆืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืื, 9.5 ืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืขืืฉืื, 11.5 ืฉืืืข ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื 14-19.5.24 ืืื ืืืื "ื, 17.5 ืืื ืืื โ ืืืจืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืฉืง, 18.5 ืืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื, 19.5 ืกืืื ืืคืจืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืงืืฅ ืืืืืคืฉ ืืืืื ืจืืืื 6.6 Blind Day ืื ืืงืืจืื ุนูุฏ ุงูุฃุถุญู | ืขืื ืื-ืื'ืื ุนูุฏ ุงูุฃุถุญู ุงูู
ุจุงุฑู ืืื ืืืืคืื ืืงืืฆื, 21.6 ืกืืื ืืคืจืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืงืืฅ ืืืืืคืฉ ืืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืงืืฅ ืืืืืคืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืืื ื-22 ืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื, 1.9 ืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื, 1.9 ืืื ืื ืืื ืกืืืื, 10.9 ืืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืกืชืืื, 22.9 ืืื ืืงืฉืืฉ ืืืื-ืืืืื, 1.10 ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืขื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืฉืจื ืืืจื ืกืื, 9.10 ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื, 11.10 ืืืกืืง ืืขืฅ ืืืืช ืืฆืืจืช ืืืคืืจ, 2.11 ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืฆื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื, ื"ื ืืืฉืืื, 4.11 ืืฉืืืข ืืืืืจืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืช 5.11 ืื ื ืกื ืฉ ืืื ืืกืืืจืช ืืืื-ืืืืื, 14.11 ืืื ืืกืืืื ืืช ืืืื-ืืืืื, 16.11 ืืฉืืืข ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื, 20.11 ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืื, 20.11 ืืืืืช ืืกืืง ืืืคืจืื ืืืจืืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืง ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคื ื ืฉืื, 25.11 ื"ื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืจืืฉ ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืขืจื ืืืืืจืื, 30.11 ืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืืืืืช, 3.12 ืืื ืืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื, 8.12 ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื, 10.12 ืืื ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช, 18.12 ืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืจืคื, 21.12 ืืืจืฃ ืฉืืืข ืืืืืขืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืืื, 25.12 ืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืจืืฉ ืืฉื ื, ื' ืืชืฉืจื ืฆืื ืืืืื, ื' ืชืฉืจื ืืื ืืืืคืืจืื, ื' ืืชืฉืจื ืกืืืืช, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืฉืืืช ืชืืจื ืืฉืืื ื ืขืฆืจืช, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืขื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืฆื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื, ื"ื ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืคืืืจืช ืจืื ืืื ื, ื"ื ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืืข ืืขืืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื, ื'-ื' ืืืฉืืื ืืฉืืืข ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืขืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืื, ื"ื-ื"ื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืืกืืื, ื"ื ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ื"ื, ื' ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืงืจื ืืคืฆืืขื ืืขืจืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืื, ื"ื ืืืกืื ืื ืืื, ื"ื ืืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืช - ืขึดืื ืึถื ืึผึทื ึทืืช, ื' ืืืืช ืขืฉืจื ืืืืช (ืืื ืฆืื), ื' ืืืืช ืฆืืื ืืื ืืื ื'ืืืืื ืกืงื ื"ื, ื"ื ืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคื ืืขืืจืืช, ื"ื ืืืืช ื"ื ืืฉืื, ื"ื ืืฉืื ืึทืึดืืึธื, ื"ื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืฉืคืื, ื' ืืฉืื ืืื ืชื-ืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ืคืืจืื, ื"ื ืืืืจ ืืกืืกื, ื' ืื ืืกื ืคืกื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืกืืจื ื, ื''ื ืื ืืกื ืืืืื ื, ืสบื ื ืืกื: ืืืฆืื ืฉืืืขื ืฉื ืคืกื ืืืืืจืช ืืืื ืืืกืจื ืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืจื, ื"ื ืื ืืกื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืชืงืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืฆื"ื ืื ืคืืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืื, ื' ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืขืฆืืืืช, ื' ืืืืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืื, ื' ืืืืืจ ืฆืืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืจืฆื ื"ื, ื' ืืืืืจ ื"ื ืืขืืืจ, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืืฉืืื, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืืคืื, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืชืงืืื ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืื, ื' ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช, ื' ืืกืืืื ืฉืืืขืืช, ื' ืืกืืืื ืชืงืืื ืืืืืจื ื"ื ืืชืืื ืชืฉืขื ืืื, ื' ืืื ืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืืขืื ืืฉื ื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9D] | [TOKENS: 3346] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืฉึธืืืึนื ืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืืกืื ืืืคืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืช. ืืืฆื ืฉื ืฉืืื, ืืืืกืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืฉืืจืจืช ืืกืืื (ืืืชื ืื ืืขื ืคื) ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืงืช ืฉืชืชืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืขืืช ืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืคืืื ื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ื ืืชืืื ืจืง ืืืืขืืจ ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืกืืจ ืืฉืืชืฃ, ืืืืื ืชืืืจืืช ืืชืฉืชืืช ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืืืืคื ืชืจืืืช ืืกืคืืจื. ืืืกื ืฉืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืขืืชืื "ืฉืืื ืงืจ". ืืฉืื ืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืจืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืจืืื, ืืืจืืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ื ืืืืืจื, ืืืฉืจ ืืฆืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืืืืืช, ืื ืืืคืืื โ ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืคืจ ืืช ืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืขืืช ืจืืื ืจืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืฆื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืืื ื, ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืชืืื ืืืื ืฆืืื. ืืืืืื, ืืจืื ืฉืคืื ืืื ืืจืก ื"ืืืืจ ืืืื ื" ืื ืืฉืืื ืืื "ืชืืืืช ืืืฆื ืืืืื ื", ืืืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืื ื. ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ื ืื ืืช ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืกื ืฉืืื, ืืืจืืฉื ืฉืืืืืฅ, ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื 1814 ืื ืืงืืช ืขืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืฅ ืฉืื, ืืฉืืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืชืงืืคืช ืฉืืื ืืืื. ืืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืช ืืฉืืื. ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืกืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช ืขืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืืคื ืจืฉืื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืื. ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืกืื ืงืืข, ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืฆืืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืคืกืงื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืื, ืืื ืฉืืืชืช ื ืฉืง ืื ืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ. ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืชืืื, ืืืจื ืืื, ืืืืคื ืืกืืกืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื. ืฉืืืชืช ื ืฉืง ืืื ืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจ, (ืจืื) ืืขืงืืืช ืืกืืืชื ืฉื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืื ืขื ืฆืขื ืื. ืืื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืืืืก ืืืื ืื, ืฉืื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืฉื ืขืืืืช ืืกืืื ืืืืงืื ืืกืืื ืืจืขืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืขื ืืคืกืงื ืฉื ืขืืืืช ืื, ืืชืื ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืืืข ืื ืืฆืืืช ืืืกืืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืืชืงืื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืื ืฉืื ืืขืืืืช ืฆืืื ืฉืื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืขื ืกืืื ืืฆื ืืขืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืฉืืจืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืืื. ืืคืกืงืช ืืืฉ ืคืืืชื ืืืจืืชื ืืฉืืืชืช ื ืฉืง, ืฉืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืืชื ืืืฆื ืืคืืื. ืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืจืฉืืืช ืื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืฉื ืื ืืืง ืืืื ืืช ืืืชื-ืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฆืืื ื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืชืงืืคืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืคืืืช ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืืกื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื. ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืชืืฆืืช ืฉืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืคืจืื ืืืงื ืฉืืฉืืืื ืกืืจ ืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ื ืจืืืื: ืฉืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืื, ืืฆืจืื ืืืจืื (ืจืื: "ืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจืื" ื"ืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืื"). ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืกืืื ืืืจืื, ืฉืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ืขืจืืืืช: ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช, ืืืจืืื ืืกืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืืงื. ืืฉื ืช 1993 ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืกืื ืืืกืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืืง ืืชืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช, ืฉืืื ื ื ืืฉืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืฆื (ืงืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืกืื). ืืกืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืช ืขืืืื ืืชืืงืฃ, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืื ืชืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืจ 2025) ืืืกืืกืื ืขืืื ื ื ืืฉื. ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืืงืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ืขืื, ืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืคืืกืืื ื. ืฉืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื: ืืกืื ืจืืื ืืจืืค ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆืืช ื ืงืืข ืืืืฆืข ืืจืืจืืกื ืฉืื ืชืงืคื ืืจืื ืื ืืช ืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆืืช. ืฉืืื ืงืจ ืฉืืื ืงืจ ืืื ืืฆื ืฉืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืจืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืคื ืจืฉืื, ืืขืื ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืคืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืช, ืืกืชืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืื ืขืื ืืืืืฉืื. ืฉืืื ืงืจ ืืืืคืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืืื, ืืืืฉื ืฉืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืืกืืืช, ืืคืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช, ืืืคื ืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืื. ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/maagal_hashana/memory-holocaust/] | [TOKENS: 510] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืกืจ ืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืงืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื | ืืขืจืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืชืืช ื-ื ืงืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื | ืืืชืืช ื-ื | ืืืชืืช ื-ื | ืืืชืืช ื-ื ืงืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื | ืืขืจืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืชืืช ื-ืื ืืขืื ืืฉื ื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Google_Translate&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile] | [TOKENS: 4867] |
Google Translate Google Translate is a multilingual neural machine translation service developed by Google to translate text, documents and websites from one language into another. It offers a website interface, a mobile app for Android and iOS, and an API that helps developers build browser extensions and software applications. As of February 2026, Google Translate supports 249 languages and language varieties at various levels. It served over 200 million people daily in May 2013, and over 500 million total users as of April 2016[update], with more than 100 billion words translated daily. Launched in April 2006 as a statistical machine translation service, it originally used United Nations and European Parliament documents and transcripts to gather linguistic data. Rather than translating languages directly, it first translated text to English and then pivoted to the target language in most of the language combinations it posited in its grid, with a few exceptions including CatalanโSpanish. During a translation, it looked for patterns in millions of documents to help decide which words to choose and how to arrange them in the target language. In recent years, it has used a deep learning model to power its translations. Its accuracy, which has been criticized[by whom?] on several occasions, has been measured to vary greatly across languages. In November 2016, Google announced that Google Translate would switch to a neural machine translation engine โ Google Neural Machine Translation (GNMT) โ which translated "whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. It uses this broader context to help it figure out the most relevant translation, which it then rearranges and adjusts to be more like a human speaking with proper grammar". Contents History Google Translate is a web-based free-to-use translation service developed by Google in April 2006. It translates multiple forms of texts and media such as words, phrases and webpages. Originally, Google Translate was released as a statistical machine translation (SMT) service. The input text had to be translated into English first before being translated into the selected language. Since SMT uses predictive algorithms to translate text, it had poor grammatical accuracy. Despite this, Google initially did not hire experts to resolve this limitation due to the ever-evolving nature of language. In January 2010, Google introduced an Android app and iOS version in February 2011 to serve as a portable personal interpreter. As of February 2010, it was integrated into browsers such as Chrome and was able to pronounce the translated text, automatically recognize words in a picture and spot unfamiliar text and languages. In May 2014, Google acquired Word Lens to improve the quality of visual and voice translation. It is able to scan text or a picture using the device and have it translated instantly. Moreover, the system automatically identifies foreign languages and translates speech without requiring individuals to tap the microphone button whenever speech translation is needed. In November 2016, Google transitioned its translating method to a system called neural machine translation. It uses deep learning techniques to translate whole sentences at a time, which has been measured to be more accurate between English and French, German, Spanish, and Chinese. No measurement results have been provided by Google researchers for GNMT from English to other languages, other languages to English, or between language pairs that do not include English. As of 2018, it translates more than 100 billion words a day. In 2017, Google Translate was used during a court hearing when court officials at Teesside Magistrates' Court failed to book an interpreter for the Chinese defendant. A petition for Google to add Cree to Google Translate was created in 2021, but it was not one of the languages in development at the time of the Translate Community's closure. At the end of September 2022, Google Translate was discontinued in mainland China, which Google said was due to "low usage". In 2024, a record of 110 languages including Cantonese, Tok Pisin and some regional languages in Russia including Bashkir, Chechen, Ossetian and Crimean Tatar were added. The languages were added through the help of the PaLM 2 Generative AI model. Functions Google Translate can translate multiple forms of text and media, which includes text, speech, and text within still or moving images. Specifically, its functions include: For most of its features, Google Translate provides the pronunciation, dictionary, and listening to translation. Additionally, Google Translate has introduced its own Translate app, so translation is available with a mobile phone in offline mode. Features Google Translate produces approximations across languages of multiple forms of text and media, including text, speech, websites, or text on display in still or live video images. For some languages, Google Translate can synthesize speech from text, and in certain pairs it is possible to highlight specific corresponding words and phrases between the source and target text. Results are sometimes shown with dictional information below the translation box, but it is not a dictionary and has been shown to invent translations in all languages for words it does not recognize. If "Detect language" is selected, text in an unknown language can be automatically identified. In the web interface, users can suggest alternate translations, such as for technical terms, or correct mistakes. These suggestions may be included in future updates to the translation process. If a user enters a URL in the source text, Google Translate will produce a hyperlink to a machine translation of the website. Users can save translation proposals in a "phrasebook" for later use, and a shareable URL is generated for each translation. For some languages, text can be entered via an on-screen keyboard, whether through handwriting recognition or speech recognition. It is possible to enter searches in a source language that are first translated to a destination language allowing one to browse and interpret results from the selected destination language in the source language. Texts written in the Arabic, Cyrillic, Devanagari and Greek scripts can be automatically transliterated from their phonetic equivalents written in the Latin alphabet. The browser version of Google Translate provides the option to show phonetic equivalents of text translated from Japanese to English. The same option is not available on the paid API version. Many of the more popular languages have a "text-to-speech" audio function that is able to read back a text in that language, up to several hundred words or so. In the case of pluricentric languages, the accent depends on the region: for English, in the Americas, most of the AsiaโPacific and West Asia, the audio uses a female General American accent, whereas in Europe, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Guyana and all other parts of the world, a female British (Received Pronunciation) accent is used, except for a special General Australian accent used in Australia, New Zealand and Norfolk Island, and an Indian English accent used in India; for Spanish, in the Americas, a Latin American accent is used, while in other parts of the world, a Castilian accent is used; for French, a Quebec accent is used in Canada, while in other parts of the world, a standard European accent is used; for Bengali, a male Bangladeshi accent is used, except in India, where a special female Indian Bengali accent is used instead. Until March 2023, some less widely spoken languages used the open-source eSpeak synthesizer for their speech; producing a robotic, awkward voice that may be difficult to understand. Google Translate is available in some web browsers as an optional downloadable extension that can run the translation engine, which allow right-click command access to the translation service. In February 2010, Google Translate was integrated into the Google Chrome browser by default, for optional automatic webpage translation. The Google Translate app for Android and iOS supports 249 languages and can propose translations for 37 languages via photo, 32 via voice in "conversation mode", and 27 via live video imagery in "augmented reality mode". The Android app was released in January 2010, and for iOS on February 8, 2011, after an HTML5 web application was released for iOS users in August 2008. The Android app is compatible with devices running at least Android 2.1, while the iOS app is compatible with iPod Touches, iPads and iPhones updated to iOS 7.0+. A January 2011 Android version experimented with a "Conversation Mode" that aims to allow users to communicate fluidly with a nearby person in another language. Originally limited to English and Spanish, the feature received support for 12 new languages, still in testing, the following October. The 'Camera input' functionality allows users to take a photograph of a document, signboard, etc. Google Translate recognises the text from the image using optical character recognition (OCR) technology and gives the translation. Camera input is not available for all languages. In January 2015, the apps gained the ability to propose translations of physical signs in real time using the device's camera, as a result of Google's acquisition of the Word Lens app. The original January launch only supported seven languages, but a July update added support for 20 new languages, with the release of a new implementation that utilizes convolutional neural networks, and also enhanced the speed and quality of Conversation Mode translations (augmented reality). The feature was subsequently renamed Instant Camera. The technology underlying Instant Camera combines image processing and optical character recognition, then attempts to produce cross-language equivalents using standard Google Translate estimations for the text as it is perceived. On May 11, 2016, Google introduced Tap to Translate for Google Translate for Android. Upon highlighting text in an app that is in a foreign language, Translate will pop up inside of the app and offer translations. On May 26, 2011, Google announced that the Google Translate API for software developers had been deprecated and would cease functioning. The Translate API page stated the reason as "substantial economic burden caused by extensive abuse" with an end date set for December 1, 2011. In response to public pressure, Google announced in June 2011 that the API would continue to be available as a paid service. Because the API was used in numerous third-party websites and apps, the original decision to deprecate it led some developers to criticize Google and question the viability of using Google APIs in their products. Google Translate also provides translations for Google Assistant and the devices that Google Assistant runs on such as Google Nest and Pixel Buds. Supported languages As of November 2025,[update] the following 249 languages, dialects and language varieties written in different scripts (240 unique languages and dialects) are supported by Google Translate. (by chronological order of introduction) Translation methodology In April 2006, Google Translate launched with a statistical machine translation engine. Google Translate does not apply grammatical rules, since its algorithms are based on statistical or pattern analysis rather than traditional rule-based analysis. The system's original creator, Franz Josef Och, has criticized the effectiveness of rule-based algorithms in favor of statistical approaches. Original versions of Google Translate were based on a method called statistical machine translation, and more specifically, on research by Och who won the DARPA contest for speed machine translation in 2003. Och was the head of Google's machine translation group until leaving to join Human Longevity, Inc. in July 2014. Google Translate does not directly translate from one language to another (L1 โ L2). Instead, it often translates first to English and then to the target language (L1 โ EN โ L2). However, because English, like all human languages, is ambiguous and depends on context, this can cause translation errors. For example, translating vous from French to Russian gives vous โ you โ ัั OR Bั/ะฒั. If Google were using an unambiguous, artificial language as the intermediary, it would be vous โ you โ Bั/ะฒั OR tu โ thou โ ัั. Such a suffixing of words disambiguates their different meanings. Hence, publishing in English, using unambiguous words, providing context, or using expressions such as "you all" may or may not make a better one-step translation depending on the target language. The following languages do not have a direct Google translation to or from English. These languages are translated through the indicated intermediate language (which in most cases is closely related to the desired language but more widely spoken) in addition to through English:[citation needed] According to Och, a solid base for developing a usable statistical machine translation system for a new pair of languages from scratch would consist of a bilingual text corpus (or parallel collection) of more than 150โ200 million words, and two monolingual corpora each of more than a billion words. Statistical models from these data are then used to translate between those languages. To acquire this huge amount of linguistic data, Google used United Nations and European Parliament documents and transcripts. The UN typically publishes documents in all six official UN languages, which has produced a very large 6-language corpus. Google representatives have been involved with domestic conferences in Japan where it has solicited bilingual data from researchers. When Google Translate generates a translation proposal, it looks for patterns in hundreds of millions of documents to help decide on the best translation. By detecting patterns in documents that have already been translated by human translators, Google Translate makes informed guesses (AI) as to what an appropriate translation should be. Before October 2007, for languages other than Arabic, Chinese and Russian, Google Translate was based on SYSTRAN, a software engine which is still used by several other online translation services such as Babel Fish (now defunct). From October 2007, Google Translate used proprietary, in-house technology based on statistical machine translation instead, before transitioning to neural machine translation. Google used to have crowdsourcing features for volunteers to be a part of its "Translate Community", intended to help improve Google Translate's accuracy. Volunteers could select up to five languages to help improve translation; users could verify translated phrases and translate phrases in their languages to and from English, helping to improve the accuracy of translating more rare and complex phrases. In August 2016, a Google Crowdsource app was released for Android users, in which translation tasks are offered. There were three ways to contribute. First, Google showed a phrase that one should type in the translated version. Second, Google showed a proposed translation for a user to agree, disagree, or skip. Third, users could suggest translations for phrases where they think they can improve on Google's results. Tests in 44 languages showed that the "suggest an edit" feature led to an improvement in a maximum of 40% of cases over four years. Despite its role in improving translation quality and expanding language coverage, Google closed the Translate Community on March 28, 2024. Although Google has deployed a new system called neural machine translation for better quality translation, there are languages that still use the traditional translation method called statistical machine translation. It is a rule-based translation method that uses predictive algorithms to guess ways to translate texts in foreign languages. It aims to translate whole phrases rather than single words then gather overlapping phrases for translation. Moreover, it also analyzes bilingual text corpora to generate a statistical model that translates texts from one language to another. In September 2016, a research team at Google announced the development of the Google Neural Machine Translation system (GNMT) to increase fluency and accuracy in Google Translate and in November announced that Google Translate would switch to GNMT. Google Translate's neural machine translation system used a large end-to-end artificial neural network that attempts to perform deep learning, in particular, long short-term memory networks. GNMT improved the quality of translation over SMT in some instances because it uses an example-based machine translation (EBMT) method in which the system "learns from millions of examples." According to Google researchers, it translated "whole sentences at a time, rather than just piece by piece. It uses this broader context to help it figure out the most relevant translation, which it then rearranges and adjusts to be more like a human speaking with proper grammar". GNMT's "proposed architecture" of "system learning" has been implemented on over a hundred languages supported by Google Translate. With the end-to-end framework, Google states but does not demonstrate for most languages that "the system learns over time to create better, more natural translations." The GNMT network attempts interlingual machine translation, which encodes the "semantics of the sentence rather than simply memorizing phrase-to-phrase translations", and the system did not invent its own universal language, but uses "the commonality found in between many languages". GNMT was first enabled for eight languages: to and from English and Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, Spanish and Turkish. In March 2017, it was enabled for Hindi, Russian and Vietnamese, followed by Bengali, Gujarati, Indonesian, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu in April. Since 2020, Google has phased out GNMT and has implemented deep learning networks based on transformers. Accuracy Google Translate is not as reliable as human translation. When text is well-structured, written using formal language, with simple sentences, relating to formal topics for which training data is ample, it often produces conversions similar to human translations between English and a number of high-resource languages. Accuracy decreases for those languages when fewer of those conditions apply, for example when sentence length increases or the text uses familiar or literary language. For many other languages vis-ร -vis English, it can produce the gist of text in those formal circumstances. Human evaluation from English to all 102 languages shows that the main idea of a text is conveyed more than 50% of the time for 35 languages. For 67 languages, a minimally comprehensible result is not achieved 50% of the time or greater. A few studies have evaluated Chinese,[citation needed] French,[citation needed] German,[citation needed] and Spanish[citation needed] to English, but no systematic human evaluation has been conducted from most Google Translate languages to English. Speculative language-to-language scores extrapolated from English-to-other measurements indicate that Google Translate will produce translation results that convey the gist of a text from one language to another more than half the time in about 1% of language pairs, where neither language is English. Research conducted in 2011 showed that Google Translate got a slightly higher score than the UCLA minimum score for the English Proficiency Exam. Due to its identical choice of words without considering the flexibility of choosing alternative words or expressions, it produces a relatively similar translation to human translation from the perspective of formality, referential cohesion, and conceptual cohesion. Moreover, a number of languages are translated into a sentence structure and sentence length similar to a human translation. Furthermore, Google carried out a test that required native speakers of each language to rate the translation on a scale between 0 and 6, and Google Translate scored 5.43 on average. When used as a dictionary to translate single words, Google Translate is highly inaccurate because it must guess between polysemic words. Among the top 100 words in the English language, which make up more than 50% of all written English, the average word has more than 15 senses, which makes the odds against a correct translation about 15 to 1 if each sense maps to a different word in the target language. Most common English words have at least two senses, which produces 50/50 odds in the likely case that the target language uses different words for those different senses. The odds are similar from other languages to English. Google Translate makes statistical guesses that raise the likelihood of producing the most frequent sense of a word, with the consequence that an accurate translation will be unobtainable in cases that do not match the majority or plurality corpus occurrence. The accuracy of single-word predictions has not been measured for any language. Because almost all non-English language pairs pivot through English, the odds against obtaining accurate single-word translations from one non-English language to another can be estimated by multiplying the number of senses in the source language with the number of senses each of those terms have in English. When Google Translate does not have a word in its vocabulary, it makes up a result as part of its algorithm. Limitations Google Translate, like other automatic translation tools, has its limitations, struggles with polysemy (the multiple meanings a word may have) and multiword expressions (terms that have meanings that cannot be understood or translated by analyzing the individual word units that compose them). A word in a foreign language might have two different meanings in the translated language. This might lead to mistranslation. Additionally, grammatical errors remain a major limitation to the accuracy of Google Translate. Google Translate struggles to differentiate between imperfect and perfect aspects in Romance languages. The subjunctive mood is often erroneous.