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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/kindergarten/magar-ganey-yeladim/] | [TOKENS: 399]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืื’ืจ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ืื™ืชื•ืจ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืื™ืชื•ืจ ื›ืœ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื’ื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื•ืžืขื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืงืฆืจื” ืœ... ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Television_news_in_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 1451]
Editing Template:Television news in the United States Copy and paste: โ€“ โ€” ยฐ โ€ฒ โ€ณ โ‰ˆ โ‰  โ‰ค โ‰ฅ ยฑ โˆ’ ร— รท โ† โ†’ ยท ยง Sign your posts on talk pages: ~~~~ Cite your sources: <ref></ref> {{}} {{{}}} | [] [[]] [[Category:]] #REDIRECT [[]] &nbsp; <s></s> <sup></sup> <sub></sub> <code></code> <pre></pre> <blockquote></blockquote> <ref></ref> <ref name="" /> {{Reflist}} <references /> <includeonly></includeonly> <noinclude></noinclude> {{DEFAULTSORT:}} <nowiki></nowiki> <!-- --> <span class="plainlinks"></span> Symbols: ~ | ยก ยฟ โ€  โ€ก โ†” โ†‘ โ†“ โ€ข ยถ # โˆž โ€นโ€บ ยซยป ยค โ‚ณ เธฟ โ‚ต ยข โ‚ก โ‚ข $ โ‚ซ โ‚ฏ โ‚ฌ โ‚  โ‚ฃ ฦ’ โ‚ด โ‚ญ โ‚ค โ„ณ โ‚ฅ โ‚ฆ โ‚ง โ‚ฐ ยฃ แŸ› โ‚จ โ‚ช เงณ โ‚ฎ โ‚ฉ ยฅ โ™  โ™ฃ โ™ฅ โ™ฆ ๐„ซ โ™ญ โ™ฎ โ™ฏ ๐„ช ยฉ ยผ ยฝ ยพ Latin: A a ร รก ร€ ร  ร‚ รข ร„ รค ว วŽ ฤ‚ ฤƒ ฤ€ ฤ รƒ รฃ ร… รฅ ฤ„ ฤ… ร† รฆ วข วฃ B b C c ฤ† ฤ‡ ฤŠ ฤ‹ ฤˆ ฤ‰ ฤŒ ฤ ร‡ รง D d ฤŽ ฤ ฤ ฤ‘ แธŒ แธ ร รฐ E e ร‰ รฉ รˆ รจ ฤ– ฤ— รŠ รช ร‹ รซ ฤš ฤ› ฤ” ฤ• ฤ’ ฤ“ แบผ แบฝ ฤ˜ ฤ™ แบธ แบน ฦ ษ› ฦŽ ว ฦ ษ™ F f G g ฤ  ฤก ฤœ ฤ ฤž ฤŸ ฤข ฤฃ H h ฤค ฤฅ ฤฆ ฤง แธค แธฅ I i ฤฐ ฤฑ ร รญ รŒ รฌ รŽ รฎ ร รฏ ว ว ฤฌ ฤญ ฤช ฤซ ฤจ ฤฉ ฤฎ ฤฏ แปŠ แป‹ J j ฤด ฤต K k ฤถ ฤท L l ฤน ฤบ ฤฟ ล€ ฤฝ ฤพ ฤป ฤผ ล ล‚ แธถ แธท แธธ แธน M m แน‚ แนƒ N n ลƒ ล„ ล‡ ลˆ ร‘ รฑ ล… ล† แน† แน‡ ลŠ ล‹ O o ร“ รณ ร’ รฒ ร” รด ร– รถ ว‘ ว’ ลŽ ล ลŒ ล ร• รต วช วซ แปŒ แป ล ล‘ ร˜ รธ ล’ ล“ ฦ† ษ” P p Q q R r ล” ล• ล˜ ล™ ล– ล— แนš แน› แนœ แน S s ลš ล› ลœ ล ล  ลก ลž ลŸ ศ˜ ศ™ แนข แนฃ รŸ T t ลค ลฅ ลข ลฃ ศš ศ› แนฌ แนญ รž รพ U u รš รบ ร™ รน ร› รป รœ รผ ว“ ว” ลฌ ลญ ลช ลซ ลจ ลฉ ลฎ ลฏ ลฒ ลณ แปค แปฅ ลฐ ลฑ ว— ว˜ ว› วœ ว™ วš ว• ว– V v W w ลด ลต X x Y y ร รฝ ลถ ลท ลธ รฟ แปธ แปน ศฒ ศณ Z z ลน ลบ ลป ลผ ลฝ ลพ รŸ ร รฐ รž รพ ลŠ ล‹ ฦ ษ™ Greek: ฮ† ฮฌ ฮˆ ฮญ ฮ‰ ฮฎ ฮŠ ฮฏ ฮŒ ฯŒ ฮŽ ฯ ฮ ฯŽ ฮ‘ ฮฑ ฮ’ ฮฒ ฮ“ ฮณ ฮ” ฮด ฮ• ฮต ฮ– ฮถ ฮ— ฮท ฮ˜ ฮธ ฮ™ ฮน ฮš ฮบ ฮ› ฮป ฮœ ฮผ ฮ ฮฝ ฮž ฮพ ฮŸ ฮฟ ฮ  ฯ€ ฮก ฯ ฮฃ ฯƒ ฯ‚ ฮค ฯ„ ฮฅ ฯ… ฮฆ ฯ† ฮง ฯ‡ ฮจ ฯˆ ฮฉ ฯ‰ {{Polytonic|}} Cyrillic: ะ ะฐ ะ‘ ะฑ ะ’ ะฒ ะ“ ะณ า า‘ ะƒ ั“ ะ” ะด ะ‚ ั’ ะ• ะต ะ ั‘ ะ„ ั” ะ– ะถ ะ— ะท ะ… ั• ะ˜ ะธ ะ† ั– ะ‡ ั— ะ™ ะน ะˆ ั˜ ะš ะบ ะŒ ัœ ะ› ะป ะ‰ ั™ ะœ ะผ ะ ะฝ ะŠ ัš ะž ะพ ะŸ ะฟ ะ  ั€ ะก ั ะข ั‚ ะ‹ ั› ะฃ ัƒ ะŽ ัž ะค ั„ ะฅ ั… ะฆ ั† ะง ั‡ ะ ัŸ ะจ ัˆ ะฉ ั‰ ะช ัŠ ะซ ั‹ ะฌ ัŒ ะญ ั ะฎ ัŽ ะฏ ั ฬ IPA: tฬช dฬช สˆ ษ– ษŸ ษก ษข สก ส” ษธ ฮฒ ฮธ รฐ สƒ ส’ ษ• ส‘ ส‚ ส รง ส ษฃ ฯ‡ ส ฤง ส• สœ สข ษฆ ษฑ ษณ ษฒ ล‹ ษด ส‹ ษน ษป ษฐ ส™ โฑฑ ส€ ษพ ษฝ ษซ ษฌ ษฎ ษบ ษญ สŽ สŸ ษฅ ส ษง สผ ษ“ ษ— ส„ ษ  ส› ส˜ ว€ วƒ ว‚ ว ษจ ส‰ ษฏ ษช ส สŠ รธ ษ˜ ษต ษค ษ™ ษš ษ› ล“ ษœ ษ ษž สŒ ษ” รฆ ษ ษถ ษ‘ ษ’ สฐ สฑ สท สฒ ห  หค โฟ หก หˆ หŒ ห ห‘ ฬช {{IPA|}} Wikidata entities used in this page Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help):
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/kindergarten/recordings-stock/] | [TOKENS: 409]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืื’ืจ ื”ืงืœื˜ื•ืช ืื™ืชื•ืจ ื”ืงืœื˜ื” ืœืžื™ื“ืข ื ื•ืกืฃ ืื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืฉื™ื“ื•ืจื™ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื ืฉื™ื“ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœืš ื›ืœ ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื•ืช ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืื™ืชื•ืจ ื’ื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื•ืžืขื•ื ื•ืช ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/kindergarten/circle-of-the-year/] | [TOKENS: 1099]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ืฉื ื” ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื—ื’ ืคื•ืจื™ื ืžืชื‘ื˜ื ื‘ืฉืžื—ื” ื•ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื™ื” ืขืœ ื”ื ืก ื•ื”ื”ืฆืœื” ืฉืงืจื• ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ืื—ืฉื•ื•ืจื•ืฉ. ืกื™ืคื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื’ ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ืžืกื•ืคืจ ื‘ืžื’ื™ืœืช ืืกืชืจ. ื™ื•ื ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื”, ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ ื™ื•ื ื”ืึตื, ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื•ืืช ืžื—ื•ื™ื‘ื•ืชื ื•ืชืจื•ืžืชื ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ืœืชื ื”ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™. ื™ื•ื ื”ืžื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืœืื•ืžื™ ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื” ื‘-22 ื‘ืžืจืฅ. ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื™ื•ื ื”ืžื™ื ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืœื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžืฉืื‘ ื”ืžื™ื ืœืื ื•ืฉื•ืช. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœื ื”ืœ ืฉื™ื— ืขืœ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื, ืœืงื“ื ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ืงืจ ื•ื™ื•ื–ืžื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืฉืžื™ืจืช ื”ืžื™ื. ื™ื•ื ื”ืžื“ืข ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ ื‘ืชืืจื™ืš 14 ื‘ืžืจืฅ, ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ืœื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ืืœื‘ืจื˜ ืื™ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ, ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืื™ ืžื’ืœื” ืชื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื—ืกื•ืช.ื™ื•ื ื–ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื’ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”-ืคืื™ 3.14 ฯ€ ุชู…ุซู‘ู„ ุงู„ุนุงุฆู„ุฉ ุฑูƒูŠุฒุฉู‹ ุฃุณุงุณูŠู‘ุฉ ููŠ ุชุทูˆู‘ุฑ ุงู„ุทูู„ ุนุงุทููŠู‘ู‹ุง ูˆุงุฌุชู…ุงุนูŠู‘ู‹ุงุŒ ูƒู…ุง ูŠูˆูู‘ุฑ ูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุฃู… ูุฑุตุฉู‹ ู„ุบุฑุณ ุงู„ู‚ูŠู… ูˆุชุทูˆูŠุฑ ุงู„ู…ุนุฑูุฉ ูˆุงู„ู…ู‡ุงุฑุงุช ุงู„ู…ุชู†ูˆู‘ุนุฉ ู„ุฏู‰ ุงู„ุทูู„. ูˆู…ุน ุญู„ูˆู„ ูุตู„ ุงู„ุฑู‘ุจูŠุน ููŠ 21 ุขุฐุงุฑุŒ ูŠุญุชูู„ ุงู„ู…ุฌุชู…ุน ุงู„ุนุฑุจูŠู‘ ุจูŠูˆู… ุงู„ุฃู…ู‘ ูˆุฃุณุจูˆุน ุงู„ุนุงุฆู„ุฉ ื—ื’ื™ื ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื™ืžื™ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื ื‘ืœื•ื— ื”ืฉื ื” ื’ื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื•ืžืขื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืงืฆืจื” ืœ... ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/kindergarten/inclusion-integration/] | [TOKENS: 804]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืคืจื˜ ื”ื›ืœื” ื•ื”ืฉืชืœื‘ื•ืช ืœืฉื ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžื›ืจืขืช ืœื”ืžืฉืš ื—ื™ื™ื”ื. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื•, ืœืื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ืช, ืœืงืฉืจ ื”ืื™ืฉื™, ืœื”ืชื ืกื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ืœื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจื’ืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืจื‘ื” ืขืœ ื”ื™ืฉื’ื™ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืขืœ ื›ื™ืฉื•ืจื™ ื”ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœื”ื ื•ืขืœ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืชื ื”ืจื’ืฉื™ืช-ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช. ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืœื”ื›ืœื” ื•ื”ืฉืชืœื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืื’ืฃ ืขื•ืกืงืช ื‘ื›ืžื” ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื•ืžืขื ื™ื ืœืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™, ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื: ื”ื›ืœื” ื•ื”ืฉืชืœื‘ื•ืช, ืžื’"ืจื™ื โ€“ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื ืœื’ื™ืœ ื”ืจืš ื‘ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืฉืจื“ื™, ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืžืขื’ืŸ, ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืฆืื™ ืืชื™ื•ืคื™ื”, ื›ืœื™ ื”ืขืจื›ื” ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ื”ืจืš, ืืงืœื™ื ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™, ืฉื•ืชืคื•ืช ืขื ื”ื•ืจื™ื, ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื•ืžืขื‘ืจื™ื. ื’ื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื•ืžืขื•ื ื•ืช ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืงื•ื‘ืฅ:The_tripartite_meeting_between_Rivlin_Netanyahu_and_Gantz,_September_2019_(Haim_Zach_GPO_1).jpg] | [TOKENS: 592]
ืงื•ื‘ืฅ:The tripartite meeting between Rivlin Netanyahu and Gantz, September 2019 (Haim Zach GPO 1).jpg ืชืงืฆื™ืจ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชืžื•ื ื” ื–ื• ื ืžืกืจื” ื‘ืื“ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ื.Category:Pictures provided by the Spokesperson Unit of the President of Israel ืœื—ืฅ ื›ืืŸ ื‘ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื ืชืจืžื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื”ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ืœื›ืจื˜ื™ืก : https://ticket.wikimedia.org/otrs/index.pl?Action=AgentTicketZoom&TicketNumber=2020111510002401 Find other files from the same ticket: ืจื™ืฉื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืœื—ื•ืฅ ืขืœ ืชืืจื™ืš/ืฉืขื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื›ืคื™ ืฉื ืจืื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ. ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ื“ืคื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื”: ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ืืชืจื™ ื”ื•ื•ื™ืงื™ ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื”: ืžื˜ืึพื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื” ืžื›ื™ืœ ืžื™ื“ืข ื ื•ืกืฃ, ืฉื›ื ืจืื” ื”ื’ื™ืข ืžืžืฆืœืžื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ืื• ืžืกื•ืจืง ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื ื•ืฆืจ ืื• ืขื‘ืจ ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืฆื™ื”. ืื ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžืžืฆื‘ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™, ื›ืžื” ืžื”ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ืœื”ืœืŸ ืขืœื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœื ืœืฉืงืฃ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืœื ืืช ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื›ื ืกื™ื™ืช_ืกื ื˜_ืื ื“ืจื•ื–] | [TOKENS: 2511]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื›ื ืกื™ื™ืช ืื ื“ืจื• ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื›ื ืกื™ื™ืช ืื ื“ืจื• ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ (ืื ื’ืœื™ืช: St. Andrew's church), ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช "ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืกืงื•ื˜ื™ืช", ื ืžืฆืืช ืœื™ื“ ืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ื”ื—ืืŸ ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ ืขืœ ืžื•ืจื“ื•ืช ื’ื‘ืขืช ื”ืชื "ืš. ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“, ื•ื”ื™ื ื ื‘ื ืชื” ื›ืžื•ื ื•ืžื ื˜ ื”ื ืฆื—ื” ืœื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ื”ืกืงื•ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืฆื‘ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™, ื—ืœืœื™ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ืœื”ืงืžืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืชืงื‘ืœื” ืขื•ื“ ื‘-1917 ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื ื™ ื”ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื”ื“ืชื™ื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ืฉืคืขืœื• ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช ื‘ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“: The United Free Church, The Church of Scottland. ืชื›ื ืŸ ืืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืงืœื™ืคื•ืจื“ ื”ื•ืœื™ื“ื™ื™, ืžืžืชื›ื ื ื™ื” ื•ืžืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™. ื‘ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ืฉื•ืชืฃ ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ื–ื•ืœื˜ืŸ ืฉืžืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืจืžื˜, ืฉืขื‘ื“ ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ื• ื•ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืœืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืคื ื™ ืขืฆืžื•. ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื ื‘ื ืชื” ืขืœ ื”ื’ื‘ืขื” ืฉืžื•ืœ ื”ืจ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ, ืžืžืขืจื‘ ืœืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื“ื”ื™ื•ื. ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืงืจื•ื™ื” ืขืœ ืฉื ืคื˜ืจื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“, ืื ื“ืจื• ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ (ืื—ื“ ืžืฉื ื™ื-ืขืฉืจ ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืฉื•, ืื—ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืคื˜ืจื•ืก ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื• ื“ื™ื™ื’), ื•ื”ื™ื ื ื‘ื ืชื” ื‘ืฉื ื™ื 1927โ€“1930. ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืžื•ืงื“ืฉืช ืœื—ืœืœื™ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื” ื”-52, ืžืจื‘ื™ืชื ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื ืกืงื•ื˜ื™ื, ืฉื ื”ืจื’ื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ื. ืืช ืื‘ืŸ ื”ืคื™ื ื” ื”ื ื™ื— ื”ื’ื ืจืœ ืื“ืžื•ื ื“ ืืœื ื‘ื™ ื‘-1927. ื”ืžื™ืงื•ื ืฉื ื‘ื—ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”, ืืคืฉืจ ืงืฉืจ ืขื™ืŸ ืขื ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื•ื”ื™ื” ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช. ื”ืฉื˜ื— ื”ื™ื” ืฉื™ื™ืš ืขื•ื“ ืžื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ืœื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช, ืฉื”ืงื™ืžื” ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžื—ืœื•ืช ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืกื ื˜ ื’'ื•ืŸ (ื›ื™ื•ื ืžืœื•ืŸ ื”ืจ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ). ืคื˜ืจื™ืง ื’ื“ืก, ืฉื’ื ื”ื•ื ื ืžื ื” ืขื ืžืชื›ื ื ื™ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื”ื–ื™ื– ืืช ืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื“ืจื•ืžื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ืœื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื’ื‘ืขื” ืžืชื—ื ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™ ืœืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื ื•ืกืขื™ ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช, ืฉืื– ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืขืจ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืœืขื™ืจ, ืืœื ืฉืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื–ื• ืœื ื™ืฆืื” ืœืคื•ืขืœ. ืืฃ ื›ื™ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืžื•ืงื“ืฉืช ืœื ื•ืคืœื™ื ื‘ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ืœื ื ืคืงื“ ืžืงื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ืžืกื•ืจืช ืงื“ื•ืžื” ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื•ื‘ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ ื’ื ืืชืจ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืœืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืžืœืš ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“, ืฉืžืช ื‘-1329. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืฉืœืื—ืจ ืžื•ืชื• ื™ืขืงืจื• ืืช ืœื‘ื• ื•ื™ืงื‘ืจื•ื”ื• ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืื•ืœื ื”ืฉืœื™ื—, ืกืจ ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ื“ืื’ืœืก, ื ื”ืจื’ ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื”. ืœื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืœืš ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ื ืœืงื— ืžืฉื“ื” ื”ืงืจื‘ ืฉื‘ื• ื ื”ืจื’ ื“ืื’ืœืก ื•ื ืงื‘ืจ ื‘-Melrose Abbey ืฉื‘ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“. ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ืช ืžืฉืœื‘ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื•ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžื–ืจื—ื™ื™ื ื•ืžืขืจื‘ื™ื™ื: ืžื—ื“, ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื• ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ื”ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ื™ื ืœืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™, ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ืงื•ื•ื™ื ื™ืฉืจื™ื, ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช, ื•ื”ื™ืžื ืขื•ืช ืžืขื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื. ืžืื™ื“ืš, ื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื›ื™ืคื”, ืžืจืคืกื•ืช ืžืžืœื•ื›ื™ื•ืช ื•ืงืจืžื™ืงื” ืืจืžื ื™ืช, ืžืขืฉื” ื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื“ื•ื“ ืื•ื”ื ืกื™ืืŸ. ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื ื‘ื—ืจื” ืื‘ืŸ ืฉืกื•ืคื’ืช ื—ื–ื–ื™ื•ืช, ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื–ื• ืžืฉื—ื™ืจื” ืžื”ืจ ื•ืžืงื ื” ืœืžื‘ื ื” ื—ื–ื•ืช ืขืชื™ืงื” ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืžื•ื ื•ืžื ื˜ ื”ื ืฆื—ื” ืœื—ืœืœื™ ื”ืฆื‘ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™, ืงื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื’ื ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื ื ืœืœื—ื™ืžื” ืฉื ื™ื”ืœ ื”ืฆื‘ื ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืฉื ื™ ื›ืœื‘ื™ ื’ื™ืฉื•ืฉ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ื. ื”ืืงื•ืกื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืื•ืชื” ืœืื—ื“ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืœื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื: ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื” ืœืจื•ื‘ ื”ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ืงืœืกื™ื™ื, ืงืืžืจื™ื™ื ื•ืžืงื”ืœื•ืช ืืงืคืœื”. ื”ืžืชื—ื ื›ื•ืœืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืืจื—ื” ื•ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื”, ืฉืžื’ื“ืœ ืžืคืจื™ื“ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื. ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื”ืืจื—ื” ืคื•ืขืœ ื’ื ื‘ื™ืช ืงืคื” ืœืจื•ื•ื—ืช ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื. ืžืŸ ื”ืžื“ืจื’ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื•ืช ืืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื›ืชืฃ ื”ื™ื ื•ื, ื‘ื”ืŸ ื ืžืฆืื” ืœื•ื—ื™ืช ื‘ืจื›ืช ื›ื”ื ื™ื. ืจืื• ื’ื ืœืงืจื™ืื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื”ืžืคืœื’ื”_ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช] | [TOKENS: 7749]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช (ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช: Democratic Party) ื”ื™ื ืื—ืช ืžืฉืชื™ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืืคื™ื•ืŸ ืžืฆืขื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื”ืขื›ืฉื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื‘ืžื™ืฉื•ืจ ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืจื›ื–-ืฉืžืืœ ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืžืชื—ืจื” ื‘ื”, ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช. ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื” ืœืื—ืจ ืคื™ืœื•ื’ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช-ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช ืฉื™ื™ืกื“ ืชื•ืžืืก ื’'ืคืจืกื•ืŸ ื‘-1794, ืขืงื‘ ื—ื™ืœื•ืงื™ ื”ื“ืขื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื‘ื“ื•ืช. ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื ื•ืฆืจื• ื‘-1828, ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ืคืš ืื•ืชื” ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืคืขื™ืœื” ื”ื•ื•ืชื™ืงื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื. ื ืฉื™ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžื˜ืขื ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื”ึพ7 ืื ื“ืจื• ื’'ืงืกื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื”ึพ46 ื’'ื• ื‘ื™ื™ื“ืŸ. ื›ื™ื•ื, ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืžืฆืข ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื• ืขืœ ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืžืชื•ื ื” ื•ืžืกื•ื™ื’ืช ื‘ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื, ืฉื›ื•ืœืœืช, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ, ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™, ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ื–ื ืื• ื‘ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœ-ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” (ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ืคืœื’ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื). ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืฆืขื” ื›ื•ืœืœื™ื ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืื™ื’ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ื™ื, ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื ื•ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ื™ื, ืจืคื•ืจืžื” ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ืื›ื™ืคืช ื”ื—ื•ืง, ื”ืคืจื“ืช ื“ืช ื•ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืจื‘-ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ื•ืช, ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื•ืžืื‘ืง ื‘ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืืงืœื™ื, ืจืคื•ืจืžื” ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื›ืš ืฉืชื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ("ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ืช"), ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™, ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืชืŸ ืฉืœ ื ืฉื™ื ืœื‘ืฆืข ื”ืคืœื•ืช, ืคื™ืงื•ื— ื ื•ืงืฉื” ืื• ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืœืžื›ืจ ื›ืœื™ ื ืฉืง ืœืื–ืจื—ื™ื”, ื•ื‘ืขื“ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื˜"ื‘. ืกืžืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื‘-19 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1870 ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ืงืจื™ืงื˜ื•ืจื” ื‘ืžื’ื–ื™ืŸ "ื”ืืจืคืจ'ืก ื•ื™ืงืœื™" ืฉื›ื•ืชืจืชื” "ื—ืžื•ืจ ื—ื™ ื”ื‘ื•ืขื˜ ื‘ืืจื™ื” ืžืช". ืงืจื™ืงื˜ื•ืจื” ื–ื•, ืฉืฆื•ื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžืื™ื™ืจ ืชื•ืžืืก ื ืืกื˜, ื”ืฆื™ื’ื” ืืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื‘ื“ืžื•ืช ื—ืžื•ืจ. ืžืื– ืžืฉืžืฉ ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื›ืกืžืœ ื ืคื•ืฅ ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช, ืืš ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืคื™ืœ ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช, ืจืง ื‘ึพ2025 ืื•ืžืฅ ื”ื—ืžื•ืจ ื›ืกืžืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ืคืจืกื•ืžื™ื” ื”ืจืฉืžื™ื™ื. ืžืื– ืœื™ืœ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘-2000 ื”ืฆื‘ืข ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœ ื”ื•ื ื–ื” ื”ืžื–ื•ื”ื” ืขื ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช. ื–ืืช ืœืขื•ืžืช ืจื•ื‘ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื”ืŸ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืžื–ื•ื”ื” ืขื ื”ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื“ื•ื•ืงื. ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื ื” ืœืื•ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืžืฆืข ื”ืžืคืœื’ืชื™ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20. ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื ืงืจื "ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช", ืื• DNC (ืจืืฉื™ ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœึพDemocratic National Committee). ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ืื—ืจืื™ืช ืœืคื™ืชื•ื— ื•ืงื™ื“ื•ื ืžืฆืข ื”ืžืคืœื’ื”, ื•ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ืื—ืจืื™ืช ืœื’ื™ื•ืก ื›ืกืคื™ื ื•ืœืงืžืคื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช. ื•ืขื“ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžื—ื•ื–ื•ืช. ื™ืฉื ื” ื•ืขื“ื” ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช ืžืงื‘ื™ืœื”, ื”ื ืงืจืืช RNC. ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ื™ืฉ ื•ืขื“ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืฉืชืคืงื™ื“ืŸ ื“ื•ืžื”, ืฉืขื•ืกืงื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืกื ืื˜, ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื, ืœืชืคืงื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืœื ืฆื™ื’ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื” ื‘ืฉื "ื”ืกื™ืขื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช-ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช" ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช-ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช, ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื ื“ืจื• ื’'ืงืกื•ืŸ. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืคืกื™ื“ ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 1824 ืขืœ ืืฃ ืฉื–ื›ื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืช, ืฉืืฃ ื’'ืงืกื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืงื•ืืœื™ืฆื™ื” ื—ื–ืงื” ื“ื™ื” ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื ืฆื— ืืช ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื’'ื•ืŸ ืงื•ื•ื™ื ืกื™ ืื“ืžืก ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 1828. ืงื•ืืœื™ืฆื™ื” ื–ื• ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ืืช ื‘ืกื™ืกื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ื ื•. ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืชืคื•ืจืจื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช, ื ื•ืชืจื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช-ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื ืฉื™ืื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื ื“ืจื• ื’'ืงืกื•ืŸ ื”ืชืขืจืขืจื” ืื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื”, ื›ืฉืชื•ืžื›ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื’'ืงืกื•ืŸ ื™ื™ืกื“ื• ืืช ื”ืกื™ืขื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช-ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช, ื›ืฉืžื•ืœื ื”"ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื" ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืช ื’'ื•ืŸ ืงื•ื•ื™ื ืกื™ ืื“ืžืก. ืฉืžื ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื-ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื ืงื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ืžื˜ืขืžื™ ื ื•ื—ื•ืช ืœ"ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื™ื". ืž-1833 ืขื“ 1856, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื•ื•ื™ื’ื™ืช ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ืœื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื, ื•ื”ื—ืœ ืž-1856 ื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช ืœืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-50 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19, ื•ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืคื•ืจืจื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื•ื•ื™ื’ื™ืช, ื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืกื™ืขื” ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื–ื•ื”ื” ืขื ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืขื‘ื“ื•ืช, ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืขืžื“ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช ื ื’ื“ ื”ืขื‘ื“ื•ืช. ื”ืกื™ืขื” ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื” ืœื›ืš ื‘ืชื•ืงืฃ. ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ื‘ื™ื•ืงื ืŸ ื ื˜ื” ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืขืžื“ื” ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ืกื™ื™ืข ื‘ื”ื˜ื™ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ ื“ืจื“ ืกืงื•ื˜ ืœืชืช ืคืกื™ืงื” ื”ืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ืขื‘ื“ื•ืช ืœื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืคืกืง ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื™ืฆืจ ืคื™ืœื•ื’ ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื•ื›ืš ื”ืขืžื™ื“ื• ืฉืชื™ ื”ืกื™ืขื•ืช ืฉื ื™ ืžื•ืขืžื“ื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 1860. ืคื™ืœื•ื’ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืงืจื™ืกืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื”, ื•ื”ื™ื” ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืขืžื“ ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ ืื‘ืจื”ื ืœื™ื ืงื•ืœืŸ ื•ืœืคืจื™ืฉืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื“ืจื•ื ื•ืœืคืจื™ืฆืช ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ืช. ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ื™ื• ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ืžืคืœื’ื” ื—ืœืฉื” ื•ืžืคื•ืœื’ืช. ื—ืœืง ืžื•ื•ืชื™ืงื™ ื”ืกื™ืขื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื™ื™ืกื“ื• ืืช ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืงื• ืงืœืงืก ืงืœืืŸ ืฉืžื˜ืจืชื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื—ื‘ืœ ื‘ืฉืœื™ื˜ืช ื”ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื”ืžื ืฆื— ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ื”ื›ื‘ื•ืฉ ื•ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืื™ืžื” ืขืœ ื”ืขื‘ื“ื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื–ื” ืขืชื” ืฉื•ื—ืจืจื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืกื“ืจืช ืคื™ื’ื•ืขื™ื ื•ืจืฆื— ืฉืœ ืืœืคื™ ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื, ื ืžื—ืฅ ื”ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคืขื•ืœื” ื ืžืจืฆืช ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ืœื™ืกืก ื’ืจื ื˜. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš, ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ืœื’ืจื•ืฃ ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืžืกืคืงืช ื•ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื’ืจื•ื‘ืจ ืงืœื™ื‘ืœื ื“ ืœืฉืชื™ ืงื“ื ืฆื™ื•ืช ืœื ืจืฆื•ืคื•ืช ื›ื ืฉื™ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 1896 ื”ืคืกื™ื“ ื”ืžื•ืขืžื“ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ื’'ื ื™ื ื’ืก ื‘ืจื™ื™ืืŸ ืœื•ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ืžืงื™ื ืœื™, ื•ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื ื•ืชืจื• ื‘ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื‘ืžืฉืš 16 ืฉื ื” ืขื“ ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ืชื•ืžืืก ื•ื•ื“ืจื• ื•ื™ืœืกื•ืŸ ื‘-1912. ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื ื–ื›ื• ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื ืฉื™ืื•ืช ื‘-1920 ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ Laissez Faire, ืืš ืงืจื™ืกืช ื”ื‘ื•ืจืกื” ื‘-24 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1929 ื•"ื”ืฉืคืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ" ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ืคืจื ืงืœื™ืŸ ื“ืœืื ื• ืจื•ื–ื•ื•ืœื˜ ื•ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ื™ื• ื“ื™ืœ ืฉืœื• ื‘-1932. ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื”"ื ื™ื• ื“ื™ืœ", ืฉื”ืชืžืงื“ื” ื‘ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื•ืกื™ื•ืข ื›ืœื›ืœื™, ื™ืฆืจื” ืงื•ืืœื™ืฆื™ื” ืฉืœ ืื™ื’ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ื™ื, ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™, ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ื, ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ื™ื (ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ืงืชื•ืœื™ื) ื•ืœื‘ื ื™ื ืžื”ื“ืจื•ื. ืงื•ืืœื™ืฆื™ื” ื–ื• - "ืงื•ืืœื™ืฆื™ื™ืช ื”ื ื™ื• ื“ื™ืœ" - ืกื™ื™ืขื” ืœืจื•ื–ื•ื•ืœื˜ ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื‘ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืš ืืจื‘ืข ืงื“ื ืฆื™ื•ืช, ืขื“ ืœืฉืœื”ื™ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”, ื•ืขื ืงื“ื ืฆื™ื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืฉืœ ื”ืืจื™ ื˜ืจื•ืžืŸ ื”ื•ืฉืœืžื• ืขืฉืจื™ื ืฉื ื™ื ืจืฆื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื ืฉื™ืื™ื ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื. ืืš ื”ื™ืฉื’ ื–ื” ืœื ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื•; ืžืชื•ื ื›ื”ื•ื ืชื• ืฉืœ ื˜ืจื•ืžืŸ ื‘ืฉื ืช 1953 ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ื ืฉื™ืื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื•ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ืื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืกื™ืจื•ื’ื™ืŸ (ืฉื™ืฉื” ื ืฉื™ืื™ื ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ืžื•ืœ ืฉื‘ืขื” ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื, ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืฉื ืช 2021) ื•ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ืœื ื”ื—ื–ื™ืงื• ื‘ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืœื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืชื™ ืงื“ื ืฆื™ื•ืช ืจืฆื•ืคื•ืช. ืขื ื–ืืช, ืœื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ื” ืจื•ื‘ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืš ืืจื‘ืขื™ื ืฉื ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื 1954โ€“1994. ื”ื—ืœ ืž-1994 ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ืขื•ื‘ืจืช ื’ื ื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช, ืขื ื“ื•ืžื™ื ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืœืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื. ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœืื™ื“ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื’ื ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืฉืœ ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื–ืจื— ืœื”ื›ืจื” ื‘ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ื™ื ื•ื‘ื–ื”ื•ื™ื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืฆืชื™ื•ืช. ืืคืจื•-ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื, ืฉื”ืฆื‘ื™ืขื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช ืฉื”ืชื ื’ื“ื” ืœืขื‘ื“ื•ืช, ืขื‘ืจื• ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืœื ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืื‘ืง ืœืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-60 ื•ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฉื™ืื™ื ื’'ื•ืŸ ืงื ื“ื™ ื•ืœื™ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื’'ื•ื ืกื•ืŸ (ืจืื• ืžืื‘ืง ื”ืืคืจื•-ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ืœืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช). ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ืœื‘ื ื™ื ืžื”ื“ืจื•ื ืขื‘ืจื• ืžื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ืœืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช. ื ื™ืงืกื•ืŸ ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ ืืช ื’'ื•ื ืกื•ืŸ, ื›ืฉืงื•ืืœื™ืฆื™ื™ืช ื”ื ื™ื• ื“ื™ืœ ืฉืฉืœื˜ื” ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ื•ืฉืฉ ืฉื ื” ื”ืชืคืจืงื”. ืกื’ื ื• ื’'ืจืœื“ ืคื•ืจื“, ืืฉืจ ื”ื—ืœื™ืคื• ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืฉืช ื•ื•ื˜ืจื’ื™ื™ื˜ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื›ื”ื•ื ืชื• ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”, ื ื›ืฉืœ ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ 1976 ื‘ื”ืŸ ื–ื›ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ ื’'ื™ืžื™ ืงืจื˜ืจ, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื’ืจื•ืฃ ืืช ืงื•ืœื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื“ืจื•ื. ืื•ืœื ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ื ื™ื ื—ื–ืจื• ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื ืœื–ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื ืฉื™ืื•ืช. ื‘ื™ืœ ืงืœื™ื ื˜ื•ืŸ ื›ื™ื”ืŸ ื›ื ืฉื™ื ืœืžืฉืš ืฉืชื™ ืงื“ื ืฆื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื 1993โ€“2001. ื ืžื ื” ืื™ื“ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืขื "ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื"(ืื '), ื•ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœื• ื–ื•ื”ื• ืขื ื”ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื•ืขื ื“ืจืš ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช. ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ื•ื’ื“ืจ ื›ื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื”ืชื•ืžืš ืื• ืชื•ืžืš ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ืื• ื ืื•-ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช. ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื ืชืคืกื• ื›ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ืชื•ืš ืฉื”ื ืžืชื•ื ื™ื ืื• ืฉืžืจื ื™ื™ื ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืคื™ืกืงืœื™ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื. ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉืœื˜ื• ื‘ืžืคืœื’ื” ืžืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ื ื™ื. ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 2000 ื”ืคืกื™ื“ ื”ืžื•ืขืžื“ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ ืืœ ื’ื•ืจ ื‘ืคืขืจ ื–ืขื•ื ืœืžื•ืขืžื“ ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ ื’'ื•ืจื’' ื•ื•ืงืจ ื‘ื•ืฉ. ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื˜ืขื ื• ื›ื™ ื”ื”ืคืกื“ ื ื’ืจื ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื‘ืœื‘ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื—ืœืง ืžืŸ ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื˜ื•ืคืกื™ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช, ื•ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ืืฉื™ืžื• ืืช ืžืคืœื’ืช ื”ื™ืจื•ืงื™ื ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ืช ื•ืžื•ืขืžื“ื ืœื ืฉื™ืื•ืช ืจืืœืฃ ื ื™ื™ื“ืจ ื‘ืื•ื‘ื“ืŸ ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื ื—ื•ืฆื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2004 ื‘ื—ืจื• ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ืืช ื’'ื•ืŸ ืงืจื™ - ืกื ืื˜ื•ืจ ืžืžืกืฆ'ื•ืกื˜ืก - ื›ืžื•ืขืžื“ ืœื ืฉื™ืื•ืช, ื•ื ืงื˜ื• ื‘ืงื• ืื ื˜ื™ ืžืœื—ืžืชื™ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžืœื—ืžืช ืขื™ืจืืง. ืขืœ ืืฃ ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื• ืฉืœ ืงืจื™ ื‘ืกืงืจื™ื, ื”ื•ื ื”ืคืกื™ื“ ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื’'ื•ืจื’' ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ื‘ืŸ ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœืงื“ื ืฆื™ื” ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื›ื ืฉื™ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. (ืจืื• ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืงื“ื™ืžื•ืช ืœื ืฉื™ืื•ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช 2004). ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืžืฆืข ื”ื›ื”ื•ื ื” ื‘-2006 ื–ื›ืชื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืœืจื•ื‘ ืžื•ื—ืฅ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืกื ืื˜ ื•ืœืจืืฉ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ืžื•ื ืชื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืื™ืฉื”, ื ื ืกื™ ืคืœื•ืกื™. ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 2008, ืขื ื‘ืจืง ืื•ื‘ืžื” ื›ืžื•ืขืžื“ ืœื ืฉื™ืื•ืช, ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืืช ื”ืจื•ื‘ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืกื ืื˜ ื•ื–ื›ืชื” ื’ื ื‘ื ืฉื™ืื•ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2010 ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืืžืฆืข ื”ื›ื”ื•ื ื” ืกืคื’ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืžืคืœื” ื›ืืฉืจ ื ื‘ื—ืจื• ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ืงื•ืœื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื, ืืš ืฉืžืจื” ืขืœ ืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืกื ืื˜. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2014 ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืืžืฆืข ืื™ื‘ื“ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืืช ื”ืจื•ื‘ ื’ื ื‘ืกื ืื˜, ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื‘ืชื™ ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2016, ืœืื—ืจ ืกื™ื•ื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืื™ื‘ื“ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืืช ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืžื•ืขืžื“ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช, ื“ื•ื ืœื“ ื˜ืจืืžืค, ื•ื’ื ื ืฉืืจื” ืžืคืœื’ืช ื”ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ื‘ืกื ืื˜ ื•ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™. ืœืื—ืจ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 2018 ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ืœืขืฆืžื” ืืช ื”ืจื•ื‘ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2020, ืœืื—ืจ ืกื™ื•ื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืœื ืฉื™ืื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื–ื›ืชื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื‘ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืœืื—ืจ ื ื™ืฆื—ื•ืŸ ืžื•ืขืžื“ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื”, ื’'ื• ื‘ื™ื™ื“ืŸ. ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 2020 ื–ื›ืชื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื’ื ื‘ืกื ืื˜. ื•ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ืืช ื”ืจื•ื‘ ืฉืœื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื. ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื™ืจื™ื‘ื™ื”ื ืžื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื ื™ืช, ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื›ืชื•ืžื›ืช ื‘ื ืื•-ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืชื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืจื’ื•ืœืฆื™ื” ืžืขื˜ื” ืขืœ ืขืกืงื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื•ืžื•ื ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื. ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืœื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื• ื’ื‘ืจื” ืœืงืจืืช ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-21. ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช 2022 ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืืช ื›ื•ื—ื” ื‘ืกื ืื˜ ื•ืื™ื‘ื“ื” ืืช ื”ืจื•ื‘ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2024 ื ื—ืœื” ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืคืกื“ ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืคืกื™ื“ื” ื’ื ืืช ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืฉืœื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ื•ื’ื ื‘ืกื ืื˜ ื•ื ืฉืืจื” ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื. ื ืฉื™ืื™ื ืžื˜ืขื ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช 16 ืžืชื•ืš 46 ื ืฉื™ืื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื›ื™ื”ื ื• ืžื˜ืขื ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช. ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896] | [TOKENS: 626]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื 1896 ืฉื ืช 1896 ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉื ื” ื”-96 ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19. ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืฉื ื” ืžืขื•ื‘ืจืช, ืฉืื•ืจื›ื” 366 ื™ืžื™ื. 1 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1896 ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ืžืงื“ื™ื ืืช 1 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ ื‘-12 ื™ืžื™ื. ื›ืœ ื”ืชืืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉืœื”ืœืŸ ื”ื ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™. ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื ื•ืœื“ื• ื ืคื˜ืจื• ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ืœื”ืœืŸ ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ โ€“ ืขื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ืขื ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื. ื—ื’ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื: Nothing. ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ื ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ืื– ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™, ืฉื ืช 1896 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื›"ื– ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช ื”'ืชืจื "ื• (ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ื—ืœื” 12 ื™ืžื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘-ื˜"ื• ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช). ืื•ืจื›ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ื” ื–ื• ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ 366 ื™ืžื™ื - ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ. ืœื”ืœืŸ ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ - ืขื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ืขื ื—ื’ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื: Nothing. ืจืื• ื’ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื 1891 โ€ข 1892 โ€ข 1893 โ€ข 1894 โ€ข 1895 โ€ข 1896 โ€ข 1897 โ€ข 1898 โ€ข 1899 โ€ข 1900 โ€ข 1901
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS_News] | [TOKENS: 5225]
Contents PBS News Hour PBS News Hour is an American daily evening television news program broadcast on over 350 PBS member stations since October 20, 1975. Previously stylized as PBS NewsHour, the nightly broadcast is known for its in-depth coverage of important issues and current events. The hourlong weekday editions have been anchored by Amna Nawaz and Geoff Bennett since January 2, 2023. The half-hour PBS News Weekend editions were anchored by John Yang from December 31, 2022 to January 11, 2026. Broadcasts are produced by PBS member station WETA-TV in Washington, D.C., from its studio facilities in Arlington, Virginia. From 2019 to 2025, news updates inserted into the weekday broadcasts targeted viewers in the Western United States and online have been anchored by Stephanie Sy, originating from the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication at Arizona State University. Additional production facilities for the program are based in San Francisco and Denver. The program is a collaboration between WETA-TV and PBS member station WNET in New York City, along with KQED in San Francisco, KETC in St. Louis, and WTTW in Chicago. The program debuted in 1975 as The Robert MacNeil Report before being renamed The MacNeil/Lehrer Report one year later. It was anchored by Robert MacNeil from WNET's studios and Jim Lehrer from WETA's studios. In 1983, the show was rebranded as The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, and then The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer following MacNeil's departure in 1995. It was then renamed to its current PBS NewsHour title in 2009, two years before Lehrer left in 2011. Originally, the program only aired on weekdays before weekend editions began in 2013. Production of the weekend broadcasts were solely produced by WNET, before the New York City station transferred all of its PBS NewsHour involvement to WETA in April 2022. History In September 1981, production of the program was taken over by MacNeil/Lehrer Productions, a partnership between Robert MacNeil, Jim Lehrer, and Gannett; the latter sold its stake in the production company in 1986. John C. Malone's Liberty Media bought a 67% controlling equity stake in MacNeil/Lehrer Productions in 1994, but MacNeil and Lehrer retained editorial control. In 2014, MacNeil/Lehrer Productions, owned by MacNeil, Lehrer, and Liberty Media announced its donation, as NewsHour Productions LLC, to WETA-TV as a nonprofit subsidiary. In 1973, Robert MacNeil (a former NBC News correspondent and then-moderator of PBS's Washington Week in Review) and Jim Lehrer teamed up to cover the United States Senate's Watergate hearings for PBS. They earned an Emmy Award for their unprecedented gavel-to-gavel coverage. This recognition led to the creation of The Robert MacNeil Report, a half-hour local news program on WNET, which debuted on October 20, 1975; each episode of the program covered a single issue in depth. On December 1, 1975, the program began to air on PBS stations nationwide. It was renamed The MacNeil/Lehrer Report on September 6, 1976. Most editions employed a two-anchor, two-city format, with MacNeil based in New York City and Lehrer at WETA's studios in Arlington, Virginia. Charlayne Hunter-Gault joined the series as a correspondent in 1977, serving as a substitute host for MacNeil and Lehrer whenever either had the night off. She became the series' national correspondent in 1983. Having decided to start competing with the nightly news programs on ABC, CBS and NBC instead of complementing them, the program expanded to one hour on September 5, 1983, incorporating other changes, such as the introduction of "documentary reportage from the field"; it became known at that time as The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour. Lester Crystal was its founding executive producer. MacNeil/Lehrer Productions twice planned to launch late-night newscasts in 1995 and 1999; in both instances, the proposed expansionsโ€”which, respectively, were to have involved production and newsgathering partnerships with Wall Street Journal Television and The New York Timesโ€”were canceled mid-development. MacNeil retired from the program on October 20, 1995, leaving Lehrer as the sole anchor. Accordingly, the program was renamed The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer on October 23. (Hunter-Gault left in June 1997.) On January 16, 1996, The NewsHour announced the creation of its official website at PBS Online. The NewsHour won a Peabody Award in 2003 for the feature report Jobless Recovery: Non-Working Numbers. On May 17, 1999, The NewsHour adopted a new graphics package with refreshed music from 1983, plus the new studio with a blue globe in the middle. On October 4, 1999, Gwen Ifill and Ray Suarez joined The NewsHour team as new correspondents. Ifill was a female anchor of a national nightly news program on broadcast television. Effective January 17, 2000, The NewsHour added "America Online Keyword: PBS" to its ending screen for a three-year agreement through April 22, 2003. For only the website, the program took effect on April 23, 2003. On March 3, 2003, the program added dates from the 1999 graphics in the beginning. On November 17, 2003, The NewsHour added music in the beginning with dates. On May 17, 2006, the program underwent its first major change in presentation in years, adopting a new graphics package and a reorchestrated version of its theme music (originally composed by Bernard Hoffer). On December 17, 2007, the NewsHour became the second nightly broadcast network newscast to begin broadcasting in high definition (after NBC Nightly News on March 26, 2007), with broadcasts in a letterboxed format for viewers with standard-definition television sets watching via either cable or satellite television. The program also introduced a new set and converted its graphics package to HD. On May 11, 2009, PBS announced that the program would be revamped on December 7 of that year under a revised title, the PBS NewsHour. In addition to increased integration between the NewsHour website and nightly broadcast, the updated production returned to a two-anchor format. Lehrer described the overhaul as the first phase in his move toward retirement. On September 27, 2010, PBS NewsHour was presented with the Chairman's Award at the 31st News & Documentary Emmy Awards, with MacNeil, Lehrer, Crystal, and former executive producer Linda Winslow receiving the award on the show's behalf. Lehrer formally ended his tenure as a regular anchor of the program on June 6, 2011. He continued to occasionally anchor on Fridays, when he usually led the political analysis segment with syndicated columnist Mark Shields and The New York Times columnist David Brooks, until December 30, 2011. PBS NewsHour continues with various anchors until September 6, 2013. On August 6, 2013, Gwen Ifill and Judy Woodruff were named co-anchors and co-managing editors of the NewsHour. They shared anchor duties on the Monday through Thursday editions, with Woodruff anchoring solo on Fridays due to Ifill's duties as host of the political discussion program Washington Week, which was also produced Friday evenings. For much of its history, the PBS NewsHour aired only Monday through Friday, but in March 2013, plans to expand the program to include Saturday and Sunday editions were under development. PBS NewsHour announced that the weekend editions of the program would premiere on September 7, 2013, with Hari Sreenivasan serving as anchor. Although they aired for a half-hour, the weekend broadcasts were branded with a modified program name, PBS NewsHour Weekend. The program was based on the duration of WNET's involvement with the program. From the weekend broadcasts' debut until the March 27, 2022 edition, the Saturday and Sunday editions originated from the Tisch/WNET Studios at Lincoln Center in Manhattan, rather than the program's main production facilities at the Arlington, Virginia, studios of WETA-TV. MacNeil/Lehrer Productions announced in October 2013 that it had offered to transfer ownership in the PBS NewsHour to WETA. Lehrer and MacNeil cited their reduced involvement with the program's production since their departures from anchoring, as well as "the probability of increasing our fundraising abilities." WETA's board of trustees approved the transfer on June 17, 2014, and it took effect on July 1. At that time, NewsHour Productions, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of WETA, took over production of the program. WETA also acquired MacNeil/Lehrer Productions' archives, documentaries, and projects, though not the company's name. PBS NewsHour Weekend was not affected by the ownership transfer and continued to be produced by WNET until 2022 when the program moved back to Washington. On July 20, 2015, the PBS NewsHour introduced an overhauled visual appearance for its weekday broadcasts, debuting a new minimalist set designed by Eric Siegel and George Allison that heavily incorporates PBS's longtime "Everyman" logo. The program also introduced a new graphics package by Troika Design Group and original theme music by Edd Kalehoff, which incorporates a reorchestration of the nine-note "Question and Answer" musical signature that has been featured in the program's theme since its premiere in 1975 and a musical signature originally incorporated into the Kalehoff-composed theme for the Nightly Business Report used from 2002 to 2010. PBS NewsHour Weekend retained its original graphics package and the theme music by David Cebert and Bernard Hoffer until August 29, 2015, when it transitioned to the same theme music and a reworked version of the graphics package used for the weekday broadcasts. Ifill took brief breaks from her NewsHour anchor duties in the late spring and in November 2016 (and was also absent from the program's presidential election coverage on November 8), as she had been undergoing treatment for advanced stage breast and endometrial cancer. After her death was announced on November 14, 2016, that evening's edition of the PBS NewsHour was dedicated to Ifill and her influence on journalism, featuring tributes from Woodruff, Sreenivasan, former colleagues and program contributors (news content was relegated to the standard news summary, which aired during the second half-hour). Although the program initially featured guest anchors on some editions between January and March 2017, Woodruff went on to become sole anchor. The Plastic Problem aired in 2018 and went on to win a Peabody Award, presented at the 2019 ceremony. PBS NewsHour West launched on October 14, 2019, a regional bureau affiliated with the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication at Arizona State University in Phoenix. Anchored by Stephanie Sy, the bureau produces its own news summary with up-to-date information on events that develop after the original broadcast. A version of the program with this summary is shown to viewers in the Western United States and to online and East Coast viewers watching re-broadcasts. The program PBS NewsHour West ended on December 19, 2025. On April 2, 2022, WETA assumed production responsibilities for the show's Saturday and Sunday editions, which concurrently began originating from the studio at the station's Washington facility used for the weekday broadcasts. The broadcasts were retitled PBS News Weekend, with respect to their shorter duration. NewsHour Productions transferred production of the weekend broadcasts from WNET in a move to streamline the program's production and news-gathering resources, allowing the weekday and weekend news broadcasts to have the same pool of correspondents and to share resources with Washington Week (also produced by WETA-TV). Coinciding with the move, the weekend editions began carrying feature segments covering culture and the arts. Sreenivasan (who remains a New York-based correspondent for the weekday broadcasts and serves as a contributor for the PBS latenight news program Amanpour & Company) was initially replaced as weekend anchor by former NBC News and MSNBC correspondent Geoff Bennett, until John Yang was established as the weekend anchor beginning December 31, 2022 (New Year's Eve). Woodruff announced in May 2022 that she would step down as anchor at the end of the year, with plans for ongoing reporting on longer pieces as well as WETA projects and specials. Amna Nawaz and Geoff Bennett were named Woodruff's successors. Woodruff made her final anchor broadcast on December 30, 2022, while Nawaz and Bennett co-anchored their first broadcast on January 2, 2023. PBS News Weekly, a digital-only half-hour series of News Hour segments from the prior week, premiered on December 15, 2023, initially hosted by Nick Schifrin and broadcast on Fridays. PBS News Hour introduced a new logo and the new studio (still at WETA) on June 10, 2024, now featuring the current PBS logo, with the program's graphics rendered in the system's proprietary PBS Sans typeface family introduced in 2019.[a] At the same time, the program's longstanding use of camel case in its name was discontinued, with "NewsHour" becoming "News Hour", in conjunction with the network's rebranding news operation as PBS News. For the first time in over 40 years, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting was not among the sponsors for the show on July 21, 2025. Nawaz and Bennett addressed the absence at the end of that night's broadcast. Among the impact of funding cuts, News Hour West ceased operations on December 19, 2025, and News Hour Weekend aired its last episode on January 11, 2026. PBS News is replacing the weekend show with two new current affairs programs: Horizons hosted by William Brangham and Compass Points hosted by Nick Schifrin. Production and ratings PBS News Hour is notable for being shown on public television, as there are no interruptions for commercial advertisements. But, like most public television programming, there are "corporate image" advertisements at the beginning and end of each broadcast; and there may be "barker" interruptions during locally produced pledge drives that ask viewers to donate to their local PBS member station or member network. Those stations not programming a pledge drive typically provide encore presentations from their archives. The program has a more deliberate pace than the news broadcasts of the commercial networks it competes against, allowing for deeper detail in its story packages and feature segments. At the start of the program, the lead story is covered in depth, followed by a news summary that lasts roughly between six and eight minutes, briefly explaining many of the top national and international news headlines; international stories often include excerpts of reports filed by ITN correspondents. This is usually followed by three or four longer news segments, typically running six to twelve minutes, which explore a few of the events mentioned in the headline segment in depth and include discussions with experts, newsmakers, and/or commentators. The program formerly included a reflective essay on a regular basis, but these have been curtailed in recent years; since Woodruff and Ifill became anchors, these essays have mainly aired as part of the end-of-show segment "Brief, but Spectacular". On Fridays, the program features political analysis and discussion between two regular contributors, one from each of the Republican and Democratic parties, and one host from among the senior correspondents. Since January 2021, the usual participants have been MS NOW co-host Jonathan Capehart and The New York Times columnist David Brooks. Analysts who fill in when Capehart or Brooks are absent have included David Gergen, Thomas Oliphant, Rich Lowry, William Kristol, Ramesh Ponnuru, Ruth Marcus, Michael Gerson, David Corn and E. J. Dionne. On Mondays, a similar segment, "Politics Monday", features analysis and discussion of political issues with contributors Amy Walter, national editor of The Cook Political Report, and Tamara Keith, Washington, D.C. correspondent for NPR. The program's senior correspondents are Woodruff and Jeffrey Brown (Arts, Culture & Society). Essayists have included Anne Taylor Fleming, Richard Rodriguez, Clarence Page and Roger Rosenblatt. Correspondents have been Tom Bearden, Betty Ann Bowser, Susan Dentzer, Elizabeth Farnsworth, Kwame Holman, Spencer Michels, Fred de Sam Lazaro, the economics correspondent Paul Solman (Making Sen$e), Malcolm Brabant and others. Lehrer and Ifill were frequent moderators of U.S. political debates. By November 2008, Lehrer had moderated more than ten debates between major U.S. presidential candidates. In 2008, Ifill moderated a debate between U.S. vice presidential candidates Joe Biden and Sarah Palin; in 2004, she moderated a debate between candidates Dick Cheney and John Edwards. According to Nielsen ratings at the program's website, 2.7 million people watch the program each night, and 8 million watch in the course of a week. On March 31, 2003, after the U.S.โ€“led invasion of Iraq in 2003, the PBS News Hour began what it called its "Honor Roll", a short segment displaying in silence the picture, name, rank, and hometown of U.S. military personnel killed in Iraq. On January 4, 2006, military personnel killed in Afghanistan were added to the segment. PBS NewsHour aired the final honor roll segment on August 30, 2021, after the end of War in Afghanistan. Availability The PBS News Hour is broadcast on more than 350 PBS member stations and member networks, making it available to 99% of the viewing public, and audio from the program is broadcast by some NPR radio stations. It is also rebroadcast twice daily in late night via American Public Television's World digital subchannel service. Broadcasts of the PBS News Hour are also made available worldwide via satellites operated by various agencies such as the Voice of America. A limited number of PBS member stations and regional member networks do not clear the PBS News Hour on their schedules due to existing carriage on a "primary" PBS member station, a pool mainly confined to "secondary" stations (most of which participate in the service's Program Differentiation Plan) that share certain media markets with a "primary" member outlet. These include the NJ PBS network in New Jersey (as WNET, which co-manages NJ PBS and WLIW, carries the program in the New York City area, the latter airing the program live, while WHYY-TV does so in the Philadelphia market); KVCR-DT in San Bernardino, California; and WYIN in Gary, Indiana (WTTW, the primary PBS station for the Chicago DMA that includes WYIN's Northwest Indiana service area, serves as the program's carrier in the Chicago market). In Boston, WGBH-TV airs the program live each weeknight (with a simulcast online), while its secondary station WGBX rebroadcasts the weekday editions later the same evening, and the weekend editions live; a similar case exists in New York City but in reverse, where WLIW airs the weekday and weekend editions of the PBS News Hour live while WNET airs them on a tape delay (delayed by one hour on weekday editions and by a half-hour on weekends). KQED in San Francisco airs the program each weeknight in simulcast with its radio sister at 3:00 p.m. Pacific Time (6:00 p.m. Eastern Time), in addition to airing the Western Edition on television at 6:00 p.m. PT. Similarly, KCET in Los Angeles, which shares ownership with KOCE-TV in Huntington Beach through parent Public Media Group of Southern California, carries the live feed at 3:00 p.m. Pacific Time, while KOCE-TV airs the 6:00 p.m. Western Edition; both stations thus serve together as the program's carrier in the Los Angeles market. Unusually for many years, the secondary station of Milwaukee PBS, WMVT, carried the program as part of an early-evening news block with the Nightly Business Report (which was the lead-in to News Hour on many member stations until the series finale on December 27, 2019), and half-hour international newscasts from Deutsche Welle and BBC World News, due to an expanded schedule of PBS Kids and local-interest programming on WMVS; this has since been rectified with the launch of the all-hours PBS Kids subchannel network. Archives of shows broadcast after February 7, 2000, are available in several streaming media formats (including full-motion video) at the program's website. The show is available to overseas military personnel on the American Forces Network. Audio from selected segments is also released in podcast form, available through several feeds on the PBS News Hour's subscriptions page with link to a FeedBurner website (for free mp3 download) and through podcast services such as Apple Podcasts, Google Podcasts, Spotify, and among others. The PBS News Hour is streamed live on the program's YouTube channel at 6:00 p.m. Eastern Time each weeknight, with the Western edition also streaming live at 9:00 p.m. ET (6:00 p.m. Pacific Time). PBS News Weekend is also streamed on the YouTube channel live Saturdays and Sundays at 5:00 p.m. ET. Full episodes are available later on the PBS News YouTube channel and on the program's dedicated page on PBS's website. The News Hour was also livestreamed on Ustream until IBM Watson Media discontinued free livestreaming on the platform on September 17, 2018. The News Hour has also provided livestreaming of special events, most notably streaming the January 2017 inauguration of Donald Trump on the program's Twitter account. International broadcasts PBS News Hour editorial guidelines On December 4, 2009, when introducing the new PBS NewsHour format, Lehrer read a list of guidelines for what he called "MacNeil/Lehrer journalism": On-air staff Criticism and reception PBS News Hour has received generally positive reviews from television critics, children, and parents of young children. Patrick Kevin Day of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Gwen Ifill and Judy Woodruff are making history on PBS." David Leonard and Micah Schwalb of The Denver Post wrote, "One of the most trusted news programs on television." Phil Owen of TheWrap wrote, "The least partisan analysis." Tim Surette of TV Guide wrote, "The calm and credible information we need." Jennifer Gerson of The 19th wrote, "Nawaz is stepping into history." In 2003, UCLA political scientist Tim Groseclose and Missouri economist Jeff Milyo evaluated various media programs based on "think tank" citations to map liberal versus conservative media slants and published a study alleging liberal media bias in general. Based on their research, PBS News Hour is the most centrist news program on television and the closest to a truly objective stance. However, their methodology has been questioned. In October 2006, the media criticism group Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) accused the PBS News Hour of lacking balance, diversity, and viewpoints of the general public, and for presenting corporate viewpoints. FAIR found that the PBS News Hour's guest list from October 2005 to March 2006 had Republicans outnumbering Democrats 2โ€“1, and minorities accounting for 15 percent of U.S.-based sources. FAIR also protested in 1995 when Liberty Media purchased a majority of the program, citing Liberty's majority owner, John Malone, for his "Machiavellian business tactics" and right-wing sentiments. News Hour executive producer Linda Winslow responded to many aspects: FAIR seems to be accusing us of covering the people who make decisions that affect people's lives, many of whom work in government, the military, or corporate America. That's what we do: we're a news program, and that's who makes news... I take issue with the way the FAIR report characterizes each guest, which they have obviously done very subjectively. Witness the trashing of Mark Shields and Tom Oliphant (in the full report), who are not liberal enough for FAIR's taste. When you get down to arguing about degrees of left-and-rightness, I think you undermine your own argument. She also accused FAIR of counting sound bites as interviews, thereby skewing their numbers toward the political party holding a majority (at the time of FAIR's report, Republican Party). Partnership with NPR The PBS News Hour partnered with NPR for the broadcast of the Republican and Democratic National Conventions of 2016, in a strategy to prepare for the election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton. See also Notes References External links
