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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืงื ืืืืก_ืจืคืืื] | [TOKENS: 9158] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืื ืืืืจืื ืืืขืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืฆืื, ืืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืคืื ืจืคืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืชืกืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืฆืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืฉ ืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืจืคืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืจืืืช. ืืงื ืืืืก ืืฉืืฉ ืืืงืื ืขื ืชืกืืื ืื ืฉื ืคืืกื ืืจืืืื, ืืื ืืจืื ื, ืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืคืืื ืืืืืืชืจืคืื ืืืืื ืืืืืก ืืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืจืคืืืืื ืืืจืื ื ืืงืจ. ืืฆื ืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืฉืืจืืช ืฉื ืืงื ืืืืก, ืืฉ ืื ืืฉืคืขืืช ืคืืืืืืืืืืช ืจืืืช, ืืื ืืืืจืืืช ื ืืง, ืืืื ืืืืืืืช. ืฆืจืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื, ืื ืืชื ืืขืืชืื ืืชืจืืคื, ืืจืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืกืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืืช ืงืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืงืช ืกืืืคืื ืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืื ื ืฆืจื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืฉืื, ืืื ืกืื ืช ืืชืืืจืืช, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืงืจืื ืฉืื ืื ืืจืืื ืฉืืชืืืจืืช ืื ื ืืืื ืืคืืืชื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืขืงืืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืกืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืืื. ื ืืชื ืืฆืจืื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืชืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชื (ืืคืจื ืขืืืืช ืืขืืืืืช), ืฉืชืืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืืคืง ืืื ื (ืืื ืืขืื ืงื ืืืืก ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืชืื ืืืื ืขื ืืขื ืฉืื ืฉืืกืืืข ืืกืคืืืช ืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืื), ื ืืืืช ืชืืืกื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืคืงืื ืื ืืฆืื, ืื ืืืืื (ืืืคืืจืฆืื), ืขืืฉืื ืืขืื. ืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืกืื ืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืชืจืืคืืช ืืจืฉื ืืืืื ืืช ืืกืืืืืช; ืืืฉื: ืืจืื ืื (ืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืงื ืื) ืื ืืืืืื (ืืืื ืืงื ืื, ืืงืกืืงื, ืืจืืื ืื, ืืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช). ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืฆืจืืืช ืงื ืืืืก ืืฆืืจืื ืคื ืื ืืกืืจื ืืืืง, ืืฆืจืืื ืืจืคืืืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืืืง, ืืืฉื: ืืืกืืจืื, ืฆ'ืืื, ืคืื ืื ื, ืืจืื ืื, ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืคืืจืืืื ืืกืคืจื. ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืืืง ืืคืืจืื ืืืกืจ ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืงื ืืืืก, ืืกืืืจื 21 ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืงืืืืืืื ืืืืง ืืช ืชืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืจืคืืื. ืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืืขืืืื ืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืฆืื ืชืืช ื ืืื 106 ืฉืืชืคืจืกื ืืืชืจ ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืืืืื ืืื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืฆืืจืื ืคื ืื (ืกื) ืื ืื ืืงืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืื-ืจืคืืื ืืื ืฉืฆืจืืืช ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืฆืจืืืช ืคื ืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืชืื ืื ืืื ืืืื-ืคืืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืคื ืื ืืื ืคืืืช ืืืืื[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ]. ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืงื ืขื ืคื ืืืจืืช ืจืืคื ืืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืจืืงื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืื ืฆืจื ืืคื ืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืงืฉืจืื ืืื: ืคืจืืงืืืืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืืจืื ืคืขืืืื ืื ืงืจืืื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืงื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืงืจื, ืื ืืฃ ืืืื. ืืืืฃ ืืืื ืืฉ ืงืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืงืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืื ืืงื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืงืจืืื ืื ืื - ืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืฆืจืื ืืืืฃ. ืฉื ื ืืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืื ื-THC (ืืืืืจ ืืคืกืืื-ืืงืืืื ืืขืืงืจื ืืฆืื, ืืงื ืืื[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ], ืืจืืืข, ืืขืืืฃ ืืืขืืจืจ ืชืืืืื, ื ืืื ืืืืื) ืื-CBD, ืื ืคืืื ืฆืืื ืจืคืืื ืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืขื ืืฉืคืขื ืื ืื ืคืกืืืืืืช, ืืคืงืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืคืืืคืกืื ืืกืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืคืขืืช THC). ืืืืคื ื ืืคืืืช ืฉืืืฉื ืงืืืื ืื ืืืืคืขืืื ืขื ืืื ืงื ืืื ืืืืืื: CB1, CB2 ื-GRP55. ืงืืืื ืื ืืกืื CB1 ื ืืฆืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืฉืคืขืชื ืคืกืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืงืืืื ื CB2 ืืคืืืจืื ืืจืืื ืืืืฃ ืืืฉืคืขืืชืืื ืื ืื-ืืืงืชืืืช ืืงืฉืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืืก ืฉืจืืจืื. ืืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืคืขืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืขื ืืืืฃ, ืฉืืื ื ืงืฉืืจืืช ืืงืืืื ืื. ืื ื ืืืื ืืืฆืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื], ืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืื ืืืจืืคืจืืืงืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืขื ืชืื ืขืฆื ืืคื ื ืืคืขืืช ืืชืจ ืฉืชืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืคื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืคืืืชืื ืืช ืืืืฅ ืืชืื ืขืื ื. ืื ืื ืืขืื ืืฉืคืขืืช ื ืืืืืช ืืืงืช, ืืงืฉืืจืืช ืืงืืืื ื ืืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืืื ืขื ืชืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืฉื ื ืืืขื ืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืช ืืืฉืขืจื ืื ืืฆืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืฉื ื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืคืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืขืืจืจ ื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืฆืืื ืืืจืืืืช (ืืืืืฆืจืืช ืชืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืจื) ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืจ ืฆืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืืขื ืืืืงืฃ ืืงืกืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืขืืช (ื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืชืจืืฉืช ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืงืฃ ืงืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืคื ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืื ืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืคื ืืช). ืฉืืืืฉืื ืจืคืืืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืืืืก ืืืืื ืืฉืคืขืืช ืืจืืืืชืืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืคืขืืช ืื ืื-ืืืืืืช (ื ืืืืืช ืืืืื), ืื ืืืืืืช (ื ืืืืืช ืืื) ืืืกืืืขืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืื ื ืฉืืื ื ืกืจืื ื, ืืืคืื ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืชืจืคืื, ืืฉืคืขื ื ืืืืช ืขืืืืชืืช, ืืื ืขืืจืจืืช ืชืืืืื. ืงื ืืืืก ืื ืืกืืืข ืืืืคืื ืืชืกืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืก. ืืืืื ืืจืคืืื, ืืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืขืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืขืจื ืืืงืจ ืืงืืฃ ืืฉื ืช 1999 ืืืขืจืืช ืืืชืจืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืชืืื ืืคืืื ืฆืืืืืื ืฉื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืืงื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื. ืืืืงืจ ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืื ืงื ืืืืก ืืืขืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืื ืืืจืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืงืจ ืืกืชืืื ืืฆืจืืืช ืงื ืืืืก ืืืจื ืฉื ืขืืฉืื ืืฉื ืืืกืจืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืชืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืขืฉื, ืฆืืืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืข ืืืกืงื ื ืฉืืืื ืืจืืจื ืื ืขืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืคืื ืืขืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืืงืจ ืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืงืืฉื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืง ืืฆืื ืฉืืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืจืฉืื ืขืืื ืคืื ื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืชืจืืคืืช ืื ืืฉืงืืขื ืื. ืงื ืืืืก ื ืืฆื ืืขืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืืงืืืช ืืฆื ืืืืื ืืืืืคืืื ืืืืืืชืจืคืื. ืืืงืจืื ืืฉืืืืชืืื ืืฆืื ืฉืงื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืชืจืืคืืช ืงืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืืืช ื ืื ืืงืืืช ืืืื prochlorperazine, ืคืจืืืชืืื ื-metoclopramide. ืงื ืืืืก ืืขืื ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืื ื (ืืืื ืชื ืืืืื ืงืฉืืจ ืืืืกืืจ ืืืคื ื ืืื ืืืงื ืืื ืืืืืื)[ื], ืืื ืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืจืืคืชืืื, ืคืืืจืืืืืืืื, ืืืืงืช ืืคืจืงืื ืฉืืจืื ืืช. ืืืืคืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงื ืืืืก ื ืืฆื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืคืืืืืืื. ืืืืจื ืืฉื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืืืคืืืื ืืืืกืกื ืงื ืืืืก ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืขืืืช ื ืืืจืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืจืฉืช ื ืคืืฆื, ืืคืืืคืกืื, ืืืขืืืช ืชื ืืขื, ืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืกืืจ ืื ืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืคืื. ืชืืืืช ืืืคืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืข ืืจืคืืื, ืืื ื ืกืงืจื ืืฉื ืช 2017 ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจ ืืกืจ ืชืงืืื ืืืืงืคื ืฉื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืขืื, ืื ืืกื ืืจืคืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉื 20 ืฉื ื, ืืืฆื ืืฆื ืืื ืจืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืขืืืช ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืง ืืืกืืืคืืืืื ืฉื ืชืกืืื ืช ืืจืฉืช ื ืคืืฆื ืืืกืคืจ ืืงืจืื ืกืคืฆืืคืืื (ื ืืฆื ืขืืืจ ืงื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืจืืคื ืืืจืืืืช), ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืืจืื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืื ืขืืืช ืจืฆืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืชืจืืคืืช ืืืืกืกืืช ืงื ืืืืก ืืืคืืืคืกืื, ืืจืฉืช ืืืืืืจืืคืืช ืฆืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืชืกืืื ืื ื ืืืจืืคืกืืืืืืจืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืื, ืชืกืืื ืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืืช ืคืจืงืื ืกืื ืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืงืื ืืื, ืืืกืืื ืื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืจืฉืช ื ืคืืฆื ืืืืฉืจ ืืืืขืื ืืขืฉืจ ืืืื ืืช. ืืืืงื ืฉื ืขืฉืชื ื-2012 ืืขืืชื ืฉืื ื ืืฆืื ืืขืืืช ืกืืืืืช, ืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืขื ืื ืืชืืืจืืช. ืืืงืจ, ืฉื ืขืจื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืชื ืืืื ืืคืืจืกื ืืคืืจืืืจ 2021, ืืฆื, ืฉืฉืืืืฉ ืืงื ืืืืก ืืคืืืช ืืืืคื ื ืืืจ ืืช ืืืืจืช ืืชืืคืขื ืฉื ื ืืืจืืคืชืื ืคืจืืคืจืืช, ืืฆื ืืืื ืกืจืื ืืขืืืจืื ืืืคืืืื ืืืืืชืจืคืืื, ืืืคืืื ืื ืืขืช ืืชืืคืขื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืคื ื ืืืืคืืืื. ืืืคืจืื 2024 ื ืื ืกื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืชืงื ื ืืืขืืืื ืช ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืคืืง ืงื ืืืก ืจืคืืื. ืืืกืืจื ืืืขืืืื ืช ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืจืืคืืื ืืืจืฉืื ืื ืคืง ืืจืฉืืื ืืงื ืืืก, ืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ื ื ืชืจืืคื ืืืืืจืชื ืืืืง, ืืจืง ืืืชืืืืืช ืฉืืจืฉืืื ืืืื. ืฉืชื ืืชืืืืืช ื ืืชืจื ืชืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืคืงื ืขื ืคื ืจืืฉืืื ืืช, ืืคื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืืกืช ืืชืงื ื ืืืขืืืื ืช. ืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืฉื ืืงื ืืืก ืขื ืคื ืืืกืืจื ืฉื ืื ืกื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืคืจืื 2024: ืืืจืฉืืื ืืื ืชื ื ืจืง ืืืขืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืจืง ืขื ืืื ืจืืคืืื ืฉืืืืฉืจื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืงืฉ ืจืืฉืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืื: ืื ืืื, ืจืง ืจืืคืืื ืืืจืฉืื ืืืืื ืืชืช ืจืืฉืืื ืืช, ืืจืง ืืืขืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช. ืชืืคืขืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืื ืคืขื ืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืื ืืกื ืื ืื ืืชื ืืชืจืืคื ื ืืชื ืืคืืงืื ืจืคืืื. ืื ื ืืฆื ืื 3.4% ืืงืจื ืื ื ืื ืืขืจ ืืืฉืจืื, ืืฉื ืช 1995 ืฆืจืื ืืช ืืกื ื-4.6% ืืืืืจืื, ืืขืื ืืฉื ืช 2005 ืืฉืชืืฉื 5.8 ืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืจ ืืงื ืืืืก ื-8.5% ืืืืืจืื. ืืืืคืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืื ืขืืกืืง ืืชืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืกื ืืฆืจืืื ืืคืืืชืืช, ืืืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืกืชืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืฆืจืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืงืืืืืช ืชืืคืขืืช ืืืืื ื ืืกืคืืช. ื ืืฆื ืื ืงืืืืช ืขืืืื ืฉื 40% ืืกืืืื ืืคืกืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืงื ืืืืก. ืงื ืืืืก ืืขืืจืจ ืืคืจืขืืช ื ืคืฉืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืื ืคืกืืืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืฆืขืืจืื, ืืืืืช, ืคืจื ืืื, ืืฉืืืืช ืืืคืจืขื ืกืืืืืืคืงืืืืืช, ืืืคืืจืื, ืืคืชืื, ืืืืื, ืฉืืื, ืื ืฉืงื, ืืชืงืคื ืคืื ืืงื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืคืจืขื ืืชืคืืกืช ืืืฆืืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืงื ืืืืก ืืขืืจืจ ืชืืืฉืช ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืืช. ืงืืืืช ืขืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืงืช ืืจืื, ืืืงืืช ืกืืืคืื ืืช, ืืืงืืช ืืขืจืืช ืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืืื ื, ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืกืชืื ืืืืคืืืื ืืืกืจืื ืจืืืืช. ืืื ืื, ืืฉ ืคืืืขื ืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื, ืืงืฉื, ืืจืืืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฆืข ืืื ืืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืข ืืืจืื - ืื ืืื ืชืืคืขืืช ืืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืฉืืฉืืืืฉ ืืชืืจื, ืืื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฉืช ื ืคืืฆื. ืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจืืื ืืกืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืืขื ืืคืจืืื, ืืื ืืคืืืขื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืืืื ืขื ืคืืืืจ ืฉืืื. ืืชืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืคื ืืืจืืช ืืกืืจืืืช ืืขืืกืงืืช ืืืืฆืจื ืงื ืืืืก, ื ืืื ืืื ืืืจ 2024 ืืฉ ืืืฉืจืื ื-140 ืืืฃ ืืขืื ืจืืฉืืื ืืงื ืืืืก. ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช: ืืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืฉืจืืช ืื ืืคืืง ืขื ืคื ืืจืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืจืืฉืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืืคืจืื 2024, ืืกืขืืฃ ืืืขืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืกืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื: ืืึพืกืคืืงืช ืื, ืคืกืืืืื, ืืฆื ืคืกืืืืื ืืขืืจ, ืืคืจืขื ืืจืืชืืช ืืืงืจื ืฆืขืืจืื ืขื ืืื 30 ืื ืืืื ืคืกืืืืืืจืืช ืชืืจืฉืชืืช ืืงืจืื ืืฉืคืื ืืืจืื ืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืชืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืขื ืืกืืื. ืืืฉืจืื ืคืืขืืช ืขืืืชืช ืืงื ืืืืก ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืคืืขืืช ืืฉื ืืืืจืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืืืคืื ืืจืคืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืกืืืข ืืืืืคืืื ืื ืืื ืืงืงืื ืืืืคืื ืื. ืจืคืืจืืช ืืงื ืืืืก ืืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ื 2016 ืขื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืจืืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืกืืืจื ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืืืจืืช ืจืคืืืืืช ืืืืงืจ ืชืื ืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืื ืืชื ืืื ื ืืืชืื ืฉื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื. ืื ืคืขืืื ืืฆืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื, ืืืฆืืจ, ืืคืฆื, ืืืืงื, ืฉืื ืืข, ืืืืงืืช ืืขืืื, ื ืืคืืง ืื ืืืงืจ ืฉื ืฆืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืืช ืืง"ืจ -ืืืืืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืกืืจืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืื ืชืืืื ืืืืช ืืขืืกืงืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ืื ืฉืขืืกืง ืืขื ืฃ ืืืืื ืืืืืืง ืืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืืื ืืืคืขืื ืืคื ืกืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช. ืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื/ืจืืืื ืงื ืืืืก - ืงื ืืืืก ืืืืื ืจืง ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืงื ืืืืก, ืืืชื ืฆืืืื ืืชืืืืื, ืฉืืืืืงื ืจืืฉืืื ืชืงืฃ ืืคื ืคืงืืืช ืืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืื. ืื ืืขื ืจืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืจืฉืื ืืืืฆืื ืงื ืืืืก ืืชืืื ืืืืื ืจืง ืืืคืขื ืืืฆืืจ ืืขื ืจืืฉืืื. ืื ืืืจื ืคืจืืืช ืฉืชืจืฆื ืชืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืงืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืงื ืืืืก. ื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2023 ืืฉื ื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืงืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืื/ืจืืืื ืงื ืืืืก/ืืืืื ืงื ืืืืก ืืืืจืืช ืจืคืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืจืคืืจืื ืืงื ืืืืก ืืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืกืืจ ืืืืฆืจื ืงื ืืืืก ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืืื ืืืคืขืช ืขืืืฉ ืื ืื ืืชืืื ืฉื ืื ืื ืืืืืคืืื. ืืืืฉื, ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช ืขืืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ืืฉื ืช 2023, ืื ืฉืืืคืฆื ืขืืจื ืืืชื ืืจืงืืช ืืชืืช ืคืงืื ืจืืงืืื ืืืจืฉืื, ืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื, ืื"ืจ ืืืืื ืจืืคืื ืืจืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืจืคืืืืช ืฉืืชื ืื ืืืขืชื "ืืืชืืื ืืืชืืื ืชื ืื ืืืืืช ืืกืื ืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ". ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืืืจื: ืืืืืข ืืืืืงืืคืืื ื ืืขื ืืืขืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืขืืฅ ืจืคืืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D&action=edit§ion=53] | [TOKENS: 197] |