[citation needed] Moreover, the formal second person (vous) is often chosen, whatever the context.[citation needed] Since its English reference material contains only "you" forms, it has difficulty translating a language with "you all" or formal "you" variations. Due to differences between languages in investment, research, and the extent of digital resources, the accuracy of Google Translate varies greatly among languages. Some languages produce better results than others. Most languages from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, tend to score poorly in relation to the scores of many well-financed European languages, Afrikaans and Chinese being the high-scoring exceptions from their continents. No languages indigenous to Australia are included within Google Translate. Higher scores for European can be partially attributed to the Europarl Corpus, a trove of documents from the European Parliament that have been professionally translated by the mandate of the European Union into as many as 21 languages. A 2010 analysis indicated that French to English translation is relatively accurate, and 2011 and 2012 analyses showed that Italian to English translation is relatively accurate as well. However, if the source text is shorter, rule-based machine translations often perform better; this effect is particularly evident in Chinese to English translations. While edits of translations may be submitted, in Chinese specifically one cannot edit sentences as a whole. Instead, one must edit sometimes arbitrary sets of characters, leading to incorrect edits. The service can be used as a dictionary by typing in words. One can translate from a book by using a scanner and an OCR like Google Drive. In its Written Words Translation function, there is a word limit on the amount of text that can be translated at once. Therefore, long text should be transferred to a document form and translated through its Document Translate function. Open-source licenses and components Irish language data from Foras na Gaeilge's New English-Irish Dictionary. (English database designed and developed for Foras na Gaeilge by Lexicography MasterClass Ltd.) Welsh language data from Gweiadur by Gwerin. Certain content is copyrighted by Oxford University Press, United States. Some phrase translations come from Wikitravel. Reviews Shortly after launching the translation service for the first time, Google won an international competition for EnglishโArabic and EnglishโChinese machine translation. Since Google Translate uses statistical matching to translate, translated text can often include apparently nonsensical and obvious errors, often swapping common terms for similar but nonequivalent common terms in the other language, as well as inverting sentence meaning. Novelty websites like Bad Translator and Translation Party have used the service to produce humorous text by translating back and forth between multiple languages, similar to the children's game telephone. Certain texts in Japanese have shown to be translated to "Replying to @sarah_mcdonald(s)" in English, often with no relation to the source text. Examples include "ใใผใใใใใใใใ", "ใใใใใง่" and "็ตตใซfใ". This has been asked on multiple platforms, including YouTube. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access] | [TOKENS: 9339] |
Contents Open access Open access (OA) is a set of principles and a range of practices through which nominally copyrightable publications are delivered to readers free of access charges or other barriers. With open access strictly defined (according to the 2001 definition), or libre open access, barriers to copying or reuse are also reduced or removed by applying an open license for copyright, which regulates post-publication uses of the work. The main focus of the open access movement has been on peer reviewed research literature, and more specifically on academic journals. This is because: Whereas non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, site licenses or pay-per-view charges, open-access journals are characterised by funding models which do not require the reader to pay to read the journal's contents, relying instead on author fees or on public funding, subsidies and sponsorships. Open access can be applied to all forms of published research output, including peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed academic journal articles, conference papers, theses, book chapters, monographs, research reports and images. Definitions There are different models of open access publishing and publishers may use one or more of these models. Different open access types are currently commonly described using a colour system. The most commonly recognised names are "green", "gold", and "hybrid" open access; however, several other models and alternative terms are also used. In the gold OA model, the publisher makes all articles and related content available for free immediately on the journal's website. In such publications, articles are licensed for sharing and reuse via Creative Commons licenses or similar. Many gold OA publishers charge an article processing charge (APC), which is typically paid through institutional or grant funding. The majority of gold open access journals charging APCs follow an "author-pays" model, although this is not an intrinsic property of gold OA. Self-archiving by authors is permitted under green OA. Independently from publication by a publisher, the author also posts the work to a website controlled by the author, the research institution that funded or hosted the work, or to an independent central open repository, where people can download the work without paying. Green OA is free of charge for the author. Some publishers (less than 5% and decreasing as of 2014) may charge a fee for an additional service such as a free license on the publisher-authored copyrightable portions of the printed version of an article. If the author posts the near-final version of their work after peer review by a journal, the archived version is called a "postprint". This can be the accepted manuscript as returned by the journal to the author after successful peer review. Hybrid open-access journals contain a mixture of open access articles and closed access articles. A publisher following this model is partially funded by subscriptions, and only provide open access for those individual articles for which the authors (or research sponsor) pay a publication fee. Hybrid OA generally costs more than gold OA and can offer a lower quality of service. A particularly controversial practice in hybrid open access journals is "double dipping", where both authors and subscribers are charged. For these reasons, hybrid open access journals have been called a "Mephistophelian invention", and publishing in hybrid OA journals often do not qualify for funding under open access mandates, as libraries already pay for subscriptions thus have no financial incentive to fund open access articles in such journals. Bronze open access articles are free to read only on the publisher page, but lack a clearly identifiable license. Such articles are typically not available for reuse. Journals that publish open access without charging authors article processing charges are sometimes referred to as diamond or platinum OA. Since they do not charge either readers or authors directly, such publishers often require funding from external sources such as the sale of advertisements, academic institutions, learned societies, philanthropists or government grants. There are now over 350 platinum OA journals with impact factors over a wide variety of academic disciplines, giving most academics options for OA with no APCs. Diamond OA journals are available for most disciplines, and are usually small (<25 articles per year) and more likely to be multilingual (38%); thousands of such journals exist. The growth of unauthorized digital copying by large-scale copyright infringement has enabled free access to paywalled literature. This has been done via existing social media sites (e.g. the #ICanHazPDF hashtag) as well as dedicated sites (e.g. Sci-Hub). In some ways this is a large-scale technical implementation of pre-existing practice, whereby those with access to paywalled literature would share copies with their contacts. However, the increased ease and scale from 2010 onwards have changed how many people treat subscription publications. Similar to the free content definition, the terms 'gratis' and 'libre' were used in the Budapest Open Access Initiative definition to distinguish between free to read versus free to reuse. Gratis open access () refers to free online access, to read, free of charge, without re-use rights. Libre open access () also refers to free online access, to read, free of charge, plus some additional re-use rights, covering the kinds of open access defined in the Budapest Open Access Initiative, the Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing and the Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities. The re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses; all of which require as a minimum attribution of authorship to the original authors. In 2012, the number of works under libre open access was considered to have been rapidly increasing for a few years, though most open-access mandates did not enforce any copyright license and it was difficult to publish libre gold OA in legacy journals. However, there are no costs nor restrictions for green libre OA as preprints can be freely self-deposited with a free license, and most open-access repositories use Creative Commons licenses to allow reuse. The biggest drawback of many Open Access licenses is a prohibition on data mining. For this reason, many big data studies of various technologies performed by economists ( as well as machine learning by computer scientists) are limited to patent analysis, since the patent documents are not subject to copyright at all. FAIR is an acronym for 'findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable', intended to more clearly define what is meant by the term 'open access' and make the concept easier to discuss. Initially proposed in March 2016, it has subsequently been endorsed by organisations such as the European Commission and the G20. Note, however, that FAIR principles include "A1.2: The protocol allows for an authentication and authorisation procedure where necessary." This means that a FAIR dataset may be either closed (restricted access) or open (no access restrictions). So, only FAIR data without access restrictions are open access. Features The emergence of open science or open research has brought to light a number of controversial and hotly-debated topics. Scholarly publishing invokes various positions and passions. For example, authors may spend hours struggling with diverse article submission systems, often converting document formatting between a multitude of journal and conference styles, and sometimes spend months waiting for peer review results. The drawn-out and often contentious societal and technological transition to Open Access and Open Science/Open Research, particularly across North America and Europe (Latin America has already widely adopted "Acceso Abierto" since before 2000) has led to increasingly entrenched positions and much debate. The area of (open) scholarly practices increasingly sees a role for policy-makers and research funders giving focus to issues such as career incentives, research evaluation and business models for publicly funded research. Plan S and AmeliCA (Open Knowledge for Latin America) caused a wave of debate in scholarly communication in 2019 and 2020. Subscription-based publishing typically requires transfer of copyright from authors to the publisher so that the latter can monetise the process via dissemination and reproduction of the work. With OA publishing, typically authors retain copyright to their work, and license its reproduction to the publisher. Retention of copyright by authors can support academic freedoms by enabling greater control of the work (e.g. for image re-use) or licensing agreements (e.g. to allow dissemination by others). The most common licenses used in open access publishing are Creative Commons. The widely used CC BY license is one of the most permissive, only requiring attribution to be allowed to use the material (and allowing derivations and commercial use). A range of more restrictive Creative Commons licenses are also used. More rarely, some of the smaller academic journals use custom open access licenses. Some publishers (e.g. Elsevier) use "author nominal copyright" for OA articles, where the author retains copyright in name only and all rights are transferred to the publisher. Since open access publication does not charge readers, there are many financial models used to cover costs by other means. Open access can be provided by commercial publishers, who may publish open access as well as subscription-based journals, or dedicated open-access publishers such as Public Library of Science (PLOS) and BioMed Central. Another source of funding for open access can be institutional subscribers. One example is the Subscribe to Open publishing model introduced by Annual Reviews; if the subscription revenue goal is met, the given journal's volume is published open access. The number of journals implementing this model grew from 192 in 2024 to 378 in 2025. Advantages and disadvantages of open access have generated considerable discussion amongst researchers, academics, librarians, university administrators, funding agencies, government officials, commercial publishers, editorial staff and society publishers. Reactions of existing publishers to open access journal publishing have ranged from moving with enthusiasm to a new open access business model, to experiments with providing as much free or open access as possible, to active lobbying against open access proposals. There are many publishers that started up as open access-only publishers, such as PLOS, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Frontiers in... journals, MDPI and BioMed Central. Some open access journals (under the gold, and hybrid models) generate revenue by charging publication fees in order to make the work openly available at the time of publication. The money might come from the author but more often comes from the author's research grant or employer. While the payments are typically incurred per article published (e.g. BMC or PLOS journals), some journals apply them per manuscript submitted (e.g. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics until recently) or per author (e.g. PeerJ). Charges typically range from $1,000โ$3,000 ($5,380 for Nature Communications) but can be under $10, close to $5,000 or well over $10,000. APCs vary greatly depending on subject and region and are most common in scientific and medical journals (43% and 47% respectively), and lowest in arts and humanities journals (0% and 4% respectively). APCs can also depend on a journal's impact factor. Some publishers (e.g. eLife and Ubiquity Press) have released estimates of their direct and indirect costs that set their APCs. Hybrid OA generally costs more than gold OA and can offer a lower quality of service. A particularly controversial practice in hybrid open access journals is "double dipping", where both authors and subscribers are charged. By comparison, journal subscriptions equate to $3,500โ$4,000 per article published by an institution, but are highly variable by publisher (and some charge page fees separately). This has led to the assessment that there is enough money "within the system" to enable full transition to OA. However, there is ongoing discussion about whether the change-over offers an opportunity to become more cost-effective or promotes more equitable participation in publication. Concern has been noted that increasing subscription journal prices will be mirrored by rising APCs, creating a barrier to less financially privileged authors. The inherent bias of the current APC-based OA publishing perpetuates this inequality through the 'Matthew effect' (the rich get richer, and the poor get poorer). The switch from pay-to-read to pay-to-publish has left essentially the same people behind, with some academics not having enough purchasing power (individually or through their institutions) for either option. Some gold OA publishers will waive all or part of the fee for authors from less developed economies. Steps are normally taken to ensure that peer reviewers do not know whether authors have requested, or been granted, fee waivers, or to ensure that every paper is approved by an independent editor with no financial stake in the journal.[citation needed] The main argument against requiring authors to pay a fee, is the risk to the peer review system, diminishing the overall quality of scientific journal publishing.[citation needed] No-fee open access journals, also known as "platinum" or "diamond" do not charge either readers or authors. These journals use a variety of business models including subsidies, advertising, membership dues, endowments, or volunteer labour. Subsidising sources range from universities, libraries and museums to foundations, societies or government agencies. Some publishers may cross-subsidise from other publications or auxiliary services and products. For example, most APC-free journals in Latin America are funded by higher education institutions and are not conditional on institutional affiliation for publication. Conversely, Knowledge Unlatched crowdsources funding in order to make monographs available open access. Estimates of prevalence vary, but approximately 10,000 journals without APC are listed in DOAJ and the Free Journal Network. APC-free journals tend to be smaller and more local-regional in scope. Some also require submitting authors to have a particular institutional affiliation. A "preprint" is typically a version of a research paper that is shared on an online platform prior to, or during, a formal peer review process. Preprint platforms have become popular due to the increasing drive towards open access publishing and can be publisher- or community-led. A range of discipline-specific or cross-domain platforms now exist. The posting of pre-prints (or authors' manuscript versions) is consistent with the Green Open Access model.[citation needed] A persistent concern surrounding preprints is that work may be at risk of being plagiarised or "scooped" โ meaning that the same or similar research will be published by others without proper attribution to the original source โ if publicly available but not yet associated with a stamp of approval from peer reviewers and traditional journals. These concerns are often amplified as competition increases for academic jobs and funding, and perceived to be particularly problematic for early-career researchers and other higher-risk demographics within academia.[citation needed] However, preprints, in fact, protect against scooping. Considering the differences between traditional peer-review based publishing models and deposition of an article on a preprint server, "scooping" is less likely for manuscripts first submitted as preprints. In a traditional publishing scenario, the time from manuscript submission to acceptance and to final publication can range from a few weeks to years, and go through several rounds of revision and resubmission before final publication. During this time, the same work will have been extensively discussed with external collaborators, presented at conferences, and been read by editors and reviewers in related areas of research. Yet, there is no official open record of that process (e.g., peer reviewers are normally anonymous, reports remain largely unpublished), and if an identical or very similar paper were to be published while the original was still under review, it would be impossible to establish provenance.[citation needed] Preprints provide a time-stamp at the time of publication, which helps to establish the "priority of discovery" for scientific claims. This means that a preprint can act as proof of provenance for research ideas, data, code, models, and results. The fact that the majority of preprints come with a form of permanent identifier, usually a digital object identifier (DOI), also makes them easy to cite and track. Thus, if one were to be "scooped" without adequate acknowledgement, this would be a case of academic misconduct and plagiarism, and could be pursued as such. There is no evidence that "scooping" of research via preprints exists, not even in communities that have broadly adopted the use of the arXiv server for sharing preprints since 1991. If the unlikely case of scooping emerges as the growth of the preprint system continues, it can be dealt with as academic malpractice. ASAPbio includes a series of hypothetical scooping scenarios as part of its preprint FAQ, finding that the overall benefits of using preprints vastly outweigh any potential issues around scooping.[note 1] Indeed, the benefits of preprints, especially for early-career researchers, seem to outweigh any perceived risk: rapid sharing of academic research, open access without author-facing charges, establishing priority of discoveries, receiving wider feedback in parallel with or before peer review, and facilitating wider collaborations. The "green" route to OA refers to author self-archiving, in which a version of the article (often the peer-reviewed version before editorial typesetting, called "postprint") is posted online to an institutional or subject repository. This route is often dependent on journal or publisher policies,[note 2] which can be more restrictive and complicated than respective "gold" policies regarding deposit location, license, and embargo requirements. Some publishers require an embargo period before deposition in public repositories, arguing that immediate self-archiving risks loss of subscription income. Embargoes are imposed by between 20 and 40% of journals, during which time an article is paywalled before permitting self-archiving (green OA) or releasing a free-to-read version (bronze OA). Embargo periods typically vary from 6โ12 months in STEM and >12 months in humanities, arts and social sciences. Embargo-free self-archiving has not been shown to affect subscription revenue, and tends to increase readership and citations. Embargoes have been lifted on particular topics for either limited times or ongoing (e.g. Zika outbreaks or indigenous health). Plan S includes zero-length embargoes on self-archiving as a key principle. Motivations Open access (mostly green and gratis) began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet and the World Wide Web. The momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA.[citation needed] The premises behind open access publishing are that there are viable funding models to maintain traditional peer review standards of quality while also making the following changes: An obvious advantage of open access journals is the free access to scientific papers regardless of affiliation with a subscribing library and improved access for the general public; this is especially true in developing countries. Lower costs for research in academia and industry have been claimed in the Budapest Open Access Initiative, although others have argued that OA may raise the total cost of publication, and further increase economic incentives for exploitation in academic publishing. The open access movement is motivated by the problems of social inequality caused by restricting access to academic research, which favor large and wealthy institutions with the financial means to purchase access to many journals, as well as the economic challenges and perceived unsustainability of academic publishing. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers. Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to. All researchers benefit from open access as no library can afford to subscribe to every scientific journal and most can only afford a small fraction of them โ this is known as the "serials crisis". Open access extends the reach of research beyond its immediate academic circle. An open access article can be read by anyone โ a professional in the field, a researcher in another field, a journalist, a politician or civil servant, or an interested layperson. Indeed, a 2008 study revealed that mental health professionals are roughly twice as likely to read a relevant article if it is freely available. Research funding agencies and universities want to ensure that the research they fund and support in various ways has the greatest possible research impact. As a means of achieving this, research funders are beginning to expect open access to the research they support. Many of them (including all UK Research Councils) have already adopted open-access mandates, and others are on the way to do so (see ROARMAP). A growing number of universities are providing institutional repositories in which their researchers can deposit their published articles. Some open access advocates believe that institutional repositories will play a very important role in responding to open-access mandates from funders. In May 2005, 16 major Dutch universities cooperatively launched DAREnet, the Digital Academic Repositories, making over 47,000 research papers available. From 2 June 2008, DAREnet has been incorporated into the scholarly portal NARCIS. By 2019, NARCIS provided access to 360,000 open access publications from all Dutch universities, KNAW, NWO and a number of scientific institutes. In 2011, a group of universities in North America formed the Coalition of Open Access Policy Institutions (COAPI). Starting with 21 institutions where the faculty had either established an open access policy or were in the process of implementing one, COAPI now has nearly 50 members. These institutions' administrators, faculty and librarians, and staff support the international work of the Coalition's awareness-raising and advocacy for open access. In 2012, the Harvard Open Access Project released its guide to good practices for university open-access policies, focusing on rights-retention policies that allow universities to distribute faculty research without seeking permission from publishers. As of November 2023, Rights retention policies are being adopted by an increasing number of UK universities as well. In 2013 a group of nine Australian universities formed the Australian Open Access Strategy Group (AOASG) to advocate, collaborate, raise awareness, and lead and build capacity in the open access space in Australia. In 2015, the group expanded to include all eight New Zealand universities and was renamed the Australasian Open Access Support Group. It was then renamed the Australasian Open Access Strategy Group, highlighting its emphasis on strategy. The awareness raising activities of the AOASG include presentations, workshops, blogs, and a webinar series on open access issues. As information professionals, librarians are often vocal and active advocates of open access. These librarians believe that open access promises to remove both the price and permission barriers that undermine library efforts to provide access to scholarship, as well as helping to address the serials crisis. Open access provides a complement to library access services such as interlibrary loan, supporting researchers' needs for immediate access to scholarship. Librarians and library associations also lead education and outreach initiatives to faculty, administrators, the library community, and the public about the benefits of open access. Many library associations have either signed major open access declarations or created their own. For example, IFLA have produced a Statement on Open Access. The Association of Research Libraries has documented the need for increased access to scholarly information, and was a leading founder of the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC). Librarians and library associations also develop and share informational resources on scholarly publishing and open access to research; the Scholarly Communications Toolkit developed by the Association of College and Research Libraries of the American Library Association is one example of this work. At most universities, the library manages the institutional repository, which provides free access to scholarly work by the university's faculty. The Canadian Association of Research Libraries has a program to develop institutional repositories at all Canadian university libraries. An increasing number of libraries provide publishing or hosting services for open access journals, with the Library Publishing Coalition as a membership organisation. In 2013, open access activist Aaron Swartz was posthumously awarded the American Library Association's James Madison Award for being an "outspoken advocate for public participation in government and unrestricted access to peer-reviewed scholarly articles". In March 2013, the entire editorial board and the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Library Administration resigned en masse, citing a dispute with the journal's publisher. One board member wrote of a "crisis of conscience about publishing in a journal that was not open access" after the death of Aaron Swartz. The public may benefit from open access to scholarly research for many reasons. Advocacy groups such as SPARC's Alliance for Taxpayer Access in the US argue that most scientific research is paid for by taxpayers through government grants, who have a right to access the results of what they have funded. Examples of people who might wish to read scholarly literature include individuals with medical conditions and their family members, serious hobbyists or "amateur" scholars (e.g. amateur astronomers), and high school and junior college students. Additionally, professionals in many fields, such as those doing research in private companies, start-ups, and hospitals, may not have access to publications behind paywalls, and OA publications are the only type that they can access in practice. Even those who do not read scholarly articles benefit indirectly from open access. For example, patients benefit when their doctor and other health care professionals have access to the latest research. Advocates argue that open access speeds research progress, productivity, and knowledge translation. In developing nations, open access archiving and publishing acquires a unique importance. Scientists, health care professionals, and institutions in developing nations often do not have the capital necessary to access scholarly literature. Many open access projects involve international collaboration. For example, the SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online), is a comprehensive approach to full open access journal publishing, involving a number of Latin American countries. Bioline International, a non-profit organization dedicated to helping publishers in developing countries is a collaboration of people in the UK, Canada, and Brazil; the Bioline International Software is used around the world. Research Papers in Economics (RePEc), is a collaborative effort of over 100 volunteers in 45 countries. The Public Knowledge Project in Canada developed the open-source publishing software Open Journal Systems (OJS), which is now in use around the world, for example by the African Journals Online group, and one of the most active development groups is Portuguese. This international perspective has resulted in advocacy for the development of open-source appropriate technology and the necessary open access to relevant information for sustainable development. History Various studies have investigated the extent of open access. A study published in 2010 showed that roughly 20% of the total number of peer-reviewed articles published in 2008 could be found openly accessible. Another study found that by 2010, 7.9% of all academic journals with impact factors were gold open access journals and showed a broad distribution of Gold Open Access journals throughout academic disciplines. A study of random journals from the citations indexes AHSCI, SCI and SSCI in 2013 came to the result that 88% of the journals were closed access and 12% were open access. In August 2013, a study done for the European Commission reported that 50% of a random sample of all articles published in 2011 as indexed by Scopus were freely accessible online by the end of 2012. A 2017 study by the Max Planck Society put the share of gold access articles in pure open access journals at around 13 percent of total research papers. In 2009, there were approximately 4,800 active open access journals, publishing around 190,000 articles. As of February 2019, over 12,500 open access journals are listed in the Directory of Open Access Journals. A 2013-2018 report (GOA4) found that in 2018 over 700,000 articles were published in gold open access in the world, of which 42% was in journals with no author-paid fees. The figure varies significantly depending on region and kind of publisher: 75% if university-run, over 80% in Latin America, but less than 25% in Western Europe. However, Crawford's study did not count open access articles published in "hybrid" journals (subscription journals that allow authors to make their individual articles open in return for payment of a fee). More comprehensive analyses of the scholarly literature suggest that this resulted in a significant underestimation of the prevalence of author-fee-funded OA publications in the literature. Crawford's study also found that although a minority of open access journals impose charges on authors, a growing majority of open access articles are published under this arrangement, particularly in the science disciplines (thanks to the enormous output of open access "mega journals", each of which may publish tens of thousands of articles in a year and are invariably funded by author-side chargesโsee Figure 10.1 in GOA4). According to Scopus database in August, 2024, 46.2% of works, indexed therein and published in 2023, had some form of open access. More than half of the OA publications (27.5% of all indexed works in 2023) were in fully Gold Open Access sources, 16.7% of all were in Green OA sources (i.e. which allow for self-archiving by authors), 9.2 % in Hybrid Gold OA sources (such as journals, which have open access and behind-paywall articles in the same issue), and 10.6 % were in Bronze OA sources (free-to-read on the publishers' websites). The adoption of Open Access publishing varies significantly from publisher to publisher, as shown in Fig. OA-Plot, where only the oldest (traditional) publishers are shown, but not the newer publishers, that use the Open Access model exclusively. This plot shows, that since 2010 the Institute of Physics has the largest percentage of OA publications, while the American Chemical Society has the lowest. Both the IOP and the ACS are non-profit publishers. The increase in OA percentage for articles published before ca. 1923 is related to the expiration of a 100-year copyright term. Some publishers (e.g. IOP and ACS made many such articles available as Open Access, while others (Elsevier in particular) did not. The Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR) indexes the creation, location and growth of open access open access-repositories and their contents. As of February 2019, over 4,500 institutional and cross-institutional repositories have been registered in ROAR. Effects on scholarly publishing Since published articles report on research that is typically funded by government or university grants, the more the article is used, cited, applied and built upon, the better for research as well as for the researcher's career. Some professional organizations have encouraged use of open access: in 2001, the International Mathematical Union communicated to its members that "Open access to the mathematical literature is an important goal" and encouraged them to "[make] available electronically as much of our own work as feasible" to "[enlarge] the reservoir of freely available primary mathematical material, particularly helping scientists working without adequate library access". OA articles are generally viewed online and downloaded more often than paywalled articles and that readership continues for longer. Readership is especially higher in demographics that typically lack access to subscription journals (in addition to the general population, this includes many medical practitioners, patient groups, policymakers, non-profit sector workers, industry researchers, and independent researchers). OA articles are more read on publication management programs such as Mendeley. Open access practices can reduce publication delays, an obstacle which led some research fields such as high-energy physics to adopt widespread preprint access. A main reason authors make their articles openly accessible is to maximize their citation impact. Open access articles are typically cited more often than equivalent articles requiring subscriptions. This 'citation advantage' was first reported in 2001. Although two major studies dispute this claim, the consensus of multiple studies support the effect, with measured OA citation advantage varying in magnitude between 1.3-fold to 6-fold depending on discipline. Citation advantage is most pronounced in OA articles in hybrid journals (compared to the non-OA articles in those same journals), and with articles deposited in green OA repositories. Notably, green OA articles show similar benefits to citation counts as gold OA articles. Articles in gold OA journals are typically cited at a similar frequency to paywalled articles. Citation advantage increases the longer an article has been published. In addition to format academic citation, other forms of research impact (altmetrics) may be affected by OA publishing, constituting a significant "amplifier" effect for science published on such platforms. Initial studies suggest that OA articles are more referenced in blogs, on Twitter, and on English Wikipedia. The OA advantage in altmetrics may be smaller than the advantage in academic citations, although findings are mixed. Journal impact factor (JIF) measures the average number of citations of articles in a journal over a two-year window. It is commonly used as a proxy for journal quality, expected research impact for articles submitted to that journal, and of researcher success. In subscription journals, impact factor correlates with overall citation count, however this correlation is not observed in gold OA journals. Open access initiatives like Plan S typically call on a broader adoption and implementation of the Leiden Manifesto[note 3] and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) alongside fundamental changes in the scholarly communication system.[note 4] Peer review of research articles prior to publishing has been common since the 18th century. Commonly reviewer comments are only revealed to the authors and reviewer identities kept anonymous. The rise of OA publishing has also given rise to experimentation in technologies and processes for peer review. Increasing transparency of peer review and quality control includes posting results to preprint servers, preregistration of studies, open publishing of peer reviews, open publishing of full datasets and analysis code, and other open science practices. It is proposed that increased transparency of academic quality control processes makes audit of the academic record easier. Additionally, the rise of OA megajournals has made it viable for their peer review to focus solely on methodology and results interpretation whilst ignoring novelty. Major criticisms of the influence of OA on peer review have included that if OA journals have incentives to publish as many articles as possible then peer review standards may fall (as aspect of predatory publishing), increased use of preprints may populate the academic corpus with un-reviewed junk and propaganda, and that reviewers may self-censor if their identity is open. Some advocates propose that readers will have increased skepticism of preprint studies - a traditional hallmark of scientific inquiry. Predatory publishers present themselves as academic journals but use lax or no peer review processes coupled with aggressive advertising in order to generate revenue from article processing charges from authors. The definitions of 'predatory', 'deceptive', or 'questionable' publishers/journals are often vague, opaque, and confusing, and can also include fully legitimate journals, such as those indexed by PubMed Central. In this sense, Grudniewicz et al. proposed a consensus definition that needs to be shared: "Predatory journals and publishers are entities that prioritize self-interest at the expense of scholarship and are characterized by false or misleading information, deviation from best editorial and publication practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use of aggressive and indiscriminate solicitation practices." In this way, predatory journals exploit the OA model by deceptively removing the main value added by the journal (peer review) and parasitize the OA movement, occasionally hijacking or impersonating other journals. The rise of such journals since 2010 has damaged the reputation of the OA publishing model as a whole, especially via sting operations where fake papers have been successfully published in such journals. Although commonly associated with OA publishing models, subscription journals are also at risk of similar lax quality control standards and poor editorial policies. OA publishers therefore aim to ensure quality via auditing by registries such as DOAJ, OASPA and SciELO and comply to a standardised set of conditions. A blacklist of predatory publishers is also maintained by Cabell's blacklist (a successor to Beall's List). Increased transparency of the peer review and publication process has been proposed as a way to combat predatory journal practices. Open irony refers to the situation where a scholarly journal article advocates open access but the article itself is only accessible by paying a fee to the journal publisher to read the article. This has been noted in many fields, with more than 20 examples appearing since around 2010, including in widely-read journals such as The Lancet, Science and Nature. In 2012 Duncan Hull proposed the Open Access Irony award to publicly humiliate journals that publish these kinds of papers. Examples of these have been shared and discussed on social media using the hashtag #openirony. Typically, these discussions are humorous exposures of articles/editorials that are pro-open access, but locked behind paywalls. The main concern that motivates these discussions is that restricted access to public scientific knowledge is slowing scientific progress. The practice has been justified as important for raising awareness of open access. Infrastructure Multiple databases exist for open access articles, journals and datasets. These databases overlap, however each has different inclusion criteria, which typically include extensive vetting for journal publication practices, editorial boards and ethics statements. The main databases of open access articles and journals are DOAJ and PMC. In the case of DOAJ, only fully gold open access journals are included, whereas PMC also hosts articles from hybrid journals. There are also a number of preprint servers which host articles that have not yet been reviewed as open access copies. These articles are subsequently submitted for peer review by both open access and subscription journals, however the preprint always remains openly accessible. A list of preprint servers is maintained at ResearchPreprints. For articles that are published in closed access journals, some authors will deposit a postprint copy in an open-access repository, where it can be accessed for free. Most subscription journals place restrictions on which version of the work may be shared or require an embargo period following the original date of publication. What is deposited can therefore vary, either a preprint or the peer-reviewed postprint, either the author's refereed and revised final draft or the publisher's version of record, either immediately deposited or after several years. Repositories may be specific to an institution, a discipline (e.g.arXiv), a scholarly society (e.g. MLA's CORE Repository), or a funder (e.g. PMC). Although the practice was first formally proposed in 1994, self-archiving was already being practiced by some computer scientists in local FTP archives in the 1980s (later harvested by CiteSeer). The SHERPA/RoMEO site maintains a list of the different publisher copyright and self-archiving policies and the ROAR database hosts an index of the repositories themselves. Uneven coverage of journals in the major commercial citation index databases (such as Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed) has strong effects on evaluating both researchers and institutions (e.g. the UK Research Excellence Framework or Times Higher Education ranking[note 5]). While these databases primarily select based on process and content quality, there has been concern that their commercial nature may skew their assessment criteria and representation of journals outside of Europe and North America. At the time of that study in 2018, there were no comprehensive, open source or non-commercial academic databases. However, in more recent years, The Lens emerged as a suitable outside-paywalls universal academic database. Like the self-archived green open access articles, most gold open access journal articles are distributed via the World Wide Web, due to low distribution costs, increasing reach, speed, and increasing importance for scholarly communication. Open source software is sometimes used for open-access repositories, open access journal websites, and other aspects of open access provision and open access publishing. Access to online content requires Internet access, and this distributional consideration presents physical and sometimes financial barriers to access. There are various open access aggregators that list open access journals or articles. ROAD (the Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources) synthesizes information about open access journals and is a subset of the ISSN register. SHERPA/RoMEO lists international publishers that allow the published version of articles to be deposited in institutional repositories. The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) contains over 12,500 peer-reviewed open access journals for searching and browsing. Open access articles can be found with a web search, using any general search engine or those specialized for the scholarly and scientific literature, such as Google Scholar, OAIster, base-search.net, and CORE Many open-access repositories offer a programmable interface to query their content. Some of them use a generic protocol, such as OAI-PMH (e.g., base-search.net). In addition, some repositories propose a specific API, such as the arXiv API, the Dissemin API, the Unpaywall/oadoi API, or the base-search API. In 1998, several universities founded the Public Knowledge Project to foster open access, and developed the open-source journal publishing system Open Journal Systems, among other scholarly software projects. As of 2010, it was being used by approximately 5,000 journals worldwide. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus (Polish), SciELO (Portuguese, Spanish) and Redalyc (Spanish). Policies and mandates Many universities, research institutions and research funders have adopted mandates requiring their researchers to make their research publications open access. For example, Research Councils UK spent nearly ยฃ60m on supporting their open access mandate between 2013 and 2016. New mandates are often announced during the Open Access Week, that takes place each year during the last full week of October. The idea of mandating self-archiving was raised at least as early as 1998. Since 2003 efforts have been focused on open access mandating by the funders of research: governments, research funding agencies, and universities. Some publishers and publisher associations have lobbied against introducing mandates. In 2002, the University of Southampton's School of Electronics & Computer Science became one of the first schools to implement a meaningful mandatory open access policy, in which authors had to contribute copies of their articles to the school's repository. More institutions followed suit in the following years. In 2007, Ukraine became the first country to create a national policy on open access, followed by Spain in 2009. Argentina, Brazil, and Poland are currently in the process of developing open access policies. Making master's and doctoral theses open access is an increasingly popular mandate by many educational institutions. In the US, the NIH Public Access Policy has required since 2008 that papers describing research funded by the National Institutes of Health must be available to the public free through PubMed Central (PMC) within 12 months of publication. In 2022, US President Joe Biden's Office of Science and Technology Policy issued a memorandum calling for the removal of the 12-month embargo. By the end of 2025, US federal agencies must require all results (papers, documents and data) produced as a result of US government-funded research to be available to the public immediately upon publication. In 2023, the Council of the European Union recommended the implementation of an open-access and not-for-profit model for research publishing by the European Commission and member states. These recommendations are not legally binding and received mixed reactions. While welcomed by some members of the academic community, publishers argued that the suggested model is unrealistic due to the lack of crucial funding details. Furthermore, the council's recommendations raised concerns within the publishing industry regarding the potential implications, and they also emphasized the importance of research integrity and the need for member states to address predatory journals and paper mills. In 2024, the Gates Foundation announced a "preprint-centric" open access policy, and their intention to stop paying APCs. In 2024, the government of Japan also announced a Green open access policy, requiring that government-funded research be made freely available on institutional preprint repositories from April 2025. As of March 2021, open-access mandates have been registered by over 100 research funders and 800 universities worldwide, compiled in the Registry of Open Access Repository Mandates and Policies. As these sorts of mandates increase in prevalence, collaborating researchers may be affected by several at once. Tools such as SWORD can help authors manage sharing between repositories. Compliance rates with voluntary open access policies remain low (as low as 5%). However it has been demonstrated that more successful outcomes are achieved by policies that are compulsory and more specific, such as specifying maximum permissible embargo times. Compliance with compulsory open-access mandates varies between funders from 27% to 91% (averaging 67%). From March 2021, Google Scholar started tracking and indicating compliance with funders' open-access mandates, although it only checks whether items are free-to-read, rather than openly licensed. Inequality and open access Gender inequality favoring men can be found in many disciplines, including political science, economics and neurology, and critical care research. For instance, in critical care research, 30.8% of the 18,483 research articles published between 2008 and 2018 were led by female authors and were more likely to be published in lower-impact journals than those led by male authors. Open access publishing may improve the visibility of female researchers both inside and outside academia, but without deliberate support of female researchers, open access publishing may exacerbate gender inequality. A 2022 study has found "most OA articles were written by authors in high-income countries, and there were no articles in Mirror journals by authors in low-income countries." "One of the great ironies of open access is that you grant authors around the world the ability to finally read the scientific literature that was completely closed off to them, but it ends up excluding them from publishing in the same journals" says Emilio Bruna, a scholar at the University of Florida in Gainesville. By country See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/district] | [TOKENS: 4188] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืงื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืขืชืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืคืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื, ื ืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืงืจ 50+ ืฉืคืืช 70+ ืืืื ืืช 2000s ืื ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืฉื ืคืชืจื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืืื 15000+ ืืืงืืจืืช 5 ืืืืืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืืืืืช ืคืืืืืืช ืืืืคืืง ืืืจืืช ืืืื ื ืฉืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืฆืขืช ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืฉืจืฉืืช ืขืืืง ืืคืืืืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืขืืืจืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืคืชื ืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืขืืืงื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืืื, ืืืืืงืืช ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืชืืืื ื-STEM. ืืืืืจืืชื ืืืื ื ืืืืืืืชืืช ืฉืื ื ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืฆืืขืื ืฉื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืฆืืข ืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืชืืืช. ืืื ืื ืชืืืืืื ืืงืืงืื ืืชืืงืื, ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืืืฆืื, ืืืืคืืง ืขืืืจืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื! ืืืืจืื ืืฉ ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืฆืืช ืคืขืืืืืืช, ื ืืฉืืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืงืื ืกืคืฆืืคืืื ืืชืืืืืืื. ืืืืคืืง ืื ืืื ืขื ืขืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืืืชื ืชืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืคืืจืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื ืืืืฆืืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืขืืจืืืชื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืคืืง ืืืืชื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืขืจืื ื-34%! ืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืคืืจืืืช ืขื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืงืขืืชืืื ืืฉืชืืืืช. ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืื ืืืื ืืขืงืื ืืืจ ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืื ืขืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืช ืืขืจื ืฉืืืืคืืง ืืืกืืคื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืื. ืคืืืคืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืขืืืจืช ืืคืจืกืื ืฉืื ื ืขืืงืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืจ ืืชืงืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื, ืื ืฉืชืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืชื. ืชืืื ืช ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชืื ื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืชืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืืืคืืง ืฉืืืจืช ืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืกืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืขืื ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืขืืจืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืขืงื ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืืง. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืช, ืื ืฉืขืืืจ ืืื ืืกืคืง ืืชืขืจืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช. ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืคืืช ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืงืืืฆืชืืช ืืืืชืชืืช ืฉืืื. ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืืคืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืชื, ืขื ืื ืช ืืืงื ืขื ื ืื ืืชืื ืื ืืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืืชืืงื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืขืืจืช ืขืืืจ ืืื ื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืืกืคืง ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืืกืกืืช ื ืชืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืฉืขืืงื ืืืจ ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืชืงื ืื ืืจืืืืื, ืืืืคืืง ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืืจืื ืืืชืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืคืืืช ืขืืืก ืขืืืื ืืืืงื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืงืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืืชืจ. ืืืคื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืจืชืงืืช ื ืืชื ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืงืืืฆืืช ืงืื ืืช ืืืช ืื ืืืืชื! ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืจืื ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืชืขืจื ืื ืืกืคืง ืืขืฉืจื. ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืขื ืชืืืื ืืคืืชืื ืืงืฆืืขื ืืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืง ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืคืืืคืืจืื. ืชืืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืืง ืขืืืืช ืืชืงื ื ISO27001 ื-WCAG 2.1 AA, ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืฉื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืืชื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืขื ืืช ืขื ืฆืจืืื ืืืฉืืื, ืื ืฉืชืืืืืื ืขื ืฆืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืืงืืช ืื ืื ืืงืืงืื. ืืืืคืืง ืืคืขืืื: ืกืืคืืจื ืืฆืืื ืืงื ื ืืืื ืืืื UNICEF ืกืื ืคืืืื ืกืืื ืืืืคืืง ืืฆืืจืคื ืืชืืง Blue Unicorn ืฉื UNICEF ืืืืคืืง ื ืืืจื ืืชืืง Blue Unicorn ืฉื UNICEF, ืืชืื ืืืจื ืืืืืืชื ืืกืคืง ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืื ืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืื ื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืคืืง ืืืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืขืืืจ ืกืืืืืช ืืืืืฉืืช. ืชืืื ืืืช ืคืืืืื ืืชืงืืืืืช ืืขืช ืืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืคืจืืกืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืขืชืืืืืช ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช. โUNICEF ืืกืืืขืช ืืืจืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืคืืง ืืืื ื ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืืืืืช ืจืืืืช, ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืงืืืช ืืช ืืืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืื ืืืงืืงืื ืื ืืืืชืจ.โ ืฉืืคืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืฆืืื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืขืฉืืจ ืืฉื ืช 2023, ืกืื ืคืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืฆืืืืจื ืืืืชืืช ื' ืืืขืื. ืขื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืชืืื ืืช ื ืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืืช, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืกืืืจืืช ืฉื 46% ืืฆืืื ื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืืืช (SAEB), ืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืืื ืืช ืขืฉืืจ ืฉื ืงืืคืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ื. โืืชืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืงืฉืื ืืช ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืื. ืฉืืจื ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืชืืืืงื ืืกืชืืื ืืคืืืคืืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืืืืืฆืืโืื ืื ืื ื ืืืืืื ืขืืื, ืื ืืชืืืืืื.โ ืืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืคืขืจ: ืืืคืืช ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืขืื ืืฉืืข ืฉื ืื, ืกืืืื ืืืืจืืืืืื ืืฉืชืคืช ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืื ื. ืขื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืืคืืืืืช ืืืืกืกืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืจืช ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืชืจ. ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืชืืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืืืขื ืืืฆืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืงื ื ืืืื ืืืื. โืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืขื ืื ืฉืื ืชืืืื ืขืืฉื. ืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืฉ ืคืขืจืืโืืืื ื ืืจืฉืช ืขืืืื ื ืืกืคืช. ืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืชืืงื ืืชืืืืื ืืืื.โ ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืชืืืืืช_ืืกืืืื ืืื_ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช_ืืืฉืจืื] | [TOKENS: 8373] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ("ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช") ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2026, ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืคืจืฉื ืืืืชืืืืืช ื-2021. ืืกื ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืืช 46 ืืืืืืช ืืืืืฆืืืช ื-350,000 ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืชืคืงืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืจืื, ืคืขืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจื, ืืชืื ืฉืืืคื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืขืชืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืชืืงืฃ ืชืคืงืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืจืชื, ืืืืืชื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืง ืืืคืืชืช ืฉืืจ ืืืืืื (ื-1998 ืืืืืง ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืงืืช ืืขืืช ืืื ืืืจื ืืืืื ืช ืฉืืจ ืืืืืื; ืื-2007 ื ืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืชืงืฆืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืจื ืืืชืืื ืฉืงืืขื ืืขืืช ืืื ืืืจื ืชืื ืืืืืช ืืกืงื ืืช ืืขืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื), ืืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืฆืืง ืฉืืืื (ืืื"ืจ ืืื) ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืงืืฅ 2011. ืืืฉืืช ืจืืฉ ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืชืืงืฃ ืชืคืงืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ 2024 ืืืื ืช ืืชืคืงืื ืื"ืจ ืืืชืืืืืช ืกืืื ืงืืจื ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืคื ื ืื ืืืืฉืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืคื. ืงืืจื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืฉื ืืื ืื ืคืขื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืชืคืงืื, ืฉืื ืืืืจืื ื ื ืืืจื ืืฉื ืช 2002. ืืงืืจืืช ืืืื ืกื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืื (10 ืฉ"ื ืืกืืืื ื, ื ืืื ืืฉื ืช ื'ืชืฉืข"ื), ืืื ืืกืคืื ืืืชืงืืืื ืืืืจืช ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืงืืช (ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช) ืืืืจืช ืืืกืชื ืืืื ืก. ืชืงืฆืืื ืืฉื ืชื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืคืืข ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืจื ื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืขืืืื ืืืชืื ืืฉื ืช ืืืกืคืื ืืจืืืื ืืืช. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืจืืื ื ืืกื ืืื ืืื ืชืจืฆ"ื (1โ3 ืืืฆืืืจ 1934) ืืฉื "ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื", ืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืช ืืกืชืืจืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช, ืืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื (ืืืืื ืืืกื ืืืงืืช ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื). ืืืืจ ืงืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืจืืื ื"ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื", ืืืื ืืกื ืืจืืฉืื ืืฉื ืื ื ืขืจื ืืืจืฅ 1950. ืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1995 ืืืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืื"ืจ ืืขืืืชื ืจืฉืืื, ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2006 ืืืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืคื (European Students Union โ ESU). ืืฉื ืช 2009, ืืืืจ ืืขืฉืืจ ืฉื ืคืขืืืืช ื ืคืจืืช, ืืจืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืฉืืืฆื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืชืืื ืขื ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืฉืืืฆืื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช, ืืื ืืคืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืช ืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2015 ืฉืื ืชื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืช ืฉืื ืืืืคื ืจืฉืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2016 ืขืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืชืืงืื ืืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ื (ืชืืงืื โ ืขืืืื ืืจืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืฆืื) ืืืืืืช ื"ื ืืืจื ืื-ืืจื ืื"ื ืฉืืื ืืืขืื. ืืืืงืืช ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืงืช ืืงืืืื ืคืืขืืช ืืงืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืืืชืืช โ ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืื, ืืืืืงื ืืกืืืขืช ืืืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืคืจืื ื ืืกืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืื. ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืงืชื, ืืืืืงื ืืืืฆืืช ืืช ืฆืืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืืช ืืงืืงื ืคืจื-ืกืืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืฉื ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ื ืืืงืื ืืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืื, ืืืืืงื ืฉืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืชืืื ืืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืืืกืืจืช ืื ืคืืจืกืื ืืื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืงื ืคืืขื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืงืืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืฉืืืจืชื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืขืฆืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืืืขืืืื, ืืืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืคืขืจืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืงืืจืื ืืื-ืืืืจื. ืืืืืจ ืืคืขืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืช ืื ืืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืื ืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืงืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืขืจืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืฉื ืชืืืืื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืชืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืจืื. ืืืืงืช ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืขืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืจืชื ืืืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื ืืื ืขืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืืืืช. ืืืช ืืชืื ืจืืืื ืฉืขื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืง ืืจืืื ืืขืืฆืื ืืืฆืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืขืชืืืื ืืืืืช, ื ืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืชืืจืื ืืืืจืชืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืชืขืฆืืื. ืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืงื ืืคืขืืื ืคืจืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืงืืืื ืืชืืืจื ืืืืื ืืคืจืืกื ืืจืฆืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืขื ืื ืช ืืืงื ืืช ืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืื, ืืืืงืช ืืืืืช ืืกืคืงืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืข ืื ืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืจื ืื. ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืงื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืจืื ืฉื ืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืชืืืจื ืืืืื. ืืืืืงื ืืงืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืชืืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืฉืืชืืื ืื ืืืฉื โ ืืชืืื ืืช "ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืจืืื ืืชืืงืื" (ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืจืืื ืืชืืงืื) ืืฉื ื ืฉืืขื ืืคืืงื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืขืืืง ืืช ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืฆืขืืจืื ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืชืืงืื ืชืื ืืืืืง ืืขืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืืืืช (ืืืฉื, ืกืืืข ืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืืืืืชืืื ืืืชืืขืื ืขืืืชื); ืืชืืื ืืช "ืืื ืืจืื" ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืจื ืืืืจืืื ืืชืืงืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืขืืืจืื ืืฉืืชืคืื ืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืชืืงืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืื ื. ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืืฆืจื ืขื ืื ืช ืืขืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืขืืืจ ืฆืืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืืื, ืืงืื ืขื ืืฆืืงืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืื ืืชืืงืื ืืืขืืงืช ืืงืฉืจ ืืืื-ืืืจื; ืืชืืื ืืช "ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืฉืช" ืืกืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืง ืคืขืื ืืืืืง ื ืื ืืืกืชื, ืืืคืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืชืจื ืืื ืืจื ื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ื ืื ืชืืคืขืช ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืขื ืืช ืืืคื ืืขื ืืืืืื; "ืงืืืฃ ืืฉืจืืื" ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืืฉืจื ืืืงืืืืช, ืคืืชืื ืืืคืจ ืืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื, ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืืงืืฅ, ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืขืื ื ืืืืขืจืช ืฉื ืืงืืืฃ, ืืืขื ืืง ืืกืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืขืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืฆืืื ืืช, ืืืืืช, ืืงืืืืช ืืืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืงื ืฉืืชืืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื: ืืืืช ืืืื ืก ืืฉืจืื, ืืจืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืขื ืืืืข; ืคืจืืืงื ืฆื"ื (ืจืืฉื ืชืืืืช ืฉื: ืฆืืื ืืช, ืื ืืืืืช, ืืื ืื) โ ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืจืืืงื ืคืืขืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืงืืืื ืขืจืืื ืืื ืืงืจื ืื ื ืื ืืขืจ; ืืกื ื ืืืืืช ืฉื ื'ืืื ื ืืฉืจืื ืคืืขื ืืื ืขื ืืืืงืช ืืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืชืืื ืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืชืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืฉืื ืื. ืืืืงืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืกืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืฉืืืคื ืืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืขืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืฆืขืืจื, ืขื ืืกืืก ืืชืคืืฉื ืฉืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืืืกืชืื ืืจืืืฉืช ืืฉืืื ืืงื ืืืช ืืขืช, ืืื ืฉืชืคืงืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืง ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืืืช. ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฆืืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืงื ืฉืืืคืช ืืืกืก ืืช ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืกืคืื ืช ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืข ืืฆืืง ืืืจืชื โ ืื ืืืืืงืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืกืืืื, ืืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืืจื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืื ื ืืืืงืจืืืช, ืจืืืื ืืฆืืืงืช ืืืชืจ. ืืฉื ืช 2012, ืืงืืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืงื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช, ืืช ืงืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืจ, ืืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืงืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืกืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืงื ืืฉืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืขืืจืื ืืืื. ืืืืฉื, ืืชืจืื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืขืจืื ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืชื ื ืคืจื ืืฉื "ืชืืฆืจืช ืืืจืฅ". ืืืืงืช ืงืฉืจื ืืืฉื ืืืจืืืช ืขื ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืง ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืงื, ืืงืืฅ 2016, ืขืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืชืืงืื ืืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืฃ ืืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืงืช ืงืฉืจื ืืืืืืช ืคืืขืืช ืืืืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฆืื ืืจ ืืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื. ืืืืืงื ืคืืขืืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืชืืืืื ืขืืงืจืืื. ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืืฃ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืืืืืช. ืืฉื ื, ืืฆืืจืช ืืืฉืจืืช ืืงืืืืื ืืืงืฆืืขื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช. ืืฉืืืฉื, ืคืจืืืงืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืชืืืืชื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืงืช ืงืฉืจื ืืืฅ ืคืืขืืช ืืืขื ืคืืชืื ืืืืืืง ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืฆืืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืฆืืืืจ ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืชืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ. ืืฉื ืื, ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืคืื (European Students Union โ ESU) ืืืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืืื (World Union of Jewish Students โ WUSJ). ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืืืงื ืืฉืชืชืคืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจื ืืืกืืจื ืืืชืคืืฆืืช. ืืืืงืช ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืืช ืคืืขืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืฃ ืืืข ืืืืืช ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืข ืฉืืืืืงื ืืืืฆืจืช ืืื ื ืืืขืื ื-50 ืืืงืจืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืขืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืขืืื, ืจืืืืช ืืกืืืื ื, ืืขืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืกืงืจื ืืขืช ืงืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืข ืฉืืืืืงื ืืืืฆืจืช ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืงืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืืืืข ืืืืืชื ืืฉื ืขืืฆืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืงืืืืื. ืืืืงืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืืจืืืช ืขื ืืืชืืื ืืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืขื ืืกืืจืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืชืืืืืช. ืืืืืงื ืืืจืืืช ืขื ืืฆืืจืช ืืกืืจืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืชืืช ืืืชืืืืืช, ืืืฆืืชื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืคืืขื ืืขื ืืกืืจืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืืืจ ืืจืื. ืืื ืื ืคืืขืืช ืืืืืงื ืืขืจืืฆื ืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืขื ืื ืช ืืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืงืฉืจ ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืชื ืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืฉืื ืจืืฉ ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉื ืืืชืืืืืช ืคืื ืื ืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืื ืชื. ืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืฉืื ืจืืฉ ืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช ืืช ืืื ื ืืื, ืจืื ื ืืืืื, ืฆืื ืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืขื ืืืคืืจืืืกืงื, ืจื ืฉืคืข ืืืืฆืืง ืฉืืืื. ืชืืืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืืชืช "ืืืกืชื ืืืื ืก" ืืืชืืืืืช ืืฉื ื ืืขืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืืจืช ืืืกืชื ืืืื ืก โ ืืืจื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืขืืืชื ืจืฉืช ืกืืื ืืืืช ืื ืกืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืขื ื-50 ืกื ืืคืื ืืจืืื ืืืจืฅ. ืกืืืืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/maagal_hashana/vacation-schedule/] | [TOKENS: 531] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืฉืืช - ืืืืจ ืื ื"ื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื ืืื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืจืฉืื - ืชืฉืค"ื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื ืชืื ืืืื ืจืืฉืื, ื"ื ืืื ืชืฉืค"ื, 1 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2024. ืืื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืจืฉืื - ืชืฉืค"ื ืืขืื ืืฉื ื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืชืงืืคืช_ืืฉืืงืื] | [TOKENS: 9972] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื (ืืื ืืืืช: Reconstruction, ืืืืข ืืขืืจืืช ืื ื"ืื ืืื ืืืืฉ" ื"ืจืงืื ืกืืจืืงืฆืื") ืืื ืืื ืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช, ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1865 ื-1877, ืฉืืืืืื ื ืืกืชื ืืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืชืขืืจืจื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืืืื. ืขื ืืกืืืืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืชืืืืก ืืฉืืงืื ื ืื ืื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืืื, ืืฆืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืฆืื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื. ื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืขืืจืจื ืืขื ืืืืืืงืช, ืื ืฉืขื ืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-70 ืฉื ืืืื ื-19, ืืฉื ืื ืืกืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืืชืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืจ ืืืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืช. ื ืืชื ืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืื ืขืืงืจืืื: ืืฉืืงืื ืื ืฉืืืืชื (1863โ-1866), ืฉืืืืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืจื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืชืื ื ืืืคื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื; ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืืืงืื (1866-โ1873), ืฉืืืืืื ื ืืจืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืคืชืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืขื ืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืช ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืฉืืืจืื; ืืืืืืื (1873โ1877), ืฉืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืืงืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืกืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืฆื ืืฆืคืื, ืชื ืขืืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืจืืช 1876. ื ืืฉืืื ืขืืงืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืงืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืจืืืช, ืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืชืืื ืืจืขืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืขืฉื, ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ื ืืืงื ืืช ืคืจืืฉืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืชื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ืืขืฉืืจื ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืงืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจื, ืืฆื ืืืืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืช. ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืืกืชื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืจืืกืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืื ื ืืชืจื ืืจืืจื ืืื ืืืกืืื ืขื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืฆื. ืืืื ืืืืืืงืช ืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืงืืื ืจืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื, ืืืืจืช ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืงืื ืืจืก. ืื ืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืื, ืื ืืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืจืฉื, ืื ืืจื ื'ืื ืกืื, ื ืชื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืคืืก ืืช ืืืกืจืืช ืืฉืืืื. ืืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืชื ืืขืืช ืขืืงืจืืืช ืื ืืืข ืืืืืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืื. ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืื'ืื ืกืื, ืฉืืชืืกืกื ืขื ืืขืืงืจืื ืฉืื ืคืจืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืงืืช, ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืืื ืขืฆืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืื ืืืช, ืืืคืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืืืงืื ืฉื ืืงืงื ืืขืช "ืืืขืืจืืชื", ืืืืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ โ ืฉืืจืืจ ืืขืืืื. ืืฉื ืืื, ืืขืชื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื, ืืคืื ืืฉ ืืืขื ืืฉ ืงืฉืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืงืฉืืช ืขื ืืืจืชื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืื ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืจืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืขื ืชืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ื ืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืงื ืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืืขืืจืคื ืืืืชืจ. ืืชืืงืื ื-13 ืืื ื ืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืืขืืืื, ืื ืื ืงืืข ืืืืืง ืื ืืขืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืจืืจ ืื ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืืืจืจืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉ ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ, ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืจืืข ืืืืฉืจื ืืชืืงืื ืื ื-14 ืื-15 ืฉืืฉืืื ืืืจืืช ืืื. ืชืืืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืจืฉืืช ืืืืื, ืืขืฆื ืืขืฉื ืืคืจืืฉื, ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืช, ืืืืื ื ืืฉืคืืืช, ืืจืืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืจืืืืจืืืช-ืืกึฐืคึทืจ ืืจืืงืืช-ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืขืจื. ืืคื ืืืืงื ืืคืืคืืช ืืืจืืืืจืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืงืืืืืช. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืฆืจื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืื ืืื ืฉืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืื ืขื ืืคืจืืฉื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ื ืจืฉืืืช, ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืคืจืฉื ืืฃ ืคืขื ืืืืจืืช, ืฉืื ืืคืจืืฉื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืงืืช, ืืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืกืืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืชืืื โ ืืื ืฉืื, ืืชืืงืฃ ืชืคืงืืื ืืืคืงื ืืฆืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืื ืืจืฉืืืืชืื, ืืืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืืืขืื ืขื ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืืืืื โ ืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืช, ืื ืฆืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืฉื ืื ื ืงื ืืื ืงืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืื ืงืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืฉืืช ืขืืื ืืืื ืืืช ื ืืงืฉื. ืืื ืงืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืชืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืงืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืจืงื ืกื ืืืืืืืืื ื, ืฉืฉืื ืืืจืืช ืขืื ื-1862, ืืืฉืจ ืืชื ืืืืืงืงืื ืฉืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืงืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืฉ. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืจืฆื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืืื ื ืืืจืงื ืกื ืืืจืืช, ืฉืื ืืืืงื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืขื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืฆืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืจื ืืืช ืืื ืคืขื. ืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืกืืืจ ืืืฉื ืื ืืกืืื ื ืขืืจืื: "ื ืืืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืชืจืื ืื ืงืืื ืื ืงืืื, ืืคื ืฉืื ืงืืจืืื ืืื โ ืงืืืขืื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืจื ืื ืงืืื ืฉืืื ื ืจืืืงื ืืืชืจ ืืืคื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืช; ืืื ืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืข ืืขืฆืื, ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืื" (ืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจ). ืื, ืืงืฆืจื: "ืืืื ืืืชื ืืื - ืื ืืืืืช ืืขื ืืืื ืืืช" (My policy is to have no policy). ืืื ืืจืืื ืจืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืฉืืืืื ืงืืืขื ืื ืขื ืืืขื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืงืืื ืื ืขืงืจืื ืืช. ื ืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืื ื ืืงืฉื ืฉื ืฉืืงืื ืกืืืขื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืืจืฉ ืฉืืืช ืืืืืงืงืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ื ืฉืคืจืฉื ืืืืฅ ืืืงืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืชืืื ืืชืืืืชื ืฉื 10% ืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืืืชื ืืืื ื ื-1860 โ ืื ืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืขื ืืขื ืคืจืืฉื. ืืื ื ืื ืข ืืืฉืคืืื ืฆืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืงืฆืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืจืื, ืืืจืืช ืฉืืขืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืืืืง ืื, ืืขื ืคื ืืืืจืช ืืืืืื ื"ืืจื", ืืื ืืืกืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช. ืชืืื ืืชื ืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืชืื ื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืืืืฆื ืืฆืจ ืกืื ืช ืงืจืข ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืงืงืช. ืืกื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืก ืืฆืืขื ืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืงืื ื ืืงืฉื (The Wade-Davis Bill): ืงืืืขืช ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืฆืืืขืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืฉื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ื ืืืจืืช, ื-50% ืืืฆืืืขื 1860, ืืขื ืื - ืฉืืืื ืฆืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืฆืขืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืจืช ืงืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืชืื ืื ืฉืชืชืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืชืื ื-ืืืกืืช ืฉืื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืง ืืืื-ืืืืืืืก ื ืื ืข ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืชืื ืขืืื. ืืืืง ืืืืฉ ืืชืื ืขืฉืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืฉื ืืืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืกืชืื 1864, ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืฉืื "ืืื ืฉื ืืืก" (Pocket Veto): ืืืืงื ืืกืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืง ืืช ืืฆืขืช ืืืืง ืขืฉืจื ืืืื, ืืื ื ืื ืข ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืง. ืืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืกื ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืชื ืืืกืข ื ืงืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื. ืื ืืฉืชืืื ืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืขืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืชืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืืืืื ืืืื (impeachment) ืืืืขื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืฉืืืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืืจ ืฆืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืฅ ืื ืฉืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืจืืคื ืืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืืื, ืืืืืจ - ืชืืื ืืช ืขืฉืจืช ืืืืืืื, ืืคืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืขืืื ืืคื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ ืืืืฉืืขืืช ืขืฉืจื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืืจืื ื-1860 ืืืื ืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืขื ืกืืฃ 1865, ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืชืืื ืืช ืื. ืืื ืขื ืืืช, ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืืื ื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืชืืื ืืช ืืชืื ื ืืคืืืกื ืืช ืืื ืื. ืืชืืืื, ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืงืช ืืืจืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืกืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืช ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืงื. ืืืจื ืื, ืืืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืงืืช ืืช ืืืกืจืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืืฉืืงืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืืงืื ืืืืขื ืืื ืฉืืืืจื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืงืง, ืืืฆืขื ืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื 1866 ืืืืง ืืฉืืช ืืขืื ืืืฉืืืจืจ (ืฉืืขื ืืงื ืกืืืข ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืจืื). ืืฆืขื ืืืจืกืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืขืงืฃ ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ื'ืื ืกืื ืขื ืฉืชื ืืฆืขืืช ืืืืง ืืืืฉืจ ืืืชื ืืจืื ืืืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืฆืืขื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-14 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืชืืงืื ืคืืจืฅ ืืจื ืืืืคืื ื ืื ืืืจื ืืช ืื ืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืขื ืืฉ ืืืื ืืช ืฉืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืืืจืจืื ืื ืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืช ืกืืืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื. ื'ืื ืกืื ืฉืื ืข ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืช ืืชืืงืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืชืืื. ืืขืื ืืขืฉื ืืจืืืง ืืืช, ืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืคื ืืื ืชื ืืื ืงืฉืื. ืืคื ืชืืื ืืชื, ืืืฆืืช ืืงืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืืฉืืข ืืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืช ืชืฆืืจื ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-14. ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืื, ืืืงืง ืืืง ืืฉืืงืื, ืฉืืืืง ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืฆืืืืื. ืชืืช ืืฉืืืชื ืืงืคืื ืืช ืฉื ืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืืฆืจื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืื ืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื โ ืฉืืืจืื ืืฆืืืขื, ืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืืืืืงืืืื ืงืื ืคืืจืืืื ืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช ื-1868, ื ืืฆื ืืืขืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช, ืืืืืกืก ืืจื ื ืืจืื ืงืืืฉ. ืืจื ื ืขืืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-15 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื. ืชืืงืื ืื ืืืกืจ ืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืื ืืืจื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืขื ืื ืืชื ื. ืืืืชื ืฉื ื ื ืืืจ ืืืจื ืจืืืก ืจืืืก ืืืืืช ืืกื ืืืจ ืืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืื ืืกื ืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืจืชื ืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆื ื ืฆืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืขื ืชื ืื ืืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื ืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคื ื ืืชืืงืื ื-14 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืืจืืช ื ืขืจืื ืืฉื ืช 1868, ืืืืงื ืืจืฉื ืื ืกื ืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืืืื ื 9 ืฉื ืื ืืคืืืช ืืคื ื ืฉื ืช ืืืืืจื, ืืคืืื ืื ืืขื ื ืื ืจืืืก ืืื ืืืจื ืจืง ืืชืืจืื ืื ืืกืช ืืชืืงืื ืืชืืงืฃ โ ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืชืืื ืืืื. ืืืขื ืช ืจืืืก ืืชืืืืื ืืชืืงืื ื-14 ืืชืืืืก ืจืง ืืฉืืืจืื ืืขืื ืื ืืคืจืืงื ื, ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืจืืืก, ืืฉื ืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืขื "ืื ืืขืืจื" ืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืขืื ืืชืงืื, ืืจืืืก ืืชืื ื ืืกื ืื (ืืจืื ืฉื 48 ืื ืื 8). ืขื ืืฃ ืื ืืืช, ืืขืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืืข. ืขืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืงืื ืืืชืืงืื ืื ืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ืึดืงืฉื ืขื ืืืืคืชื, ืืืืช ืขื ืืฃ ืืืงืื ื ืืกืคืื ืฉื ืืงืงื ืืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืงืืืืื. ืืจืืื ืื ืืืื ืืงื ืงืืืงืก ืงืืื, ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืขืกื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืกืื ืืืจืื, ืงืื ืืื ืืืคืืฅ ืืกืจ ืืืขื ื ืืืืืื ื. ืืกืจ ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืงืจืื ืฉื ืจืฆื ืฉืืืจืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืืืคืงืก. ืขื ืชืืืืช ืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-19, ืืฆืคืื ืืืจ ืืชืคื ื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืชืืืฉืฉืืช ืืืจืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืฆืื ืืืฉ ืชืืืื ืืืฉ ืืืืืจืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืืชืืฉืื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืขืกืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืงืคืืืืืกืืืช. ืืื, ืงื ืืืืื ืืืืข ืื ื ืฉืืขื ืงืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช, ืืฉืืื ื-1873 ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืืฉืชืืื ืขื ืืืจืื. ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืฆืืืข ืืื ืืจื ืคืืืืืืงืืื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืืื. ืขื 1877, ืืืฆืขื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืจืื-ืืืืืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื. ืกืืคื ืืจืฉืื ืฉื ืืฉืืงืื ืืชืจืืฉ ืืืืชื ืฉื ื. ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืืขืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื, ืจืชืจืคืืจื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืขืชื ืืขืกืงื ืฉืืื ืชื ืคืฉืจืช 1877. ืืงืจื ืืฉืืืจืื ืขืฆืื, ืฆืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืกืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืจืื ื ืืชืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืขืืืืช ื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืขืื ืืืืืืช: ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืกืืจืืฆืื ืขืฆืืืช ืขืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืช ืืื ืกืืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืฆืืจืคื ืืื ืกืืื ืืืคืืกืงืืคืืืช ืืืชืืืืกืืืช ืืืคืจืืงืืืช (ืื ') ืฉืืกืคืจ ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช, ื-20,000 ืืืืื ืื ื-1856, ื-200,000 ื-1876. ืืืืฉืจื ืืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉืขืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืฉืฆืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืงืื ืืขืจืืช ืืื ืื ืฉื ืชื ื ืืขื ื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืฉืขื ืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืงืจืื ืืืชืื. ืืื ืืืื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืชื ืกืคืจ ืชืืืื ืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืฉืืืจืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืงืื ืืฉืืช ืื ื ืืืืจืื (Freedmen's Bureau) ืืฉืจ ืคืขืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืชืืช ืืืงืืื, ืืื ืืื ืกืืืข ืืืจืื ืืื ืืช ืืืื, ืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืื ืขืืืื, ืกืืืข ืืฉืคืื ืื ืืงืงืื ืืื, ืืขืื. ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืืงืื ืจืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืฉื. ืืชืืงืื ืื ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืงืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืคืื ืืืงืชืืช, ืื ืื ืื ืฉืืงืคื ืืืืคืื ืืืจืชืืช. ืืืฉ ืขืฉืจื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืชืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื, ืืืืืคื ื"ืฉืืืจืงืจืืคืื ื", ืืืืื ืฉืงืฉืจื ืคืืขืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืขืกืืงืื ืืืืืืช ืืชื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืชืืจืืื ื ืืจืืื, ืืช ืืขืืืืช. ืืืฉื 75 ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืช, ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืืช ืืืงืงื ืืืงืื ืืืขื ืืื ืจืืื ("ืืืงื ื'ืื ืงืจืืื") ืืืคืืื ืชืืช ืื ืืืืง ืืืืขื "ื ืคืจื ืืื ืฉืืื". ืจืง ืืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20, ืขื ืืฆืืืช ืืชื ืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื (1964), ืืฉืืงืื ืื ืกืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืจืืง ืคืื ืจ (ืื ') ืืืขื ืื: ืืื ืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืื, ื ืืกืืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืฉืจืื, ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืงืจืืื ืืื-ืืืขืืช ืืืคืจ ืืขืืืืช. ืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจืืขื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืจ. ืืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืกืื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืืงืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืขืืืืชื ืืช ืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื... ืืื ืกืืคืืจ ืืขืืจืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืื. ืืื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืชื. ืืื ืืื ืกืืฃ ืืื. ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืื_ืืจืืฉืืืืช] | [TOKENS: 5453] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืฉืืฉืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืกืืืืชื, ืฉืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืืื, ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืฆืืขื ื ืข ืืื ืฆืืื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืคืื ืืื ืืกืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืจืชืืช ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืจืืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉืืืืฅ ืืืจืืฉืืื ืื ืขืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืืืืื ืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืกืืขื ืืืฉืงืข ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืคืืง ืืกืคืจ ืืื ื ืื ืื, ืฉืืงืืจื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจืช ืืืืื, ืืฆืืขืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืคืืจ ืขืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืื. ืื ืฆืืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขืื ืืืื ืื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช". ืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืฉืืืช ืขืจืืืื: "ืืืื ืืืืจ" (ืขื ืฉื ืฆืืขื ืืืืืื, ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืขืจืืืช) ื"ืืืื ืืืื" ืืืคืืจื ืืืงืฉื ืืืชืจ (ืืื ืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืขื ืคื ืืืื ืขืืืืช ืืื ืขื ืฉื "ืืืืืืื ืงืฉื ืืขืืจืฃ") ืื ืืืื ืงื ืืื (ืืืคื ื ื-95 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื). ืืืื ืืืจืื (ืืืคื ื ื-85 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื) ืืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืื "ืืืื ืืืื" (ืืืชืืงื) ื"ืืืื ืืืื" (ืืืืืืชืืช), ืืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืชืงืฉื ืืืืข ืขื ืืืืืืจ ืื ืขืฉืืช ืขืืืื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืฉื ืืขืช ืืขืชืืงื ืืื ืืืช ืืืกืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืขืืจ ืืืชืงืืคื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืขืืจ ืืขืชืืงื. ืืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ื ืกืืจื ืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืคืขืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืกืืืืชื, ื"ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ื ืืฆืืช ืืืขืืืืช, ืืืงืืืืช ืืืจืื. ืืฉื ืืช ื-50 ืื-60 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืืืื ืืืืื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืื ืืชืฆืืจืช ืืขื ื. ืืืืจ 1967 ืืคืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืกืคืง ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช", ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืคืจ ืืืช ืคื'ืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืช ืืื. ืืืื ื-21 ืืืื ืงืืื ืื ืืืืื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ืืขืืืืช ืื ืืืืจืงืื, ืกืื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืชืืจ ืคืจืช, ืชืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืื ืงืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืฆืจืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืจืช ืื ืืฉืืื. ืืขืจืช ืฆืืงืืื ืืืืืงืืช ืชืืช ืืจืืืข ืืืืกืืื ืืืชืคืจืฉืช ืขื ื-9,000 ื"ืจ ืืืืชื ืืืฆืื ืขื ืงืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืจืื ืืขื ืฉืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืขืืช'ืืื ืืช. ืื ืืืืขื ืฉืืื ืืขืจืช ืฆืืงืืื ืืืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืขืช ืืขืชืืงื (ืืืืืจ ืื ืืงืืจ ืืชืื ืช ืืืืืืืืกืื ืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื). ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื, ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืืจืืช ืืจืืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ื ืืฉืคื ืืกืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื, ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืฆืืืช ืขืชืืงืืช: ืืืืจืฉ ืืจืืกืื (ืืฆืืข ืขืื ืืื ืืืฉื), ืืจืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืื ืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืื ืืฉื, ืืฉืืื ืช ืกื ืืืจืื, ืืืช ืื ืื ื ืืืืงืืืืช ื ืืกืคืื. ืืฉื ืช 2013 ื ืขืจืื ืืคืืจืช ืืฆืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืขืชืืงืืช ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืฉ ืืกืคืจ 21 ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืฉืืขืคื ืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืงืื ืืชืืืชื ืืืฆืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืชืืืจืืช ืืกืืฃ ืืชืงืืคื ืืืื ืืกืืืช ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืฉืคื, ืฉืืื ืช ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืขืืจ ืืขืชืืงื, ืืืื ืชืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืขืจืื, ืืขืจืืื ืืืจืืืืืืืื ืฉืงื ืืื ืืฉื ืข ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืขื ืงืืืช ืืฉื ืืืคืขืื ืืื ืืื ืืขื ืงืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืืก. ืืืืืืืืื ืกืืืื ืขืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืื ืกืื, ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืื ื ืืช ืืกืืขืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืชื ืืืืืขื ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืืืืฆืืื ืฉืกืืคืงื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืกืืคืงื ืฉื ื ืกืืื ืืื ืื, ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืืช ืืืฉ ืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืช. ืืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืฉ ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืคืืจืจืช ืืืืืจืื ืฉืืืื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืฆื ืืื. ืืชืืืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืงืง ืืืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืขื ืืืจืืืื ืจืื ืื ืกืืืจืก ืืืง ืขืืจืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืงืืจ ืืืฆืื ื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืกืืชืชืช. ืืืง ืื ืืืงืง ืืืืง ืืชืืื ืืช ืืงืืื, ืชืืื ืืช ืืืชืืจ ืืขืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืฉื ืช 1918 ืขื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืื, ืืื ืืก ืืขืืจ ืืืืกื ืืจืื. ืืืจืช ืืืงืืงื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืกืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื. ืงืืจืืชืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืืืืืช ืื ืงืืจ ืืืืื ืืจื ืืืื ืืฆืืคืื ืืื ื-ืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืจืืืขืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืชืงื ื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืื, ืขืงื ืืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจื ืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืืช. ืื ืฉืืื ืืช ืจืืืช ื ืื ื ืืืืคืื ืืื, ืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืฃ, ืืืืืช ืงืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืงืื ืืืงืืืื ืื. ืขื ืืืช ืจืื ืืื ื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืืืคื ืืืื. ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืกื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืฉื ืื ื ืืฉื ืช 1937, ืืืคื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืชื ืขืช. ืืืืฆืื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืชื ืืืฆืืช ืืงืกืื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืขืืืช ืืืจืช "ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืื ืืกืื". ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืืืื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืชืงื ื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืื ืื ืืืื, ืขื ืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืคืืช ืื ืืืื ื ืกืืจื ืืื ืจืง ืืืื ืืกืืชืชืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืื ืื ืจืื ืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืจ, ืืจืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืฉืฉืช ืืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืฆืคืื ืืืคืจ ื-ืจืื. ืืืืื 2019, ืืืืืขื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืช ืฉืื ืื ืืชืงื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, "ืืขืืื ื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืชืืืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืขืืจ ืืืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช". ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ืขืืจืืืช ืืืืขืฆืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืจืฉืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืขืืช. ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืื-ืืืืื-ืจืขืืช, ืืขืื ืืืืืื, ืืืช ืฉืืฉ ืืืคืจืช, ืืงืืื ืืืจื ืืื, ืืืฆืข ืืืคืื ืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช. "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ืืฉืืืช ืืืคืื ืืืืคืื ืืกืื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ืืฉื ื ืฆืืข ืืืคืืื ื, ืืืจื ืืื ืฆืืืื ืขืืื ืฉืืขืืชืื ื ืจืืื ืื ืคืกืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืืืืืื. ืฆืืจืช ืืืืคืื ืืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืฉืชื ืื. ืืืื ืื ืฉืืจื ื ืข ืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืืฉื ืกื ืืืืืจืื. ืืืืฉืงืื ืฉืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืขื ืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืื. ืืืจืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืกืืชืชืื ืืกืื ืื ืืช ืืืืคืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืขืืช'ืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืชืืืืฉ, ืืืืื, ืืืกืืกื, ืืืงืืื ืืืืืื. ืฆืืจืืฃ ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืืฆืจ ืืจืื ืืกืืื ืืืืคืืื ื ืฉืืืื ื ืืคื ืื ืฉื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช". ืืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช ืืืฆืข ืืขืืจ ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉืชื ืฉืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืื, ืืืคืื ืืฉืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืฆืืงืช ืงืืจืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื. ืฉืชื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืชืงื ืืืฉืจืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืคืจื ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืขืืืืืช ืื ืื . ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืขื ืคืืชืื ืืชืงืื ื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืืคืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2008, ื ืขืฉื ืืืคืื ืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฉืืืช ืืจื ืืืืฅ, ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืงืืจ ืืืคืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืกื ืขืื ืืจื. ืฉืืืืฉ ืกืืื ืืืคืื ืืื ืืกืื ืื "ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช" ืืคื ืืกืื ืืืืืฆื ืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืขืืชืื ืืฃ ืืช ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื, ืืื ื ืขืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืคืื ืคื ืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืขืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ: ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืจืืฉืืืืช ืืืืชื ืื ืืฉื ืฉื ืืกืจื ืืชืืขืืื "ืจื ืกืืื - ืืฆื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื" ืฉืฉืืืจ ืื ืืจืฉืช ืื ื'ืืืจื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืื_ืขื ืื] | [TOKENS: 1911] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืื (ื ืงืจื ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืจืื) ืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืืงืจืชื ืืฉืืื ืช ืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืขื ืืืจืื "5+ ืืืืืื". ืืฉื ืช 2011 ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืงื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืช ืืจืื ืฉืืืืชื ืฉืืชืคืืช ืฉื ืื ืขื ืืืืจืช ืกื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืจื ืฉื ื ืืืืืก. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืงืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืจืฉ ืืืชืื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืฉืช ืืืชืื. ืืืืื ืชืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืืจืืื, ืืชื ืคืจืก ืืฉืจืื, ืืขืงื ืจืืืจ. ืืื ืืื ืืืชืื, ืฉืชืืื ื ืืืงืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืจืื-ืงืืืืช, ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืจืื, ืืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ื ืื ื ืืืงืื ืจืง ืืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืฉืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืงืืจืช, ืงืืขื ืืขืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืจืง 7 ืงืืืืช, ืืื 350 ืืืจืื, ืืืงืื 11 ืงืืืืช ืขื 500 ืืืจืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืชืืื ื ืกืืื ืืฆืจ ืคื ืืืืช. ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืกืคืงื ืืช ืืืชื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืื ืคืจืืค' ืืืืื ืืจืื ื, ืื ืคืืื ืงืื, ืืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืฉืจ ืืจืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืช ืืืืื, ืื ืขืืืชื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 1973, ืืืืฅ ืืืจื ืืคืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืื ืืื, ืขืืชื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืขื 40,000 ืืืืจืื ืืจืืืขืื ืฉืืืชืจื ืืื ืืื ืขืื 4000 ื"ืจ ืืขืฆื ืืืช ืขื ืืืจืืื ืืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื, ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืฉืืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืื ืืืจื ืืืื. ืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืื"ื ืืืงืืจืช ืฉื ืืืจื ืืจ ืกืืข, ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืฉื ืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื. ืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-70 ืืืื ื ืคืชื ืืกืืฃ 1982, ืืื ืจืืฉืืื ืขืกืง ืืืขืืจืืื ืืืื ืกืืกืื ืขื ืืจืืืช ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืงื ืื ืืคืขืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2000 ืืืคืกืงื ืืืชืงืฉืจืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืฉืื ื"ืืืื ืขื ืื" ืขื ืฉื ืืขืชืง ืคืขืืื ืืืจืืจ ืฉืืืฆื ืืื ืืคืขืืื ืืกืืื. ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืื ืขืืืื ื ืงืจื "ืขื ืื". ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืจืืช ืงืื ืื ื ืกื ืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืฉื ืช 2011 ืืืืืชื ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืงืจื ืฉื ืงืืืฆืช Preferred Hotel. ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื 2016 ืืืชืงื ื ืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืคื ืืจืืืช ืืืฆืืืช ื-360 ืืขืืืช ืืช ื ืืคื ืืขืืจ ืื ืฉืงืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืจืช ืืืชื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืจื ื ืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืืฉ ื ืืืืืจ 2016 ืืืื ืืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืจืืืชื, ืืขืืืช ืืฉืืขืจืช ืฉื ื-90 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืคืืฅ ืืฉืืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืื ืืืืืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืฉืชื ืงืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืื ืฉืืชืืืกืคื ืื 52 ืืืจืื ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืงืืช ืืจืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืฉื. ืืช ืืฉืืคืืฅ ืชืื ื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืงื ืฉืืืจืฅ ืืืื ืืกืชืืื ืื ืืืืืจ 2018. ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Daily_newspapers_published_in_New_York_City] | [TOKENS: 63] |
Category:Daily newspapers published in New York City Subcategories This category has the following 6 subcategories, out of 6 total. Pages in category "Daily newspapers published in New York City" The following 69 pages are in this category, out of 69 total. This list may not reflect recent changes. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.matific.com/isr/he/home/contact-us/sales-enquiry] | [TOKENS: 246] |
ืชืคืจืื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืช ืืืชืชืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืจืชืงืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืจืืืืช ืชืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืืืงื ืืื ืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืช ืฉืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืคืืง ืืื ืืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืจืื ืฆืจื ืงืฉืจ ืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืืขืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืจื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืกืืชืืช] | [TOKENS: 365] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืกืืชืืช ืกืืชืืช - ืขืืืื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืงืฉืื ืืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืฉื ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืจื ืืื ื ืขืฉื ืืกืืชืืช ืืฆืจืืื ืืืจืืืืืื, ืขื ืื ืช ืืืงื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืจืงื ืืกืืื, ืืื ืืขืืชืื, ืืชืืฆืข ืืกืืชืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืืงืฉืื. ืกืืื ืกืืชืืช ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืกืคืจ ืกืืื ืกืืชืืช ืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื ืืคืืจืืื ืืชืงื. ืืืจืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 9420] |
Contents Native American genocide in the United States The destruction of Native American peoples, cultures, and languages has been characterized by some as genocide. Debates are ongoing as to whether the entire process or only specific periods or events meet the definitions of genocide. Many of these definitions focus on intent, while others focus on outcomes. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term "genocide", considered the displacement of Native Americans by European settlers as a historical example of genocide. While description as genocide has found increasing acceptance within Indigenous and genocide studies, mainstream scholarship on US and Native American history has largely rejected it, preferring to describe it as ethnic cleansing or certain events as genocidal. Historians have long debated the pre-European population of the Americas. In 2023, historian Ned Blackhawk suggested that Northern America's population (Including modern-day Canada and the United States) had halved from 1492 to 1776 from about 8 million people (all Native American in 1492) to under 4 million (predominantly white in 1776). Russell Thornton estimated that by 1800, some 600,000 Native Americans lived in the regions that would become the modern United States and declined to an estimated 250,000 by 1890 before rebounding. The virgin soil thesis (VST), coined by historian Alfred W. Crosby, proposes that the population decline among Native Americans after 1492 is due to Native populations being immunologically unprepared for Old World diseases. While this theory continues to receive support in popular imagination and academia, recently, some scholars argue that many Native American populations did not plummet after initial contact with Europeans, but only after violent interactions, including wars, removal, confinement to reservations and forced assimilation, and that these exacerbated the effects of disease. The population decline among Native Americans after 1492 is attributed to various factors, including Eurasian diseases like influenza, pneumonic plagues, cholera, and smallpox. Additionally, conflicts, massacres, forced removal, enslavement, imprisonment, and warfare with European settlers significantly contributed to the reduction in populations and the disruption of traditional societies. Historian Jeffrey Ostler emphasizes the importance of considering the American Indian Wars, campaigns by the U.S. Army to subdue Native American nations in the American West starting in the 1860s, as genocide. Scholars increasingly refer to these events as massacres or "genocidal massacres", defined as the annihilation of a portion of a larger group, sometimes intended to send a message to the larger group. Native American peoples have been subject to both historical and contemporary massacres and acts of cultural genocide as their traditional ways of life were threatened by settlers. Colonial massacres and acts of ethnic cleansing explicitly sought to reduce Native populations and confine them to reservations. Cultural genocide was also deployed, in the form of displacement and appropriation of Indigenous knowledge, to weaken Native sovereignty. Native American peoples still face challenges stemming from colonialism, including settler occupation of their traditional homelands, police brutality, hate crimes, vulnerability to climate change, and mental health issues. Despite this, Native American resistance to colonialism and genocide has persisted, both in the past and the present. Background Population estimates for the pre-Columbian U.S. territory generally range from between 1 and 5 million people. Prominent cultures in the historical period before colonization included: Adena, Old Copper, Oasisamerica, Woodland, Fort Ancient, Hopewell tradition and Mississippian cultures. In the classification of the archaeology of the Americas, the post-Classic stage is a term applied to some Precolumbian cultures, typically ending with local contact with Europeans. This stage is the fifth of five archaeological stages posited by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. In the North American chronology, the "post-classic stage" followed the classic stage in certain areas, and typically dates from around AD 1200 to modern times. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift-giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather to commemorate special events. These events include the raising of a totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events. The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American civilization that archaeologists date from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was composed of a series of urban settlements and satellite villages (suburbs) linked together by a loose trading network, the largest city being Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center. The civilization flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Numerous pre-Columbian societies were urbanized, such as the Pueblo peoples, Mandan, and Hidatsa. The Iroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House" was a politically advanced, democratic society, which is thought by some historians to have influenced the United States Constitution, with the Senate passing a resolution to this effect in 1988. Other historians have contested this interpretation and believe the impact was minimal, or did not exist, pointing to numerous differences between the two systems and the ample precedents for the constitution in European political thought. Many Indigenous nations shared the belief of collective continuance and systems of responsibility with other humans and the non-human world. According to Citizen Potawatomi philosopher Kyle Powys Whyte, collective continuance refers to a society's ability to adapt to conditions to ensure community survival. Collective continuance begets the creation of systems of responsibility, in which individuals have a moral reciprocal relationship with the non-human world. The Oceti Sakowin belief of Mni Wiconi (water is life), for instance, describes a relationship in which the Missouri River nourishes their community, and they have a responsibility to protect it. The idea of collective continuance and systems of responsibility also extend into social structures. For example, for the Anishinaabe, gender was not binary, and women had more leadership roles that included responsibilities to others beyond their marriages. Colonial massacres The Pequot War was an armed conflict that took place between 1636 and 1638 in New England between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of the colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook colonies and their allies from the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes. The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequots. The colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts offered bounties for the heads of killed hostile Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the Pequot War in the 1630s; Connecticut specifically reimbursed Mohegans for slaying the Pequot in 1637. At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity. The English colonists imposed a harshly punitive treaty on the estimated 2,500 Pequots who survived the war; the Treaty of Hartford of 1638 sought to eradicate the Pequot cultural identityโwith terms prohibiting the Pequots from returning to their lands, speaking their tribal language, or even referring to themselves as Pequotsโand effectively dissolved the Pequot Nation, with many survivors executed or enslaved and sold away. Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies; other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. The result was the elimination of the Pequot tribe as a viable polity in Southern New England, the colonial authorities classifying them as extinct. However, members of the Pequot tribe still live today as a federally recognized tribe. The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during King Philip's War by colonial militia of New England on the Narragansett people in December 1675. On December 15 of that year, Narraganset warriors attacked the Jireh Bull Blockhouse and killed at least 15 people. Four days later, the militias from the English colonies of Plymouth, Connecticut, and Massachusetts Bay were led to the main Narragansett town in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. The settlement was burned, its inhabitants (including women and children) killed or evicted, and most of the tribe's winter stores destroyed. It is believed that at least 97 Narragansett warriors and 300 to 1,000 non-combatants were killed, though exact figures are unknown. The massacre was a critical blow to the Narragansett tribe during the period directly following the massacre. However, much like the Pequot, the Narragansett people continue to live today as a federally recognized tribe. On June 12, 1755, during the French and Indian War, Massachusetts governor William Shirley issued a bounty of ยฃ40 for a male Indian scalp, and ยฃ20 for scalps of Indian females or of children under 12 years old. In 1756, Pennsylvania lieutenant-governor Robert Hunter Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 Pieces of Eight, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years", and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed." During Pontiac's War, Colonel Henry Bouquet conspired with his superior, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, to infect hostile Native Americans through biological warfare with smallpox blankets. Ethnic cleansing Near the beginning of the Revolutionary War, the British Army and Native American allies staged attacks on frontier towns in the Mohawk Valley region of New York. To resolve this issue, George Washington ordered the Continental Army, under the command of John Sullivan and James Clinton, to conduct a series of scorched earth campaigns against the four British-allied nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. Washington's orders followed an initial assault against the Haudenosaunee where Colonel Van Schaik burned two Onondaga villages. In May 1779, Washington wrote, "The expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the six nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more." Sullivan and Clinton's troops reportedly burned over forty settlements and hundreds of acres of crops, as well as an estimated 160,000 bushels of corn. Despite this, Sullivan failed to capture a sizable number of prisoners, and did not achieve the original goal of invading the British base at Fort Niagara. The Continental Army also failed to completely dispel threats from the Haudenosaunee. In fact, attacks against frontier towns increased after the expedition, as the Haudenosaunee pursued revenge. Historian Joseph R. Fischer has called the expedition a "well-executed failure." Although the expedition's goal of eliminating Native populations was not met, the Haudenosaunee still faced hardship as many lost their livelihoods and were displaced from their homes. The Sullivan Expedition has been memorialized by American settlers in what historical anthropologist A. Lynn Smith calls the "Sullivan commemorative complex." Smith refers to monuments, markers, and places bearing the name of the expedition as a celebration of colonialism and domination, and she argues that they affect how local residents relate to their past. Smith shows that Haudenosaunee populations are harmed by this commemorative complex that pinpoints the sites of destruction on their ancestral lands and seeks to replace Native memory. Many people, both Native and non-Native, disapprove of these commemorative markers, and various activists and organizations seek to get markers removed and reveal the reality of the Expedition. Manifest destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans, since continental expansion implicitly meant the occupation and annexation of Native American land, sometimes to expand slavery. This ultimately led to confrontations and wars with several groups of native peoples via Indian removal. The United States continued the European practice of recognizing only limited land rights of Indigenous peoples. In a policy formulated largely by Henry Knox, Secretary of War in the Washington administration, the U.S. government sought to expand into the west through the purchase of Native American land in treaties. The United States justified manifest destiny with the Doctrine of Discovery, a fifteenth century international law developed by the Catholic Church. Three landmark Supreme Court cases, the Marshall Trilogy, invoked the Doctrine of Discovery to declare that Native Americans were domestic dependent Nations and only had limited sovereignty on their own land. Only the federal government could purchase Indian lands, and this was done through treaties with tribal leaders. Whether a tribe actually had a decision-making structure capable of making a treaty was a controversial issue. The national policy was for the Indians to join American society and become "civilized", which meant no more wars with neighboring tribes or raids on white settlers or travelers, and a shift from hunting to farming and ranching. Advocates of civilization programs believed that the process of settling native tribes would greatly reduce the amount of land needed by the Native Americans, making more land available for homesteading by white Americans. Thomas Jefferson believed that the Indigenous people of America had to assimilate and live like the whites or inevitably be pushed aside by them. Once Jefferson believed that assimilation was no longer possible, he advocated for the extermination or displacement of Indigenous people. Following the forced removal of many Indigenous peoples, Americans increasingly believed that Native American ways of life would eventually disappear as the United States expanded. Humanitarian advocates of removal believed that American Indians would be better off moving away from whites. As historian Reginald Horsman argued in his influential study Race and Manifest Destiny, racial rhetoric increased during the era of manifest destiny. Americans increasingly believed that Native American ways of life would "fade away" as the United States expanded. As an example, this idea was reflected in the work of one of America's first great historians, Francis Parkman, whose landmark book The Conspiracy of Pontiac was published in 1851. Parkman wrote that after the French defeat in the French and Indian War, Indians were "destined to melt and vanish before the advancing waves of Anglo-American power, which now rolled westward unchecked and unopposed". Parkman emphasized that the collapse of Indian power in the late 18th century had been swift and was a past event. While some literary works, like those of James Fenimore Cooper, portrayed Native Americans positively, others did not: Mark Twain, for example, was overwhelmingly negative in his characterizations, and seeking to counter the trope of the "Noble Aborigine" in 1870 went so far as to write that the "Noble Red Man" was "[...] nothing but a poor filthy, naked scurvy vagabond, whom to exterminate were a charity to the Creator's worthier insects and reptiles which he oppresses". The Trail of Tears was an ethnic cleansing and forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850 by the United States government. As part of the Indian removal, members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to newly designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River after the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The Cherokee removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush. The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their newly designated Indian reserve. Thousands, made vulnerable by removal, died from disease before reaching their destinations or shortly after. Some historians have said that the event constituted a genocide, although this label remains a matter of debate. Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes. Historians such as David Stannard and Barbara Mann have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of a known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg, Mississippi. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, several Native American groups such as the Potawatomi and Miami were expelled from their homelands in Indiana under the Indian Removal Act. The Potawatomi Trail of Death alone led to the deaths of over 40 individuals. The Long Walk of the Navajo, also called the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo (Navajo: Hwรฉeldi), was the 1864 deportation and ethnic cleansing of the Navajo people by the United States federal government. Navajos were forced to walk from their land in western New Mexico Territory (modern-day Arizona) to Bosque Redondo in eastern New Mexico. Some 53 different forced marches occurred between August 1864 and the end of 1866. Some anthropologists claim that the "collective trauma of the Long Walk [is] critical to contemporary Navajos' sense of identity as a people". In 1886, many of the Yavapai ethnic group joined in campaigns by the US Army, as scouts, against Geronimo and other Chiricahua Apache. The wars ended with the Yavapai's and the Tonto's removal from the Camp Verde Reservation to San Carlos on February 27, 1875, now known as Exodus Day. 1,400 where relocated in these travels and over the course the relocation the Yavapai received no wagons or rest stops. Yavapai were beaten with whips through rivers of melted snow in which many drowned, any Yavapai who lagged behind was left behind or shot. The march lead to 375 deaths.[better source needed] Indian removal policies led to the current day reservation system which allocated territories to individual tribes. According to scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker, "the treaties also created reservations that would confine Native people into smaller territories far smaller than they had for millenia been accustomed to, diminishing their ability to feed themselves." According to author and scholar David Rich Lewis, these reservations had much higher population densities than indigenous homelands. As a result, "the consolidation of native peoples in the 19th century allowed epidemic diseases to rage through their communities." In addition to this "a result of changing subsistence patterns and environments-contributed to an explosion of dietary-related illness like diabetes, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, cirrhosis, obesity, gallbladder disease, hypertension, and heart disease". Once their territories were incorporated into the United States, surviving Native Americans were denied equality before the law and often treated as wards of the state. Many Native Americans were moved to reservationsโconstituting 4% of U.S. territory. In a number of cases, treaties signed with Native Americans were violated. Tens of thousands of American Indians and Alaska Natives were forced to attend a residential school system which sought to reeducate them in white-settler American values, culture, and economy. Oceti Sakowin historian Nick Estes has called reservations "prisoner of war camps," citing forced removal and confinement. Reservations have historically had negative ecological effects on Native communities. The reservation system "offset the flourishing moral relationships that supported" Indigenous communities' resilience to changing environmental conditions. For instance, Whyte explains that being confined to a reservation jeopardizes Native communities' relationships with plants and animals located outside the scope of the reservation. Reservations also limit space for ceremonial practices and harvesting, and disrupt traditional seasonal rounds, which allowed Indigenous people to adapt to their environments. Despite being forced onto reservations, Native Americans' right to that land and historical territory is not secured. Governments and private companies often take control of Indigenous land, or they use the reservation system to justify the control of Indigenous land that does not fall within the reservation. The Dakota Access Pipeline, for instance, cuts through ancestral Oceti Sakowin land, but historical dispossession then makes it seem to settlers that the pipeline today does not require Indigenous consent since it is off reservation. The Army Corps of Engineers has also taken Native land in Minnesota to construct a power plant, while waste sites are often placed close to reservations. House Concurrent Resolution 108, passed in 1953, attempted to withdraw federal protection of tribal lands and dissolve reservations. Many Native Americans were then relocated to cities. According to Kyle Powys Whyte, since the creation of the reservation system, "settlers eventually 'filled in' treaty areas and reservation areas with their own private property and government lands, which limit where and when Indigenous peoples can harvest, monitor, store and honor animals and plants... settler discourses cast Indigenous harvesters and gatherers as violating the 'law,' among many other types of stigmatizations." In June 2022, the Supreme Court ruled in Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta that Oklahoma has jurisdiction over Native reservations when a non-Native commits a crime against a Native. This contemporary decision further weakened Native control over their own reservation lands. Genocidal campaigns Stacie Martin states that the United States has not been legally admonished by the international community for genocidal acts against its Indigenous population, but many historians and academics describe events such as the Mystic massacre, the Trail of Tears, the Sand Creek massacre and the Mendocino War as genocidal in nature. The non-Native historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states that U.S. history, as well as inherited Indigenous trauma, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories via Indian removal policies, forced removal of Native American children to boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination. The letters exchanged between Bouquet and Amherst during the Pontiac War show Amherst writing to Bouquet that the indigenous people needed to be exterminated: "You will do well to try to inoculate the Indians by means of blankets, as well as to try every other method that can serve to extirpate this execrable race." Historians regard this as evidence of a genocidal intent by Amherst, as well as part of a broader genocidal attitude frequently displayed against Native Americans during the colonization of the Americas. When smallpox swept the northern plains of the U.S. in 1837, the U.S. Secretary of War Lewis Cass ordered that no Mandan (along with the Arikara, the Cree, and the Blackfeet) be given smallpox vaccinations, which were provided to other tribes in other areas. Historian Jeffrey Ostler describes the Colorado territorial militia's slaughter of Cheyennes at Sand Creek (1864) and the army's slaughter of Shoshones at Bear River (1863), Blackfeet on the Marias River (1870), and Lakotas at Wounded Knee (1890) as "genocidal massacres". The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1846, with the MexicanโAmerican War. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, it gave the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory. Following the Gold Rush, there were a number of killings and state-subsidized massacres by settlers against Native Americans in the territory, causing several ethnic groups to be nearly wiped out. In one such series of conflicts, the so-called Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War, the entirety of the Yuki people was brought to the brink of extinction. From a previous population of some 6,800 people, fewer than 300 members of the Yuki tribe were left. The pre-Columbian population of California was around 300,000. By 1849, due to epidemics, the number had decreased to 100,000. But from 1849 to 1870 the indigenous population of California had fallen to 35,000 because of killings and displacement. At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more were weakened and perished due to disease and starvation. 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves. In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books." Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of a California statute that stated that 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote, "The miners are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race". The towns of Marysville and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City authorities offered $5 for every Indian head brought to them. During the Indian Wars, the American Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples that are sometimes considered genocide. Jeffrey Ostler, the Beekman Professor of Northwest and Pacific History at the University of Oregon, stated the American Indian War "was genocidal war". Xabier Irujo, professor of genocide studies at the University of Nevada, Reno, stated, "the toll on human lives in the wars against the native nations between 1848 and 1881 was horrific." Notable conflicts in this period include the Dakota War, Great Sioux War, Comanche campaign, Snake War and Colorado War. These conflicts occurred in the United States from the time of the earliest colonial settlements in the 17th century until the end of the 19th century. The wars resulted from several factors, the most common being the desire of settlers and governments for Indian tribes' lands. The 1864 Sand Creek massacre, which caused outrage in its own time, has been regarded as a genocide. Colonel John Chivington led a 700-man force of Colorado Territory militia in a massacre of 70โ163 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho, about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took scalps and other body parts as trophies, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia. Chivington stated, "Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice." Cultural genocide In reference to colonialism in the United States, Raphael Lemkin stated that the "colonial enslavement of American Indians was a cultural genocide." He also stated that colonialism in the United States comprised an "effective and thorough method of destroying a culture and de-socializing human beings". Lemkin drew a distinction between "cultural change and cultural genocide". He defined the former as a slow and gradual process of transition to new situations, and he saw the latter as the result of a radical and violent change that necessitated "the pre-meditated goal of those committing cultural genocide". Lemkin believed that cultural genocide occurs only when there are "surgical operations on cultures and deliberate assassinations of civilizations". Historian Patrick Wolfe coined the term "logic of elimination" to describe the "relationship between genocide and the settler-colonial tendency." He points to the racialization of Native Americans and the proliferation of blood quantum laws as a means to reduce Native populations and further the logic of elimination. Wolfe also describes the non-physical nature of the logic of elimination and the way it is carried out, claiming that "officially encouraged miscegenation, the breaking-down of native title into alienable individual freeholds, native citizenship, child abduction, religious conversion, resocialization in total institutions such as missions or boarding schools, and a whole range of cognate biocultural assimilations" all facilitated colonial settlement. According to Vincent Schilling, many people are aware of historical atrocities that were committed against his people, but there is an "extensive amount of misunderstanding about Native American and First Nations people's history." He added that Native Americans have also suffered a "cultural genocide" because of colonization's residual effects. The American-Indian experience in North America is defined as comprising physical and cultural disintegration. That fact becomes clear when one examines how law and colonialism were used as tools of genocide, both physically and culturally. According to Luana Ross the assumption that law (a Euro-American construct) and its administration are prejudiced against particular groups of individuals is critical for understanding Native American criminality and the experiences of Natives imprisoned. For instance, in Georgia, the 1789 act permitted indiscriminate massacre of Creek Indians by proclaiming them to be outside the state's protection. Apart from physical annihilation, the State promoted acculturation by introducing legislation limiting land entitlements to Indians who had abandoned tribal citizenship. Throughout the writing of the Genocide Convention, the United States was adamantly opposed to the addition of cultural genocide, even threatening to block the treaty's approval if cultural genocide was included in the final text. The Native American boarding school system was a 150-year program and federal policy that separated Indigenous children from their families and sought to assimilate them into white society. It began in the early 19th century, coinciding with the start of Indian Removal policies. A Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report was published on May 11, 2022, which officially acknowledged the federal government's role in creating and perpetuating this system. According to the report, the U.S. federal government operated or funded more than 408 boarding institutions in 37 states between 1819 and 1969. 431 boarding schools were identified in total, many of which were run by religious institutions. The report described the system as part of a federal policy aimed at eradicating the identity of Indigenous communities and confiscating their lands. Abuse was widespread at the schools, as was overcrowding, malnutrition, disease and lack of adequate healthcare, all of which worsened the effect of disease. The report documented over 500 child deaths at 19 schools, although it is estimated the total number could rise to thousands, and possibly even tens of thousands. Marked or unmarked burial sites were discovered at 53 schools. The school system has been described as a cultural genocide and a racist dehumanization. The ecological effects of displacement and relocation have threatened Native Americans' ability to perform traditional cultural practices. For instance, at the turn of the 20th century, "one strategy of settler colonialism was to consolidate mobile family groups to sedentary villages with central nodes, such as a post office, government school and a mission." Various Indigenous nations are historically ecologically mobile, and according to Kyle Powys Whyte, they have "adaptive cultural and political systems and institutions that are tightly coupled with certain ecological conditions." Settler efforts to contain Natives not only removed them from these culturally significant environmental contexts, but also increased their vulnerability to climate change by impeding their ability to adapt to its impacts. For nations that were not historically mobile, displacement and relocation presented challenges as well, as introduction to unfamiliar land "compromised the mental, physical, and community health of Indigenous peoples, thus escalating mortality rates." The destruction of land and relocation to new land also undermined "Indigenous knowledge systems and Indigenous peoples' capacity to cultivate landscapes and adjust to environmental change," or, what Whyte calls collective continuance. Collective continuance depends on a community's ability to carry out interdepend relationships and systems of responsibilities with all life forms. Colonial ecological violence, known as "a unique form of violence perpetrated by the settler-colonial state, private industry, and settler-colonial culture as a whole," harmed ecosystems, threatened Indigenous self-determination, and prevented these communities from living as they had for millennia. Indigenous systems of knowledge and science have historically been undervalued by Western science. In recent decades as awareness of the climate crisis rises, this knowledge has been appropriated by settlers. Scholar Jaskiran Dhillon argues that while the state has traditionally disregarded Indigenous scientists, there is now "state-driven 'discovery' of Indigenous knowledge." This co-optation extracts only certain information from Indigenous knowledge systems to aid climate adaptation for settler societies. According to Dhillon, non-Native environmental scholars often advocate the integration of Indigenous environmental knowledge into mainstream science, but do not adopt an environmental justice approach. Despite extracting from Indigenous knowledge, the state does not center decolonization and Indigenous identity, resulting in the appropriation of Native American science. Environmental sociologist J.M. Bacon states that "the bulk of the dominant culture's knowledge about Native peoples comes from sources that are not Native-made." These narratives about Indigenous knowledge draw on Native stories and imagery to perpetuate the noble savage concept and "obscure both the historic events related to colonization and the ongoing occupation of Native lands." Dhillon agrees, claiming that epistemology that truly integrates Indigenous knowledge will "challenge dominant, colonial, and Eurocentric knowledge systems. According to Deborah McGregor, an Anishinaabe scholar, the dominant Eurocentric approach to traditional Indigenous knowledge does not reflect Indigenous concepts of moral relationships, but instead sustains colonial views of Natives. The appropriation of Indigenous knowledge fails to recognize the validity of Native American science and perpetuates the colonial system that continues to oppress Native peoples. Contemporary issues According to the 2024 United States National Climate Assessment, Indigenous peoples face a "loss of traditional knowledge in the face of rapidly changing ecological conditions, increased food insecurity...changing water availability, Arctic Sea ice loss, permafrost thaw, and relocation from historic homeland." Whyte highlights the compound vulnerability theory in which there are three areas that Indigenous peoples and those in the Global South are more vulnerable to climate change: geography, economy, and lack of historical responsibility. Whyte maintains that this popular approach does not account for colonialism, which is key factor of environmental justice and cause of climate change. According to Whyte, increased vulnerability to climate change for Indigenous peoples "results from colonial strategies that sought to missionise, educate, and render sedentary Indigenous peoples...replacing the Indigenous institutions with settler ones." Many climate change policies that do not address colonialism harm Native Americans and Indigenous populations; for instance, U.S clean energy bills exclude funding for Indigenous nations for their support of clean energy, and lack of respect for treaty rights results in greenhouse reductions rates that are too slow to protect Native resources. In her 2019 book As Long as Grass Grows, Colville Confederated Tribes scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker supports Kyle Powys Whyte's argument that settler colonialism is a form of environmental injustice "that wrongfully interferes with and erases the socioecological contexts required for Indigenous populations to experience the world as a place infused with responsibilities to humans, nonhumans, and ecosystems." According to Gilio-Whitaker, largescale dam projects in the 20th and 21st centuries are major sources of environmental injustice for Native communities. Flooding caused by dams displace Native Americans from their ancestral homelands, and it also destroys historical fishing sites. For example, the 1944 Pick Sloan Act was a state-sponsored dam project in Oceti Sakowin territory that reportedly displaced over a thousand Indigenous families. The land was also destroyed, as 90% of commercial timber was destroyed, thousands of acres of subsistence farms were flooded, and 75% of endemic flora and fauna were destroyed. Native American communities fought against the construction of many dams, but there were no mass protests. Land loss and historical violence reportedly contributes to elevated rates of mental illness, suicide, and addiction among Lakota men. According to sociologist J.M. Bacon, the prevalence of mental illness is not only due to the "loss of traditional ways of life, but because such a loss is perceived as a failure to uphold the sacred responsibility Lakota people have to the land." Bacon claims that the opposition that arises when Native Americans try to execute their responsibilities to the non-human world also results in mental health issues. A 2022 study revealed that Native American college students experienced the greatest increase of depression and anxiety between 2013 and 2021 out of all ethnic and racial groups. According to a 2023 study, a strong sense of ethnic identity can reduce the negative emotional impact of historical loss on Native American college students. The 2016 construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) through unceded Oceti Sakowin territory presented a major threat against the community's water source. During the #NoDAPL protests, the National Guard and Emergency Management Assistant Compact were deployed to suppress resistance, and they often resorted to violence. A private security firm hired by DAPL compared the protestors to jihadists. Similarly, several FBI informants, working with Energy Transfer Partners, infiltrated the camp to collect intel and impede protests. According to Estes, the Army Corps encouraged the pipeline's benefactors to publish studies containing disinformation about the effects of the pipeline. Despite the protests, the pipeline was completed in 2017. Within six months of its completion, the pipeline leaked five times. Two major incidents in 2017 and 2019 resulted in a total spillage of 800,000 gallons. In the United States, Native American women are more than twice as likely to experience violence than any other demographic. One in three Indigenous women is sexually assaulted during her life, and 67% of these assaults are perpetrated by non-Native perpetrators.