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/kindergarten/learning-organization/] | [TOKENS: 25430]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื™ืฉื™ ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื ื•ืฉื™, ืฉื‘ื• ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืžืคื ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื–ืžืŸ ื•ืžืงื•ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื ื™ื”ื, ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืœื”ืขืžืงืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื•ืœื”ืชืจืฉืžื•ืช ืžื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื™ืœื“. ื–ื• ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื”ืงืฉื‘ื” ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ืœื”ื›ืจืช ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืชื™ื• ื•ืืฃ ืœื”ื‘ื ืช ืงืฉื™ื™ื•. ื”ื“ื’ืฉ ื”ื•ื ืขืœ ืขืฆื ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ, ื”ืžื•ืœื™ื“ ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ, ืงืจื‘ื”, ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื•ืืžืคืชื™ื”. ืžื˜ืจืชื• ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื›ื ื” ื‘ื•, ื‘ืžืฉืคื—ืชื•, ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื™ื•, ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืขื™ืกื•ืง ืฉืœื• ื‘ืฉืขื•ืช ื”ืคื ืื™ ื•ืขื•ื“. ืžื” ืขื•ืฉื™ื? ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืฉืžื ื”ืœืช ื”ื’ืŸ ืชื™ื™ืฆืจ ืกื“ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ื•ื—ืœื•ืงืช ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ืขื ืื ืฉื™ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ื–ื•ื ื•ืžืชื•ื›ื ืŸ. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื 3-2 ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืกื“ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื ื‘ื’ืŸ. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื—ื“ ืขื ื›ืœ ื™ืœื“. ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืชืขื“ ื•ืœืกื›ื ื‘ืงืฆืจื” ื›ืœ ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื™ืฉื™, ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื•ืช ื•ื”ืชืจืฉืžื•ืช ืื™ืฉ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช. ื”ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื•ืืฃ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื•ื™ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื™ื•ื-ื™ื•ื ื‘ื’ืŸ. ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื ื•ืฉื™, ืฉื‘ื• ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืžืคื ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื–ืžืŸ ื•ืžืงื•ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื ื™ื”ื, ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืœื”ืขืžืงืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื•ืœื”ืชืจืฉืžื•ืช ืžื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื™ืœื“. ื–ื• ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื”ืงืฉื‘ื” ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ืœื”ื›ืจืช ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืชื™ื• ื•ืืฃ ืœื”ื‘ื ืช ืงืฉื™ื™ื•. ื”ื“ื’ืฉ ื”ื•ื ืขืœ ืขืฆื ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ, ื”ืžื•ืœื™ื“ ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ, ืงืจื‘ื”, ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื•ืืžืคืชื™ื”. ืžื˜ืจืชื• ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื›ื ื” ื‘ื•, ื‘ืžืฉืคื—ืชื•, ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื™ื•, ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืขื™ืกื•ืง ืฉืœื• ื‘ืฉืขื•ืช ื”ืคื ืื™ ื•ืขื•ื“. ืžื” ืขื•ืฉื™ื? ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ืœืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ื•ืœืกื’ื™ืจืชื” ื™ืฉ ืœืœื—ื•ืฅ ืขืœ ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช ืฉืœ ืฉื ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื”, ื‘ืฉื•ืจื” ื”ื›ื—ื•ืœื”. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? - ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื ืขื™ื ื•ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืœื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืงืฆืจื” (ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื”ื’ืŸ, ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืœื’ืŸ)- ื ืขืœื™ื™ื ื ื•ื—ื•ืช - ื›ื•ื‘ืข- ืกืœืกื™ืœื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืื• ืชื™ืง ื‘ื“ ืœืื™ืกื•ืฃ ืื•ืฆืจ ืžื”ื“ืจืš ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืฉื™ื—ื” ืžืฉื•ื—ืจืจืช ื•ืžืงืจื‘ืช. ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช, ื”ืงืฆื‘ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ืฉื”ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื”ืคืชื•ื— ืชื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ื ื™ื ื•ื—ื•ืช. ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ืœื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ื ืฉืืœ:- "ืื™ืš ืืชื” ืžืจื’ื™ืฉ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•? ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœืฆืืช ืœื˜ื™ื•ืœ ืงื˜ืŸ?"- "ื ืœืš ืœืื˜ ืื• ืžื”ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื? ืืชื” ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืงืฆื‘!"- "ื‘ื•ื ื ืจืื” ืžื” ื ื’ืœื”!" ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื”ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื•ื—ื— ืขืœ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช, ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื•ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืช, ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื“ืจืš ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ืœืžื” ืืชื” ืฉื ืœื‘ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืš ืฉืœื ืจืื™ืช ืงื•ื“ื?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืœื›ืช ื‘ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื, ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื”?"- "ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื?" ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืฉืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ืื•ืชื•, ื ืฉืืœ ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ืฉืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื•, ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ืžืข, ืื ื”ื™ื” ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื• ืœืžืงื•ื ืฉื‘ื—ืจ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื•.ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื—ืคืฉ "ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืœ ื˜ื‘ืข", ืœืืกื•ืฃ ืื•ืชื• ืœืกืœืกื™ืœื” ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ, ืื• ืœื—ื•ื“ ื—ื™ื“ื” ืขืœ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืžืฆื. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ืœืงืจืืช ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื”ืœื™ื›ื”, ื ืขืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืคื™ื ื” ื ืขื™ืžื” (ืœื™ื“ ืขืฅ ืื• ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ ืื• ืกืชื ืžืงื•ื ืฉืงื˜).ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ืื™ื–ื” ืจื’ืข ืžื”ื˜ื™ื•ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ืื”ื‘ืช?"- "ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื™ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืฉืžืช ืœื‘ ืืœื™ื•?"ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืื• ืœืฆืœื ืชื–ื›ื•ืจืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืžื”ื˜ื™ื•ืœ. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” - ืžืกืœื•ืœ ื ืขื™ื ื•ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืœื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืงืฆืจื” (ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื”ื’ืŸ, ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืœื’ืŸ)- ื ืขืœื™ื™ื ื ื•ื—ื•ืช - ื›ื•ื‘ืข- ืกืœืกื™ืœื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืื• ืชื™ืง ื‘ื“ ืœืื™ืกื•ืฃ ืื•ืฆืจ ืžื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืฉื™ื—ื” ืžืฉื•ื—ืจืจืช ื•ืžืงืจื‘ืช. ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช, ื”ืงืฆื‘ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ืฉื”ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื”ืคืชื•ื— ืชื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ื ื™ื ื•ื—ื•ืช. ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ืœื”ืœื™ื›ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ื ืฉืืœ:- "ืื™ืš ืืชื” ืžืจื’ื™ืฉ ืขื›ืฉื™ื•? ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœืฆืืช ืœื˜ื™ื•ืœ ืงื˜ืŸ?"- "ื ืœืš ืœืื˜ ืื• ืžื”ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื? ืืชื” ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืงืฆื‘!"- "ื‘ื•ื ื ืจืื” ืžื” ื ื’ืœื”!" ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื”ื”ืœื™ื›ื” ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื•ื—ื— ืขืœ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช, ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื•ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืช, ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื“ืจืš ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื”.ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ืœืžื” ืืชื” ืฉื ืœื‘ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืš ืฉืœื ืจืื™ืช ืงื•ื“ื?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืœื›ืช ื‘ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื, ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื”?"- "ื™ืฉ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™ ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื”ื•ืœื›ื™ื?" ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ืฉืžืขื ื™ื™ื ืช ืื•ืชื•, ื ืฉืืœ ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•, ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ืฉืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื•, ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืฉื•ืžืข, ืื ื”ื™ื” ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื• ืœืžืงื•ื ืฉื‘ื—ืจ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ื‘ื•.ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื—ืคืฉ "ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืœ ื˜ื‘ืข", ืœืืกื•ืฃ ืื•ืชื• ืœืกืœืกื™ืœื” ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ืืช ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ, ืื• ืœื—ื•ื“ ื—ื™ื“ื” ืขืœ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืžืฆื. ืœืงืจืืช ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื”ืœื™ื›ื”, ื ืขืฆื•ืจ ื‘ืคื™ื ื” ื ืขื™ืžื” (ืœื™ื“ ืขืฅ ืื• ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ ืื• ืกืชื ืžืงื•ื ืฉืงื˜).ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ืื™ื–ื” ืจื’ืข ืžื”ื˜ื™ื•ืœ ื”ื›ื™ ืื”ื‘ืช?"- "ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื™ ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืฉืžืช ืœื‘ ืืœื™ื•?"ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืื• ืœืฆืœื ืชื–ื›ื•ืจืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืžื”ื˜ื™ื•ืœ. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? - ืžืจื—ื‘ ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ืจืง- ื›ืœื™ ื’ื™ื ื•ืŸ ืงื˜ื ื™ื (ื›ืฃ, ืžืฉืคืš)- ืฉืชื™ืœื™ื ืื• ื–ืจืขื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจื”- ืงืขืจื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืœืงื˜ื™ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืื• ืœืชื™ื‘ื•ืœ ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ืจืง ื”ื™ื ืžืจื—ื‘ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื•ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ, ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื™ืœื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ื•ืคืชื•ื—. ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื”ืฆื—, ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืื“ืžื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื™ื, ื”ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื•ื”ื ื™ื—ื•ื—ื•ืช โ€“ ื›ืœ ืืœื” ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื ื™ื ื•ื—ื”, ื”ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช ืกืงืจื ื•ืช, ืจื•ื’ืข ื•ืฉื™ื— ื˜ื‘ืขื™. ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื”ื–ื”, ืœืœื ืœื—ืฅ ื•ืœืœื ืžื‘ื ื” ื ื•ืงืฉื”, ืžืชืืคืฉืจ ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื ื•ืฉื™ ืืžื™ืชื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช. ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืฆื•ืžื—ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™. ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื™ื™ื ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ.ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ืœื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ ื•ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืžื” ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืฉืชื™ืœื™ื. ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ื•ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ืฉืชื™ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ ืื• ืœืขืจื•ืš ืงื˜ื™ืฃ ื™ื—ื“, ืœืžืฉืœ ืฉืœ ืขืœื™ ืชื‘ืœื™ืŸ ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื”. ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื•ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื•ื—ื—. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”:- "ืžื” ืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ื’ื™ื ื”?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ื“ืœ ืคื” ืžืฉื”ื• ื—ื“ืฉ, ืžื” ื–ื” ื”ื™ื”?"ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืงื•ื˜ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืื• ืœืชื™ื‘ื•ืœ, ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื— ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ื•ืฉื™ื:- "ืื™ื–ื” ืจื™ื— ื–ื” ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœืš?"- "ืื™ืœื• ื˜ืขืžื™ื ืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘?" ืขื•ื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ื‘ืื™ื–ื” ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ ืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช?"- "ืืช ืžื™ ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืœื’ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื ื•?"- "ืื ื”ืฆืžื— ื”ื™ื” ืžื“ื‘ืจ, ืžื” ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•?" ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ, ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ืœืจื’ืข ื‘ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื” โ€“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืฉืชืœ ืฉืชื™ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ, ืงื˜ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ื’ื™ื ื”. ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ืœืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื’ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื•ื?- "ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื›ื™ ื ื”ื ื™ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืืŸ?"- "ืžื”, ืชืจืฆื” ืฉื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ื‘ื?"ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืงื—ืช ืžื–ื›ืจืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืžื”ืžืคื’ืฉ: ืขืœื”, ืขื ืฃ ืงื˜ืŸ, ืื• ืœืฆืœื ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืœืžื–ื›ืจืช. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” - ืžืจื—ื‘ ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ืจืง- ื›ืœื™ ื’ื™ื ื•ืŸ ืงื˜ื ื™ื (ื›ืฃ, ืžืฉืคืš)- ืฉืชื™ืœื™ื ืื• ื–ืจืขื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื™ืจื”- ืงืขืจื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืœืงื˜ื™ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืื• ืœืชื™ื‘ื•ืœ ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ืจืง ื”ื™ื ืžืจื—ื‘ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื•ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ, ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื™ืœื“ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ื•ืคืชื•ื—. ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ ื”ืฆื—, ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืื“ืžื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื™ื, ื”ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื•ื”ื ื™ื—ื•ื—ื•ืช โ€“ ื›ืœ ืืœื” ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื ื™ื ื•ื—ื”, ื”ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช ืกืงืจื ื•ืช, ืจื•ื’ืข ื•ืฉื™ื— ื˜ื‘ืขื™. ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื”ื–ื”, ืœืœื ืœื—ืฅ ื•ืœืœื ืžื‘ื ื” ื ื•ืงืฉื”, ืžืชืืคืฉืจ ืžืคื’ืฉ ืื ื•ืฉื™ ืืžื™ืชื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช. ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืฆื•ืžื—ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™. ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงื™ื™ื ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ.ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ืœื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ ื•ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืžื” ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืฉืชื™ืœื™ื. ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ื•ืœืฉืชื•ืœ ืฉืชื™ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ ืื• ืœืขืจื•ืš ืงื˜ื™ืฃ ื™ื—ื“, ืœืžืฉืœ ืฉืœ ืขืœื™ ืชื‘ืœื™ืŸ ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื”. ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื•ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ื’ื™ื ืช ื”ื’ืŸ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื•ื—ื—. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”:- "ืžื” ืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ื’ื™ื ื”?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื’ื“ืœ ืคื” ืžืฉื”ื• ื—ื“ืฉ, ืžื” ื–ื” ื”ื™ื”?"ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืงื•ื˜ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืื• ืœืชื™ื‘ื•ืœ, ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื— ื“ืจืš ื”ื—ื•ืฉื™ื:- "ืื™ื–ื” ืจื™ื— ื–ื” ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœืš?"- "ืื™ืœื• ื˜ืขืžื™ื ืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘?" ืขื•ื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ื‘ืื™ื–ื” ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ ืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช?"- "ืืช ืžื™ ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืœื’ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื ื•?"- "ืื ื”ืฆืžื— ื”ื™ื” ืžื“ื‘ืจ, ืžื” ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืžืจ ืœื ื•?" ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ, ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ืœืจื’ืข ื‘ืชื•ืฆืื” ืฉืœ ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื” โ€“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืฉืชืœ ืฉืชื™ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ, ืงื˜ืฃ ืขืœื™ื ืœื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืื• ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ื’ื™ื ื”. ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืื•ืœ:- "ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ืœืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื’ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื•ื?- "ืžื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื”ื›ื™ ื ื”ื ื™ืช ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืืŸ?"- "ืžื”, ืชืจืฆื” ืฉื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ื‘ื?"ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืงื—ืช ืžื–ื›ืจืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืžื”ืžืคื’ืฉ: ืขืœื”, ืขื ืฃ ืงื˜ืŸ, ืื• ืœืฆืœื ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืœืžื–ื›ืจืช. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœืคื™ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”: ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื—ืชื•ื›ื™ื, ื™ืจืงื•ืช, ืžืžืจื—ื™ื, ืœื—ื, ืขืฉื‘ื™ ืชื™ื‘ื•ืœื›ืœื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”: ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืงืจืฉ ื—ื™ืชื•ืš ืงื˜ืŸ, ืงืขืจื™ื•ืช, ื›ื•ืกื•ืช ืื• ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื ื“ืจืฉืช ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืฆืจื›ื™ื ืชื–ื•ื ืชื™ื™ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืืœืจื’ื™ื” ืœืžื–ื•ืŸ, ืฆืœื™ืืง, ืกื•ื›ืจืช. ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืงืคื™ื“ ืขืœ ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ืขืœ ื›ืœืœื™ ื”ื™ื’ื™ื™ื ื”. ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืื•ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ื›ืœื™ื ื˜ื•ืžืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ื‘ื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื•ื”ืจื’ืœื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ. ื˜ืขืžื™ื, ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ืžืจืงืžื™ื ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช, ืœื‘ื™ืช ื•ืœืžืฉืคื—ื”. ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ื›ื ืช ืื•ื›ืœ ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื ื•ืฆืจ ืžืจื—ื‘ ื ืขื™ื ื•ืคืชื•ื—, ื”ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืฉื™ื—ื” ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ื•ืงืจื•ื‘ื”.ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืคืชื•ื—:ื”ื™ื•ื ื ื›ื™ืŸ ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื˜ืขื™ื ื•ื‘ืจื™ื! ืืชื” ืชื‘ื—ืจ ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ื ืœืš, ื•ื ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื™ื—ื“ ืžื ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช".- ืฉืืœื•ืช ืœืคืชื™ื—ื”: "ืžื” ื”ืžืื›ืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืžืฆื™ื ืžืื›ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ โ€“ ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื”?"ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช (ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื™ืจื•ืช, ื›ืจื™ืš ืžืงื•ืฉื˜, ืžื™ื ื‘ื˜ืขืžื™ื) ืืช ื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ โ€“ ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืงืฉื•ืช, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื™ืฆื™ืจื”. ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื•ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืžื ื” ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื—ื”.ื ืœื•ื•ื” ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื‘ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžืงืจื‘ื•ืช:- "ืื™ืœื• ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช? ืื™ืš ื”ื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืš ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžืฆื™ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื ื” ืฉืœืš โ€“ ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ืจืื™ืช?"- "ืื™ืœื• ืžืื›ืœื™ื ืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช?- "ืื™ืœื• ืžืื›ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื‘ืขืฆืžืš?"- "ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื›ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืจื—ื™ื ืฉืืชื” ืžืื•ื“ ืื•ื”ื‘?" ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื—ื“, ื˜ื•ืขืžื™ื ื•ืžืกื™ื™ืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื—:- "ืžื” ืื”ื‘ืช ื‘ื”ื›ื ื”?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื›ื™ืŸ ืืช ื–ื” ืฉื•ื‘ โ€“ ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื•?"ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจ ืœื˜ืขื•ื. ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื›ืœ ืฉื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื•ืœืงื—ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืขื ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื”. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœืคื™ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”: ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื—ืชื•ื›ื™ื, ื™ืจืงื•ืช, ืžืžืจื—ื™ื, ืœื—ื, ืขืฉื‘ื™ ืชื™ื‘ื•ืœื›ืœื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”: ืกื›ื™ืŸ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืงืจืฉ ื—ื™ืชื•ืš ืงื˜ืŸ, ืงืขืจื™ื•ืช, ื›ื•ืกื•ืช ืื• ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื”ืื•ื›ืœ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืื•ื›ืœื™ื ื˜ื•ืžืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ื‘ื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช, ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื•ื”ืจื’ืœื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ. ื˜ืขืžื™ื, ืจื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ืžืจืงืžื™ื ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ืชื ื• ืœื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช, ืœื‘ื™ืช ื•ืœืžืฉืคื—ื”. ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ื›ื ืช ืื•ื›ืœ ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื ื•ืฆืจ ืžืจื—ื‘ ื ืขื™ื ื•ืคืชื•ื—, ื”ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืฉื™ื—ื” ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ื•ืงืจื•ื‘ื”.ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืคืชื•ื—:ื”ื™ื•ื ื ื›ื™ืŸ ืœืขืฆืžื ื• ืžืฉื”ื• ื˜ืขื™ื ื•ื‘ืจื™ื! ืืชื” ืชื‘ื—ืจ ืžื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื‘ื ืœืš, ื•ื ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื™ื—ื“ ืžื ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช".- ืฉืืœื•ืช ืœืคืชื™ื—ื”: "ืžื” ื”ืžืื›ืœ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืžืฆื™ื ืžืื›ืœ ื—ื“ืฉ โ€“ ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื”?"ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช (ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: ืฆืœื—ืช ืคื™ืจื•ืช, ื›ืจื™ืš ืžืงื•ืฉื˜, ืžื™ื ื‘ื˜ืขืžื™ื) ืืช ื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ โ€“ ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืงืฉื•ืช, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื™ืฆื™ืจื”. ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื•ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืžื ื” ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื—ื”.ื ืœื•ื•ื” ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื‘ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžืงืจื‘ื•ืช:- "ืื™ืœื• ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื‘ืฆืœื—ืช? ืื™ืš ื”ื ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœืš ืœื”ืจื’ื™ืฉ?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžืฆื™ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื ื” ืฉืœืš โ€“ ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ืจืื™ืช?"- "ืื™ืœื• ืžืื›ืœื™ื ืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœืื›ื•ืœ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช?- "ืื™ืœื• ืžืื›ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื‘ืขืฆืžืš?"- "ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื›ื™ืŸ ืœืื•ืจื—ื™ื ืฉืืชื” ืžืื•ื“ ืื•ื”ื‘?" ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื—ื“, ื˜ื•ืขืžื™ื ื•ืžืกื™ื™ืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื—:- "ืžื” ืื”ื‘ืช ื‘ื”ื›ื ื”?"- "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื›ื™ืŸ ืืช ื–ื” ืฉื•ื‘ โ€“ ื”ื™ื™ืช ืžื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื•?"ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจ ืœื˜ืขื•ื. ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืžืชื›ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื›ืœ ืฉื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื•ืœืงื—ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืขื ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื”. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืžืคื’ืฉ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื• ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ืœื ื•.ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ืžืชื•ืš ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื”. ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืžืฆื™ืขื” ื–ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืขื•ืœืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“. ืื ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื, ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืฉืชืฃ ื’ื ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืฉืœื”. ืœืžื” ื‘ื—ืจื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”? ืžื™ ื–ื”? ื•ืขื•ื“ ืคืจื˜ื™ื ืฉืชืจืฆื” ืœืฉืชืฃ. ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ื™ืฉืชืฃ ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื‘ื—ืจ. ืžื“ื•ืข ื‘ื—ืจ ื“ื•ื•ืงื ื‘ื”? ืžื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ? ืžื™ ื–ื” ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื”? ืžื” ื”ื ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื™ื—ื“? ืžืชื™ ืฆื•ืœืžื” ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”? ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืงืฉื™ื‘ ื•ืชื”ื“ื”ื“ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ืชืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื‘ืžื™ื“ืช ื”ืืคืฉืจ. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืกืคืจ ืžื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืžื“ื” ืขืœ ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื•ืชืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื•ืžืจ ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืœืžื“ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืžื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื’ื ื ืช ืฉื™ืชืคื”. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืžืคื’ืฉ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื• ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ืœื ื•.ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ืžืชื•ืš ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื”. ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืžืฆื™ืขื” ื–ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ืขื•ืœืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“. ืื ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื, ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืฉืชืฃ ื’ื ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ืžืฉืœื”. ืœืžื” ื‘ื—ืจื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”? ืžื™ ื–ื”? ื•ืขื•ื“ ืคืจื˜ื™ื ืฉืชืจืฆื” ืœืฉืชืฃ. ื”ื™ืœื“ ื™ืฉืชืฃ ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื‘ื—ืจ. ืžื“ื•ืข ื‘ื—ืจ ื“ื•ื•ืงื ื‘ื”? ืžื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ? ืžื™ ื–ื” ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื”? ืžื” ื”ื ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื™ื—ื“? ืžืชื™ ืฆื•ืœืžื” ื”ืชืžื•ื ื”? ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืงืฉื™ื‘ ื•ืชื”ื“ื”ื“ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ืชืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื‘ืžื™ื“ืช ื”ืืคืฉืจ. ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืกืคืจ ืžื” ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืžื“ื” ืขืœ ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื•ืชืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื•ืžืจ ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืœืžื“ ืขืœ ื”ื“ืžื•ืช ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื’ื ื ืช ืฉื™ืชืคื”. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืื• ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜ ืขื ืืคืœื™ืงืฆื™ื™ืช ื”ืงืœื˜ื” ืคื™ื ื” ืฉืงื˜ื” ื•ื ืขื™ืžื” ื‘ื’ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ื•ืช ืขื ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืžื”ื (ืชื—ื‘ื™ื‘ื™ื, ืจื’ืฉื•ืช, ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช, ื—ื‘ืจื™ื, ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืช ื•ืขื•ื“) ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ื•ืช ืจื™ืงื•ืช ืœืฆื™ื•ืจ / ืœื›ืชื™ื‘ื” ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืกื›ืช ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ืœืงื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ โ€“ ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืื•ื”ื‘, ืžื” ืžืกืงืจืŸ ืื•ืชื• ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื•. ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื›ื•ืœื• โ€“ ืžื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื“ืจืš ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื•ืขื“ ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื” โ€“ ืžื—ื–ืง ืืช ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืขืจืš, ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“.