[b] According to research from the National Institute of Justice, it was found that American Indian women are 1.2 times as likely to experience lifetime violence, 1.8 times as likely to be a victim of stalking, and 1.7 times as likely to be victims of violence in the past year compared to the Non-Hispanic White population. Lisa Brunner, executive director of Sacred Spirits First National Coalition states, "What's happened through US Federal law and policy is they created lands of impunity where this is like a playground for serial rapists, batterers, killers, whoever and our children aren't protected at all." The Family Planning Services and Population Research Act was passed in 1970, which subsidized sterilizations for patients receiving healthcare through the Indian Health Service. In the six years after the act was passed, an estimated 25% of childbearing-aged Native American women were sterilized. Some of the procedures were performed under coercion, or without understanding by those sterilized. In 1977, Marie Sanchez, chief tribal judge of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation told the United Nations Convention on Indigenous Rights in Geneva, that Native American women suffered involuntary sterilization which she equated with modern genocide. Following Sanchez and other Native women's protests, the federal government adopted regulations that protected against involuntary sterilization, including sterilization consent forms. The efficacy of these regulations is contested by researchers. There are instances of Native women allegedly being tricked into signing consent forms. Since the passage of the 1976 Indian Health Care Improvement Act, Indigenous sovereignty has increased and sterilizations have declined. Indigenous resistance to genocide Many Native American nations understood that contact with European settlers led to disease outbreaks and took measures to protect themselves. Historians argue that Indigenous populations were not inherently vulnerable to Old World disease but were rather weakened by colonial violence. According to Tai S. Edwards and Paul Kelton, Southeastern Woodlands people "intentionally limited contact with colonial settlements during outbreaks, used ritualized quarantine to reduce the spread of disease, and relied on experienced healers to provide physical and spiritual treatment." With these practices, Native American populations were able to rebound after disease in the absence of colonial-settler violence. In the 1960s and 1970s, the grassroots Red Power Movement and American Indian Movement (AIM) sought to address discrimination and violence against Native Americans and to promote self-determination. Indigenous members of AIM staged the occupation of Alcatraz and the Trail of Broken Treaties. These movements catalyzed the 1974 International Indian Treaty Council and Women of All Red Nations (WARN). In 1974, Madonna Thunderhawk, a prominent member of AIM and WARN, founded the We Will Remember Survival School to teach Indigenous students about treaty rights and Native culture. Contemporary Indigenous resistance to genocide includes rebuilding the systems of responsibility to each other and the non-human world that are disrupted by colonialism and environmental degradation. According to Whyte, the emerging field of Indigenous Environmental Studies and Sciences (IEES) presents an opportunity to center Indigenous systems of knowledge and foster resilience within environmental movements. IEES allows Indigenous communities to restore moral and reciprocal relationships with the non-human world to withstand the negative effects of climate change. For instance, Anishinaabe groups from the Great Lakes region are employing Indigenous science to recover sturgeon populations, with which these nations have an ancestral reciprocal relationship. Many of these tribes also hold ceremonies and feasts, open to non-Natives, to highlight the environmental and historical importance of sturgeon. The Haudenosaunee have addressed the industrial pollution of the St. Lawrence River by utilizing organizations such as the Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment, the Mothers for Milk Project, and Traditional Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs. In 2016, the Oceti Sakowin groups and allies protested the completion of the Dakota Access Pipeline that would threaten the Missouri River, the Standing Rock Indian Reservation's water supply. The protests led to the #NoDAPL movement. The youth-led movement raised awareness across social media and garnered non-Native support for the protests. The Keystone XL pipeline, proposed in 2008, was also met with resistance by Indigenous leaders and allies across Canada and the U.S.. These protests garnered national attention and resulted in the Obama administration denying the pipeline's cross-border permit. In 2021, the Biden administration again revoked the permit after the Trump administration granted it, representing a success for Native resistance efforts. Patterns of Removal and Displacement During the French and Indian War (1754โ1763), British colonial authorities in the Hudson Valley implemented policies that sought to forcibly remove Indigenous groups from their lands. This process combined military violence with legal and administrative measures, gradually transforming Native communities from allies into obstacles to colonial expansion. The British framed these removals as necessary for security and territorial development, marking an early instance of ethnic cleansing in North America. Memory and legacy The United States has to date not undertaken any truth commission nor built a memorial for the genocide of Indigenous people. It does not acknowledge nor compensate for the historical violence against Native Americans that occurred during territorial expansion to the West Coast. American museums such as the Smithsonian Institution do not dedicate a section to the genocide. In 2013, the National Congress of American Indians passed a resolution to create a space for the National American Indian Holocaust Museum inside the Smithsonian, but it was ignored by the latter. At times, world leaders have invoked the genocide of Indigenous peoples to criticize the US. China has recognized the genocide, and in March 2021, mentioned it in response to assessments from the US and other countries that its persecution of Uyghurs constituted genocide. After US president Joe Biden released a statement recognizing the Armenian genocide in April 2021, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoฤan used the genocide of Native Americans to deny the Armenian genocide and accuse Biden of hypocrisy. American historian Ned Blackhawk said that nationalist historiographies have been forms of denial that erase the history of destruction of European colonial expansion. Blackhawk said that near consensus has emerged that genocide against some Indigenous peoples took place in North America following colonization. In An American Genocide, Benjamin Madley argues that Indigenous resistance to genocidal campaigns has resulted in these campaigns as being inaccurately described as war or battles, instead of genocidal massacres. David Moshman, a professor at University of NebraskaโLincoln, highlighted the lack of awareness of the American public, stating, "The nations of the Americas remain virtually oblivious to their emergence from a series of genocides that were deliberately aimed at, and succeeded in eliminating, hundreds of Indigenous cultures." Historian Gary Anderson, suggests that while what happened with the indigenous population was ethnic cleansing, but it was not genocide. Anderson argues that it couldn't have been genocide because "large numbers of Indians survived" and further asserts that in order for violence to be considered a genocide "a legitimate government must plan, organize, and implement the crime". But professor Ashley Sousa rejects those as inconsistent with the legal definition of genocide, which allows for a partial destruction of a people to be considered genocide. See also References Notes Externals links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืจืืฉืืื_ืจืืชื] | [TOKENS: 3201] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื (ื ืงืจื ืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืจืืชื) ืืื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืืืืืกืืื ืฉื ื-1,403,600 ืชืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืกืืืชื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืจื ืืืฉ ืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืจืืคืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืข. ืชืืื ืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืช ืฉืืฉ, ืืืฉืจืช ืฆืืื, ืฆืืจ ืืืกื, ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืืืืฆืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืชืืื ืื"ืฉ, ืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืฉื ื ืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืคื ืืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืฉืชืจืขืช ืืืืช ืฉืืฉ ืืืขืจื ืืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืคื ืืจืืื ืืืืจื, ืืืืืืฉืืืื ืขืคืจื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืฆืคืื, ืืขื ืืืืฉ ืขืฆืืื ืืืจืื. ืืกืืืืช ืคืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืคืืืื ืจืฆืืคืื ืขื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืกืืืืกืืืงื ืืืืงื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืืืืืชืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืื ื ืืืืื ืจืง ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืื ืื ืงืืืืช. ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืคืืื ืช ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืชื ืื-ืืืืืืช, ืื ืฉืืืคื ืืช ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืฉืืจ ืืืจืืคืืืื ืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื, ืื ืขื ืื ืืืช ืืืจ ืืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชื ืชืงืช ืืืืงืื ืืืืจื. ืืื ื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืคื ืืืฉืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืกืืืืกืืืงื: ืืกื-ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืคืืืื 86 ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืืืืืกืืืชื ืขืืืืช ืขื 1,403,600 ืชืืฉืืื (ืืฉื ืช 2021). ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืฆืขืืจื, ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืจืืฉืืื, ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืคืืืื, ืืื ืขืืจ ืขืชืืงื ืืืงืืืฉืช ืืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืคื ืฉื ืื. ืืืงื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืจืง ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืฉืฉืช ืืืืื, ืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืงืฉื ืืคืชืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืื-ืคืืกืืื ื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืื 1948 ื-1967. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืื ืืกืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืื-ืคืืกืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉื, ืงืฉื ืืืื ืืคืชื ืืช ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืงืช ืืชืืื. ืืืืื ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ื ืืืกืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืืื, ืจืืื ืืฉืชืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืจืื ืืืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืกืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืขืื ื ืืื ืฉืืขืืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืขืืจ ืขืืกืงืื ืืืกืืจ ืืจืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืฉืจืืชื ืืืจืื ืืืกืขืื ืฉืืืื ืกืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช. ืขื ืฃ ืืชืขืฉืืื ืื ืืื, ืืื ื ืืคืืชื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืื ืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืขืจืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืฆืืื ืืขืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2018, 70 ืฉื ืื ืืืจื ืืงืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืงื ืืฉืืื ืชืขืกืืงืชื ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืืช ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืคืจืื ืฉืืื ืขืช ืชืขืกืืงื ืจืืื ืืขืืจ. ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืฉ ืฉืืืืืช ืืืง ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื, ืื ืืขืืืช ืืื ืืืจืชื-ืืืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืืืฆืข, ืืืช ื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2019. ืืืืืืกืืื ื ืชืื ื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืฉื ืช 2016โ: ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืื ื-27.5% ืืืื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืฉ. ืชืืืืจื ื ืืชื ืืืืืข ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืคืืืื ืขื ืืจืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืืกืื. ืืชืืื ืคืืขืืช ืืจืืืช ืืงืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืชื ืืขื: ืกืืืื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจืืคืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืฉืจืช ืืคืืจืง ืืืืจืืคืืืื ื, ืคืืจืง ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืืจื ืืขืืจ ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืฉืชืจืข ืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืืขืจืื, ืืชื ืฉืืื ืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืงืฆืืืช ืืืขืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืคืืืื, ืืฉื ื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืฉืคืื. ืคืืจืง ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืฉืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืขืชืืงื ืืืื ืืจืกืืช, ืฉืจืืื ืชืขืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืืฉืงืื, ืฉืงืชืืช ืขืืจืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืื ืื. ืืคืืจืง ืื ืืกืคืจ ืืขืืื ืืช ื ืงืื ืฉื ืืืขืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืงืื ืืช. ืืคืืจืง ืืื ืืืง ืืืืืจ ืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืืืืื ืืืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืื ื-650 ืืืจืื ืืขื ืคื ื ืืื. ืืืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืืื (800 ืืืจ) ืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืจื-ืืขืจื, ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืขืจืื. ืืืจืื ืืชืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืช ืืจ ืืฉืืืื ืืืฉืืจืืื. ืืช ืืืืืจ ืื ืงื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืจืื, ื ืื ืฉืืจืง, ืฉืืชืื ืืขืืง ืฉืื ืขืืืจืช ืืกืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืฉื ื ืืืคื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื ืื ื ืื ืจืคืืื ืื ืื ืืกืืื. ืื ืื, ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืคืืืจืคืื ืฉื ืจืื ืืืกืชืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืง (ืืืง ืืืฆืืง ืืืขืชืงืื), ืฉืืืชื ืืืจืฆืื ืืคืืงื ื ืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืขืจื ืืืืจื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%A3_(%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%AA%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9D)] | [TOKENS: 16860] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืกืฃ (ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื) ืืืืืื, ืืกืฃ ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืฆืขื ืืืืคืื ืืืกืื ืืืืคืฉืจ ืงืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืจืชื ืืคืฉื ืืืืืขื ืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืกืืจ, ืืจืืืช ืงื ืืื, ืืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื ืขืืืจ ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืจืืชืื. ืืืกืฃ ืืคืฉื ืืช ืขืกืงืืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืกื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืคืืจ ืืืกื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืื ืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืกืืจ ืืงืืฉืจ ืืช ืืืฆืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืงืืฉื ืฉืืกืืจ ืืืืคืื ืืื ืชืืืจืื ืืขืืงืจื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืขืืืช ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืฉืืชืืกืกื ืืืืคื ืืืขืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืืืืคืื, ืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืกืฃ. ืืืืจื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืขืฆืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืืกืฃ. ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืคืฆื ืชืจืืืช ืืื ืงืื ืืืืช ืืืจืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืคื ื ื-10,000 ืฉื ื ื ืืกืคื ืืืจืขืื ืื ืืืชืืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืื ืขื ืืืคืขืช ืืืชืืืช (ืชืืืื ื ืืืฉืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืืืื) ืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื. ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืคื ื"ืก ืืืฉืงื ืืื ืคื ืฉื ืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื ื ืงืืขื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช. ืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืคื ื"ืก ืงืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืขืืช ืขืฉืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืขืืจ ืืืกื ืืืืืขืืช ืืืกืฃ ืขืจื ืขืฆืื. ืืื ืืืืื ื-11 ืืืคืืข ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืกืื ืืกืฃ ืคืืื ืฉืืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืกืคืื ืฉืื ืขืจืื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืงืืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืง ืืืื ื. ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉ ืฆืืจื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืืืขืืช ืฉืขืจืื ื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืขืจื ืืจืฉืื ืขืืืื. ืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืขืืื ืืื ืจืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืืจืฉืื ืืื, ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืคืืื, ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืกืฃ ืขืจื ืืืฉื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฉืืขืฆืื, ืืื ืขืจืื ืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืชืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉ ืืกืืื ืขื ืขืจืื ืืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืจืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืืืฆืจืื ืื ืฉืืจืืชืื ืืกืืืืื ืชืืืจืชื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืกืฃ ืืืืจื ื ื ืขืฉื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืฉืืจื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืขืืช ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืืืชื ืืืื ื, ืืืืืืช, ืชืืื ืงื ืืื, ืืจืืืกื ืืฉืจืื, ืืจืืืกื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืืจื ืืืืืฉืืช ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืืื ืืจืืงืฆืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืขืืจื ืชืืื ื ืงืืื ืืืืื ืืืงื ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ืื ืืืืืข ืืจ ืฉืืืชืจ ืืื ืขื ืคื ืืืืงืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืชืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉืง ืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื, ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืฆืืืืจ. ืฉืืง ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืฉืืง ืืืฆืข ืืืืงืืฉ ืื ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืกืฃ ื ืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืขืืคื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืืืง ืืืกืฃ ืืืืืฆืข ื ืงืืข ืขื ืืื ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื. ืืฉืืง ืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืง, ืืื ืืฉืคืืข ืืืืฉืคืข ืืฉืืง ืืกืืืจืืช. ืืจืืืืช ืืื "ืืืืจ ืืืกืฃ", ืืืชื ืืฉืื ืืืืื, 'ืืงืื ื', ืืืงืื ืืืืืื. ืืืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืืคื ื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืืข ืืืกืืจ ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืชืงืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืคืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ื ืกืืืจื ืชืืืจืช ืกืืืจื,ืืืืฆืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืื ืืงืื ื ืืืืืจ. ืืืจ ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืฉื ืืคื ื"ืก ืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืืกืื โ ืืกืฃ (money) ืืฆืืจืช ืืชืืืืช ืืชืืช ืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืฉืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืงื ืฉืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืงืื ื. ืืืืืคืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืงืฉื ืขื ืืืกืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืชื ืืกืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืฆืข ืื ืืืืืชื ืืื ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืงืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงืื. ืืืชืืืช ืืืงืจืืช, ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืคืื ืขื ืืืจื ืืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ืื ืงืืื ืืืืืื, ืืงืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืชืงืืงืืื, ืืืืืฆืขืืชื ืืชืืคืฉืจ ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืขืฆืื ืฉื ืืืกื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืืื ืื ื ืชืงืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืงืงืื.. ืืืชืืช ืืืงืจื ื ืฉืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืฉืงืืืืช ืืขื ืคื ืืืฉืงื ืืืกืื ืืืืืจ. ืืืืจืช ืืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืชืงืื ืืฆืืจื ืจืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืขืืืจ ืกืืืจืืช ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืช. ืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืฆืืข ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื. ืชืฉืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืขืชืื, ืืฉืืง ืืืงืืื ืื ืืฉืืืงืื ืืจืืืงืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืกืืืจื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืฉืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืขืกืงื ืืืืืคืื ืืฉืืง. ืฉืืืงืื ืืขืืืื ื ืฉืขื ืื ืขื ืืืฆืขื ืืืืคืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืืื ืื. ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืกื ืฉืืฆืจื ืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืคืฉื ืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืกืืืข ืืื ืื ืื ืืช ืืงืืจืืชืืื. ืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืฉ ืืืชืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืชืืืืช (ืืืืงืช ืขืืืื) ืืืืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืืืงืจืื ืืืืงืื ืืืขืชื ืืืฉืจ ืืืฉืืขืืช ืืืกืฃ. ืืฉ ืืืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฉืืขืืช ืืืืคืฉืืช ืฉื ืืืืฉื โ ืืกืฃ ืืื ืชืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืฆืขื ืืืคืฉื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช ืืฉ ืืืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืืจ ืืคืืื (ืืกืฃ ืืืฆืจืื) ืืืฉืืฉ ืืฆืืจื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืคืื, ืืคืืจืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืจืชืืช. ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฉืืขืืช ืืืืคืฉืืช ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืงืืจื ืืืืืืช. ืืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืืกืื ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืืืกื ืืืจืชื. ืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืืจืชืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืืชื ืืช, ืืืืจ, ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืงื ืกืืช ืืคืืฆืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืฉืื ืืืชื. ืืฉ ืืืงืจืื ืืืืฆืืื ืืืฉืงืคืช ืขืืื ืืืจืชืืช ืืืืขื ืื ืฉืืืกืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืืืจืชื ืืืื ืคืจืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืื ืฆืจืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืืคืืช ืฉื ืืืืคืื ืืืขื ืืืืกื ืืืืจืื ืื ืงืืขืื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช (ืจืื ืืจืงืกืืื). ืืงืจื ืืืืงืจืื ืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืกืฃ. ืืคื ืฉืืืคืืข ืืขืื ืืืกืฃ ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืจื ืืืืฆืขื ืืืืคืื. ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืื ืืืกืฃ ืืฉืืฉ ืฉืืืจ ืขืจื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืคืฉืจ ืงืืื ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืฆืืจ, ืจืืืฉื ืืฆืจืืื. ืืืกืฃ ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืชืงื ืืืืื. ืืชืืจ ืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืชืงื ืืชืฉืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืชืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืชืื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืกืฃ ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื, ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืชืืืืื. ืืื ืฉืืืฆืจ ืืกืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืงืฉ ืืฉืืืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืชื (ืืืืื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืืืช) ืืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืขืจืื ืืฆืื, ืืืื ืืืขืืคืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืฆืขื ืืฉืืืจืช ืืขืจื ืืืฆืืจื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืืืืคืื. ืืืงืจื ืืืกืฃ ืืคืจืืืืืืื ืงืืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืกืฃ ืืขืืื ืืขืชืืง (ืืืืืจืืช ืคืจืืืืืืืืืช). ืืืืฆืจ ืฆืจืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืขื ืขืจื ืืืฉืชืืฉ; ืืคืฉืจ ืืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืชื; ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ื ืคืจืืืช; ืืขื ืขืจื ืืฆืื; ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืงืืืช. ืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืืืฆืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืื ืชื ืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืงืฆืจ ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืื ืืจืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืืช ื ืคื ืืกืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืกืืืจืืช ืืืจืืงืื ืงืฆืจืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืืคืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืืืื. ืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืืฉื: ืืกืฃ ื ืืืจ (ืฉืืจืืช ืืกืฃ), ืืืืขืืช ืืชืืช, ืืืืข ืืืืืืื (ืืื ืืืืงืืื), ืืจืืืกื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืกืืืง, ืืืืืืช (ืื ืืืืืืช ื ืคื ืืืฉืงื) ืฉื ืืืฆืจืื ืืื ืฆืืคืื, ืฉืขืืจื, ืชืืจืื, ืฆืืจ ืืืชืืืช ืืกืฃ, ืืื, ืืืื. ืืืชืื ืฉืืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืฉืืฉื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืขืช ืืืขืื ื ืืืช. ืืืืืจื ื ืจืื ืฉืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืขืื, ืืืื ืื ืืฉ ืืืก ืงืืืข ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื, ืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืืืช ืืกืฃ ืืืช. ืื ืืืฉื ืืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืฉื ืืคืกื"ื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืขืืจื ืืืืชืืช ืืกืฃ ืฉืืืฉื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื, ืืืื ืืืก ืงืืืข ืืืืืจ ืฉื 300 ืกืืื (ืืืืืช ื ืคื) ืฉืขืืจื ืืฉืงื (ืืืืืช ืืฉืงื) ืืชืืช ืืกืฃ, ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืชืฉืืื ืืืช โ ืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืืืชื ืชืงืืคื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืชืฉืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืชื ืืชืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืฃ ืืจืืืขื ืืคื ื"ืก ืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืชืืืช ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืืชืจืื ืงืืืืื ืืืกืืคืืืืื. ืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืชืืขืืืช ืฉืืืืช ืชืฉืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืชืฉืืื ืฉื ืกืืืจืืช ืืืืฆืจืื ืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืชืืช ืืงืจื. ืืฆืืจื ืื ืฉื ืืกืืจ, ืืชืงืืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืงืื ื ืืืืืืจ, ืืงืืืขืช ืืขืจื ืฉื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืชื ื ืืื ื ืจืง ืืืืชื ืขืกืงื. ืขื ืืืื ืืชืขืืจืจ ืฆืืจื ืืืืืจืช ืขืจื ืืืืืืงืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืก ืืืฉืื ืงืืืข. ืืืืืืจ ืืงืืืข ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉึธืืืฉ ืืืงืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืืฃ ื-4 ืืคื ื"ืก ืืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืฆืื, ืืื ืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืฉืื: ืืขืืจืืช ืืงื ืืช ืื ืืืืืื โ ืืืงื ื "ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืงื ื ืืืกืฃ ืืืืื". ืืงื ื ืืฉืืขื ืื ืืขืืืช ืืื ืงื ืืื (ืืคืืขื ืงื ื = ืจืืฉ). ืืืืื ืืช: ืขืืฉืจ, ืืกืฃ = Pecuniae (ืฉืืงืืจื ืืืืื ืขืืจ = .Pecus. ืืืืื capital ืืฉืคืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืช ืฉืืฉืืขื ืืื, ืืงืืจื ื-capitale- ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืจืืฉื ืืงืจ (ืจืืฉ =capito) ืืฆื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืขืฉืืจ ื ืงืจื ฯฮฟฮปฯ
ฮฒฮฟฯ
ฯฮทฯ, ืืฉืืข ืืขื ืฉืืืจืื ืจืืื. ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืกืืื, ืืืืจืืก (1200 ืืคื ื"ืก) ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื. ืื ืืื ืขืื ืืืืช ืฉืกืืจื ืืื: ืจืืืฉ ืื ืืืืืื ืจืืฉ ืฉืคืืจืืฉื ืกืืก. ืื ืืจืืืช kugildi ืคืืจืืฉื ืืกืฃ, ืืืจืื ืืืืืื kuh = ืคืจื ื-geld = ืืื. ืืืืื ืื ืคืื ืฉื ืืืืืข ืืื ืจืืคื rupee, ืฉืืฉืืขื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืช ืขืฉืืืช ืืืฉืืืื, ื ื ืืืชืืืืก ืืฆืื, ืื ืืืืื ืช ื ืืืื ืืืกืืจ, ืื ื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืฆืืข ืขืกืงืืช. ืืฉ ืขืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืคืจืืงื ืฉืืขืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืฉืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืฆืขื ืืฆืืืจืช ืจืืืฉ. ืืืกืืจ ืืขืืจืช ืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืคืืช ืืืืฉืจ ืืชืจืื ืืืกืืจ, ื ืืฆืจื ืขื ืืืื, ืืฆื ืกืืจ ืืืืืคืื, ืืขืจืืช ืฉื ืืคืฆืื ืืขืื ืขืจื ืืืกืื, ืืื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื. ืื ืืงืืืืื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืืคืืจืืช ืืจืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืฆืืคื 'ืคื ืืืืฉื' (kauri shells). ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืืืงืื ืื ืืฆืื ืืืจืืืื ืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืงืืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืขืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืืชืืฉืืืื, ืืฉืขืจืื ืืืืงืจ ืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื. ืืืื ื ืืฉืคื ืื ืืงืืจืื, ืืืจ ืืืฆืืืข ืขื ืขืจืื ืืืฉืืืืชื. ืืฉ ืืงืืืืช ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืื ืขื ืืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจืื ืคืจืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืืื, ืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืจืืืงืื ืื ืืื. ืื ื ืืฆืื ืื ืืขืจื ืฉื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฃ ื-3 ืืคื ื"ืก, ืืืงืืฉ-ืืจื ืข. ืืกืื ืฉื ืกืืฃ ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืชืืืื ื, ืืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืฆืืคืื, ืืืงื ืืืชื ืืขืฆื ืืืฃ ืืืกืฃ. ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืคืืื ืงืงืื, ืืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืฉืช, ืืืืืืืช ืชื ืืขืื. ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืคืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฃ ืืจืืืขื ืืคื ื"ืก. ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืชื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ื ืคื ืฉื ืฉืขืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืงื ืฉื ืืชืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื. ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืืงืืฉ ืชืืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืชื ืืชืืืช, ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืฆืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืจ (ืกืืื) ืฉืขืืจื. ืืฉืขืืจื ืฉืืืฉื ืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืฉืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืืืจื, ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื. ืื ืืืฉืช (ืืืืืืช ืืฉืงื, ืฉืงื โ 8.3 ืืจื) ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืชืื, ืฉืืืช ืืืืขืื. ืืืืืืช ืื ืคื ืืืืฉืงื ืืืคืืขื ืืืืงืื ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช. ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืืืืช ืคืืชืื ืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืช, ืฉืืืื ืืืงืื ืขื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืื, ืืืืงืื ืืืชืืืืกืื ืื ืืืื ืขืกืงืื ืืืืืงืช ืจืืืฉ ืคืจืื. ืืงืืืงืก ืฉื ืืืืจืื, ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืืื ื-18 ืืคื ื"ืก ืืืื ืืขืชืืงื, ื ืืงืง ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืฉื ืืืืจืื. ืืงืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืฉืขืกืงื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช. ืืงืื ืงืืข ืฉืืขืืจื ืจืืืืช, ืงื ืกืืช, ืืคืืฆืืืื ืขืืืจ ืขืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืง. ืืฉืงื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืงื ืฉืืืฆืื ืืืกืืคืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืฉื ืืคื ื"ืก, ืืืช ืืฆื ืืืื ื (ืืืฆื ืงืืื ืืืืื 60 ืฉืงืืื), ืืืืจืืื (ื- 0.046 ืืจื) ืฉืืื ืืืฉืงื ืืืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืจืืจ ืฉืขืืจื. ืืฉืงื (ื- 8.3 ืืจื) ื ืืืง ื-180 ืืจืืืจืื. ืืืฉืงืืืืช ื ืืชื ืืื ืืฉืงืื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื, ืืืชืืช ืืงืจื ืืขื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืื ื ืื ืืืืข ืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืชืืืจ ืฉืืืจืื ืงื ื ืืช ืืขืจืช ืืืืคืื ืชืืืจืช ืืจืืข ืืืืช ืฉืงื ืืกืฃ (ืขืืืจ ืืกืืืจ - ืืกืฃ ืฉืืงืื ืื ืกืืืจ ืืืืืจ). ืืฉืงืืืืช ืืฉืงื ืขื ืืคืืืืชืื ืืืืงืื ื ืืฆืื ืืจืื ืืืคืืจืืช ืืจืืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืฅ ืืขืืืื ืกืืื ืืฉืงื ืื ืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืฉืงื ืืืชื ืขืืจื ืงืืื. ืืืชืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืฉืงืื ืืืื ืืืช ืจืืฉืื ื ืงืจืื ืืฆืขืื, ืื ืืฆืขื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืื ืื ื ืืฆืขื ืืชืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืคื ืืืฉืงื ืืจืฆืื ืืื ืขืกืงื ืืขืกืงื. ืืืืืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืื ื ืืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื (ืืื) ืฉืืืขืจื ืืกืื ืืงืื ื ืื ืจืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืืื โ ืืืึถืก Gyges (682 -652 ืืคื ื"ืก). ืืื ืืื ืืจืืจื ืืืงืืจืื (ื ืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืกืฃ) ืฉื ืืฆื ืืืืคื ืืืขื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืื ืกืืืืืื ืืฉืืืืคื ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืฉืงื ืืจืฆืื. ืขืืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืฃ ืืื ืคืืง ืืขืจืืื ืืืฉืงืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืชืืช ืืืงืจื ืฉืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืชืืชื ืืฉืชื ื ืืืืจืืฅ ืืืจืืฅ ืื ืืขืจื ืืืืกื ืืื ื-3/4 ืืื ื- ยผ ืืกืฃ, ืืืฉืงืื ื-7-8 ืืจื. ืืืืขืืช ืืื ื ืขืืจืื ืืชืืืืช ืื ืกืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืชืืจืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืื ื-7 ืืคื ื"ืก ื ืงืืข ืืขืืจืช ืืืฆืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืืืืงืืจืื ืืืืข ืฉืื ื ืืืจืืฅ ืืืจืืฅ, ืืืื, ืืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืืื. ืขื ืคื ืืจืืืืืืก (i, 94) (ืืื ืงืกื ืืคืื), "ืืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืขืื ืขืืื ืฉืืืข ืืืืขืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืกืฃ". ืืืื ืืืืื ืงืจืืืกืืก ืืืข ืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืขืืช ืื-ืืชืืชืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืืืจืื, ืืขืจืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืืจ ืืืฆื ืกืืืืจ. ืืืืขืืชืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืืืง ืืฉืงืื. ืืจืืกืื ืืกืคืจื ืขื ืืืงืช ืืชืื ื ืืืชื: "ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืกืืจ ืคืฉืื ืืืืืื ืจืืืื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืกืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ, ืืขื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืขืืืคื ืกืืืจืืช, ื ืขืฉื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืข ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืจื; ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฆืจืืื ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืชื ื ืืืืืื, ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืชืช ืืืงืื ืืฆืืจืื ืกืืจ-ืืืืคืื ืืคืฅ ืืกืืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืื ืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืื ืืฆืจื, ืืื ืืื ืงื ืื ื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืกืงื ืืื ืืื. ืืคืฅ ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืกืฃ ืฉืืชืืืื ืืืืืจ ืขืจืื ืคืฉืื ืืคื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืงื, ืื ืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืจืืืงื ืืืช ืืืืืืขื ืืืชื ืขื ืื ืืืืข ืขื ืื ืช ืฉืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืงืื, ืืืึนืชึธื ืืืืึผืข ืขื ืืืืืข ืฆืืื ืืช ืขืจืื". ืืืขืฉื ืืืืืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืื ืคืืกืืช ืืชืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืงื ืงืืืขืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืขืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืขืจืื ืืขืจืื. ืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืงืื ื ืคืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ื ืืืืช (ืกืืื ืื). ืืืกืฃ ืืงืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืืืง ื ืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืขืชื ืืกืจื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืฆืืคืืช. ืืงืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืื ืืืืืขื ืื ืื: ืืืขื ืขื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืฆืงื ืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืขื ืืืชื; ืืืืขืืช ืจืืื ืื ืืจืืืขืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขืืืืื ืื ืืจืืืขืื ืืืจืืื โ ืืื ืืืงื ืขื ืงืฉืืจืชื ืืื; ืืื ืกืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืกืื, ืืคื ืืงืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจื ืืชื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืืขืื ืขืืืื ืืจืฆืืคืืช ืืืฉื ืืืืช ืฉื ืื. ืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืคื ื"ืก ืืืคืืขื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืขืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื (ืืกืฃ). ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืงื โ ืืจืืื, ืื ืืืขื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืขืจื ืืกืื ืืงืื ื. ืขื ืืืืืขืืช ื ืืืขื ืฆืืืจืื ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ืขื ืืืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ื ืืืข ืืื ืฉืืฃ. ืืชืจืื ืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืงื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืื ืชืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืื ืืชืคืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืืื, ืืกืฃ ืื ืืืฉืช ืืขืืงืจ. ืืขืจืืช ืืกืฃ ืคืืื (Fiat) ืืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืกืคืื ืฉืื ืขืจืื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืงืืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืง ืืืื ื. ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืื (Fiat) ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืขืืชื "ืื ืืขืฉื" ืื "ืื ืืืื". ืืืงืื ืื ืืืืืข ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืกืฃ ืคืืื, ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืฉื "ืืืืข ืคืืื". ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืกืฃ ืคืืื ืืื ืืกืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-11, ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืฉืืื ืฉืืฉืืช ืืื ื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื ืืืกืืก ืืืฆืืจืช ืืกืฃ (ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื). ืืื ืืคืฉื ืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืจ ืื ืืชื ืื, ืขื ืคื ืจืื, ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืงืืืื ืฉืื ืคืืงื ืื ืงืื ืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืืคืงื ืืืกืคืืชืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืคืืืช ืชืืืจืช ืืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืงืืงืช ืืืงื ืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื (ืชืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืชืงื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืขืืื), ืืจื ืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืืงืืื ืืชืืชืื ืืคื ืืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืกืฃ ืื ืืื ืืขืกืงืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืืกืฃ ืื ืืื ืืขืกืงืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช (ืืืืืื ืคืืืชื ืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืื ืื). ืืื ืืืืื ื-11 ื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืืคื ืืืกืฃ ืคืืื โ ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืฉืื ืจืง ืฉืขืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ื ืงืฉืืจ ืืขืจื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ื, ืืฃ ืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืขืชืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืฆื ืืื ืคืืง. ืืกืฃ ืคืืื ืืฉืืฃ ืืกืื ื ืฉืืื ืคืืง ืืืืื ืืช ืกืืืื ืืืืืข ืฉืืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืคืืฆืื. ืืชืงืืคืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืงืจื "ืชืงื ืืืื", ืฉืืืืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืกืฃ ืคืืื. ืืคื ืฉืืื ืื, ืืืืขืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืื ืชืืื ืืงืืืื ืืช ืขืจืื ืืืขืืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืคืืง, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืกืจื ืื ืื ืืฉืืจ. ืืชืืืืช ืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืื, ืขื ืืชืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืกืื ืืจืืื-ืืืืก, ื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืช ืชืงื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืืืฉ. ืืืื, ืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืข ืืขืืืืืืช ื ืฉืขื ืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืฉืืฉ ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืกื ื ืฉื ืืืืืข ืืืืฆืืืืช ืฉืขืจื ืืขืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืื ืคืืฆืื. ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉืง ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉืง ืืืืืจืช ืขื ืคื ืืืืฉื ืืงืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืกื ืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืขืืช ืืืืืืจ + ืกื ืืื ืคืืงืืื ืืช ืืขื"ืฉ ืฉืืืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื. ืืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืฃ ื ืืกืื ื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืช ื ืืืืืชื, ืงืจื ืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืคืืืช ืืืชื ื ืืก ืืืืืื. ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืก ืืื ืืืืช ืืจืืจืืืช ืฉืืื ืงืื ืืืืืงืื ืืืื ืคืืงืืื ืืช ืืขื"ืฉ ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื ืืืกืื ืืงืืืข ืืืก ืจืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืง ืืขืชืืื. ืืืก ืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืงืจื ืื ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืืงื ืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช. ืืื ืื, ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืชื ืืขืืืคืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืง ื ืงืจื ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืจืฆืื. ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืคืืืจื ืืฉ ืฉืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืฆืื ืืืืืืง ืขื ืืื ืืื ืง ืืขืืืช ืืืืืืืืช. ืจืืจืื ืื ืจืืจืื ืื ืงืืืช ืืื ืกื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืขืืช ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืง ืืื ืง. ืืจืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืกืคืืช ืืื ืงืื ืขืฆืื ืื ืฉืืื ืงืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืงืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืงื ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื ืชืืืจืช ืจืืืืช. ืืจืืจืืืช ืืืืืืงืืช ืขื ืืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืชืืืืืืืืชืืื ืื ืื ืืคืงืืืื ืจืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืคืชืืข ืืช ืคืืงืืื ืืชืืื. ืืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืฉืืฆืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืกืืกื ืืืขืจืืช ืืื ืงืืืช. ืืฆืืจื ืืืืฉืช ืืฉืคืขืช ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืฉืง, ื ื ืื ืื ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืืงื ืฉืืื ืืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืฉืคืขืชื ืฉื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืฉืจ ืืงืื ืืคืงืื ืืื ืง 100 ืฉืงืืื, ืืืื ืชื ืืืก ืจืืจืื ืฉื 6% ืืงืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืื ืง ื ืืจืฉ ืืฉืืืจ 6 ืืื ืืจืืจืื ืืืช ื-94 ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืจ. ืคืขืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืฆืจืช ืืืขืฉื ืคืืงืืื ืขื"ืฉ ืืืฉ ืฉืื ืจืฉืืืื 94 ืฉืงืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืงืืืืื ืงืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ืขืืืื ืืฉ ืคืืงืืื ืฉื 100 ืฉ"ื. ืืขืช, ืืคืืงืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืง ืืชืช ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื 94% ืืื ื ืืื ืืืื. ืกืืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืกื ืืื ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืก ืืืคืื ืืืืก ืืจืืจืื, ืืขืจื ืคื 16. ืืืก ืืคืื ืื ื ืงืจื ืืืคืื ืืคืืงืืื ืืช. ืืชืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื, ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืฆืืืืจ. ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ื ืงืจืืื ืขืืจืืืื. ืขืืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉืง ืืขืืจืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืงืื ื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืคืขืชื ืฉื ืืขืืจืืืื ื ื ืื ืื ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืืงื ืฉืืื ืืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืจืฆืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืฉืคืขืชื ืฉื ืืขืืจืืืื ืืืืืช. ืืช ืืขืืจืืืื ืืืืงืื ืืฉื ื ืกืืืื: ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉืง ืืืืื ืื ืืืข ื: ืืืงืฉืจ ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืื ืืงืืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืชืจ ืืื, ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืฉืง ืืื ืจืืข ื ืชืื ืืื ื ืืฉืงืคืช ืืช ืืืืช ืืจืืืฉ ืืืื ืฆืืืืจ. ืืงืื ืช ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืกืืก ืืืกืฃ ืืืื ืื ืื ืฉืงืจื ืืคืืขื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืฉืืจืฉืืชื ืื ืื ืืืชืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืื ืฆืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืชื ื. ืื ืงืื ืืกืืจืืื ืื ืงืื ืืกืืจืืื ืื ืืืกืืืช ืื ืงืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืงืืืช ืคืืงืืื ืืช, ื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืขื"ืฉ ืืืขืืืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืื ืืกืคืงืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืฆืขื ืชืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืืกื ืืฉืจืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืืช. ืจืื ืืืฆืข ืืืกืฃ ืืงืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืื ื ื ืืฆื ืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืงืื. ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืื ืง ืืกืืจื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืฉืืจืืช ืืกืฃ ืืืฉืื (ืืืืช ืืฉืืืจื ืืืืง ืจืง ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ื), ืืคืืขื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืกืฃ ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืง ืืืกืืจื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืืงืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืืื, ืืื ืจืง ืืืง ืืืกื ืืชืื ืืคืืงืืื ืืช. ืืืืก ืืืืืจ ื ืงืจื ืืืก ืืจืืจืื ืืืื ืืืื (ืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืื ืืืืืช). ืชืคืงืืื ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืืืืช (ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืช ืืืืืช ืฉืืง) ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืช ื ืืฆืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื. ืืืฉืจืื ื ืงืจื ืืื ืง ืืืจืืื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื, ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืคืืจืืื ืืืืง ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื: ืืืจืืชืื ืฉื ืืื ืง, ืืคื ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืืง, ืื: ืฉืืง ืืืกืฃ ืฉืืง ืืืกืฃ ืืื ืฉืืง ืืืฆืข ืืืืงืืฉ ืื ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืกืฃ ื ืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืขืืคื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืืืง ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืื ืขื"ืฉ (ืฉืื ื ืืฉื ืจืืืืช) ืืืืืฆืข ืงืืืข ืื ืชืื. ืืฉืืง ืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืง, ืืื ืืฉืคืืข ืืืืฉืคืข ืืฉืืง ืืกืืืจืืช. ืืจืืืืช ืืื "ืืืืจ ืืืกืฃ", ืืืชื ืืฉืื ืืืืื, 'ืืงืื ื', ืืืงืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืขืื ืืืืืงืช ืืกืฃ ืฉืื ื ืืฉื ืจืืืืช: ืขืงืืืช ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืกืฃ ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืฆืจืคื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืกืฃ. ืืื ืฉืืจืืืืช ื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืืงืฉืช ืฉื ืืกืฃ ืืืื. ืฉืื ืืืื ืฉื ืขืงืืืช ืืืืงืืฉ ืืืกืฃ ืืืืืื ืื ืืืข ื: ืืืฆืข ืืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืช ืื ืื ืืกืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืง. ื ืืกืื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืงืฆืจ. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืช ืืืกืฃ (ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืขืืช ืืืืืืจ + ืกื ืืื ืคืืงืืื ืืช ืืขื"ืฉ ืฉืืืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืกืืจืืื) ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืื ืืืข ื: ืืื ืืื ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902] | [TOKENS: 786] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื 1902 ืฉื ืช 1902 ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืื ื-20. ืืืื ืฉื ื ืจืืืื, ืฉืืืจืื 365 ืืืื. 1 ืืื ืืืจ 1902 ืืคื ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื ืืงืืื ืืช 1 ืืื ืืืจ ืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ื ื-13 ืืืื. ืื ืืชืืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืคื ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื. ืืืจืืขืื ืื ืืืจ ืคืืจืืืจ ืืจืฅ ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืืกื ืกืคืืืืจ ืืฆืืืจ ื ืืืื ืื ืืืจ ืคืืจืืืจ ืืจืฅ ืืคืจืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืกื ืกืคืืืืจ ืืืงืืืืจ ื ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืจ ื ืคืืจื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืกื ืกืคืืืืจ ืืืงืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืจืืืจืืื ื โ ืขืืจื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืขืืื ืขืืจืืื: Nothing. ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ื, ืฉื ืช 1902 ืืชืืืื ืืืื ื' ืืฉืื ื'ืชืจืก"ื (ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืคื ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื ืืืื 13 ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืชืจ, ื-ื"ื ืืืืช). ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืื ืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ื 365 ืืืื - ืืืืืง ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื ืืืงืืื. ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ื - ืขืืจื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืขืืื ืขืืจืืื: Nothing. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื 1897 โข 1898 โข 1899 โข 1900 โข 1901 โข 1902 โข 1903 โข 1904 โข 1905 โข 1906 โข 1907 |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/flexible-matriculation-program/] | [TOKENS: 982] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืจืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืืจืฉืช ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื, ื"ื ืืืื ืงืืฉ, ืืื ื"ื ืืืฉืจื, ืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืขืื ื, ืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ืืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืจืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืืจืฉืช: ืชื "ื, ืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืจืืืช, ืกืคืจืืช ืืืืจืฉืืช. ืืชืืื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืจืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืืจืฉืช ืกืจืืื ื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืงืจืืช | ืกืจืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืข' ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืฉื: ืขืืจืืช | ืขืจืืืช ืืืคืก ืืจืฉืื, ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉ ื"ืจ ืืื ืื ืื - ืื"ืจ ืืืืืืจืืช ืืคืืืืืืช, ืื' ืืื ื ืืืฆืื - ืกืื ื"ืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืคืืืืืืืืชืืื | ืืฆืืช | ืกืจืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืืคืจืืกืช ืฉืขืืช ืชืืช ืฉื ืชืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืชืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืืขื ืืืขืจืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืืจื, ืืืจืฉืช ืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืงืจืืื ืืืืฉื ืงืจืืื ืื ืืกื ืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืฉื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/matriculation-exams-final-projects/preparation-for-matriculation-exams/] | [TOKENS: 1228] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืจืกื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืงืืื ืื ืืื ื, ืคืจืืืื ืื ืงืืืฆืชืืื, ืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืกืืค. ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืื ืืืคืฉืจืืืืช ืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช. ืงืืจืกื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ื ืืืืชืืช ื-ืื ืงืืจืกื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืฆื ืืืืื ืืืืชื - ืืงืืจืกืื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืคื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืงืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืงืฆื ืืืชืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืคืชืื ืงืืจืก ืืืืชืชื ืืืขืงืื ืืืจ ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจืืื. ืงืืืืื ืื ืงืืจืกื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืชื ืกืืช ืืื. ืืืจืืค โ ืืื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืกืืค ืชืืื ืืช "ืืืจืืค" ืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืืืืจื ืขืืจืืช ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืชืืช ืื-ืื ืืืืขื ืืืจืฃ ืืืืืขื ืงืืฅ. ืืืขื ืืืจืฃ ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืื ืืืืช, ืืชืืืืงื ืืืฉืืืืืขื ืงืืฅ ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืื ืืืืช, ืืชืืืืงื, ืืฉืื, ืคืืืืงื, ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืื" ืื ืชืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืคืืช ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/main-annual-planning/] | [TOKENS: 433] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืชืื ืื ืืืืืืื โ ืืืฉืืื ืืฆืืคืื ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืชื ืืืืืชื ืืชื ืืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืืจ ืขืจืื ืชืื ืื ืืืืืืื โ ืืืฉืืื ืืฆืืคืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/matriculation-exams-final-projects/matriculation-exams-final-projects/] | [TOKENS: 2207] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืืจืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืืืืง ืืืืืืฉืืช ืืืชืืงืฉืช ืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืฉืืจืชืืื, ืืืชืื ืจืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืืชืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืขืชื, ืืฉื ื"ื ืชืฉืค"ื ืืืื, ืืฉืื ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืชืืืื ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืขืฉืืื ืืืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืืง ืืืคืจืืืจืื ืืงืืืขืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืคืืช (ืืืกืืจืช ื30%) ืฉื ืืชืืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืจืืช. ืฉืืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืจืชืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืขืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืขืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืขืช. ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฉืืืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืฆืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืืื ืืืืขืืื. ืืืงืืืื ืืืืงื ืืขื ื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืงื ืืขื ื ืืฉื ืช ืืืืืืืื ืชืฉืค"ื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืขืืงืจืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืขื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืฉืจ. ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืขื ื ืืืืื ืืชืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืคืจื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืช, ืขืจืืืช ืืืืกืจืืช, ืืืื ืชื ืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืขื ืฉืืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืื.ืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืงืฃ ืืช ืืืืขืืชืื ืืืงืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืื. ืคืืืขื ืืืืืจื ืืงื ื ืืชืจืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืืืืื, ืืืฉืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืขื ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืืจืชืืช ืืขืจืื ืืืืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืกืืืช ืืกืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืฉื ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืืืื.ืืืฉืืืืช ืืจืื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืช ืื ืืื ืื, ืืช ืฆืืืชื ืืืื ืื โ ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื, ืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื โ ืืื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืคืงืืื.ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืชืขืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืชืขืืืืช ืืืกืืื, ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ื ืืจืฉืื ืื ืื ืขื ืชืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืขืจืื ืขื ืืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืชืงืื ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืข ืืช ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืื ื"ื ืื ืืืืง ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืฉื ืืงืจื ืชืืืืืืื. ืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืฉืช ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืชืืืื ืฉืฆืืจ ืืช ืืืืข ืืืจืืฉ ืืงืจืืช ืืืื ืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืขืืชืื ืืืช ืืงืืืืชื ืืชืืื ืืืขืช. ืืฉื ืื ืืืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืขืจืื ืืืชืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืฆืจืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืกืคืง ืืขื ื ืืงืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขื-ืคื, ืืงืจืืช ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืืืฃ ืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจืืช ืืืืืืืช: ืืืชื ืืืืื, ืืืชื ืืชืืืืืื ืืขืื. ืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืคืืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืืจื ืืงืฆืจื ื... ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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