ื ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืžื”ื• ื”ืกื›ืช ื•ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื”ื ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš: "ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืงืœื™ื˜ ืื™ืชื™ ื”ืกื›ืช? ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉื‘ื” ืืชื” ืชืกืคืจ ืœื™ ืขืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืฉืืชื” ื‘ื•ื—ืจ". "ืœืคื ื™ ืฉืžืงืœื™ื˜ื™ื, ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืขืœ ืžื” ืชืจืฆื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ". "ื–ื” ื›ืžื• ืœืกืคืจ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืœื—ื‘ืจื™ื โ€“ ืื ืœื ืžืชื›ื ื ื™ื ืžืจืืฉ ืžื” ืœื”ื’ื™ื“, ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉื›ื•ื— ื—ืœืงื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื". "ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœืกืคืจ ืขืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘, ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืงืจื” ืœืš ืฉืชืจืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืขืœื™ื•, ืฉื™ืจ ืื”ื•ื‘ ืื• ื›ืœ ื ื•ืฉื ืื—ืจ ืฉืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชืš". ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื— ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ (ื‘ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื”ื•ื‘, ืชื—ื‘ื™ื‘, ื˜ื™ื•ืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ ื•ืขื•ื“). ืื ืื™ืŸ ื›ืจื˜ื™ืก ืฉืžืชืื™ื ืœื™ืœื“, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžืฉืœื•.ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืฉื™ื— ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื™ื—ื“ ืืช ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื”ืกื›ืช ื•ืžื” ื™ื™ื›ืœืœ ื‘ื•: "ืžื” ืชืจืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ? ื ืจืฉื•ื ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืชื–ื›ื•ืจ". "ืชืจืฆื” ืœืฉื™ืจ ืฉื™ืจ? ืœืฉืื•ืœ ื—ื™ื“ื”? ืื• ืœืกืคืจ ืขืœ ืฆืขืฆื•ืข ืื”ื•ื‘?" "ื”ืื ืชืจืฆื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืฉื ืœื”ืกื›ืช ืฉืœืš?" ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืžื” ื™ื›ืœื•ืœ ื”ื”ืกื›ืช, ื•ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžืชืขื“ืช ื‘ืงืฆืจื”. ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื”ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื” ืชืชื‘ืฆืข ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืงื˜.ืคืชื™ื—ื”: "ืฉืœื•ื! ืื ื™ [ืฉื ื”ื™ืœื“] ื•ื–ื” ื”ื”ืกื›ืช ืฉืœื™!"ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ืชื•ืžื›ื•ืช, ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืžื” ืฉืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ืžืจืืฉ: "ืกืคืจ ืœื™ ืขืœ ื”ืžืงื•ื ืฉืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ื’ืŸ". "ืžื” ืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืฉืืชื” ื—ื•ื–ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืชื”?" "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื—ื™ื” ื‘ื’ืŸ ื—ื™ื•ืช โ€“ ืื™ื–ื• ื—ื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืช?" ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืฉืชืฃ, ืžืกืคืจ, ืฉืจ, ืฉื•ืืœ โ€“ ื”ื›ื•ืœ ืœืคื™ ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื•. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื‘ืกื™ื•ื, ืžืงืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ื™ื—ื“ ืœืงื˜ืข ืงืฆืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื”ืกื›ืช: "ืื™ืš ื”ืจื’ืฉืช ืœื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ื”ืกื›ืช ืฉืœืš?" "ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืฉื•ื‘? ืชืจืฆื” ืœื”ืฉืžื™ืข ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœืš?" ื”ืื ืชืจืฆื” ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืืคืงื˜ื™ื ืงื•ืœื™ื™ื?" (ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืื ื™ืœื“ ืžืกืคืจ ืขืœ ื˜ื™ื•ืœ ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื—ื™ื•ืช ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืงื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื•ืช) "ื”ืื ืชืจืฆื” ืœื”ืงืœื™ื˜ ืžืชื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ืกื›ืช ื ื•ืกืฃ?" ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื”ื”ืกื›ืช ืฉื”ื•ืงืœื˜ ืขื ื”ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ืื• ืœืฉืชืฃ ืขื ื›ืœ ืงื”ื™ืœืช ื”ื’ืŸ (ื‘ื”ืกื›ืžืช ื”ื”ื•ืจื™ื). ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงืช ื”ืงืœื˜ื” ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื—ื•ื‘ืจืช 'ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ืช ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœ ื‘ื’ืŸ' ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ื”ืกื›ืช ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ื•ื ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ืœืงื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ โ€“ ืžื” ื”ื•ื ืื•ื”ื‘, ืžื” ืžืกืงืจืŸ ืื•ืชื• ื•ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื•. ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื›ื•ืœื• โ€“ ืžื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื“ืจืš ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื•ืขื“ ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื” โ€“ ืžื—ื–ืง ืืช ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืขืจืš, ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“.ื ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืžื”ื• ื”ืกื›ืช ื•ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื”ื ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš: ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืชื›ื ื•ืŸืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื— ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ (ื‘ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ืื”ื•ื‘, ืชื—ื‘ื™ื‘, ื˜ื™ื•ืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ ื•ืขื•ื“). ืื ืื™ืŸ ื›ืจื˜ื™ืก ืฉืžืชืื™ื ืœื™ืœื“, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืžืฉืœื•.ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืฉื™ื— ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื™ื—ื“ ืืช ื ื•ืฉื ื”ื”ืกื›ืช ื•ืžื” ื™ื™ื›ืœืœ ื‘ื•: ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืžื” ื™ื›ืœื•ืœ ื”ื”ืกื›ืช, ื•ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžืชืขื“ืช ื‘ืงืฆืจื”. ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื”ื”ื”ืงืœื˜ื” ืชืชื‘ืฆืข ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืงื˜.ืคืชื™ื—ื”: "ืฉืœื•ื! ืื ื™ [ืฉื ื”ื™ืœื“] ื•ื–ื” ื”ื”ืกื›ืช ืฉืœื™!"ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ืชื•ืžื›ื•ืช, ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืžื” ืฉืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ืžืจืืฉ: ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืฉืชืฃ, ืžืกืคืจ, ืฉืจ, ืฉื•ืืœ โ€“ ื”ื›ื•ืœ ืœืคื™ ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื•. ื‘ืกื™ื•ื, ืžืงืฉื™ื‘ื™ื ื™ื—ื“ ืœืงื˜ืข ืงืฆืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื”ืกื›ืช: ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื”ื”ืกื›ืช ืฉื”ื•ืงืœื˜ ืขื ื”ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ืื• ืœืฉืชืฃ ืขื ื›ืœ ืงื”ื™ืœืช ื”ื’ืŸ (ื‘ื”ืกื›ืžืช ื”ื”ื•ืจื™ื). ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜ ืื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืขื ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœื›ืœื™ AI ืœื”ืคืงืช ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืงื˜ ืœืฉื™ื—ื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ื•ืช ืขื ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ืžืขื•ืจืจื™ ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ (ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: ื—ื“ื™ ืงืจืŸ, ื‘ืชื™ื ืžืขื•ืคืคื™ื, ืขืฆื™ื ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื) ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื ืคืชื— ื‘ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื”ืจืคืชืงื” ื‘ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ.ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžืฆื™ืื•ืชื™ โ€“ ืงืกื•ื, ืžืคืชื™ืข ืื• ื—ืœื•ืžื™, ื›ืžื• ืžืชื•ืš ืื’ื“ื”.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: "ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืชื™ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืชื™?" "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืžืฆื™ื ืžืงื•ื ืงืกื•ื โ€“ ืื™ืš ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืจืื”?" "ืื™ื–ื• ื—ื™ื” ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืœืš ื›ื—ื‘ืจื”?" "ืชืจืฆื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ืข ืื™ื–ื• ืžืฉืืœื”? ืื™ื–ื•? ืื™ืš ื ืชืืจ ืื•ืชื”?" ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ: ืฉื™ื—ื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช โ€“ ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ื›ื“ืื™ ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ื•ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ, ื•ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืื• ืœืชืขื“ ื‘ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืืช ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ ื”ื™ืœื“. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืฉืœื‘ ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืคืจื˜ื™ื ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฆื‘ืขื™ื, ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช, ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืจื’ืฉื•ืช.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืœื”ืขืžืงื”: "ืžื” ื™ืฉ ืฉื? ืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช?" "ืื™ืœื• ืฆื‘ืขื™ื ื™ืฉ ืฉื?" "ืื™ืš ืžืจื’ื™ืฉื™ื ื›ืฉื ืžืฆืื™ื ืฉื?" "ื™ืฉ ืฉื ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืžื™ื•ื—ื“? ื—ื™ื”? ื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงืกื•ื?" "ืžื” ืงื•ืจื” ืฉื โ€“ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ, ื—ื’ื™ื’ื”, ืงืกื?" ื‘ืกื™ื•ื, ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžืงืจื™ืื” ืืช ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืœื™ืœื“, ื‘ื•ื“ืงืช ืขืžื• ืื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื ืืžื ื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื•ื ื• ื•ืื ื™ืจืฆื” ืœื“ื™ื™ืง ืื• ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื•.ืจืง ืœืื—ืจ ืื™ืฉื•ืจื• โ€“ ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืœืฉืœื‘ ื”ื‘ื. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™: ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžืฆื™ืขื” ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ (ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ, ืœื›ื™ื™ืจ, ืœื”ื“ื‘ื™ืง) ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ โ€“ ืืช ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื• ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉื”ืžืฆื™ื.ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืก ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™: ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืคืจื•ืžืคื˜ (ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื” ื™ืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื ื•ืกืฃ)ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื™ืœื“ ืขืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช. ื”ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื•ืžืจ:"ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืชื•ื›ื ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘. ืื ื™ ืืกืคืจ ืœื” ืžื” ื™ืฆืจืช ื•ืžื” ืฉืกื™ืคืจืช ืœื™, ื•ื”ื™ื ืชื ืกื” ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ื ืช. ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ื™ื ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง, ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืชืžื•ื ื” ืงืฆืช ืฉื•ื ื” โ€“ ื•ืื– ื ื‘ื—ืจ ื™ื—ื“ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืžืชืื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœืš".ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืฉื”ืชื•ื›ื ื” ื”ื™ื ื›ืœื™ ืชื•ืžืš โ€“ ืืš ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœื• ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš.ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชื ืกื— ืคืจื•ืžืคื˜ (ื”ื ื—ื™ื” ื˜ืงืกื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช) ื‘ืฉืคื” ืขืฉื™ืจื”, ืžืคื•ืจื˜ืช ื•ืžื“ื•ื™ืงืช, ื”ืžืฉืงืคืช ื ืืžื ื” ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ื•ืชื–ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœื›ืœื™ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ื›ืžื• DALLยทE ืื• ื›ืœื™ ื“ื•ืžื”, ืืฉืจ ืžืคื™ืง ื›ืžื” ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืืคืฉืจื™ื•ืช.ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชื‘ื—ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื™ื˜ื‘ื™ืช ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืคืฉืจ ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืฉื™ื— ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื”. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™: ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืœื™ืœื“ ื•ืฉื™ื— ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืจื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืฆื™ื’ ืœื™ืœื“ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืคืงื• ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช, ืชื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ื”ืŸ, ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ื•ืœืฉื•ื—ื— ืขืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืชื™ื•.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžื ื—ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื—: "ืžื” ืืชื” ืจื•ืื” ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื–ื•?" "ื”ืื ื”ื™ื ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ื ืช?" "ืžื” ืื”ื‘ืช ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื”?" "ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืื• ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืชื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื—ืœื•ื ืฉืœืš?" ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื ืขืฉื™ืช ื™ื—ื“, ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืžืชืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœืงื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื•ื”ืขืฆืžื” ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื™ืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™: ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื•ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืจื™ืืžืชื‘ืฆืข ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœืงื”ื™ืœื” ืœื”ืชืจืฉื ืžืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื•ืžื”ืชื•ืฆืจื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื.ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ืคื™ื–ื™ืช ืขืœ ืœื•ื— ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื’ืŸ, ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืœ"ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื", ืื• ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื‘ืคืœื˜ืคื•ืจืžื” ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืžืฆื’ืช Google Slide ืื• ืœื•ื— ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, Padlet. ื‘ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ื™ื•ืฆื’ื• ื–ื” ืœืฆื“ ื–ื” ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ืฉื‘ื—ืจ. ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืขืœ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ื•ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœื›ืœื™ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืขืจื” ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ื–ื• ืžืชื‘ืฆืขืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื, ืฉื™ื— ืื™ืฉื™ ืขืœ ืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื™ืฆื™ืจื”. ื•ื‘ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืขื™ืžื• ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืคืจื•ืžืคื˜ (ื”ื ื—ื™ื”) ืœื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™, ื•ืฉื™ื— ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืจ. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื ืคืชื— ื‘ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื”ืจืคืชืงื” ื‘ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ.ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžืฆื™ืื•ืชื™ โ€“ ืงืกื•ื, ืžืคืชื™ืข ืื• ื—ืœื•ืžื™, ื›ืžื• ืžืชื•ืš ืื’ื“ื”.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ: ืฉื™ื—ื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช โ€“ ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ื›ื“ืื™ ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ื•ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ, ื•ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืื• ืœืชืขื“ ื‘ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืืช ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ ื”ื™ืœื“. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืฉืœื‘ ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืคืจื˜ื™ื ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื›ืžื• ืฆื‘ืขื™ื, ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช, ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืจื’ืฉื•ืช.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืœื”ืขืžืงื”: ื‘ืกื™ื•ื, ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžืงืจื™ืื” ืืช ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืœื™ืœื“, ื‘ื•ื“ืงืช ืขืžื• ืื ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื ืืžื ื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื•ื ื• ื•ืื ื™ืจืฆื” ืœื“ื™ื™ืง ืื• ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืžืฉื”ื•.ืจืง ืœืื—ืจ ืื™ืฉื•ืจื• โ€“ ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ื ืœืฉืœื‘ ื”ื‘ื. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™: ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžืฆื™ืขื” ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ (ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ, ืœื›ื™ื™ืจ, ืœื”ื“ื‘ื™ืง) ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ โ€“ ืืช ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืื• ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉื”ืžืฆื™ื.ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืก ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™: ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืคืจื•ืžืคื˜ (ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื” ื™ืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื ื•ืกืฃ)ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื™ืœื“ ืขืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช. ื”ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื•ืžืจ:"ื™ืฉ ืœื ื• ืชื•ื›ื ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘. ืื ื™ ืืกืคืจ ืœื” ืžื” ื™ืฆืจืช ื•ืžื” ืฉืกื™ืคืจืช ืœื™, ื•ื”ื™ื ืชื ืกื” ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื” ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ื ืช. ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื”ื™ื ืžืฆืœื™ื—ื” ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง, ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื™ื•ืฆืืช ืชืžื•ื ื” ืงืฆืช ืฉื•ื ื” โ€“ ื•ืื– ื ื‘ื—ืจ ื™ื—ื“ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืžืชืื™ื ืœื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœืš".ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืฉื”ืชื•ื›ื ื” ื”ื™ื ื›ืœื™ ืชื•ืžืš โ€“ ืืš ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœื• ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ืชื”ืœื™ืš.ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชื ืกื— ืคืจื•ืžืคื˜ (ื”ื ื—ื™ื” ื˜ืงืกื˜ื•ืืœื™ืช) ื‘ืฉืคื” ืขืฉื™ืจื”, ืžืคื•ืจื˜ืช ื•ืžื“ื•ื™ืงืช, ื”ืžืฉืงืคืช ื ืืžื ื” ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ื•ืชื–ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœื›ืœื™ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ื›ืžื• DALLยทE ืื• ื›ืœื™ ื“ื•ืžื”, ืืฉืจ ืžืคื™ืง ื›ืžื” ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืืคืฉืจื™ื•ืช.ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชื‘ื—ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžื™ื˜ื‘ื™ืช ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืืคืฉืจ ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืฉื™ื— ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืื”. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™: ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืœื™ืœื“ ื•ืฉื™ื— ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืจื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืฆื™ื’ ืœื™ืœื“ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืคืงื• ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช, ืชื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ื”ืŸ, ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื›ื™ ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื“ืžื™ื™ืŸ ื•ืœืฉื•ื—ื— ืขืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืชื™ื•.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืžื ื—ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื—: ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื ืขืฉื™ืช ื™ื—ื“, ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืžืชืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœืงื•ืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื•ื”ืขืฆืžื” ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื™ืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ืื™ืฉื™ืช. ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™: ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื•ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ืชื•ืฆืจื™ืืžืชื‘ืฆืข ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืœื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœืงื”ื™ืœื” ืœื”ืชืจืฉื ืžืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื•ืžื”ืชื•ืฆืจื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื.ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ืคื™ื–ื™ืช ืขืœ ืœื•ื— ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื’ืŸ, ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืœ"ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื", ืื• ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื‘ืคืœื˜ืคื•ืจืžื” ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืžืฆื’ืช Google Slide ืื• ืœื•ื— ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, Padlet. ื‘ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ื™ื•ืฆื’ื• ื–ื” ืœืฆื“ ื–ื” ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื”ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื” ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ืฉื‘ื—ืจ. ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ื”ืขืจื” ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ื–ื• ืžืชื‘ืฆืขืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื, ืฉื™ื— ืื™ืฉื™ ืขืœ ืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื™ืฆื™ืจื”. ื•ื‘ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืขื™ืžื• ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืคืจื•ืžืคื˜ (ื”ื ื—ื™ื”) ืœื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ืช ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™, ื•ืฉื™ื— ืขืœ ื”ืชื•ืฆืจ. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ืชื™ื‘ืช ืื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืืกืชื˜ื™ืช ื•ืžืกืงืจื ืช -ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืืกื•ืฃ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืœืชื™ื‘ื” ื•ืชื›ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ืžืจืืฉ. ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืœืชื™ื‘ื” ืชื™ืขืฉื” ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ื ืฉื•ืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืขื ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื”ืจืงืข ื•ื”ืขื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ืจื’ืฉื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ, ื›ืš ืฉื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ืชื”ื™ื” ืžืงื•ืจ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ืœื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ื•ืื•ืชื ื˜ื™ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื. ื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื›ืœื•ืœ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืžื”ื˜ื‘ืข, ื—ืคืฆื™ื ืกืžืœื™ื™ื, ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช, ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ืื‘ื™ื–ืจื™ ืชื—ืคื•ืฉื•ืช ื•ืขื•ื“. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœืงืฉื˜ ืืช ื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ื•ืืฃ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืขืฆืžื ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืฉื™ื™ื›ื ืกื• ืืœื™ื”. ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืงื˜ ื•ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ืœืฉื™ื— ืื™ืฉื™. ืคื ืงืก ืื™ืฉื™ ืœื’ื ื ืช ืœืจื™ืฉื•ื ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช, ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืช, ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ื”ืขื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ. ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ืื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื˜ืคื— ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืžืขืžื™ืงื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช, ื•ืœื‘ืกืก ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœ ืืžื•ืŸ, ื”ืงืฉื‘ื” ื•ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ. ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืคื’ืฉ ื–ื”, ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื”ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืข ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ื•ืœื”ืฉืžื™ืข ืืช ืงื•ืœื• ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—. ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืžืฉืžืฉ ืขื•ื’ืŸ ืจื’ืฉื™, ืฉื“ืจื›ื• ื ื•ืฆืจ ืฉื™ื— ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื ืœืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉืœื•ืžื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื. ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžื–ืžื™ื ื” ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื—ืคืฅ ืžื”ืชื™ื‘ื”. ืืคืฉืจ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ื–ืžืŸ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ืช. ืื ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืฉืžื–ืžื ื•ืช ืฉื™ื— ืจื’ืฉื™ ื•ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ: "ื‘ืžื” ื‘ื—ืจืช ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืชื™ื‘ื”?" "ืœืžื” ื‘ื—ืจืช ื“ื•ื•ืงื ื‘ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื–ื”?" "ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื–ื” ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœืš ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ืื• ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช?" "ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™ ืขืœ ื”ื—ืคืฅ?" "ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืžืฆื™ื ืขืœื™ื• ืกื™ืคื•ืจ?" ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžื”ืกืก, ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืฉื’ื ืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืชืฉืชืฃ ื‘ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื”ื™ื ืขืฆืžื” ื‘ื—ืจื” ื•ืชืกืคืจ ืขืœื™ื• โ€“ ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืชื™ืชืŸ ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื”ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช ืคืชื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ื”ื“ื“ื™ื•ืช. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื‘ืชื•ื ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ, ื ื ื”ืœ ืฉื™ื— ืžืกื›ื ืงืฆืจ: "ืื™ืš ื”ืจื’ืฉืช ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื™ื•ื?" "ืžื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื”ื‘ืช ื‘ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื‘ื—ืจืช?" "ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ื’ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืœื—ื‘ืจื™ื?" "ืชืจืฆื” ื’ื ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ื‘ื ืฉืœื ื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื—ืคืฅ ืžืŸ ื”ืชื™ื‘ื”? ื™ืฉ ืœืš ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืœื—ืคืฅ ืฉื”ื™ื™ืช ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ื‘ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ื‘ื ืฉืœื ื•?" ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื’ื ืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืชืฉืชืฃ ื‘ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืชื™ื” ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื™ืฉื™. ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ืžื ื™ ื‘ืชื™ื‘ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ืœืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืขืชื™ื“. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืชืขื“ ืืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืื• ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืคื ืงืก ืื™ืฉื™, ื•ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ื™ื•ืžืŸ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ ืœื›ืœ ื™ืœื“. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ืื•ืฆืจื•ืช ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื˜ืคื— ื”ื™ื›ืจื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืžืขืžื™ืงื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช, ื•ืœื‘ืกืก ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœ ืืžื•ืŸ, ื”ืงืฉื‘ื” ื•ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ. ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืคื’ืฉ ื–ื”, ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื”ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืœื• ืœื”ื‘ื™ืข ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ื•ืœื”ืฉืžื™ืข ืืช ืงื•ืœื• ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื‘ื˜ื•ื—. ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืžืฉืžืฉ ืขื•ื’ืŸ ืจื’ืฉื™, ืฉื“ืจื›ื• ื ื•ืฆืจ ืฉื™ื— ืื™ืฉื™ ื”ืชื•ืจื ืœืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉืœื•ืžื•ืช ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื. ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžื–ืžื™ื ื” ืืช ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื—ืคืฅ ืžื”ืชื™ื‘ื”. ืืคืฉืจ ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ื–ืžืŸ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ืช. ืื ื–ื” ืžืชืื™ื, ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืชื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืขืฆื•ืžื•ืช.ืฉืืœื•ืช ืฉืžื–ืžื ื•ืช ืฉื™ื— ืจื’ืฉื™ ื•ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ: ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžื”ืกืก, ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืฉื’ื ืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืชืฉืชืฃ ื‘ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื”ื™ื ืขืฆืžื” ื‘ื—ืจื” ื•ืชืกืคืจ ืขืœื™ื• โ€“ ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืชื™ืชืŸ ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื”ืžืขื•ื“ื“ืช ืคืชื™ื—ื•ืช ื•ื”ื“ื“ื™ื•ืช. ื‘ืชื•ื ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ, ื ื ื”ืœ ืฉื™ื— ืžืกื›ื ืงืฆืจ: ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื’ื ืืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ืชืฉืชืฃ ื‘ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืชื™ื” ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืื™ืฉื™. ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ืžื ื™ ื‘ืชื™ื‘ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ืœืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ืขืชื™ื“. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืชืขื“ ืืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืื• ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืคื ืงืก ืื™ืฉื™, ื•ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ื™ื•ืžืŸ ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื™ืฉื™ ืœื›ืœ ื™ืœื“. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜ ืื• ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ื˜ืœืคื•ืŸ ืื• ืžืฆืœืžื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ืฉืžืชืื™ืžื” ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืœืฆืคื™ื™ื” ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืขืœ ืžืกืš ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ (ืœื ื—ื•ื‘ื”) ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ืชืžื•ื ื” ืื—ืช ืื• ืฉืชื™ื™ื ืœืžื–ื›ืจืช ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื“ืจืš ื”ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“. ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืœื“ ืžืฆืœื โ€“ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืžื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื•, ืžื” ื™ืคื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื• ื•ืžื” ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื•. ืชืฆืœื•ื ืคื•ืชื— ืฆื•ื”ืจ ืœืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™. ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ืœืกื™ื•ืจ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืื™ืฉื™ ืขื ื”ื’ื ื ืช:ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื•ืžืจ: "ืชืจืฆื” ืฉื ืฆื ื™ื—ื“ ืœืกื™ื•ืจ ืงืฆืจ ืฉื‘ื• ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœืฆืœื ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™?" "ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžื” ืชื‘ื—ืจ ืœืฆืœื ื”ื™ื•ื (ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘, ืžืฉื”ื• ืžื™ื•ื—ื“, ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืžืจื’ื™ืฉ ืœืš ื—ืฉื•ื‘) "ืืชื” ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ, ืื ื™ ืื—ืจื™ืš, ืžื” ืฉืชื‘ื—ืจ ืœืฆืœื ืื• ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืœื™ื“ื•, ืื ื™ ืื™ืชืš" ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœืขื ื•ื“ ืชื’ ืฆืœื / ืฆืœืžืช, ืœืื—ื•ื– ื‘ืžืฆืœืžื” ืื• ื‘ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜, ื•ืœืฆืืช ืขื ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืœืกื™ื•ืจ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ื•ื”ื—ืฆืจ. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืฆืขื•ื“ ืœืฆื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ืžื•ืงื“ื™ ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ื•, ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ื•ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช.ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืื• ืœื•ืžืจ: "ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืžื” ื‘ื—ืจืช ื“ื•ื•ืงื ืืช ื–ื” ืœืฆืœื? ืชืจืฆื” ืœืกืคืจ ืœื™?" "ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืžืงื•ื ืฉืืชื” ืื•ื”ื‘ ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ื’ืŸ? ืชืจืฆื” ืฉื ืœืš ืœืฉื ื•ืชืฆืœื? "ื™ืฉ ืขื•ื“ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉืชืจืฆื” ืœืฆืœื?" ืืคืฉืจ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืฉืœ ื—ืคืฆื™ื, ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช, ื—ื‘ืจื™ื (ื‘ื”ืกื›ืžื”), ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ื ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื, ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืื•ื”ื‘ ืื• ืจื’ืฉ ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื‘ื˜ื. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื ืฉื‘ ื™ื—ื“ ื•ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืชืฆืœื•ืžื™ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ื ื’ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ืžืกืš ื”ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜.ื ื ื”ืœ ืฉื™ื—ื” ืจื’ื•ืขื”, ืœืœื ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: "ืื™ื–ื” ืชืฆืœื•ื ืืชื” ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ื”ื‘? ืœืžื”?" "ืื™ื–ื” ืชืฆืœื•ื ืชืจืฆื” ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ื•ืœืชืœื•ืช ื‘ื’ืŸ?" "ืื ื”ื™ื™ืช ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืฉื ืœืชืฆืœื•ื ื”ื–ื”, ืื™ืš ื”ื™ื™ืช ืงื•ืจื ืœื•?" "ืžื” ืชืจืฆื” ืฉื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืคืขื ื”ื‘ืื”? ืื•ืœื™ ื ื›ื™ืŸ ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ืงื˜ื ื”?" ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืชืฆืœื•ื ืื—ื“ ืฉื™ื•ื“ืคืก ืœืžื–ื›ืจืช, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ (ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ื’ื ื ืช) ืžืชื—ืชื™ื• ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ื, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: ืฉื ืœืชืฆืœื•ื, ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืงืฆืจ ืื• ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉื”. ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงืช ืฆื™ืœื•ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ืžืชื•ืš ื—ื•ื‘ืจืช 'ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ืช ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœ ื‘ื’ืŸ' ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื“ืจืš ื”ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“. ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืœื“ ืžืฆืœื โ€“ ื”ื•ื ื‘ื•ื—ืจ ืžื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื•, ืžื” ื™ืคื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื• ื•ืžื” ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื•. ืชืฆืœื•ื ืคื•ืชื— ืฆื•ื”ืจ ืœืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™. ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœืฆืืช ืœืกื™ื•ืจ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืื™ืฉื™ ืขื ื”ื’ื ื ืช:ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื•ืžืจ: ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœืขื ื•ื“ ืชื’ ืฆืœื / ืฆืœืžืช, ืœืื—ื•ื– ื‘ืžืฆืœืžื” ืื• ื‘ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜, ื•ืœืฆืืช ืขื ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืœืกื™ื•ืจ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื’ืŸ ื•ื”ื—ืฆืจ. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœืฆืขื•ื“ ืœืฆื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืœื“, ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ืžื•ืงื“ื™ ื”ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ื•, ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ื•ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช.ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืื• ืœื•ืžืจ: ืืคืฉืจ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืฉืœ ื—ืคืฆื™ื, ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช, ื—ื‘ืจื™ื (ื‘ื”ืกื›ืžื”), ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ื ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื, ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืื•ื”ื‘ ืื• ืจื’ืฉ ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื‘ื˜ื. ื ืฉื‘ ื™ื—ื“ ื•ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืชืฆืœื•ืžื™ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ื ื’ื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ืžืกืš ื”ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜.ื ื ื”ืœ ืฉื™ื—ื” ืจื’ื•ืขื”, ืœืœื ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”: ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืชืฆืœื•ื ืื—ื“ ืฉื™ื•ื“ืคืก ืœืžื–ื›ืจืช, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ (ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื”ื’ื ื ืช) ืžืชื—ืชื™ื• ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ื, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: ืฉื ืœืชืฆืœื•ื, ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืงืฆืจ ืื• ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉื”. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ื˜ืื‘ืœื˜ ืื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ ืืœื‘ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืื•ืžื ื•ืช ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™, ืœื—ืœื•ืคื™ืŸ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื“ืคื™ืก ืืช ื”ืืœื‘ื•ื ื•ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกื™ื•ืช (ื’ื•ื“ืœ ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœื”ื“ืคืกื”: A4) ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ืื™ื ื˜ื™ืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื ื ืช ื•ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ, ื”ืžืชืืจ ืกื™ื˜ื•ืืฆื™ื•ืช ืจื’ืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืœืขื•ืœืžื•, ืžืืคืฉืจืช ื”ื‘ืขื” ื•ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉื™ื— ืจื’ืฉื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ืงืฉื‘ื”. ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืคื™ืขื•ืช ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืœืขื•ืจืจ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžืกื™ื˜ื•ืืฆื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื-ื™ื•ื. ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžื•ื–ืžื ืช ืืฃ ื”ื™ื ืœืฉืชืฃ ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืชื™ื”. ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื“ืคื“ืฃ ื‘ืืœื‘ื•ื, ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืžื“ื•ืข ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื–ื”. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ื•ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: ืžื™ ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ? ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ืŸ ื ืžืฆืื•ืช? ืžื” ื”ืŸ ืขื•ืฉื•ืช? ืžื” ื”ืŸ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช? ื”ืื ื”ืŸ ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืš ืžืฉื”ื•? ืื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื’ื ืœืฉื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื•ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชืื™ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื•ืœืฉื•ื—ื—. ื’ื ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืžื“ื•ืข ื‘ื—ืจื” ื‘ื• ื•ืื™ืœื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืžืขื•ืจืจ ืืฆืœื”. ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืกืคืจ ืœืžื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืžื” ืœื‘ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ ืฉื™ืชืฃ ื•ืชื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœืกืคืจ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉื ืœื‘ ืืœื™ื• ืžื”ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืฉืœื”. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ื”ืชื‘ื•ื ื ื•ืช ืื™ื ื˜ื™ืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื ื ืช ื•ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ, ื”ืžืชืืจ ืกื™ื˜ื•ืืฆื™ื•ืช ืจื’ืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืœืขื•ืœืžื•, ืžืืคืฉืจืช ื”ื‘ืขื” ื•ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืฉื™ื— ืจื’ืฉื™ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ื”ืงืฉื‘ื”. ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืคื™ืขื•ืช ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืœืขื•ืจืจ ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžืกื™ื˜ื•ืืฆื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื-ื™ื•ื. ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืžื•ื–ืžื ืช ืืฃ ื”ื™ื ืœืฉืชืฃ ื‘ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืชื™ื”. ื ืฆื™ืข ืœื™ืœื“ ืœื“ืคื“ืฃ ื‘ืืœื‘ื•ื, ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืžื“ื•ืข ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื–ื”. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ื ืŸ ื™ื—ื“ื™ื• ื•ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: ืžื™ ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ? ื”ื™ื›ืŸ ื”ืŸ ื ืžืฆืื•ืช? ืžื” ื”ืŸ ืขื•ืฉื•ืช? ืžื” ื”ืŸ ื—ื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช? ื”ืื ื”ืŸ ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืš ืžืฉื”ื•? ืื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื’ื ืœืฉื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื•ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืื ื™ืฉ ืฉื ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืชืื™ื. ืืคืฉืจ ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื•ืœืฉื•ื—ื—. ื’ื ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื•ืœืกืคืจ ืžื“ื•ืข ื‘ื—ืจื” ื‘ื• ื•ืื™ืœื• ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืžืขื•ืจืจ ืืฆืœื”. ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืชืกืคืจ ืœืžื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืžื” ืœื‘ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ ืฉื™ืชืฃ ื•ืชื–ืžื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ืœืกืคืจ ืžืฉื”ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืฉื ืœื‘ ืืœื™ื• ืžื”ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืฉืœื”. ืžื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ? ืžืจื—ื‘ ื ืขื™ื ื•ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืœืฉื™ื— ืฉืงื˜ ื‘ื’ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ืกืœืกื™ืœื”, ืชื™ื‘ื” ืื• ื›ืœื™ ืื™ืกื•ืฃ ืื—ืจ โ€“ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ื—ืจื• ืœื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื‘ื’ืŸ, ื›ื—ืœืง ืžืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ (ืื•ืคืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ ื•ืœืคื™ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืœื“) ื—ืคืฅ ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื ื ืช ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคื ืงืก ืื™ืฉื™ ืœื’ื ื ืช โ€“ ืœืชื™ืขื•ื“ ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื, ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช, ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืชื•ื‘ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืฉื™ื— ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ ืžื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ ืœืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ื“ืจืš ืคืจื™ื˜ ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ ื‘ืขืœ ืขืจืš.ื”ื—ืคืฅ ืžืฉืžืฉ ืขื•ื’ืŸ ืจื’ืฉื™ ืฉื“ืจื›ื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงืฉืจ ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ืฉื™ื— ื›ื ื” ื•ืคืชื•ื—. ื ืฉื‘ ืขื ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืงื˜ ื•ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื•ื ืฉืืœ: "ืกืคืจ ืœื™ ืžื” ื”ื‘ืืช ื”ื™ื•ื?" "ืžื“ื•ืข ื‘ื—ืจืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ื•ืงื ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื–ื”?" ื”ื™ื” ืœืš ืงืฉื” ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ? ื”ืื ืจืฆื™ืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืขื•ื“ ืžืฉื”ื•? ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžื”ืกืก ืื• ืžืชืงืฉื” ืœื”ื™ืคืชื—, ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื–ื• ืฉืคื•ืชื—ืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ื‘ืขืฆืžื” ืขืœ ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื‘ื—ืจื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื. ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ื•ื”ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ, ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื•ืœื”ืขืžื™ืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉืืœื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช: "ืื™ืš ื”ืจื’ืฉืช ื›ืฉื‘ื—ืจืช ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ืœื’ืŸ?" "ื”ืื ื™ืฉ ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืžืชื—ื‘ื ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ื—ืคืฅ?" "ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื ืชืŸ ืœืš ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื–ื”? ืœื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืžื”?" "ื™ืฉ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืžื›ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื–ื”?" ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ: "ืืชื” ื–ื•ื›ืจ ืžื” ืกื™ืคืจืช ืœืš ืขืœ ื”ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื”ื‘ืืชื™? ืื ื™ ื’ื ืืกืคืจ ืœืš ืžื” ืื ื™ ื–ื•ื›ืจืช ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืกื™ืคืจืช ืœื™." "ื”ื™ื™ืช ืจื•ืฆื” ื‘ืคืขื ื”ื‘ืื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืขื•ื“ ื—ืคืฅ? " ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื‘ื’ืŸ ืœืคืจืง ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ โ€“ ืœืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืกืœืกื™ืœื” ืื• ื‘ืชื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื•. ื›ื“ืื™ ืœืชืขื“ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื—ื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ืขื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื” ื“ืจืš ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช, ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ื•ืจืฉืžื™ื ืฉืขืœื• โ€“ ื•ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ืžืŸ ืื™ืฉื™ ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืœื›ืœ ื™ืœื“ . ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืชืช ื”ื™ื•ืžืŸ ื›ืžืชื ืช ืกื™ื•ื ืœื™ืœื“. ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืœื”ื•ืจื“ื” ืฉื™ื— ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื”ื™ืœื“ ืžื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ืžืืคืฉืจ ืœื• ืœื”ืชื—ื‘ืจ ืœืขื•ืœืžื• ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ ื“ืจืš ืคืจื™ื˜ ืžื•ื—ืฉื™ ื‘ืขืœ ืขืจืš.ื”ื—ืคืฅ ืžืฉืžืฉ ืขื•ื’ืŸ ืจื’ืฉื™ ืฉื“ืจื›ื• ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงืฉืจ ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ืฉื™ื— ื›ื ื” ื•ืคืชื•ื—. ื ืฉื‘ ืขื ื”ื™ืœื“ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ืฉืงื˜ ื•ื ืขื™ื ื‘ื’ืŸ ืื• ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื•ื ืฉืืœ: ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžื”ืกืก ืื• ืžืชืงืฉื” ืœื”ื™ืคืชื—, ื”ื’ื ื ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื–ื• ืฉืคื•ืชื—ืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ื‘ืขืฆืžื” ืขืœ ื—ืคืฅ ืฉื‘ื—ืจื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ื•ื”ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ, ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื•ืœื”ืขืžื™ืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉืืœื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช: ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉืื•ืœ: ืื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื”ื•ื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื‘ื’ืŸ ืœืคืจืง ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ โ€“ ืœืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืกืœืกื™ืœื” ืื• ื‘ืชื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ื•ืœืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื•. ื›ื“ืื™ ืœืชืขื“ ืืช ื”ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื—ื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคื’ืฉื™ื ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ืขื ื”ื™ืœื“ ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื” ื“ืจืš ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช, ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ื•ืจืฉืžื™ื ืฉืขืœื• โ€“ ื•ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ืžืŸ ืื™ืฉื™ ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืœื›ืœ ื™ืœื“ . ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืชืช ื”ื™ื•ืžืŸ ื›ืžืชื ืช ืกื™ื•ื ืœื™ืœื“. ื’ื ื™ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื•ืžืขื•ื ื•ืช ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 6969]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื ื”ื“ืจืš ืฉืœ ืžืกื’ืจืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ โ€“ ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืื• ืงื‘ื•ืฆื”, ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืžื™ ืฉืžืขืฉื™ื”ื ื—ื•ืจื’ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืžื”ื ื•ื”ื’ื™ื ืื• ื”ื ื•ืจืžื•ืช ืฉื ืงื‘ืขื• ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื—ื‘ืจื” ืื• ืืจื’ื•ืŸ, ื•ืžืขื•ื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ืง ืื• ื‘ืชืงื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”, ืื• ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืœื ืคื•ืจืžืœื™. ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš, ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืชืžืžืฉ ื›ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœื—ืจื™ื’ื” ืžื’ื‘ื•ืœ ืžืกื•ื™ื, ืื•ืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื‘ ื”ืžื—ื ืš. ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื ืคื’ื™ืขื” ืžื“ื•ื“ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ื‘ืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื—ืจื’ื• ืžื ื•ืจืžื•ืช ื”ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืื” ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœืคืฉืข ืื• ืœื”ืคืจืช ื”ื ื•ืจืžื•ืช. ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘, ืฉื‘ื”ื™ืขื“ืจ ืขื ื™ืฉื”, ืชื“ื•ืจื“ืจ ื›ืœ ื—ื‘ืจื” ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ืœื›ืื•ืก ืžื•ื—ืœื˜. ื‘ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืชื™ืช (ืขืœ ืคื™ ื’ื™ืฉืช ืคืจื“ืจื™ืง ืกืงื™ื ืจ) ืžื•ื’ื“ืจ ืขื•ื ืฉ ื›ืชืžืจื™ืฅ ืฉืœื™ืœื™, ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื’ื™ืจื•ื™ ืœื ืจืฆื•ื™ ืฉื‘ื ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”, ื•ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ื”ื ืขื” ืœื”ืคื—ืชืช ืชื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ื”ืœื ืจืฆื•ื™ื” (ืขื“ ืœื”ื›ื—ื“ื”). ืœืขื•ืžืชื•, ื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ื”ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ืคืขื•ืœืช ื”ื ืขื” ื›ืชืžืจื™ืฅ ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™, ื‘ื• ืžื‘ื•ืฆืขืช ืคืขื•ืœื” ื”ืคื•ื›ื” ืžืขื ื™ืฉื”, ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ื•ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืจืฆื•ื™ื”. ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื”ืŸ ื‘ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื™ืฉื ื” ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืžื•ืฉื ื”ืคืขื•ืœื”. ื”ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื™ื‘ืชื™ื•ืช. ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ืขื‘ื™ืจื”, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื ื•ื‘ืขืช ืืš ื•ืจืง ืžืฉืจื™ืจื•ืช ืจืฆื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืชืขืœืœ. ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืžืชื™ื™ืžืจืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช, ื•ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื›ืœืœ, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื‘ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช, ื”ืคื•ื’ืข ืื™ื ื• ืžื—ืคืฉ ืฆื™ื“ื•ืง ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ ืœืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืžื•ืฉื ื”ื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช. ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืชืขืœืœื•ืช ื”ื•ื ื“ืง ืžืื•ื“ ื•ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช. ืกืžื›ื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื”ืจื—ื‘, ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ืชื‘ืฆืข ื’ื ืœืœื ืกืžื›ื•ืช (ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืื“ื ื ื•ื˜ืœ ืœืขืฆืžื• ืืช ืกืžื›ื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื”), ืืš ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ื•ืช, ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืžื•ื’ื“ืจืช ืจืง ื›ื›ื–ื• ื”ืžื‘ื•ืฆืขืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื’ื•ืจื ืžื•ืกืžืš. ืฉืชื™ ืžืกื’ืจื•ืช ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ื”ืงื•ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ ื ื™ืชื ื” ืกืžื›ื•ืช ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืŸ: ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืŸ ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช, ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื•ืœืฃ ืžืจื’ืข ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืขื“ ืœื–ืžืŸ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืืจื•ืš ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื”. ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžื‘ื•ืฆืขืช ืžื™ื“ ืœืื—ืจ, ืื• ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืžื•ืขื“ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื”. ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ืขืœ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช ืชื”ื™ื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช ืฉืจื™ืจื•ืชื™ืช ื•ืื™ื ื” ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ื”ื ืžืงื” ืžืจื•ื‘ื” (ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ืช). ืžืงืจื™ื ืคืจื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช ื”ื: ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ืช, ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ, ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ื›ืœื ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ืžืกื’ืจื•ืช ืฆื‘ืื™ื•ืช ืื• ืืฃ ื“ืชื™ื•ืช. ื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ืŸ ืœืžืฉืžืขืช ืžืฉืœื‘ ืืช ืฉื ื™ ื›ืœื™ ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื”: ื”ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ื™ื ืžืกื’ืจืช ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ืช ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ืœืžื˜ืจื” ื–ื•, ื•ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืžื™ืจืช ื”ืžืฉืžืขืช. ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืืžื•ืจื” ืœื”ืจืชื™ืข ืืช ืžืคืจ ื”ื›ืœืœื™ื ืžืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ื•ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ืžืขืฉื”ื• ืคืขื ื ื•ืกืคืช, ื•ืืฃ ืœืฉืžืฉ ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืœื”ืจืชืขืช ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื ื™ื ืคื•ื˜ื ืฆื™ืืœื™ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื. ืกื™ื‘ื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืœืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืฆื“ืง ื”ืื™ื ื˜ื•ืื™ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื’ื•ืจืกืช ืฉื™ืฉ ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืฉืงื•ืœื” ืœืžื™ื“ืช ื”ื ื–ืง ืฉื’ืจื ืœื—ื‘ืจื”. ื ื•ื”ื’ ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื™ื—ืกื™ืช ืœื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื”. ืื ื›ื™ ื ืชื•ืŸ ื–ื” ืžืฉืชื ื” ืžืžืงื•ื ืœืžืงื•ื ื•ืžืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืื—ืช ืœืื—ืจืช, ื•ื–ืืช ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืคืฉืข, ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื•ืกืจ ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื—ื‘ืจื” ืื—ืช ืœืื—ืจืช. ืœืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช. ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืืคืฉืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืŸ: ืžื˜ืจืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉืžื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืฆื™ื™ืชื ื™ืช ื‘ื”ืงืฉืจ ืœื›ืœืœื™ื ืฉืจื™ืจื•ืชื™ื™ื ืฉื ืงื‘ืขื• ืžืจืืฉ ืื• ืœื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื›ืœืฉื”ืŸ. ื”ืคืจืช ื›ืœืœ ืฉื ืงื‘ืข ืชื’ืจื•ืจ ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฉืžื˜ืจืชื” ืžื ื™ืขืช ื”ืคืจื” ืขืชื™ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœืœื™ื. ืื™-ืฆื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื ื—ื™ื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื“ื™ื ื• ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื–ื”ื” ืœื”ืคืจืช ื›ืœืœ ืงื™ื™ื. ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจืช ืืฆืœ ื”ืื“ื ื”ื ืขื ืฉ ื–ื™ืงื” ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ืื™-ืฆื™ื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื ืฉ, ื•ืžื˜ืจืชื” ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžืžื ื• ืืช ื”ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœื”ืคืจื” ืขืชื™ื“ื™ืช. ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขื•ืฆืžืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืžืฉืžืขืชื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื”ืจื‘ื” ืžื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ื”ืคืจื”, ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืžืงื˜ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ืœืื™-ืฆื™ื•ืช ืขืชื™ื“ื™ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืคื—ื“ ื›ื’ื•ืจื ืžื ื™ืข. ืกื•ื’ื™ ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช ืœืคื™ ืฆื•ืจืช ืกื™ื•ื•ื’ ื–ื•: ื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ (ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ืช) ื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื’ื“ืœื”, ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ, ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื”. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ืช ื ืงื‘ืขืช ื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉืœื‘ื™ื, ื•ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ื ื•ืฉื ืœื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืขืจ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ื•ื‘ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื—ื‘: ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžืชืงื™ื™ื ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉืืœืช ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ืฉื™ื™ื ืชืŸ ืœืฉื•ืคื˜ ื‘ืืฉืจ ืœื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื”. ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื—ื•ืง ื”ืคืœื™ืœื™ ืงื•ื‘ืข ืœืจื•ื‘ ืขื•ื ืฉื™ ืžืงืกื™ืžื•ื, ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืขื•ื ืฉื™ื ื‘ื—ื•ืžืจื” ืžื’ื•ื•ื ืช ืžืื•ื“. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื” โ€“ ื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืงื•ื‘ืข ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžืจื‘ื™ ืฉืœ 20 ืฉื ื•ืช ืžืืกืจ ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ ื”ืจื™ื’ื” ื•ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ืจืฉืื™ ืœื’ื–ื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ื“ื•ืŸ ื›ืœ ืชืงื•ืคืช ืžืืกืจ ืฉืœื ืชืขืœื” ืขืœ 20 ืฉื ื™ื (ื‘ื”ื ื—ื” ืฉืœื ื ืงื‘ืข ืจืฃ ืชื—ืชื•ืŸ). ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90, ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ืขืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื™ืงืฃ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ื‘ืขืช ื”ื˜ืœืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ, ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื ืžืฆื ืฉืœืขื™ืชื™ื ื ื’ื–ืจื™ื ืขื•ื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืขืœ ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื•ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1997 ืคื•ืจืกื ื“ื•"ื— ื•ืขื“ืช ื’ื•ืœื“ื‘ืจื’ (ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ืœื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื“ืจื›ื™ ื”ื”ื‘ื ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ ื‘ื’ื–ื™ืจืช ื”ื“ื™ืŸ), ืฉืžื•ื ืชื” ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื‘ื—ื•ืŸ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื ื—ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื•ืื ืœื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืขื•ื ืฉื™ื. ืจื•ื‘ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ืฉื”ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ื’ื–ื™ืจืช ื“ื™ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” "ืขืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืœื™ืžื”" โ€“ ืฉื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื™ื”ืœื•ื ืืช ื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ื”ืคืœื™ืœื™ืช (ื‘ื›ืš ืชืžื›ื” ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื‘ื’ืžื•ืœ ื›ืžื˜ืจื” ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ืฉื”). ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืžืฉ ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ื–ื”, ื”ื•ืฆืข ืฉื™ืงื‘ืข ื‘ื—ื•ืง "ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžื•ืฆื" ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืœ ืขื‘ื™ืจื”, ื•ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื—ืจื•ื’ ืžืžื ื• ืจืง ื‘ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืžื—ืžื™ืจื•ืช ืื• ืžืงืœื•ืช ืฉื™ืคื•ืจื˜ื• ื‘ื—ื•ืง. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2006 ื”ื•ื ื—ื” ืขืœ ืฉื•ืœื—ืŸ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ืฆืขืช ื—ื•ืง ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ืช ืฉื‘ื™ืงืฉื” ืœื™ื™ืฉื ืืช ื”ืžืœืฆื•ืช ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื”, ืืš ืœื ื ืขืฉืชื” ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื—ืงื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืขืช ื”ื—ื•ืง. ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ื” ืชื•ืงืŸ ื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ (ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ืžืก' 113 ื ื›ื ืก ืœืชื•ืงืฃ ื‘ื™ื•ื 10 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 2012). ื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ (ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ืžืก' 113), ื”ืชืฉืข"ื‘โ€“2012, ื”ื•ื ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ื‘ืืฉืจ ืœืื•ืคืŸ ื’ื–ื™ืจืช ื“ื™ื ื• ืฉืœ ื ืืฉื. ืฉื›ืŸ, ืžื˜ืจืชื• โ€“ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ ื‘ืขื ื™ืฉื”. ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืžื˜ืจื” ื–ื•, ื•ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืœืฉื•ืŸ ืก' 40ื ืœื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ, ืงื‘ืข ื”ืžื—ื•ืงืง ืืช ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื ื”ืžื ื—ื™ื ื‘ืขื ื™ืฉื”. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ืืช ื”ืžืฉืงืœ ืฉื™ืฉ ืœืชืช ืœื”ื ื•ืืช ื”ื™ื—ืก ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื. ื–ืืช, ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืฉื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื™ืงื‘ืข ืืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืžืชืื™ื ืœื ืืฉื ื‘ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื”. ื”ืžื—ื•ืงืง ืžื‘ืงืฉ ื‘ื›ืš, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ, ืœื”ืขื ื™ืฉ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืขืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ื—ื•ืงื™ื•ืช ืืฉืจ ืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ื‘ืกื™ืก ื“ื™ื ื™ ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ ื•ืœืคื™ื• ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ืœืขื ื™ืฉื” ืœื ืื—ื™ื“ื”. ื”ืžื—ื•ืงืง ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ืกื“ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืœื™ืš ืงื‘ื™ืขืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื”ืž"ืฉ ื‘ื—ื•ืง ื›ืš ืฉืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืžืงืจื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ืฆืขื• ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ื“ื•ืžื” ื™ืงื‘ืœื• ืขื•ื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”. ื”ืžื—ื•ืงืง ืงื‘ืข ืืช ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื ืฉื™ื ื—ื• ืืช ื‘ื™ื”ืž"ืฉ ื‘ืงื‘ื™ืขืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื•ืืช ืžืฉืงืœื ื”ื™ื—ืกื™, ื‘ืกื™ืžืŸ ื'1 ืœื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ "ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื”ื“ืขืช ื”ืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื™ ื‘ืขื ื™ืฉื”". ืกืขื™ืคื™ื 40ื-40ื™ื“ ืœื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ ืžื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉืœื‘ื™ื ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ื‘ื’ื–ื™ืจืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ืขืœ ื”ื ืืฉื: ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ โ€“ ืงื‘ื™ืขืช ืžืชื—ื ื”ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœืคื™ ืกืขื™ืคื™ื 40ื-40ื’. ืขืœ ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ืžืชื—ื ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ื”ื•ืœื ืืช ืžืขืฉื” ื”ื ืืฉื ืœืคื™ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืงืจื™ื˜ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื: ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉื ื™ โ€“ ื—ืจื™ื’ื” ืžืžืชื—ื ื”ื”ืœื™ืžื”. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ืงื‘ืข ื”ืžืชื—ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ืœืคื™ ืขืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืœื™ืžื”, ืจืฉืื™ ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ืœื—ืจื•ื’ ืžืžืชื—ื ื”ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืชื—ืช ืฉื ื™ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื: ื”ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ โ€“ ืงื‘ื™ืขืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืชื—ื ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื”. ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ ืงื•ื‘ืข ืืช ืขื•ื ืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ื ืืฉื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืžืชื—ื ืœืคื™ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื ื”ืžื—ืžื™ืจื™ื ืื• ืžืงืœื™ื ื‘ืขื•ื ืฉื•. ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื›ืืžืฆืขื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืขื•ื ืฉ ืžื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืคื—ืชื” ื‘ื”ืชื ื”ื’ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช, ื™ืฉื ืŸ ืžืกืคืจ ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื• ื›ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš: ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืชื "ืš, ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืื“ื ื•ื—ื•ื” ืฉื”ื™ืžืจื• ืืช ืคื™ ื”ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ื•ืื›ืœื• ืžืขืฅ ื”ื“ืขืช. ืขื•ื ืฉื ื”ื™ื” ืกื™ืœื•ืงื ืžื’ืŸ ืขื“ืŸ. ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžื•ืงื“ื ืื—ืจ ื”ืžืชื•ืืจ ื‘ืชื "ืš โ€“ ืขื ื™ืฉืชื• ืฉืœ ืงื™ืŸ, ื‘ืขื•ื•ืŸ ืจืฆื— ืื—ื™ื•, ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื’ืœื™ื™ืชื• ืžืžืงื•ื ืžื•ืฉื‘ื• ื•ื”ืคื™ื›ืชื• ืœ"ื ืข ื•ื ื“". ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉื™ืจื•ืช, ื›ืžื• ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืงื•ืœืก ืฉืขื•ื ืฉื• ื”ื™ื” ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื ื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืžืชืคืจื” ืœืฆื™ื“ืŸ ืฉืœ ื ืฉื™ื ื›ื”ืฉืคืœื” ืœื›ื•ื—ื• ื”ืจื‘. ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ื—ืจื™ื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืคืฉืข ื—ืžื•ืจ ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื›ืžื• ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื”, ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืœื”ื•ืจื’, ืื• ืฉื™ืœื—ื• ืœื’ืœื•ืช. ืขื•ื ืฉ ื”ื”ื’ืœื™ื” ื”ื™ื” ื—ืžื•ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืื“ื ืฉื”ื•ื’ืœื” ืžืช ื‘ื’ืœื•ืช ืžื—ื•ืกืจ ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœืงื™ื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื•. ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื”ื™ื” ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจืงื™ืกืžื•ืก (ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื›ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ื—ืจืกื™ื), ืื—ืช ืœืฉื ื”, ืื–ืจื—ื™ ืืชื•ื ื” ื‘ื—ืจื• ืœืœื ื›ืœ ื”ืืฉืžื” ืื• ืžืฉืคื˜, ืื“ื ืฉืกืจ ื—ื™ื ื• ื‘ืขื™ื ื, ื•ืจืฉืžื• ืืช ืฉืžื• ืขืœ ืฉื‘ืจื• ืฉืœ ื—ืจืก ื•ืžื™ ืฉ"ื–ื›ื”" ื‘ืžืจื‘ ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ื™ื•ืฆื ืœื’ืœื•ืช ืœืžืฉืš 10 ืฉื ื™ื. ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืงืฉื”. ืขื•ื ืฉื™ ืžื•ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืžืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืœืื” ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ืงื“, ืชืœื™ื™ื”, ืกืงื™ืœื”, ืžื•ื•ืช ื‘ืขื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื•ื›ื•', ื”ื™ื• ื ืคื•ืฆื•ืช ืžืื•ื“. ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืฉืคืœื” ื‘ื•ืฆืขื” ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื–ืคืช ื•ื ื•ืฆื•ืช ื•ืงืฉื™ืจื” ืืœ ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืงืœื•ืŸ. ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ื•ืฉืคืขื• ืžืื•ื“ ืžื”ืžืžืกื“ ื”ื“ืชื™ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™, ื•ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื, ืžืŸ ื”ืžืžืกื“ ื”ื“ืชื™ ื”ืžื•ืกืœืžื™. ื‘ื–ืžื ื™ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ื ื”ื ื”ื•ื’ื™ื ื”ื, ืงื ืก, ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉื™ืจื•ืช, ืžืืกืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกื•ื”ืจ ื•ืืฃ ื”ื•ืฆืื” ืœื”ื•ืจื’. ืกื•ื’ ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžืฉืชื ื” ืžืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœื—ื•ืžืจืช ื”ืคืฉืข. ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืชื—ื–ืงื• ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืจื•ืื•ืช ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื”ืคืœื™ืœื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ื ื–ืง ืžืืฉืจ ืชื•ืขืœืช (ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ "ืื‘ื•ืœื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื–ื"), ืื•ืœื ืืœื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืชืคืกื•ืช ื›ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื•ืช ื•ืœื ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืžืกืคื™ืง ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื•. ืขื ื™ืฉื” ืืฆืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืขื ื™ืฉื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื’ื ืืฆืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช, ื•ืžืฉืžืฉืช ืœื”ืฉืœื˜ืช ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืื• ื”ืœื”ืงื”, ืื• ื›ืกื ืงืฆื™ื” ืขืงื‘ ื”ืคืจืช ื”ื ื•ืจืžื•ืช ื”ื ื”ื•ื’ื•ืช ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื”. [ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืžืงื•ืจ] ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ื ืฉ ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื ื•ืข ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ื™ื“ื•ื™ ืžื”ืงื‘ื•ืฆื”, ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืคื’ื™ืขื” ืคื™ื–ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉ ืฉื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœื’ืจื•ื ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืžื•ื•ืช. ืขื•ื ืฉ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื”ืขื ืฉื” ื›ืฆืขื“ ื™ื–ื•ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื’ื•ืจื ื”ื“ืŸ ื‘ืžืขืฉื” ื•ืžื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืฉ, ืžืงื•ื‘ืœืช ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื•ืช ืœืขื•ื ืฉ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ โ€“ ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื ื•ื‘ืขืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ืžืžืขืฉื” ืฉืœื™ืœื™ ืžืกื•ื™ื. ื–ืœื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžืžืชืงื™ื, ืœืžืฉืœ, ืžื‘ื™ืื” ืœืขื•ื ืฉ ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื‘ื“ืžื•ืช ืขืฉืฉืช ื•ื”ืฉืžื ื”. ืจืื• ื’ื ืœืงืจื™ืื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/ai-education/] | [TOKENS: 1864]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื AI ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืš - ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืื’ืคื™ ื”ื’ื™ืœ ื•ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ื“ืขืช ืณื‘ื’ืŸ ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ื ื”ืณ โ€“ ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ื”ืจืš ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ืขืœ-ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืื’ืจ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืœืžื™ื“ื” AI ืœืžื•ืจื” ืื•ืกืฃ ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืœื™ื™ืขื•ืœ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื”, ื”ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื•ื”ื”ืขืจื›ื” ื‘ื›ื™ืชื”. ืœื›ืœ ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช AI ืื•ืกืฃ ืขืจื›ื•ืช ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื™ื“ืข ืคื“ื’ื•ื’ื™, ื˜ื™ืคื™ื ืžื”ืฉื˜ื— ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฉื•ื ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ื”ื•ืจืื”. ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ืœื”ื•ืจืืช ื—ืงืจ ื‘ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื›ืœื™ AI | ืคื“ื’ื•ื’ื™ื” ืจื•ื•ื™ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช |ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืขืจื›ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™: ืœื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ื›ื•ื•ืจืช | ืœื’ืจืกื” ื”ื ื’ื™ืฉื” ืงืžืคื•ืก IL: ืงื•ืจืก ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื›ืขื•ื–ืจ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืขื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืœื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช ื›ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืชืžื”ื™ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื“ืข, ื”ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช, ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ื•ื”ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื”ื ื“ืจืฉื•ืช ืœืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื•ืœืฉื’ืฉื’ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืจื•ื•ื™ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช.ื”ื—ืœ ืžืชืฉืค"ื”, ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืชื˜ืžื™ืข "ืžื—ื•ื•ื ื™ ื›ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช" ื”ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื™ื“ืข, ืืชื™ืงื” ื•ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืœื™ื‘ื” ืœืฉื’ืฉื•ื’ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™.ืžื—ื•ื•ื ื™ ื›ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื”-AI ื”ื ืžืคืช ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืžื•ืชืืžืช ื’ื™ืœ ื•ืชืคืงื™ื“, ื”ืžื’ื“ื™ืจื” ื™ืขื“ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื•ืžื“ื“ื™ื ืœืฉื’ืฉื•ื’ ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™. ื‘ื™ื ื” ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื: ืžืคืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ ื”ื“ืจื›ื” ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื•ื ื•ื•ื˜ื• ื‘ืžืคื” ืžืคืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช | ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ: ืื ื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” | ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ: ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื | ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ืงื™ื• | ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขื ืงื™ื• | ื”ืงืœื˜ืช ื”ื•ื•ื‘ื™ื ืจ ืกืจื˜ื•ื ื™ื ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ ืžืžืœื›ืชื™: ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ | ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื | ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ื” ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”ื—ืž"ื“: ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ | ืขืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžืคืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช | ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ: ืื ื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื” | ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ: ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื | ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ืงื™ื• | ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขื ืงื™ื• | ื”ืงืœื˜ืช ื”ื•ื•ื‘ื™ื ืจ ืžืžืœื›ืชื™: ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ | ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื | ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ื” ืขืœื™ื•ื ื”ื—ืž"ื“: ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ | ืขืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžื•ืงื“ ื‘ื™ื ื” ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ื”ื•ืจืื”: ื”ืงื™ืฉื• 1 ื•ืื– 6ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื: ื”ืงื™ืฉื• 2 ื•ืื– 5 ืฉืขื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช: ื'-ื”': 07:30โ€“17:00 | ื•': 07:30โ€“13:00. ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืจื™ืืœื™ืช ื›ืœื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืขืžืง] | [TOKENS: 586]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืขืžืง ืขึตืžึถืง ืื• ื’ื™ื ื”ื•ื ืื–ื•ืจ ื’ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ ื”ื ืžื•ืš ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื•, ื•ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ืžื•ืงืฃ ื‘ื”ืจื™ื ื•ื’ื‘ืขื•ืช. ื’ื•ื“ืœื• ื ืข ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืžื” ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืขื™ื ืœืžืื•ืช ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืืœืคื™ื ืฉืœ ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืขื™ื. ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ื ื’ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ื™ื ื”ืžื‘ื™ืื™ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื•ื•ืฆืจื•ืชื ืฉืœ ืขืžืงื™ื: ืขืžืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ึดึผืงึฐืขึธื” (ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื: ื‘ึฐึผืงึธืขื•ึนืช), ื•ืื™ืœื• ืขืžืง ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื–ืจื™ืžืช ืžื™ื ื•ืจื•ื—ื‘ื• ื•ื’ื•ื‘ื”ื• ืื™ื ื• ืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื˜ืจื™ื, ื ืงืจื ืขึธืจื•ึผืฅ. ื’ื ืœื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ืœื›ืช ืžื•ืฆืงื™ื ื•ืœื™ืจื—ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™-ืฉื˜ื— ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืขืžืงื™ื. ืขืžืงื™ื ืืœื• ื”ื ืœืจื•ื‘ ืขืžืงื™ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืข ืื• ืฉื”ื ืžืฉืชื™ื™ื›ื™ื ืœืฉืชื™ ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืขืžืงื™ื ืฉืขืœ ืคื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืืจืฅ ืœื ืฉื•ืจื“ื•ืช ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ื‘ืฉืœ ืกื—ื™ืคืช ืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจื•ื—ื•ืช ื•ื”ื’ืฉืžื™ื: ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-291] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/teaching-practices/] | [TOKENS: 815]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื•ืช ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ื•ืจืื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ื•ืจืื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช ืžืชืืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ื ืžื•ืฉืชืชืช ืขืœ ืžืชืŸ ืžืขื ื” ืื™ืฉื™ ืœื›ืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื”, ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื•ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื›ื™ืชื”. ื›ืœ ื–ื” ื ืขืฉื” ืœืฆื“ ื—ืชื™ืจื” ืžืชืžื“ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืจื” ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื•ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ืช. ืœืคื ื™ื›ื ืžืื’ืจ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืงื“ืžื•ืช ื”ื•ืจืื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช. ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืฉืื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ืื—ืช ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช. ืขืœ ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉืชืฉืจืช ืืช ืฆืจื›ื™ ื”ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืกืคืฆื™ืคื™ื™ื, ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“, ื”ื›ื™ืชื”, ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื•ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื”. ืื™ืชื•ืจ ืคืจืงื˜ื™ืงื” ืžื—ื•ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื›ืœ ืชืœืžื™ื“ ื•ืชืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื•ื‘ื”ื•ืจืืชื• ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื›ืœื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ืงืฆืจื” ืœ... ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-293] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-294] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/tomorrow-momentum/] | [TOKENS: 989]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื‘ื—ืŸ "ืชื ื•ืคื” ืœืžื—ืจ" ืžื‘ื—ืŸ "ืชื ื•ืคื” ืœืžื—ืจ" ืžื˜ืขื ืจืืž"ื”, ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื›ื™ืชื•ืช ื˜' ื™ื•ืฉืง ื‘ืฉื ืช ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื ืชืฉืค"ื•. ื”ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ืขืจื™ืš ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจื‘ืข ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื: ืื•ืจื™ื™ื ื•ืช ืžื™ื“ืข ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืชื™ืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื™ืช ืื•ืจื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื”ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื™ืชืงื™ื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ืœืคื•ื ื™ื ื ื™ื™ื“ื™ื ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ืื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ.ืœื”ืœืŸ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ื•ืจืื” ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื”ืžืงื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื•ืช ื‘ืžื‘ื—ืŸ "ืชื ื•ืคื” ืœืžื—ืจ", ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ื“ืขืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื. ืžื‘ื—ืŸ "ืชื ื•ืคื” ืœืžื—ืจ" ืžื˜ืขื ืจืืž"ื”, ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื›ื™ืชื•ืช ื˜' ื™ื•ืฉืง ื‘ืฉื ืช ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื ืชืฉืค"ื•. ื”ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ืขืจื™ืš ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจื‘ืข ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื: ื”ืžื‘ื—ืŸ ื™ืชืงื™ื™ื ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื˜ืœืคื•ื ื™ื ื ื™ื™ื“ื™ื ืื™ืฉื™ื™ื ืื• ืžื—ืฉื‘ื™ ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ.ืœื”ืœืŸ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ื•ืจืื” ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื”ืžืงื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ื‘ื“ืงื•ืช ื‘ืžื‘ื—ืŸ "ืชื ื•ืคื” ืœืžื—ืจ", ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ื“ืขืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื. ื›ืœื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื’ื‘ืขืช_ืžืจื“ื›ื™] | [TOKENS: 5048]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื’ื‘ืขืช ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ื’ื‘ืขืช ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ืžืขืจื‘ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื’ื•ื‘ืœืช ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื’ืŸ, ืจืžืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ืจื, ืคืช, ื ื™ื•ืช, ื’ื‘ืขืช ืจื, ื•ืขืžืง ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ื. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื•ืงืžื” ื‘ืฉื ืช 1955, ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ ื•ื—ื‘ืจืช ืžืฉื›ื ื•ืช, ืขืœ ืื“ืžื•ืช ืฉื ืชืจืžื• ืœืงืง"ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืจื“ื›ื™ (ืžืงืกื•ื•ืœ) ืึทื‘ึถึผืœ (Abbell;โ€ 1902โ€“1957), ืขื•ืจืš ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ืจื•ืื” ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ, ืื™ืœ ื ื“ืœ"ืŸ ื•ืคืขื™ืœ ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™-ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ืžืฉื™ืงื’ื•, ืžืžื™ื™ืกื“ื™ ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื•ืขืœ ืฉืžื• ื ืงืจืื” ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” 100 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ, ื•ื”ื•ื ืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ืœื›ืœื•ืœ 400 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1970 ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” 400 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ ื•ื‘ืฉืœื‘ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื• ืขื•ื“ 130 ื“ื™ืจื•ืช. ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืฉืฉืช ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ื”ืคื’ื–ื” ื›ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื‘ื ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™ ืขืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ื”ืขื™ืจ. ื’ื ืฉื›ื•ื ืช ื’ื‘ืขืช ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ืกืคื’ื” ืคื’ื–ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื. ืžืคื’ื™ืขืช ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื ื”ืจื’ื• ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืฉื ื™ ื ืขืจื™ื ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”: ืื‘ืจื”ื ืื™ืคืจื’ืŸ ื•ื™ืฆื—ืง ืžื ืกื•ืจ. ืื•ืคื™ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื—ืœืงื” ื”ื™ืฉืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื ืงืจืื™ื ืขืœ ืฉืžื ืฉืœ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ืžืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™. ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื ืงืจื ืจื—ื•ื‘ ืฉื—"ืœ, ืขืœ ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืจ' ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื ื“ื•ื™, ืžื”ื•ื’ื™ ื”ื“ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”. ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื ืงืจืื™ื ื’ื ื”ื ืขืœ ืฉื ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงืื™ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื“ืชื™ื™ื: ื”ืจื‘ ื™ืฉืขื™ื”ื• ื•ื•ืœืคืกื‘ืจื’-ืื‘ื™ืขื“, ื”ืจื‘ ื–ืื‘ ื’ื•ืœื“, ื”ืจื‘ ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืจ, ื•ื“ื•ื“ ืฆื‘ื™ ืคื ืงืก, ื—ื‘ืจ ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื–ืžื ื™ืช, ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื•ืฉืจ ื”ืชื—ื‘ื•ืจื”. ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื ืงืจื ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ืฆื—ืง ื“ื•ื“ ืžืŸ, ืื™ืฉ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืขื ืžืขื‘ืจื” ืฉืœ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื›ื ืกืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื ืงืจื ืจื—ื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืฉื ืจืืฉ ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื”, ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื—ื–ืงืืœ ืกืจื ื, ื•ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื‘ืฉื ืžืฉืืช ืžืฉื”, ืขืœ ืฉื ืกืคืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ ืžืฉื” ื—ื‘ืจื•ื ื™, ืจืืฉ ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืคื˜ื™ืจืช ื”ืจื‘ ืกืจื ื ื•ืžื™ ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืงืจื™ื™ืช ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ื‘ื’ื‘ืขืช ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ืžืชื’ื•ืจืจื™ื (ืœืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืฉื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืงืฆืจืช ื˜ื•ื•ื—) ื–ื•ื’ื•ืช ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ื•ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืื•ืคื™ื™ื” ื”ื“ืชื™ ื•ืงืจื‘ืชื” ืœืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ืืงื“ืžื™ื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ื”ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืืงื“ืžื™ ืœื‘, ืžื›ืœืœื” ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื”ืžื›ืœืœื” ื”ืืงื“ืžื™ืช ืœื”ื ื“ืกื” ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื•ืงืžืคื•ืก ื’ื‘ืขืช ืจื ืฉืœ ื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช. ื—ืœืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื”ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ ื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ืœืžืขืœื” ืžืฉืžื•ื ื” ืงื•ืžื•ืช. ืจื•ื‘ื ื”ืžื•ื—ืœื˜ ื‘ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืื•ืชื ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืืจื›ื™ื˜ืงื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ื (ื•ื ื‘ื ื•, ื›ืš ืขืœ ืคื™ ื•ื•ืชื™ืงื™ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”, "ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืขืชืง ื”ื“ื‘ืง"). ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืืœื” ืžืฆื˜ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื—ืกื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื˜ื— ื•ื‘ืื ืจื’ื™ื”, ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืคื—ื•ืช ื ื•ื—ื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื“ืชื™ื•ืช, ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉืื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ื ืžืงื•ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืกื•ื›ื•ืช. ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื˜ื“ื™ ืงื•ืœืง ื˜ืขื ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืงื™ื“ื ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื‘ืืจื›ื™ื˜ืงื˜ื•ืจื” ื”ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช ื”ื–ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืกื•ืช ื•ืœืžืฉื•ืš ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื—ื™ืœื•ื ื™ืช ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืœื”ืฆืจ ืืช ืฆืขื“ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื›ื ืกืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืขืจื›ื” ื”ื ื“ืœ"ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืขืœื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืขื ืกืœื™ืœืช ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ ื•ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืœืงืžืคื•ืก ื’ื‘ืขืช ืจื ื”ืกืžื•ื›ื™ื ืœืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœ-2016, ืžืชื’ื•ืจืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” 5,435 ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื, ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื ื“ืชื™ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื ืฉื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืจืžื•ื ื™ื” ืขื ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื—ื™ืœื•ื ื™ื ื•ืขื ื”ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ื”ื—ืจื“ื™. ื”ืจื‘ ืื™ืกืจ ืงืœื•ื ืกืงื™ ื•ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืจืขื‘ื™ ื›ื™ื”ื ื• ื›ืจื‘ื ื™ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ืจื‘ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ื ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืกื™ ื•ื™ืกื‘ืจื’. ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-70 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ื•ืงื ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžืžืœื›ืชื™ ื“ืชื™, ืฉื ืงืจื ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ืฉื ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ืขื–ืจื™, ื•ื‘ื™"ืก ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ืžื“ืจืฉื™ื™ืช ืขืžืœื™ื”, ืฉื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ื ืื•ืœืคื ืช ื˜ืœื™ื” ืฉื›ื•ืœืœ ื’ื ืคื ื™ืžื™ื™ื”. ืœืงืจืืช ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืขืฉื•ืจ ื”ื•ืฉืœื ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืงืžืคื•ืก ืฉืœ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ, ืื—ืช ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ืงืจืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื—ืจื“ื™-ืœื™ื˜ืื™ ื•ื‘ื” ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื ืžืขืœ 1500 ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื. ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื”ื•ืงื ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื’ื ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžืžืœื›ืชื™ ืขืœ ืฉื ืžื ืฉื” ืืœื™ืฉืจ. ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ืžื ืฉื” ืืœื™ืฉืจ ืœืžืฉื›ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ืจืžืช ืฉืจืช, ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื• ืคืขืœ ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื‘ื™"ืก ืœื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืืœื•ื ื™ื. ื‘-2013 ืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ืœืจืžืช ืืฉื›ื•ืœ ื•ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื—ืœ ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ืžืžืœื›ืชื™ ื“ืชื™ ืชื•ืจื ื™ ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืงืจื•ื™ ืขืœ ืฉื ื‘ืŸ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื ืžื˜, ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ ืจืืฉ ืžื ื—"ื™. ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ืฉื ื™ ืกื ื™ืคื™ื ื ืคืจื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ื ื•ืขืจ: ืืจื™ืืœ ืื’"ื (ืืจื™ืืœ ื’ื‘ืขืช ืžืจื“ื›ื™) ื”ื•ืงื ื‘ืชืืจื™ืš 24.7.2025, ื›"ื— ืชืžื•ื– ืชืฉืค"ื” ื•ืžืงื™ื™ื ืืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื• ื‘ื’ืŸ ื—ื ืฆ'ื” (ืžืœื‘ื“ ื™ืžื™ื ื—ื•ืจืคื™ื™ื ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ืžืงื™ื™ื ืืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื ื™ื•ืŸ ืž. ืื‘ื™ื‘). ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืฉื ืช 2025, ื”ืกื ื™ืฃ ืžื•ื ื” ื›-90 ื—ื ื™ื›ื•ืช ื•ืžื“ืจื™ื›ื•ืช. ื•ืกื ื™ืฃ ืื—ื“ ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ื ื•ืขืจ ืขื–ืจื, ื”ื ืงืจืื™ื ื‘ืคื™ ื”ื ื•ืขืจ ืกื ื™ืคื™ "ื’ื™ื’ื™". ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ ืžืจื›ื– ืžืกื—ืจื™ ืงื˜ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืกืคืจ ื‘ืชื™ ื›ื ืกืช, ื‘ืชื™ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ื”ื ืžืชืคืœืœื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืกื— ืกืคืจื“ ื”ื: ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช "ืฉื™ืฃ ืฉื•ืœ", ื”ืงืจื•ื™ ืขืœ ืฉื ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ืฉื ื–ื” ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืฉื ื”ืจืก ื‘ืœื™ืœ ื”ื‘ื“ื•ืœื—, ื•ืงื”ื™ืœืชื• ืžืฉืชื“ืœืช ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ืžื ื”ื’ื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™ืช. ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ "ืคื™ื™ื ืฉื˜ื•ื‘" ื”ืžืฉืœื‘ ืžื ื”ื’ื™ ื—ืกื™ื“ื•ืช ื•ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื• ืžื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื“ืชื™ ืœืื•ืžื™. ืฉื ื™ ื‘ืชื™ ื›ื ืกืช ืฉืœ ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ ื—ื‘"ื“, ืื—ื“ ื”ืคื•ื ื” ืœืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื—ืจื“ื™-ืœื™ื˜ืื™ ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื”, ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื“ืชื™ ืœืื•ืžื™ ื•ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™. ืจื‘ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื•ื ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ืžืชื™ ื˜ื•ื›ืคืœื“. ื‘ืชื™ ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ื”ื ืžืชืคืœืœื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืกื— ืืฉื›ื ื– ื”ื: ื‘ื™ืช ื›ื ืกืช "ื–ื›ื•ืจ ืœืื‘ืจื”ื". ื‘ื™ืช ื›ื ืกืช ื—ื ื™ื›ื™ ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช - "ืื”ืœ ื“ื•ื“" ื”ื•ื ื›ืขื™ืŸ "ืฉื˜ื™ื‘ืœืš" ืฉื‘ื• ืžืชืคืœืœื™ื ื‘ื—ื•ืจื™ื ืžื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืงืžื™ื ืžืื•ื—ืจ. ื‘ืชื™ ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ื”ื ืžืชืคืœืœื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืกื— ืขื“ื•ืช ืžื–ืจื— ื”ื: ื‘ื™ืช ื›ื ืกืช "ืžืฉื›ืŸ ืฉืžื•ืืœ" ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ ื”ื—ืจื“ื™. ื‘ื™ืช ื›ื ืกืช "ืขืฅ ื™ื•ืกืฃ" ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉืขืœื• ืืจืฆื” ืžืฆืจืคืช. ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” 4 ื’ื ื™ ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื. ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื”ื•ื ื’ืŸ ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื ืฉื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื™ืœ ืžืชืงืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืžืคื™ืจืžื™ื“ื” ืฉืœ ืืจื‘ืขื” ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื, ืงื•ื˜ืจื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ื›ืฉื ื™ ืžื˜ืจื™ื, ื•ืžื’ืœืฉื•ืช, ื•ื ืงืจื "ื’ืŸ ื”ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื". ื”ืžืชืงืŸ ื ืฉืจืฃ, ืืš ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื’ืŸ ื ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ื›ื ื•, ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื›ื™ื•ื ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžืชืงืŸ ืงื•ื ื‘ื ืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืขื ืฉื›ื•ื ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื’ืŸ ืฉื•ื›ืŸ ืงืžืคื•ืก ื”ื’ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ืœื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื•ื‘ืชื•ื›ื• ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ื ื™ืช ืชื•ืจื” ื•ืžื“ืข. ื‘ืงืจื‘ืช ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืฉื›ื•ื ื”, ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ืขืžืง ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ื ื•ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ, ืฉื›ืŸ ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ ื•ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ ืงื“ื•ื ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ื—ื•ื•ืช ื”ื•ื–ื™ืจ (ืงืขืื“ ืืœ-ื•ื–ื™ืจ), ื•ื‘ื• ื ืžืฆืื• ืžื‘ื ื™ื, ื’ืชื•ืช, ืžืชืงื ื™ื ื—ืงืœืื™ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื•ืžืขืจื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืจื”. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-20 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื”ื ื–ื™ืจ ื•ื™ืงื ื“ื™ื•ืก ืžื”ืคื˜ืจื™ืืจื›ื™ื” ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช-ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืฉื˜ื— ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ื‘ืขืช ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ืœืจืžืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ืจื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื•ื. ื”ื ื–ื™ืจ ื ื”ืจื’ ื‘-1948 ืžื”ื”ืคื’ื–ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ. ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื›ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืจืฉื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื (ื›ื™ื•ื ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ืฉื›ื•ื ืช ืจืžืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ืจื) "ื—ื•ืจืฉืช ื”ื ื–ื™ืจ" ืื• "ื—ื•ืจืฉืช ื”ื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ". ืœืžืจื’ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ ื”ืคืกืœ "ืžืขืœื•ืช", ื”ื™ื“ื•ืข ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฉืžื• ื”ืขืžืžื™ "ืกื•ืœื ื™ืขืงื‘", ืฉืœ ื”ืคืกืœ ืขื–ืจื ืื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ. ื”ืคืกืœ ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืฉืœื ืœื›ื ื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉื, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืœืฆื•ืคื” ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœืคืจืฉ ืืช ื”ืžืจืื” ื›ืจืฆื•ื ื•. ืชื—ื ืช ื”ื›ื™ื‘ื•ื™ ื•ื”ื”ืฆืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, "ืชื—ื ืช ื‘ื™ืจื”", ืžืžื•ืงืžืช ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื–ื•. ื”ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืœื‘ืงืจืช ื”ืจืžื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืžืžื•ืงื ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/content-environments/] | [TOKENS: 331]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœืžื™ื“ื” ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ื›ืœื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืฆื•ืžืช_ืคืช] | [TOKENS: 2800]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืคืช (ืฉื›ื•ื ื”) ืคืช (ื ืงืจืืช ื’ื ื’ื•ื ืŸ ื–') ื”ื™ื ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ื“ืจื•ื-ืžืขืจื‘ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ืงืžืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืงื˜ืžื•ื ื™ื ืžืฆืคื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื™ืช ืฆืคืืคื ืžื“ืจื•ื. ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืฉื ืช 2018 ืžืชื’ื•ืจืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื›-2,600 ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื. ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืงืจื•ื™ื” ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ืขืงื‘ ืคืช, ืžืžื™ื™ืกื“ื™ "ื”ืฉื•ืžืจ" ื•ืœื™ืžื™ื ืžืคืงื“ "ื”ื”ื’ื ื”" ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืชืืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ืžื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื™ื—ืกื™ืช, ืฉืื™ื ื” ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ืช ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื”ืจืจื™ืช. ื”ื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืœื ืชื™ื‘ื™ ืชื—ื‘ื•ืจื” ืจืืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืจ, ื›ืžื• ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ ื•ืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ืžืœื—ื”. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื‘ืฉื ืช 1972, ืขืœ ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืคืงืขื• ืžื”ื›ืคืจ ื”ืกืžื•ืš ื‘ื™ืช ืฆืคืืคื. ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื•ืงืžื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” "ืฉื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื" ื•"ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ", ืฉื‘ื ื• ื›-650 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ, ื‘ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ 4 ื•-8 ืงื•ืžื•ืช. ื”ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื˜ืจื•ืžื™ืช ืœืœื ื—ื™ืคื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืื‘ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ืช ื›ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืื•ื›ืœืกื” ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ืช 1974, ืืš ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื”ื•ืฉืœืžื• ื‘ื” ืกืœื™ืœืช ื”ื›ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืงืžืช ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1975 ื”ื—ืœื” ืกืœื™ืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ืจืš ื“ื‘ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืœืฉื›ื•ื ืช ื’ื™ืœื”, ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื•ืงืฆื• ืœื“ื™ื•ืจ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ื‘ืฉื›ื™ืจื•ืช, ืœื–ื›ืื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ืฉื™ื›ื•ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90, ื‘ืกื™ื•ืข ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ "ืฉื™ืงื•ื ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช" ืฉืœ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื•ื™ ื•ื”ืฉื™ื›ื•ืŸ, ื”ื•ืจื—ื‘ื• ื”ื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื”, ื•ืžืจื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืชื™ื” ืฆื•ืคื• ื‘ืฆื™ืคื•ื™ ืื‘ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ืช. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ื”ืงืžืช ืงื ื™ื•ืŸ ืžืœื—ื” ื•ืืฆื˜ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื˜ื“ื™ ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืฉื›ื•ื ื”, ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืชืœืคื™ื•ืช ืฉื›ืžืขื˜ ื ื•ืฉืง ืœื”, ื•ืกืœื™ืœืช ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช (ื“ืจืš ืžืฉื” ื‘ืจืขื) ื•ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ, ืฉื™ืคืจื• ืืช ื”ื ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื•ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืœืขืœื™ื™ืช ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื“ื™ืจื•ืช. ื‘ืฉื ื™ื 2012โ€“2013 ื”ื•ืงื ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœื” ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื—ืœืง ืžืคืืจืง ื”ืžืกื™ืœื”. ื‘ืžืื™ 2018 ื”ื—ืœื• ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืกืœื™ืœืช ืชื•ื•ืื™ ื”ืงื• ื”ื™ืจื•ืง ืฉืœ ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื”ืงืœื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืœืื•ืจืš ืจื—ื•ื‘ ืคืช ื‘ืฆื™ื“ื” ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื”. ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืชืฉืชื™ืช (ืื™ื ืคืจื” 1) ื ืžืฉื›ื• ืขื“ 2022, ื•ื›ื™ื•ื ืžืชื›ื•ื ื ื™ื ืœื”ื ื—ืช ืžืกื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื—ืฉืžื•ืœืŸ (ืื™ื ืคืจื 2). ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2019, ืื™ืฉืจื” ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ืžื—ื•ื–ื™ืช ืœืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื•ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ืคื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืชื• ื™ื•ืงืžื• 133 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ, ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžื‘ื ื™ ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื ื™ 22 ื•-10 ืงื•ืžื•ืช, ื‘ืคื™ื ืช ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืจืœ ืœื•ืงืจ ื•ืคืช, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžื‘ื ื” ื•ื‘ื• 24 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ. ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืงื“ืžื”, ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ืชื™ "ืื•ืจื˜ ืกืคื ื™ืืŸ" ื•ืื•ืจื˜ ืคืœืš ืœื‘ื ื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2007, ื”ื•ืงื ื•ื”ื—ืœ ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื“ื•-ืœืฉื•ื ื™ ืข"ืฉ ืžืงืก ืจื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื—ืกื•ืช ืืจื’ื•ืŸ "ื™ื“ ื‘ื™ื“", ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ืขืจื‘ื™ื, ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 2014 ื”ื•ืฆืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื“ื•-ืœืฉื•ื ื™ ื•ืจื•ืกืกื• ื‘ื• ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื ืืฆื”. ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืงื™ื™ืžื• ืžืื•ืช ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ ืžื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืฆืขื“ืช ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ. ื‘ืฆืขื“ื” ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืžืขืฉืจื” ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ ื—ื™ืœื•ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื“ืชื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืจ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืงื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืžืชื "ืก - ืžืจื›ื– ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ ืคืื ื™ ืงืคืœืŸ, ืฉื ื™ ื’ื ื™ ืžืฉื—ืงื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื ื•ืžื’ืจืฉ ื›ื“ื•ืจื’ืœ, ื•ืžืจื›ื– ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืžืจ ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™. ืขื•ื“ ืฉื•ื›ื ื™ื ื‘ืคืช ืžืขื•ืŸ ื•ื™ืฆื• ื•ืกื ื™ืฃ ื˜ื™ืคืช ื—ืœื‘, ืžื“ืจืฉืช ื ืฉืžืช ื•ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืืžื™ืฆื™ื ืœืขื–ืจื” ืœืืœืžื ื•ืช ื•ืืœืžื ื™ื. ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืงืจื•ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืฉืžื ืฉืœ ืื™ืฉื™ื: ืฆื•ืžืช ืคืช "ืฆื•ืžืช ืคืช" ืžืžื•ืงื ื›ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืžืžืขืจื‘ ืœืฉื›ื•ื ื”, ื‘ืงืฆื” ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื™ืขืงื‘ ืคืช ื”ืžืคืจื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื” ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื›ื•ื ืช ืงื˜ืžื•ืŸ ื”'. ื”ืฆื•ืžืช ื”ื•ื ืžืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืจืฆื•ื’. "ืฆื•ืžืช ืคืช" ื”ื•ื ืฆื•ืžืช ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืžืžื•ืงืžื™ื ื‘ื• ืžืกืคืจ ืขืกืงื™ื, ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืžืกืขื“ื•ืช. ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ื‘ื•ืฆืขื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ืœื”ืคืจื“ื” ืžืคืœืกื™ืช ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื”ืงืœื”, ื›ื™ื•ื ืžืชื›ื•ื ื ื™ื ืœื”ื ื—ืช ืžืกื™ืœื•ืช. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 2020, ืื™ืฉืจื” ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ืžื—ื•ื–ื™ืช ืœืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื ื™ื™ื”, ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžืชื—ื ื”ืžืฉืœื‘ ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื, ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืžืกื—ืจ ื•ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช. ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืงืžืช 296 ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืจ ืฉื™ืชืคืจืกื• ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” 30 ืงื•ืžื•ืช ื•ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” 9 ืงื•ืžื•ืช, 3,500 ืž"ืจ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืžืกื—ืจ ื•ืชืขืกื•ืงื” ื•-3,700 ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ. ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Speech_TV] | [TOKENS: 1335]
Contents Free Speech TV Free Speech TV (FSTV) is an American progressive news and opinion network. It was launched in 1995 and is owned and operated by Public Communicators Incorporated, a 501(c)(3) non-profit, tax-exempt organization founded in 1974. Distributed principally by Dish Network, DirecTV, and the network's live stream at freespeech.org and on Roku, Free Speech TV has run commercial free since 1995 with support from viewers and foundations. The network claims to "amplify underrepresented voices and those working on the front lines of social, economic and environmental justice," predominantly from a progressive perspective. History Free Speech TV is an outgrowth of three projects that attempted to establish wider dissemination of progressive perspectives on television: The 90's, a landmark television series seen on public television and cable; The 90's Channel, a network of seven full-time cable channels dedicated to independent media; and the part-time Free Speech TV Program Service, launched in 1995 as an innovative approach to curating and distributing independent media to a distribution network of community access cable stations. Public television stations carried some Free Speech TV's special series, such as Just Solutions: Campaigning for Human Right. The network's efforts in streaming media online won it a 1998 Streamers Award and 1999 Webby Award.[citation needed] In January 2000โ€”as the result of an FCC-mandated public interest channel set-asideโ€”Free Speech TV became a national, full-time channel on the Dish Network satellite television system while continuing to build a national network of part-time local cable affiliates. Program highlights from the channel's formative years included live field reporting of the anti-globalization movement spawned at the 1999 WTO protests in Seattle; the 2000 US presidential elections, including Democracy Now!'s premiere as a television program at the Republican and Democratic conventions; the September 11 attacks, to which FSTV responded with a daily news report and weekly current affairs program; and extensive coverage of the large global anti-war mobilization and the subsequent U.S. invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. In 2007, FSTV moved from Boulder to Denver, covering events inside and outside the 2008 Democratic National Convention, where Barack Obama accepted his party's nomination for president. Over the following years, the network stepped up its daily coverage of national politics with the addition of GRITtv with Laura Flanders, The Big Picture with Thom Hartmann and Al Jazeera English. FSTV's daily news programsโ€”led by The Thom Hartmann Program and Democracy Now!โ€”became FSTV's top programs in terms of popularity and "stickiness" (a measure of audience engagement and loyalty). During the Arab Spring, FSTV pre-empted much of its regular non-news programming to Al Jazeera English's reporting from Cairo's Tahrir Square and other locations. In 2011 and 2012, FSTV coverage provided a window into efforts to reform workers' rights in Wisconsin and other states, as well as into the Occupy Wall Street movement. The network secured a national channel on DirecTV in 2010; piloted its first OTT ("over-the-top") channel, on Roku, in 2011; and launched full-time cable channels in Burlington, Vermont, and Ashland, Oregon, in 2012. FSTV and GM Jon Stout were the recipients of the 2010 National Professional Freedom and Responsibility Award, presented by the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. This award recognizes individuals and organizations for "a profound commitment to free expression; ethics; media criticism and accountability; racial, gender, and cultural inclusiveness; and public service." In 2013, FSTV started conferring with public television stations to gain over-the-air and cable carriage in major urban markets. The shutdown of the progressive channel Current TV and its replacement with Al Jazeera America had major ramifications on the network. In August 2013 Free Speech TV lost its popular Al Jazeera English News Hour, The Stream and Fault Lines shows when Al Jazeera launched Al Jazeera America. The news programming was replaced with news from France 24. On September 9, 2013, Bill Press joined the channel with his simulcast of The Bill Press Show, which moved over from the defunct Current TV. In January 2014 the channel added The Stephanie Miller Show, also from the defunct Current TV after a successful Indiegogo campaign to raise funds to build the show's new radio/TV studio, buy equipment and produce the show. This reunites the former Current TV morning block on Free Speech TV. In October 2013 Free Speech TV and Karel.Media in association with Brandon Riley Miller Productions launched Karel's Life in Segments starring Charles Karel Bouley. In October 2014, Free Speech TV launched Uprising with Sonali, featuring Sonali Kolhatkar in partnership with Pacifica Radio station KPFK-FM, Los Angeles. Uprising Radio was the longest running daily morning show on Southern California public radio before premiering as a television show on Free Speech TV. In recent years, FSTV's television footprint has grown to more than 40 million homes. The network's monthly viewership (cumulative) nearly doubled to more than 1 million households over a two-year period between 2012 and 2014.[citation needed] Funding Free Speech TV is a project of Public Communicators, Inc., a non-profit, 501c3 tax-exempt organization FSTV is supported primarily through philanthropic contributions from thousands of viewers and from foundations dedicated to independent media and social, economic and environmental justice. Availability FSTV is currently available in more than 40 million television homes nationwide, airing full-time on Dish Network (269), DirecTV (348), Burlington Telecom (122) and Ashland Home Net (96). Select programs are syndicated on 177 community cable stations in 40 states. FSTV is also available as a 24/7 linear feed and as videos-on-demandโ€”on freespeech.org and on Roku, an "over-the-top" distribution platform that streams video over the Internet onto connected television sets. FSTV also has a feed on the Sling TV service. Other content is syndicated on Facebook, YouTube, Vimeo and other social networking sites. Programming Free Speech TV broadcasts syndicated news programs and documentaries that deal with social, political, cultural and environmental issues. Independently produced news programs broadcast on FSTV include: See also References External links
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ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื” ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื” ื–ื”ื• ืžื™ื–ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ืœื”ืคืขืœื” ื•ืœื’ื™ื•ืก ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื, ืฉื™ืกื™ื™ืขื• ืœื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื‘ืงื™ื“ื•ื ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช, ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื•ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ืช ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฆืžืฆื•ื ืคืขืจื™ื, ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืกื•ืœื™ื“ืจื™ื•ืช, ืขืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช ื•ืื–ืจื—ื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื”.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื” ื”ื ื”ื›ื•ื— ื”ืชื•ืกืคืชื™, ื”ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช, ืืš ืœื ืžื•ืขืกืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ื”.ื”ื ื›ื•ืœืœื™ื ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื, ื’ืžืœืื™ื, ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื, ื‘ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™, ืžื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื—ื ื™ื›ื™ ืฉื ืช ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™ ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™.ืžืขืจืš ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ื— ืื“ื™ืจ ื”ืžืงื ื” ืขืจืš ืžื•ืกืฃ ื”ืŸ ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื, ื”ืŸ ืœืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ื•ื”ืŸ ืœืงื”ื™ืœื”.ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื ื”ื ื™ื ืžื™ื—ืก ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ืžืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™, ื”ืžื•ืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืช ืžืขื ื” ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื”ื, ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืžื—ื–ืง ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ืคื•ืขืœ ื•ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืขืฆืžื ื—ื•ื•ื™ื ืกื™ืคื•ืง ื•ืžืขื ื™ืงื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื•ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ืช. ื—ื•ื–ืจ ืžื ื›ืœ: ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš โ€“ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื” ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื” ื–ื”ื• ืžื™ื–ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ืœื”ืคืขืœื” ื•ืœื’ื™ื•ืก ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื, ืฉื™ืกื™ื™ืขื• ืœื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื‘ืงื™ื“ื•ื ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืื™ื›ื•ืชื™ืช, ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื•ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ืช ืชื•ืš ื›ื“ื™ ืฆืžืฆื•ื ืคืขืจื™ื, ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืกื•ืœื™ื“ืจื™ื•ืช, ืขืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื“ื“ื™ืช ื•ืื–ืจื—ื•ืช ืคืขื™ืœื”.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื” ื”ื ื”ื›ื•ื— ื”ืชื•ืกืคืชื™, ื”ืžื’ื™ืข ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช, ืืš ืœื ืžื•ืขืกืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ื”.ื”ื ื›ื•ืœืœื™ื ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื, ื’ืžืœืื™ื, ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื, ื‘ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™, ืžื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ืœื•ืช ื•ื—ื ื™ื›ื™ ืฉื ืช ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™ ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™.ืžืขืจืš ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื›ื•ื— ืื“ื™ืจ ื”ืžืงื ื” ืขืจืš ืžื•ืกืฃ ื”ืŸ ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื, ื”ืŸ ืœืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ื•ื”ืŸ ืœืงื”ื™ืœื”.ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื ื”ื ื™ื ืžื™ื—ืก ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ืžืžื‘ื•ื’ืจ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™, ื”ืžื•ืจื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœืชืช ืžืขื ื” ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื”ื, ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืžื—ื–ืง ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื•ื ืคื•ืขืœ ื•ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืขืฆืžื ื—ื•ื•ื™ื ืกื™ืคื•ืง ื•ืžืขื ื™ืงื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื•ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ืช. ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉืœื‘ื™ ื”ื’ื™ืœ.ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ืžืื•ืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ื‘ืจืื™ื™ื” ืžื›ื™ืœื”, ื•ื”ื™ื ืžืชื‘ืฆืขืช ืขื ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืื• ืœืฆื“ ืื™ืฉ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืœืžืขืŸ ืงื™ื“ื•ื ื”ื™ืฉื’ื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™, ื”ืจื’ืฉื™ ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™.ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืœืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื, ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช, ืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™. ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื— ืื“ื™ืจ ื•ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืœื’ื™ื•ื•ืŸ, ืœืžื™ื ื•ืฃ, ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจื™ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื™ื ืขื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืœืžืชืŸ ืžืขื ื” ื“ื™ืคืจื ืฆื™ืืœื™ ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ืื• ืจื’ืฉื™. ืœืฆื“ ื–ืืช, ื”ื ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœืงื”ื™ืœื” ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืžืฉื™ืžืช ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ื“. ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ื›ืœ ืฉืœื‘ื™ ื”ื’ื™ืœ.ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ืžืื•ืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืื™ืฉื™ ื•ื‘ืจืื™ื™ื” ืžื›ื™ืœื”, ื•ื”ื™ื ืžืชื‘ืฆืขืช ืขื ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืื• ืœืฆื“ ืื™ืฉ ื”ืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ืœืžืขืŸ ืงื™ื“ื•ื ื”ื™ืฉื’ื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™, ื”ืจื’ืฉื™ ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™.ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืœืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื, ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช, ืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืฆืžืื™. ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื”ื•ืจืื” ื”ื ื›ื•ื— ืื“ื™ืจ ื•ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืœื’ื™ื•ื•ืŸ, ืœืžื™ื ื•ืฃ, ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจื™ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื™ื ืขื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืœืžืชืŸ ืžืขื ื” ื“ื™ืคืจื ืฆื™ืืœื™ ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ืื• ืจื’ืฉื™. ืœืฆื“ ื–ืืช, ื”ื ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ืœืงื”ื™ืœื” ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืžืฉื™ืžืช ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ื“. ืžืขืจื›ืช ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืžืงื•ื•ื ืช ื•ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื™ืช, ืฉืžื˜ืจืชื” ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื’ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืœืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื.ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืžื ื”ืœื™ ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื’ื ื ื•ืช ืืช ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื”ื ื‘ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœื™ืขื“ื™ื ื•ืœืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ื”ืฉืขื”.ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืžื•ื–ืžื ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื™ืœื• ืฆืจื›ื™ื ื™ืฉ ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื, ืœืคื ื•ืช ืœืื ืฉื™ ื”ืงืฉืจ ื•ืœืคืชื•ื— ื›ืจื˜ื™ืก ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื™, ื›ืš ืฉืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ืฉื™ืจ. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืœืžืขืจืš ื”ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช. ืžืขืจื›ืช ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš - ืฆื“ ืžื ื”ืœ ืžืขืจื›ืช ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš - ืฆื“ ืชื•ืžืš ืžืขืจื›ืช ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืžืงื•ื•ื ืช ื•ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื™ืช, ืฉืžื˜ืจืชื” ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ืžืขื’ืœ ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื’ื ืœื™ื™ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืœืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื.ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื–ื™ื ื™ื ืžื ื”ืœื™ ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื’ื ื ื•ืช ืืช ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ื”ื ื‘ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœื™ืขื“ื™ื ื•ืœืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ื”ืฉืขื”.ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืžื•ื–ืžื ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ื•ืœืจืื•ืช ืื™ืœื• ืฆืจื›ื™ื ื™ืฉ ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื, ืœืคื ื•ืช ืœืื ืฉื™ ื”ืงืฉืจ ื•ืœืคืชื•ื— ื›ืจื˜ื™ืก ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื™, ื›ืš ืฉืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ืฉื™ืจ. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืœืžืขืจืš ื”ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช. ืชืžื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจื™ืช ืžืฆื™ื’ื” ืืช ืžืขืจืš ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื›ื›ื•ื— ืชื•ืกืคืชื™ ื”ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฅ ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™.ื›ืœ ืชื•ืžืš ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ื‘ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœืคืจื•ืคื™ืœ ืฉืœื•: ื”ืขืฉืจื” ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื, ืงื™ื“ื•ื ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ืœื™ื‘ื”, ื”ื•ืจืืช ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื“ืขืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื•ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื•ืจื’ืฉื™ื™ื.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžื’ื•ืคื™ื ื•ืžืขืžื•ืชื•ืช ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›-4-2 ืฉ"ืฉ.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžื”ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›ื—ืœืง ืžืžื™ืฆื•ื™ ื”ืžืœื’ื” 140-80 ืฉืขื•ืช ืฉื ืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ื›ืžืฉืจืชื™ื (ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™, ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™, ืžื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ืœื•ืช) ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›-29 ืฉืขื•ืช ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื•ืช (ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื›-5 ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉื ื”"ืœ ื”ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช).ืžื›ืืŸ ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืฉืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฅ ื”ืชื•ืžืš ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื™ื™ืขืฉื” ืข"ื™ ื”ื ื”ืœืช ื‘ื™ื”"ืก ืื• ืžื™ ืžื˜ืขืžื•, ื‘ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื.ืขื ื–ืืช, ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ืžืฉืื‘ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืงื™ื“ื•ื ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื ื’ื–ืจืช ืฉืœื›ื ื›ืขื•"ื”. ืื™ื–ื• ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ืฉื™ื™ื›ื•ืช ื•ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืืชื ืžืขื ื™ืงื™ื ืœืชื•ืžื›ื™ื?ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ืืชื ืžืœื•ื•ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื? (ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ืœื™ืžื•ื“, ืžืจื—ื‘ ืคื™ื–ื™ ืœืชืžื™ื›ื”, ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืขื•ืช, ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืžืฉืชื ื•ืช, ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ื‘ืฉื™ื— ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื›ื ืžื” ื™ื™ื—ืฉื‘ ืœื”ืฆืœื—ื”) ืชืžื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจื™ืช ืžืฆื™ื’ื” ืืช ืžืขืจืš ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื›ื›ื•ื— ืชื•ืกืคืชื™ ื”ืžืฉื•ื‘ืฅ ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™.ื›ืœ ืชื•ืžืš ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ื‘ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœืคืจื•ืคื™ืœ ืฉืœื•: ื”ืขืฉืจื” ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื, ืงื™ื“ื•ื ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ืœื™ื‘ื”, ื”ื•ืจืืช ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื“ืขืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื•ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื”ื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื•ืจื’ืฉื™ื™ื.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžื’ื•ืคื™ื ื•ืžืขืžื•ืชื•ืช ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›-4-2 ืฉ"ืฉ.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืžื”ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›ื—ืœืง ืžืžื™ืฆื•ื™ ื”ืžืœื’ื” 140-80 ืฉืขื•ืช ืฉื ืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข.ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื”ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ื›ืžืฉืจืชื™ื (ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™, ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™, ืžื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ืœื•ืช) ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื›-29 ืฉืขื•ืช ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื•ืช (ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื›-5 ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืœืื•ืจืš ืฉื ื”"ืœ ื”ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ืช).ืžื›ืืŸ ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืฉืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฅ ื”ืชื•ืžืš ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื™ื™ืขืฉื” ืข"ื™ ื”ื ื”ืœืช ื‘ื™ื”"ืก ืื• ืžื™ ืžื˜ืขืžื•, ื‘ื”ืœื™ืžื” ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื.ืขื ื–ืืช, ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ืžืฉืื‘ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืงื™ื“ื•ื ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื ื’ื–ืจืช ืฉืœื›ื ื›ืขื•"ื”. ืื™ื–ื• ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ืฉื™ื™ื›ื•ืช ื•ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืืชื ืžืขื ื™ืงื™ื ืœืชื•ืžื›ื™ื?ืขื“ ื›ืžื” ืืชื ืžืœื•ื•ื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื? (ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ืœื™ืžื•ื“, ืžืจื—ื‘ ืคื™ื–ื™ ืœืชืžื™ื›ื”, ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืขื•ืช, ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืžืฉืชื ื•ืช, ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ื‘ืฉื™ื— ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื›ื ืžื” ื™ื™ื—ืฉื‘ ืœื”ืฆืœื—ื”) ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื™ื™ื‘ื—ืจ ืžืœื•ื•ื” ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจื ื›ืชื•ื‘ืช ืœื›ืœ ืฆื•ืจืš. ื”ื›ืฉืจืช ื”ืœื‘ื‘ื•ืช: ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉื™ืชืงื™ื™ื ืฉื™ื— ืขื ื—ื“ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื•ืžืงื•ืžื ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ. ืจืฆื•ื™ ืžืื•ื“ ืฉืชื™ื‘ื ื” ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืœื›ืœ ืžืชื ื“ื‘, ื”ื›ื•ืœืœืช ืžืขืจื›ืช ืฉืขื•ืช, ืžืจื—ื‘ ืชืžื™ื›ื”, ืชื—ื•ื ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื•ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืœื•ืžื“ื™ื. ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืฉืชื™ืขืจืš ืฉื™ื—ื” ืขื ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืืชื™ืงื” ืžืงืฆื•ืขื™ืช ื”ื ื“ืจืฉืช ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขื ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืžืื•ื“ ืœืขื“ื›ืŸ ืืช ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™ ื•ืœืฉืœื‘ ืื•ืชื ื‘ื”ื, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืฉื™ื™ื›ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื. ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ืœื”ื•ืงื™ืจ ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ื›ื—ืœืง ืžืฉื’ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื”"ืก (ืœืื•ืจืš ื”ืฉื ื” ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื”). ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืœื•ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืจืš ืคืขื•ืœืชื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ืœื”ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืœืืชื’ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื ื—ื•ื•ื™ื. ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืขืœ ื•ืœื˜ื™ื™ื‘ ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื ื›ืชื‘ื” ื—ื•ื‘ืจืช ืœืžื ื”ืœื™ื, ืฉื‘ื” ืืคืฉืจ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื”ืžืœืฆื•ืช ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืœื˜ื™ื•ื‘ ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš โ€“ ืžืขืจื›ื™ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืœื—ื“ืจ ื”ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ื•ื•ื™ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื”, ืคืจื˜ื™ ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช, ืชืงืฆื™ืจ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ, ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื ื‘ื ื• ืข"ื™ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืจื“ ืœื”ืคืขืœืช ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืขื•ื“. ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืขืœ ื•ืœื˜ื™ื™ื‘ ืืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื ื›ืชื‘ื” ื—ื•ื‘ืจืช ืœืžื ื”ืœื™ื, ืฉื‘ื” ืืคืฉืจ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื”ืžืœืฆื•ืช ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืœื˜ื™ื•ื‘ ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš โ€“ ืžืขืจื›ื™ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ืœื—ื“ืจ ื”ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืœืœื™ื•ื•ื™ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื”ื•ืจืื”, ืคืจื˜ื™ ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ื•ืช, ืชืงืฆื™ืจ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ, ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื ื‘ื ื• ืข"ื™ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืจื“ ืœื”ืคืขืœืช ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืขื•ื“. ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืงืฉืจ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงืฉืจ ืœืœื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™, ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืจืคืจื ื˜ ื”ืžื—ื•ื–ื™ ืื• ื”ืื’ืคื™. ืœืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ืชืงืฉืจื•ืช ืืคืฉืจ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืงืฉืจ ืœืœื™ื•ื•ื™ ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ื›ื™, ืฆื•ื•ืชื™ ื”ื•ืจืื” ื•ืžืชื ื“ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืจืคืจื ื˜ ื”ืžื—ื•ื–ื™ ืื• ื”ืื’ืคื™. ื›ืœื™ ืขื–ืจ ืœื”ื•ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%9C:%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA] | [TOKENS: 9385]
ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืืžื ื•ืช ืึธืžึธึผื ื•ึผืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื ื›ื•ืœืœ ืœืชื—ื•ื ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช ื‘ื• ืžื‘ื˜ื ื”ืื“ื ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื—ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ, ื‘ื›ื™ืฉืจื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื ืจื›ืฉื•ืช. ืœืจื•ื‘, ื”ื’ื“ืจื” ืจื—ื‘ื” ื–ื• ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืกืช ืœืฉืœืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืื™ื ืŸ ื ืขืฉื•ืช ืขืœ ืคื™ ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ืคืขื•ืœื” ืงื‘ื•ืขื”, ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ื•ืžื•ื’ื“ืจืช ืžืจืืฉ, ืืœื ื ืชื•ื ื” ืœืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื“ืขืชื•, ืคืจืฉื ื•ืชื• ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื™ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืืžืŸ, ื•ืžืชื‘ืกืกืช ืขืœ ื›ื™ืฉืจื•ื ื• ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“. ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื ื›ืœืœื™ื ืขื ืคื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื™ื ืืฉืจ ื ืชืคืฉื™ื ื›ืชื•ืฆืจ ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™ืช. ื“ืื“ื ืื• ื“ืื“ืื™ื–ื ื”ื•ื ื–ืจื ืžื—ืื” ื‘ืืžื ื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืกื“ ื‘ืฆื™ืจื™ืš ื‘-1916, ื•ืคืขืœ ืขื“ ืฉื ืช 1923. ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช "ื“ืื“ื" ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ, ื‘ื”ื ื•ื‘ืจ, ื‘ืคืจื™ื–, ื‘ืงืœืŸ ื•ื‘ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง. ื”ืžื ื™ืข ืœื™ื™ืกื•ื“ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื“ืื“ื ื‘ืฆื™ืจื™ืš ื”ื™ื” ื”ื–ืขื–ื•ืข ืžื–ื•ื•ืขื•ืช ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื•ืžืชื•ืฆืื•ืชื™ื”. ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืขืชื™ื“ื” ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื•ืœืขืชื™ื“ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืื ื•ืฉื•ืช, ืืš ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœื”ืจืก ื•ืœืื›ื–ื‘ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉื‘ืื• ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื•ื–ื•ื•ืขื•ืชื™ื”. ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื“ืื“ื ื‘ื™ื˜ืื• ืืช ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื ื’ื“ ื”ืžืœื—ืžื”, ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ื‘ื•ืจื’ื ื•ืช ื•ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ืช. "ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืื“ื ืœื”ื™ืคื˜ืจ ืžื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืžืจื™ื— ืžืขื™ืชื•ื ืื•ืช, ืžืชื•ืœืขื™ื, ืžื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉื ื—ืžื“ ื•ื ื›ื•ืŸ, ืžื›ื™ืกื•ื™ ื”ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื, ืžืžื•ืกืจื™ื•ืช, ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื•ืช, ืžื—ื“ืฉื ื•ืช?" ืฉืืœ ื”ื•ื’ื• ื‘ืืœ ื‘ืžื ื™ืคืกื˜ ืฉื›ืชื‘ โ€“ "ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืืžื™ืจืช ื“ืื“ื". ื”ื“ืื“ืื™ืกื˜ื™ื ืงืจืื• ืœื ื™ื”ื™ืœื™ื–ื ืžื•ื—ืœื˜, ืฉื‘ืขื–ืจืชื• ื‘ื™ืงืฉื• ืœืขืจืขืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืกื›ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื“ืื“ื, ื”ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืกื™ื‘ืชื™ื•ืช ืื›ื–ื‘ื• ื›ื›ืœื™ื ืœื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ืชืงื™ืŸ ื•ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื‘ืจื•ื ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ืžื—ื“ืฉ, ืœืœื ืกื“ืจ ื•ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ โ€“ ื‘ืืงืจืื™, ืžืชื•ืš ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ืช ืœืขื•ืœื ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืœืœื ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช. ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ื’ื ื‘ื™ืงืจื• ื”ื“ืื“ืื™ืกื˜ื™ื ืืช ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืื•ื•ื ื’ืจื“ ื”ืืžื ื•ืชื™ ืฉืœ ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื”, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืืงืกืคืจืกื™ื•ื ื™ื–ื, ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืŸ ื ืชืคืฉื• ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื”ื ื›ืžื”ืœืš ื“ื™ืืœืงื˜ื™, ื•ืœื ื›ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืจื“ื™ืงืœื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื™ืืŸ ื•ืจืžื™ืจ ืื• ื™ื•ื”ื ืก ื•ืจืžื™ืจ (31 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1632 โ€“ 15 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 1675), ืฆื™ื™ืจ ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™. ืžื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื”ืฆื™ื™ืจื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช. ืžืขื˜ ืžืื•ื“ ื™ื“ื•ืข ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื• ืžืœื‘ื“ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืฉื’ื“ืœ ื•ืคืขืœ ื‘ื“ึถืœึฐืคึฐื˜. ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื™ื ื ืฉืืจื” ื“ืžื•ืชื• ื‘ืฆื™ืœื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื™ืจื™ื ื”ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืจืžื‘ืจื ื“ื˜. ืจื•ื‘ ืฆื™ื•ืจื™ื• ื”ืžืขื˜ื™ื ืžืชืืจื™ื ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื‘ื™ืชืŸ, ืขื•ืกืงื•ืช ื‘ืฉื™ื—ื”, ื ื’ื™ื ื” ืื• ืขื‘ื•ื“ื”. ืžื‘ืŸ ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืชื™ื• ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ื“ื™ื•ืงืŸ "ื ืขืจื” ืขื ืขื’ื™ืœ ืคื ื™ื ื”" ื•ื”ืฆื™ื•ืจ "ื ื•ืฃ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื“ืœืคื˜", ืฉื”ืชืคืจืกืžื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืื–ื›ืจื ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ืช. ืœืขืจืš ื”ืžืœื โ€“ ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืฆื™ื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ืจืžื‘ืจื ื“ื˜ โ€“ "ื”ื›ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื”", ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืืช ืฉืžื• ืจืง ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-19, ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื•ืฆืจ ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™, ืฉื–ื™ื”ื” ืืช ื”ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืชื•ืืจื•ืช ื›ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช. ืคืจืฉื ื•ืช ื–ื• ืื™ื ื” ืžืงื•ื‘ืœืช ืขื•ื“ ื•ื”ื”ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ื ื›ื™ ืืœื• ื”ืŸ ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ืฆื—ืง ื•ืจื‘ืงื”. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจืžื‘ืจื ื“ื˜ ืืฃ ืงื™ื™ื ื’ื ืจื™ืฉื•ื ื‘ืฉื ื•ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื“ื•ืžื”. ืœืงื˜ืขื™ "ื”ื™ื“ืขืช?" ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ...ื‘ืžืงืจื” ื”ืžืขื ื™ื™ืŸ, ืฉื‘ื• ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืื“ื ืืช ืื•ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื”ื ืื” ืžืŸ ื”ื™ื•ืคื™, ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ืžื’ืœื” ืขืฆืžื• ืœื—ื•ืฉื™ื ื• ื•ืœืฉื™ืคื•ื˜ื ื•. ื”ื ืื” ืžื™ื•ืคื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืื“ื ื•ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ื’ื•ืคื•, ื™ื•ืคื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ื ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื™ื ื•ื ื•ืคื™ื ื•ื™ื•ืคื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืืžื ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืžื“ืขื™ื•ืช. ื’ื™ืฉื” ืืกืชื˜ื™ืช ื–ืืช ืœืชื›ืœื™ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืžืฆื™ืขื” ืืš ื”ื’ื ื” ืžื•ืขื˜ืช ืžืคื ื™ ืื™ืžื™ ื”ืกื‘ืœ, ืืš ื™ืฉ ื‘ื›ื•ื—ื” ืœืคืฆื•ืช ืขืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื. ื”ื”ื ืื” ืžืŸ ื”ื™ื•ืคื™ ืžืชืืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ื‘ืขืœืช ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืžืฉื›ืจืช ืžืชื•ื ื”. [...] ื”ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืื ืœื™ื–ื”, ืœื“ืื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืœื‘, ืื™ื ื” ื™ื•ื“ืขืช ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืขืœ ื”ื™ื•ืคื™ ืืœื” ืžืขื˜ ืฉื‘ืžืขื˜. ื“ื•ืžื” ื›ื™ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืžืŸ ื”ื•ื•ื“ืื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืฆืื• ืžืชื—ื•ื ื”ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืช; ื”ืจื™ ืœืคื ื™ื ื• ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืžื•ื‘ื”ืงืช ืฉืœ ืจื’ืฉ ืžืขื•ื›ื‘-ืžื˜ืจื”. ืœืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ื”ืžืœื โ€ ืœื’ืœืจื™ื™ืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืœืื” ืืกืชื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื ืขื ืฃ ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืกืง, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ, ื‘ืฉืืœื•ืช: ืžื”ื• ื™ื•ืคื™? ืžื”ื• ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ ืฉืœ ื™ื•ืคื™? ื•ืžื”ื• ื˜ื‘ืขื” ืฉืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช? ื”ืžื•ื ื— ืขืฆืžื• ื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช 1750, ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืฃ ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจ ื’ื•ื˜ืœื™ื‘ ื‘ืื•ืžื’ืจื˜ืŸ ื•ืคื™ืจื•ืฉื• ื‘ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช: "ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืข". ืืกืชื˜ื™ืงื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืจืื• ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืžืชืŸ ื”ื’ื“ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—ืœื•ืงืชืŸ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืื•ืคื™ื• ื”ืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืžื“ื™ื•ื ื•ืžื“ื™ื•ื. ื‘ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”, ืœืžืฉืœ, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ื”ื•ื’ื” ื—ืœื•ืงื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ืชืคืฉื• ื›ืžื—ืงื•ืช ื•ื›ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืื•ืคื™ ืžื™ืžื˜ื™, ืืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ืชืคืฉื• ื›ืžืฉืžืจื•ืช ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื‘ื’ื™ืžื ืกื™ื•ืŸ, ื•ืืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืื•ื‘ื™ื™ืงื˜ื™ื. ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ื”ื•ื’ื” ื—ืœื•ืงื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ืข "ื”ืืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ื•ืช", ืฉื›ืœืœื• ืืจื™ืชืžื˜ื™ืงื”, ื’ืื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื”, ืืกื˜ืจื•ื ื•ืžื™ื”, ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื”, ืœื•ื’ื™ืงื”, ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ืงื” ื•ื“ืงื“ื•ืง, ืœื‘ื™ืŸ "ืืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื›ื ื™ื•ืช" ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื—ืงืœืื•ืช ื•ื ืคื—ื•ืช, ืœืฆื“ ืฆื™ื•ืจ ื•ืคื™ืกื•ืœ. ืœืขืจืš ื”ืžืœื ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืืกืชื˜ื™ ื ื‘ื—ืจ "ืžื™ืชื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช" (1957) ื”ื•ื ืกืคืจ ืžืืช ืžื‘ืงืจ ื”ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ ืจื•ืœืืŸ ื‘ืืจืช. ื‘ืกืคืจ ื–ื” ืžื’ื“ื™ืจ ื‘ืืจืช ืืช ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืกืžื™ื•ื˜ื™ืช ื›ืžืขืจื›ืช ืžื™ืชื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื•ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื•ืคื›ื™ื ื”ืกื™ืžื ื™ื ืœืžื™ืชื•ืกื™ื. ื•ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืžืฉืชืžืฉืช ื‘ืกื™ืžื ื™ื, ื•ืžืฆื™ื’ื” ืืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื ื›ื˜ื‘ืขื™ืช ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ, ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ืฆื“ื™ืง ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ืื™ื“ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื–ื• ืฉืœ ืงื”ืœ ืื•ื”ื“ื™ื. ืœืขืจืš ื”ืžืœื โ€“ ืœื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื“ืŸ ื‘ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช. ืขืœ ืืฃ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฉื™ืง ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืชื—ื•ื ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื•ื”ืืกืชื˜ื™ืงื”, ืื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื“ืจืช ื˜ื‘ืขื” ืฉืœ "ื”ืืžื ื•ืช" ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ืืช ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืขื™ืกื•ืง ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืฉืœื•. ื”ืชื—ื•ื ืฉืœ ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ืžื ืกื” ืœืกื•ื•ื’ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื•ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ืืžื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ื–ืžืŸ; ื•ื›ืŸ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ื™ืฆื“ ืžืขืฆื‘ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื•ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ื™ื ืžืขื•ืฆื‘ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ ื’'ื•ืจื’'ื• ื•ืื–ืืจื™ ื ืชืคืฉ ื›ืื‘ื™ ืชื—ื•ื ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช. ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื•ืื–ืืจื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืฉื "ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื™ืจื™ื, ื”ืคืกืœื™ื ื•ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ื ื”ื“ื’ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ" ื•ื‘ื• ืชื™ืืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ืฉืœ ืืžื ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ ืชืงื•ืคืชื•. ื”ืกืคืจ ืคื•ืจืกื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1550 ื•ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื” ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœื• ื™ืฆืื” ื‘ืฉื ืช 1568. ื”ืชื—ื•ื ื‘ืฆื•ืจืชื• ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช, ื›ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™, ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ื‘ืžืื” ื”-18 ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื™ื•ื”ืืŸ ื™ื•ืื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื ืงืœืžืŸ ื•ื™ื•ื”ืืŸ ื’ื•ื˜ืคืจื™ื“ ื”ืจื“ืจ, ืื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ื™ืขืงื‘ ื‘ื•ืจืงื”ืจื“ื˜ ืืฉืจ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื›ืชื™ื‘ื” ืื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ืœื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื. ื‘ื•ืจืงื”ืจื“ื˜ ืชื™ืืจ ืืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืงืฉืจื” ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™, ื›ืžื‘ื˜ืืช ื‘ืขืœืช ืงื•ืœ ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ 'ืจื•ื— ื”ืชืงื•ืคื”'. ืœืขืจืš ื”ืžืœื ืกื’ื ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ืกื•ื’ื™ ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื•ืกื’ื ื•ื ื•ืช ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืœื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืจืื•: ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช: ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช | ืžื‘ืงืจื™ ืืžื ื•ืช | ืื•ืฆืจื™ื | ืืกืคื ื™ ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ื•ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ืืžื ื•ืช: ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช: ืื•ืฆืจื™ ืืžื ื•ืช ืžื™ืฉืจืืœ + ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉื ื›ื•ืœืœ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ืช 1906, ืฉื ืช ื™ื™ืกื•ื“ "ื‘ืฆืœืืœ". ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืœื•ื•ื” ื‘ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืžืชืžื“ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื™ืžื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ืขืœื• ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ืคืกืœื™ื ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื, ื•ืืžื ื•ืชื ื”ื™ื•ื•ืชื” ืกื™ื ืชื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ืขื ื”ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื• ืขื•ืฆื‘ื” ื”ืชื•ื“ืขื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื•ื”ืืžื ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืฉืื™ืคื” ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ืžืงื•ืžื™ ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง ื”ื—ืœื” ืœื”ืชืคืชื— ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20, ืขื ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื”"ื›ื ืขื ื™", ื‘ื• ืฉื•ืœื‘ื” ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช ืขื ืžื•ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืœืงื•ื—ื™ื ืžืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื•ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ื”. ืžื•ื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืœื• ื ื•ืกื—ื• ื‘ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉื• ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืื“ืžืช ื”ืžื•ืœื“ืช. ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฉืื™ืคืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื”ืžื•ืคืฉื˜ ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช "ืื•ืคืงื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื", ืฉืฆืžื— ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืžืื”, ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื‘ืขืœ ืฉืคื” ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ืช, ื”ื›ื™ืœื” ืืžื ื•ืชื ืžืืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืชืคื™ืกื” ื”"ื›ื ืขื ื™ืช" ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ื—ื“ืจื• ืœืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื•ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช, ื‘ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืฉื’ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื•ืช ืืœื• ืฉื™ื ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื”ื•ืชื™ ืืช ื”ื’ื“ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืคื™ืกื•ืœ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ืืคืฉืจื• ื˜ื›ื ื™ืงื•ืช ืืœื” ื’ื ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ ืžื—ืื” ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื™ื ื•ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื, ืฉื”ื•ืฆื ืขื• ืขื“ ืื– ื‘ืคื™ืกื•ืœ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™. ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ื”ื™ื ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ ืœืกื’ื ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืฉื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ืช 1878 ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื—ืœื” ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื•ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื. ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื–ื• ืžื•ืฉืคืขืช ืžืกื’ื ื•ื ื•ืช ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ ืœืคื ื™ ื‘ื•ื ื”ืขื•ืœื™ื ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ืžืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ืื™ืกืœืืžื™ืช, ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื˜ืžืคืœืจื™ืช, ืืš ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžื”ืฉืคืขื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช. ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช. "ื”ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืืงืœืงื˜ื™", ื•ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ "ื”ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ", ื™ื™ืฆื’ื• ืืช ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืขื“ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื”. ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืฉืฉืช ื”ื™ืžื™ื ื•ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืฉื‘ืื” ืขืžื•, ื”ืฉืชื ืชื” ืžื’ืžืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื•ื—ื‘ืจืชื™, ืืฉืจ ืœื•ื•ืชื”, ืœืขื™ืชื™ื, ื‘ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ืœืคืืจ "ื ื•ื‘ื•-ืจื™ืฉื™". ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืคืจื˜ื™ืช ื ืจื—ื‘ืช ื‘ืคืจื‘ืจื™ ื”ืขืจื™ื, ืืฉืจ ื›ืœืœื” ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืจืื•ื•ืชื ื™ื™ื, ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืงื ื” ื”ืžื™ื“ื” ื”ืฆื ื•ืข ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ. ื‘ืจื•ื— ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืกื˜ ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืฉื•ืœื‘ื• ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืžื™ื•ื‘ืื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื’ื’ื•ืช ืจืขืคื™ื ืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ืฆืจื™ื, ืขืžื•ื“ื™ื "ืงื•ืจื ื™ืชื™ื™ื", ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ืงืฉืชื™ื™ื ืœืฆื“ ืงื•ืจื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื—ืฉื•ืฃ, ื˜ื™ื— ืฉืคืจื™ืฅ ืœื™ื“ ืืจื™ื—ื™ ืื‘ืŸ ืžื•ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื•ื›ื•'. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืžื•ื ื™ื ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื” ื”ืชื•ืคืขื”, ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžืžื•ืกื“ืช ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืืช ื”ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ "ื‘ื ื” ื‘ื™ืชืš". ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-80 ื•ื”-90 ื”ื™ื• ื”ืžืฉืš ื™ืฉื™ืจ ืœืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ื‘ืจื•ื— ื”ื”ืคืจื˜ื”, ื—ืœ ืคื™ื—ื•ืช ื‘ืžืขืžื“ื” ื”ืฉืจื™ืจื•ืชื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื”ืชื•ืฆืื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืžื•ืืฅ ื•ื”ืงื˜ื ื” ื ื™ื›ืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ื”ืคืชื•ื—ื™ื. ืœื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืจืื•: ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื›ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืชืคืชื— ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ื•ืช ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20, ืืฃ ื›ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืขืกืงื• ื‘ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ื‘ืจ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืงื•ื ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื™ื™ืฆืจื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ื•ืชื™ื” ืžืื•ืช ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื‘ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืกื’ื ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื–'ืื ืจื™ื, ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ืกืจื˜ื™ ื“ืจืžื”, ืงื•ืžื“ื™ื•ืช, ืกืจื˜ื™ื ืชื™ืขื•ื“ื™ื™ื ื•ืกืจื˜ื™ื ืงืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ืžื•ื›ืจืช ื•ืžื•ืขืจื›ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื. ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ืขืฆืžื” ื™ื“ืขื” ืขืœื™ื•ืช ื•ื™ืจื™ื“ื•ืช, ืืš ื‘ืžืฉืš ืฉื ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช, ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื›ื™ื•ื, ื™ื“ืข ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืœืžืฉื•ืš ืžืื•ืช ืืœืคื™ ืฆื•ืคื™ื ืœื‘ืชื™ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื•ืœื™ื™ืฆื’ ืืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืชื—ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืžืชืืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื”, ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘-ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื• ืœ"ืื—ืจ" ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ื“ืจื›ื™ื. ื‘ืกืจื˜ื™ ื”ื‘ื•ืจืงืก ืฉืœ ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-60 ื•ื”-70, ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื• ื‘ืœืขื’ ื•ื‘ื–ืœื–ื•ืœ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ื”, ื•ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœ"ืื—ืจ" ื›ืื—ืจ ื•ืœื ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ื” ื•ืœื’ืœื•ื’. ืœื”ืจื—ื‘ื” ืจืื•: ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืืžื ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื ื— ืจื—ื‘ ื”ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืืœ ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืืžื ื•ืชื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื•ืจื•ืช ืœื“ืช ื•ืœืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื ื˜ื™ื™ื” ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ืช ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื›ืžืชื ื–ืจืช ืžื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืืžื ื•ืช, ื‘ืจื•ื— ื”ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืž"ืขืฉืจืช ื”ื“ื™ื‘ืจื•ืช" ืขืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืคืกืœ ื•ืžืกื›ื”, ื”ืจื™ ืฉืขื™ืกื•ืง ื‘ืกืžืœื™ื ื•ื‘ืื™ืงื•ื ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžื•ื›ืจื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืŸ ื”ื”ืขืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”. ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื’ื™ืœื” ืฉืคืข ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ื™ื ืืžื ื•ืชื™ื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉื ืชื’ืœื• ื‘ืคืกื™ืคืกื™ื ื•ืคืจืกืงืื•ืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ื›ื ืกืช ื•ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ืžื™ื“ื•ืช. ื‘ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ื™ื ืืœื• ืžื•ืคื™ืข ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ ืฉืœ ืกืคื•ืจื™ ื”ืชื "ืš ืœืฆื“ ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืงื•ื—ื™ื ืžืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืื•ืชื” ืขืช, ืžืกื•ืจืช ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช ืœืขื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื“ืชื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื’ืœื’ืœ ื”ืžื–ืœื•ืช ืื• ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ื™ ืฆืžื—ื™ื ื•ื—ื™ื•ืช. ื”ื—ืœ ืžืŸ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19 ื”ื•ืฉื ืžืฉืงืœ ืจื‘ ืขืœ ืžืขื‘ืจ ืžื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื—ืคืฆื™ ืืžื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ืช ("ื™ื•ื“ืื™ืงื”") ืœืกื•ื’ื•ืช ืืžื ื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืฆื™ื•ืจ ืื• ืคื™ืกื•ืœ. ืืžื ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื•ื›ืฉืจื• ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื ืฉื™ืงืคื” ืืช ืžื’ืžื•ืช ื”ืืžื ื•ืช ื‘ืช ื–ืžื ื. ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื–ืืช ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ืœืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื”ื—ืœ ืžืŸ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ื’ื ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื™ืงื•ื ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ืœืขืจืš ื”ืžืœื ื›ืืŸ ืชืžืฆืื• ืจืฉื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื—ืจ ืกืคืจื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืืžื ื•ืช, ื”ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืกื“ืจ ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™: ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืœืคื™ ืžื“ื™ื ื”: ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืœืคื™ ื ื•ืฉื: ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืœืืžื ื•ืช - ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืœืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช - ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ - ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืœืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื“ืฃ ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ื”ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืืžื ื•ืช ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืงื™ืคื“ื™ื” ืžืจื›ื– ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉื˜ืจื ื ื›ืชื‘ื•, ื•ืœืฆื™ื“ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ืœืขืจืš ื”ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ื‘ืฉืคื” ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ื–ื”ื• ื’ื ื”ืžืงื•ื ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืขืจื›ื™ื ืฉืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื›ืชื‘, ื•ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ื‘ื“ืฃ ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขืžื•ื“. ืœื ื•ื—ื™ื•ืชื›ื, ื“ืฃ ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžืคื•ืฆืœ ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ืœืคื™ ืกื“ืจ ื"ื‘. ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืืžื ื•ืช ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช ืจืื• ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืืžื ื•ืช/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื/ืืžื ื•ืช ื—ื–ื•ืชื™ืช ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ืœ ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื” ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ื˜ืœื•ื•ื™ื–ื™ื”/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื”/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืžื—ื•ืœ ืกืคืจื•ืช ืจืื• ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืกืคืจื•ืช/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืฆื™ืœื•ื ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืฆื™ืœื•ื/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ืจืื” ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ:ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข/ืขืจื›ื™ื ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉื™ื ืžืฆืื• ืขืจื›ื™ื ืœืฉื™ืคื•ืจ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืืžื ื•ืช: ืœืฉื›ืชื•ื‘ โ€ข ืœืขืจื™ื›ื” โ€ข ืœื”ืฉืœืžื” โ€ข ืงืฆืจืžืจื™ื โ€ข ื—ื“ืฉื™ื โ€ข ื“ื•ืจืฉื™ ืžืงื•ืจ โ€ข ืœืคื™ืฉื•ื˜ โ€ข ืžื”ื• ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ? โ€“ ืจืฉื™ืžืช ื›ืœ ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื ื” ื•ื”ืขืจื›ื™ื
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