ืขืจืืืช ืืืฃ "ืืื" (ืคืกืงื) ืกืืื ื ืคืืกืืง: ึพ โ โ โฆ ืงืื ืืืงื: โข ยท [] [[]] () {{}} {{{}}} ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืื: ~ | ยฐ ยฑ โ ร ยฒ ยณ + ืชืืืื ืขืืจืืื: ืึผ ืึน ืึผ ืึท ืึธ ืึถ ืึต ืึด ืึณ ืึฒ ืึฑ ืึฐ ืึป ืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฃ ืื ืืืื ืึพ10 ืงืืืืจืืืช ืืืกืชืจืืช: |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-296] | [TOKENS: 12221] |
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืืจื_ืืืืกืื] | [TOKENS: 48391] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื ืชืืืืก ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื (ืืื ืืืืช: Thomas Woodrow Wilson;โ 28 ืืืฆืืืจ 1856 โ 3 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1924) ืืื ื ืฉืืื ื-28 ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืื 1913โ1921 ืืืขื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช. ืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืกืืืช ืจืืื ืืืฉื ืื 1902โ1910 ืืื ื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1910 ื ืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื, ืืืืฉื ื-34 ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ืืื 1911 ื-1913. ืืืืกืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช 1912, ืืืื ืืืืืช ืคืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช, ืื ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืืขืื ืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืงืืืจืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืื ืืจื ื'ืื ืกืื ื-1865, ืืืืจ ืืชื ืืขื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืชืงืืคืชื, ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืกื ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืขืืืจ ืจืคืืจืืืช ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืืช ืจืืืช. ืืชืงืืคืชื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืกืืจืช ื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื, ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืื 1801. ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืงืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ืฉืงืืื ืื ืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืง ืืคืืจื ืจืืืจื, ืืืง ืืขืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืืืช, ืืืง ื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื, ืืืืง ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืืืื. ืืื ื ืื ืก ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉืขืืจ ืืชืืงืื ื-16 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (ืชืืงืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืคืืขื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืก ืืื ืกื), ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืก ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืฉืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืืจืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืื ืืืงืืื ืืก ืืื ืกื. ืืขืืจืช ืืืง ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืฉืขืืช ืืคืืขืื ืืจืืืช, ืื ืข ืฉืืืชื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืื. ืขื ืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ื-1914, ืฉืืจ ืขื ื ืืืืจืืืืช, ืืขืื ืฉืืื ืชืงืืฃ ืืชืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืงืกืืงื. ืืืืื ืชื ืืฉื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืืืจืง ืืฉืขืืจ, ืฆ'ืืจืืก ืืืื ืก ืืื, ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1916. ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืคืขืจ ืืืืง, ืืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืงืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืื ืืจื ื'ืงืกืื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืฆืืคืืช. ืืืื ืชื ืืฉื ืืื ืืคืคื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืื. ืืืคืจืื 1917, ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืจืง ืฆืืืจืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืืืกืื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฉืืจ ืืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืืขืืื ื"ืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืงืจืืื". ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฆืขื ืคืขืืืืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืฆื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื, ืืื ืืจืืช ืจืฉืืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืชืืงื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืกืคืืื ืืืืคืืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืชืืจ ืืช ืืืกืืจืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืจืืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืื ืื, ืืฆืจืคืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืขื ืืืืืื. ืืขืืจืช ืืืง ืฉืืจืืช ื-1917, ืืฆืืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืืื 10,000 ืืืืืื ืืฆืจืคืช ืืื ืืื ืขื ืงืืฅ 1918. ืืชืื ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืืขืื ืืช ืืก ืืืื ืกื, ืืืืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืืืืจ ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืก. ืืื ืืงืื ืืขืื ืชืขืฉืืืชืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืงืืื ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืขืืืืื, ืื ืืื ืจืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืงืืืืช ืืืคืงืช ืืืื, ืืืขื ืืง ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืฉืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืก ืืงืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืฉืืจื ืขื ืืขืจืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื. ืื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื-1915, ืืืงืฉ ืืืืกืื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืง ืืจืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืื ืขืืจื ื-1917 ืื-1918 ืืืชืืื, ืืื ืขื ืคืขืืืืช ื ืื ืืืืืก. ืืืืงืช ืืืฉืคืืื ืฉืื, ืืื ืืืช ืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืฉื ืคืืืืจ, ืืืจืฉื ืืืจืืื ืืขืื ืืืจืืืช ืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืงืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื "ืคืฉืืืืช ืคืืืืจ" ืืื 1919 ื-1920. ืืื ืชืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ื ืจืืืืช, ืื-1918 ืชืื ืืชืืงืื ื-19 ืืืืงื, ืฉืืขื ืืง ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืจืื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืืืคืจืื ืืืขืืช. ืืื ืืขื ืืง ืืจืืฉื ืืืืืงืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืืื. ืืชืืืืช 1918 ืืฆืื ืืช ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืฉืื, ืืจืืข ืขืฉืจื ืื ืงืืืืช, ืื-1919, ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ื-11 ืื ืืืืืจ 1918, ื ืกืข ืืคืจืื, ืืฉืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืฆืืจืช ืืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืื ืืกืื ืืืื ืืจืกืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืชื ืื ืื ืืกื ืืกืืคื ืฉืื, ืฉืืืืืจ ืขื ืืจืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืืจืชื ืืืืจืืคื ืขืจื ืืกืข ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืืกืืืื, ืืืงื ืืฉืืฅ. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืกื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืชื. ืืืื ืืฉืืฅ ืืื ืืจืืื ืืชืคืงืืื, ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืขืชื ืคืืชื ืขื ื ืืืชื. ืืืืกืื ืจืฆื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืฉืืช, ืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืขืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื 1920 ืื ืชืฆืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืืคื, ืืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืืชื ืืช ื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉ. ืืคืจืกืืืืจืืื ื ืืืืืง, ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืกืื ืืืกืจืืืช ืืืืฉืชื ืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืืืืืื "ืืืืกืื ืืช" โ ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฅ ืคืขืืื ืฉืงืืจืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืืงืจืืื ืขืืืืืช. ืขืืืจ ืชืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืคืจืก ื ืืื ืืฉืืื ื-1919, ืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืืชืื ืืจืืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืื. ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืคืจืก ืืื ืชืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื, ื'ืืื ืงืจืืจ ืืืจืง ืืืืื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืขื ื ืืืื ื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืืขืฉืจืช ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืชืื ืืืชืจ ืืงืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืง ืฉืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืืืืืื. ืจืื ืืืฉืืื, ืืื ืืคืืจื ืจืืืจื, ืืขืืช ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืืืช, ืืก ืืื ืกื ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืืืืงื ืขืืืืื, ืืืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืจื ืืืืจ ืืืชื. ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืคืชื ืืืืกืืก ืืืืืจืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืืืืจื ื, ืฉืืฉืคืืข ืขื ื ืฉืืืื ืขืชืืืืื ืืคืจื ืงืืื ืืืื ื ืจืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื'ืื ืกืื. ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืืืืืืืืกืืืช ืฉืื ืืืืชื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืืืจืืงื ืืช, ืืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืื"ื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืขืืืืชืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืงืืจืช. ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืืงืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืื ืืืฆืืจืื. ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ื ืืื ืืกืืืื ืืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืฉืคืื ืืช ืืจืืขื ืืืืื ืืืืฆื ืกืงืืื-ืืืจื, ื-28 ืืืฆืืืจ 1856. ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืื ืืจืืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ื'ืืืฃ ืืืืกืื ืื'ืกื ื'ื ื ืืืืจื. ืืฉืคืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฆืคืื ืืืจืื ื, ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืคืื ืกืงืืืืช, ืื ื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืื. ืืฉืคืืชื ืฉื ื'ืืืฃ ืืชืืืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืฉื ืคืจืกื ืืืื ืฉื ื'ืืืฃ ืืืืื ืฉืืชื ืื ืืขืืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืกื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื, ืขืืจื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืจืื ื-1851, ืชืื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืขืจืื ืืืจืื, ื'ืืืฃ ืืคื ืืืืืจ ืื'ืืจื'ืื ืืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืขืืืื, ืืื ืขื ืืขืืืืช, ืืืื ื ืืช ืขืืืื. ื'ืืืฃ ืื'ืกื ืืืืื ืขื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืืืืื ืคืฆืืขืื ืืื ืกืืื ืฉืืื. ื'ืืืฃ ืืฃ ืฉืืจืช ืืฆืื ืืงืื ืคืืจืฆืื, ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืขื ืฉืืืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืฉ, ืืื ืืฉืฉืืข ืฉืืืจืื ืืื ืงืืื ื ืืืจ ืืฉืืืืื ืขืืืืช ืืคืจืืฅ. ื-1861 ืืื ืฉืืชืฃ ื'ืืืฃ ืืืจืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืื ืืืกื ืืื ืกืืื ืืคืจืกืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (ืื '), ืืคื ืืคืงืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืกืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืกืื, ื'ืืจื'ืื, ืืขืืจ ืื ืืชืืืจืจื ืืืฉืคืื ืขื 1870, ืืฉืืืืจื ืืื ืื 14. ื-1873, ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืจื ืืื ืกืืื ืืคืจืกืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช ืื ืฉืืจ ืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืื ืขืฉืจ, ืื ืจืื ืืฉื ืืืกืืงืกืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืจ ืืืชื ืกืคืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื. ืืืชืืืจ, ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืงืฆืจื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืืชื ืขื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืืจ ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช ืขื 1874, ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื. ืืฉืคืืชื ืขืืจื ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช ื-1874, ืืืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืกืืื ืขื 1882. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืงืืื' ืืืืื 1873, ืืืื ืืื ื-1874, ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื. ืฉื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ื-1879. ืืฉื ืชื ืืฉื ืืื, ืืื ืืืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืืจ ืืืืขืืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1876, ืชืื ืืืืกืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืืขืืื, ืกืืืื ืืืืื. ื-1879, ืืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืคืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืฉื ืฉื ื. ืืฉืืจืืืืชื ืืืืจืืจื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืคืกืืง ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืงืจืืืืื ื ืืฆืคืื ืืช, ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืขืจืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืจ 1882. ืืื ืืชืขื ืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช, ืืืื ืื ืืชืขื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืื ืืืงืฆืืข, ืืืขืืืจ ืคืืืช ืืฉื ื ืืคืกืืง ืืขืกืืง ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืชืืกืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืืกืืืจืื. ืืกืชืื 1883, ืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ื'ืื ืก ืืืคืงืื ืก. ืืขืืืจ ืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื, ืืฉืืื ืืช ืขืืืืช ืืืืงืืืจื ืฉืื, ืื ืืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืจืืงื ื. ื ืืฉืืืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืื 1883, ื ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืื'ืืจื'ืื, ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืคืื ืื ืืกืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืกื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืฉื. ืืฉืืืงืจ ืฉื, ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืกืื, ืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืื'ืืจื'ืื. ืืื ืืฆืืข ืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืชืืจืกื. ืื ืืฉืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืื, ืืืืืืจื, ืฉืกืื ืืืืืืื, ื ืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืคืฉ ืื'ืืจื'ืื, ืืืชืืื ืฉื ื-1884. ืืืืจ ืฉืกืืจื ืืช ืืืช ืืฉืคืืชื ืื'ืืจื'ืื, ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืขืจ, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืืฃ ืงืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืขืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืคืจืื ืขื ืืืช ืืขืืืืืชืื. ืืื ื ืืฉืื ืืืืืืกืื ื-1885. ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืช, ืื ืกืข ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืื, ืคืืจืก ืืจื ืืืื 1919. ืืื ืชืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืืชื ืืฉื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืืขืจืืฅ ืืืืจ ืืกืืก, ืื-1915 ืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืจืง ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืฉืืง ืฉื ืืืจืื ืกืืจืืก. ืืื ืขืฆืื ืฉืืืง ืืืืจ ืืกืืก ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืชื ืืงืืื', ืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืจืช ืฉื ืคืจืื ืกืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืคื ืืื, ืืืงื ืืื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื. ืงืจืืืจื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืืจืฆื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืืจื ื ืืื 1886 ื-1887. ืืื 1885 ื-1888 ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืขืชืืงื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืจ ืืคืืืืืคืื. ืืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืกืืจื ืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื ื. ืืฉืืื ื ืื ืกื ืืืืจืืื ื-1886, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืื ืกืืืื. ืื ืืืืขื ืืฉื ืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืชื, ืืจืืจื, ื ืืืื ืืืคืจืื 1886. ืื ื ืืฉื ื, ื'ืกื, ื ืืื ื-1887. ื-1888, ืขืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืชื ืขื ืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืขื ืืจืื ืืืจ. ืืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืช ื ืืืจืช ืืคืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืช ื ืืืจืช ืืืืื ืื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 1890, ืืขืืจืช ืืืจืื, ื ืืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื ืืืื ืืฉืคืืื ืืืืืื ืคืืืืืืช, ืืืฉืืืจืช ืฉื ืชืืช ืฉื 3,000 ืืืืจ. ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืคืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืฉืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืื ืขื ืฆ'ืืจืืก ืืืื ืก ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืืจืืช 1916. ื-1896, ื ืื ืืืืื 150 ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื. ืืืชื ืืืืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืฉืจืืช ืืืืืจ ืื'ื, ืืืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืกืืจืืืช ืืคืชืืื ืืฉืืืชืืช. ืืื ืืขืืืฃ ืืื ืืื ืืืืงืจืืื ืคืจืืื ืืจืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช ืืืืืงืงืช. ืขืืืืชื ืืคืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-1885, ืืจืฉื ืืขืืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืคืจืืื ืืจืืช. ืืื ืชืืืจ ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืืงืืจืชืืืช, ืืขืืืช ืืคืจืืื ื ืืืจืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืื ืกืงืจ ืคืขืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืืืืช. ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืงืฃ ืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืงืงืช, ืืืืก ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืช, ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืชื ืืืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืืจืืขืื ืืืืขื ืืืืื ื. ื-1890 ืคืจืกื ืืืืจืช ืืฉื "ืืืืื ื", ืฉืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืคืจืืื ื ืืื ืืื ื ืจืข, ืืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืขืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช ืืืงืื ืืช ืจืืืืช ืืืืจื. ื-1889, ืคืจืกื ืกืคืจ ืืืกืืืจื, ืฉืขืกืง ืืชืงืืคื ืืื ืฉืื ื'ืงืกืื ืืขื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื. ืกืคืจื ืืฉืืืฉื, "ืืืืงื ืืืืืื", ืืชืคืจืกื ื-1893 ืืชืจื ืืืชืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืืช. ืกืคืจื ืืจืืืขื, ืกืคืจ ืื ืืืืฉื ืืจืืื ืืฉื "ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืขื ืืืืจืืงื ื", ืคืืจืกื ื-1902. ื-1899, ืืชื ื"ืืืืื ื" ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืขืืืืช ืืืืื, ืคืืงืื ืขื ืชื ืื ืืชืืจืืื ืืืคืขืืื, ืืืืืช ืชืขืกืืงืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืกืืื ืื ืืืจืืืืช, ืงืืืขืช ืชืงื ื ืืืืืช ืืืืฆืจืื, ืืืืืช ืฉืขืืช ืืขืืืื ืืขื ืคืื ืืกืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืฉื "ืื ืฉืื ืืกืจื ืืฆืคืื ืื ืืกืจื ืื". ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืฉืืขืจืืช ืืคืจืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืืช, ืขื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืื, ืกืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืืช. ืื ืืืืฉืื ืื ืคืขืื ืืืืืช, ืืืขื ืชื, ืืขื ืื ืืืข ืืช ืื ืืืขื ืืฉ. ืืืืกืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืงืืจืช, ืืืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืืง ืืืจืืขืื ืืฉืืข ืืืืงืืช, ืืฉืื ืืืช ืืื ื ืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืจืืื ืืื. ืืขืืืืชื ืืืืงืจืืช ืืืืจืื ื, "ืืืืฉืื ืืืืงืชืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช" (1908), ืืขื ืฉืชืคืงืื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืชื. ืืฉืืคื ืื ืฉืื, ืงืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืจืืฉื ืืคืืื ืืื ืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืืืืื. ืืื ืงืืืื ืฉืืืคืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืืจืคืืช. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืืคืืืืช ืฉื ืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืื, ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืื ืืคืืืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืชื ืฉืืฉ ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ื ืืฉื ืืฆืืงื ืืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืื ืื ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืื ืช ืืจืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืช. ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื, ืืืืข ืืช "ืชืืืืชื ืืื ื" ืืฉืขืืช ืขืืืื "ืืืืื ืืืช", ืืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช, ืืืฉืืจ ืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืืืจื, ืืืขื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืืง ืืืืฆืืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื ืืชืืงืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืคืืืืกืืคืืื ืืืืืขื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืขืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืืืืืืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืชื. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืืช ืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืขื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืฉ. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืกืื, ืฆืจืคืช ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืฉืืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืขื ืฉืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ื, ืืืื ืืงืืฉื ืืืฆืืจืช ืงืื ืฆื ืืืก ืืืจืืงื ื. ืืื, ืืื ืืจืฉ ืจืคืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืฉื. ืืื ืงืืฉืจ ืืช ืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืฉืืืฉืคืขื ืืืขืืชืืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืืื. ื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื ืืืฆืข ืืืืืืกืื ืืฉืืฉ ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืืื ืื ื-1892, ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื ื-1901, ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืช. ืืืื ื 1902, ืืื ื ืืืืืช ื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืชืงืฆืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืื ืืงืืฉื ืืจืืขื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืจืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืืืกืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืืืจืื, ืืืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืขืื, ืืืืขื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืขืืืจ ืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืืืจืืช. ืืืืกืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืงืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืฉืคืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืกืช ืืฉืื. ืืื ืืขืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืฆืื ื-112 ื-174, ืืืชื ืืืจ ืืขืฆืื ืืคื ืืืืืืชืืื. ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืชืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื, ืืคื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืงืืืฉ ืืืงืฆืืข, ืืื ื ืืช ืืืจืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืฆื ืืงืชืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื, ืืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืคืจืกืืืืจืืื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืขื ืืชืืงืฆืขืืช ืืชืืื. ืืชืืืืืื ื ืคืืฉื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืฉื ืฉืืฉื ืชืืืืืื ืขื ืืืจืื. ืืื ืืขืื ืืช ืชื ืื ืืงืืื ืืฉืืฃ ืืืคืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื. ื-1906, ืืชืขืืจืจ ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืฉืืชืขืืืจ ืืขืื ื ืืฉืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืืื ืฉืืฅ โ ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืช ืขืืจืงืื โ ืืืื ื ืกืข ืืืืคืฉื ืืืื ืืจืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืคืืื, ืืื ืืืื, ืืืกืจ ืกืืื ืืช, ืฉืืืืื ืืฉืืืืืช ืืฉืืคืื. ืืฉืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืคืฉื ืืืจืืืื, ืืื ืคืืฉ ืืช ืืจื ืคืง. ืื ืืจืื ืืืงืจ ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืืชืืืืก ืืื ืืืืชืืื ืื ืืื. ืืื ืืฉื ืืืขืื, ืืืืืจ ืืจื ืืืชืืืืช ืืื ืืืื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืจืืื. ืืชืงืืคืชื ืืคืจืื ืกืืื, ื ืืกื ืืืื ืืช ืืืขืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืขืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืจื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืช. ืืื ืืฆืืข ืฉืืชืืืืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืชืคืื, ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืชื ืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืขืงืฉ ืขื ืื. ืืืืงืืืืจ 1907, ืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืกืืจื ืืชืืื ืืชืืื ืืช. ืงืฆืช ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืื ืฉืื ืืฆื ืืืืคืฉื ืืืื ืขืืืืจืื ืืขืื ื ืืฉืืืืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ, ืืชืขืืช ืืื ืื ืืจื ืืืกื, ืืืงื ืืืช ืืกืคืจ, ืืื ืขื ืื ืืจืืชื, ืื ืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืจืืืจ ืงืืืืื ื, ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื. ืืืืกืื ืจืฆื ืืืื ืชืืืืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืงืืคืืก, ืืืืื ืืืกื ืืจืฉ ืฉืืงืืคืืก ืืืงื ืืืงืื ืืจืืืง ืืืชืจ. ื-1909, ืฉื ืชื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืชืคืงืื, ืืงืืคืืก ืืืงื ืืืงืื ืืจืืืง ืืืชืจ. ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืื ืงืจื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืคืืคืืืืกืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืจืืืฉ ืฆืืจื ืืจืืฅ ืืืฉืจื ืคืืืืืืช ืืืืจื. ืืคื ื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืฉื 1908, ืจืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืจืฆืื ื ืืืืืช ืืืขืื ืืืขื ืืืืืงืจืืื. ืืืืืงืจืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืชื, ืืืื ืืงืจืงืข ืืืืชื ืืืื ื. ื-1910, ื ืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืืืืช ื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืขืื ืืช ืคืจืื ืกืืื ืื ืื ืก ืืคืืืืืืงื ืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื. ืชืจืืืชื ืืคืจืื ืกืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืฉืืคื ืืืชื ืืืงืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืฆืขืืจืื. ืืืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื ืืื ืืืจ 1910, ืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืชืฉืืืช ืื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื, ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืฉื. ื-12 ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืฆื ืืคื ื ืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืื ืืชืืืืชื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืจืืื, ืืืื ืืคืืขืืื ืืืืืจืื ืื, ืืจืืืฉื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืคืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืกื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืขืืืืช ื-14 ืืกืคืืืืจ. ืืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืข ืื ืืฉื ืฆืจืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ื-20 ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืชืคืืจ ืืืฉืจืชื ืืคืจืื ืกืืื. ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืก, ื ืฆืื ืืืืขืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืืงื ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืขืฆืืื ืืืืื ื ืืคืืืชืืช. ืืื ืืคืกืืง ืืืชื ืื ืืื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื. ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืก ืืงืืืช, ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื ืืืชืจ ื-650,000 ืงืืืืช, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ื ืืฆื ืื ืื ื'ืจืื ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืืชืืืช ืฉื 1908 ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื ืืืชืจ ื-82,000 ืงืืืืช. ืืืืกืื ื ืืฉื ืืกืืก ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ืืืืงืจืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืฉื ืืืคื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืฉืชืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคืชื ืื ืฉืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1910, ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืชืื ืขื ืืืกืคื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืกื ืื ืฉื ื ืื ื'ืจืื ื ืืชืจ ืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืืช ื'ืืืฃ ืคืืจืืง ืืืืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืฉื, ืชืคืงืื ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืงืจืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืกืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืขืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืืคืืืชื ืืขืกืง ืืจืคืืจืืืช. ืืื ืกืืจื ืืชืืื ืืกื ืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืื ืจืืืืื ืืืขืชื (ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืืืจื ืืกื ืืืืจืื). ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืืคืืืชื ืืืืฉ ืืืืืจ. ืืืืกืื ืืชืืงื ืืืจืืข ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืืช- ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืงื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืงืื ื ืื ืฉืืืชืืช, ืืืงืื ืืืขื ืืคืืขืืื, ืืืงืืช ืืขืื ืืืขื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืง ืฉืืขืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืื ื ืฆืืื ืืคืืื ืืฆืืจืื, ืืืื ืคืืข ืืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืืง ืขืืจ ืืจืื ืืืืง, ืืืืจืื ืื ืืืงืื ื ืื ืฉืืืชืืช ืืืืงืื ืืืขื ืืคืืขืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉื 1912 ืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืฉื ืืืชืืืื ืืืขืืชืื ืืช ืขืืจื ืื ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ื-1912. ืืืจืฅ 1911, ืืื ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืคืืื. ืืืืื ืื, ืืฉืชื ืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืืืื ื'ื ืื ืืก ืืจืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืคืืื, ืืืงืจ ืืคืจืื ืกืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืกืขืื ืืืชื. ืืืืกืื, ืฉืืชื ืื ืืืจืืืื ื-1896, ืืชืคืืืก ืืืชื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืืจืื, ืืฉื ืื ืื ืืจืคืืง, ืืืจื'ืื ืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืืช, ื ืืืื ืืจืคืืจืืืกืื ื ืืฉื ืืงืืฆืื ื ืืื ืืฆื ืืฉืืจื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืื 1848 ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืืช ืืืื, ืืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืชืืื ืื. ืืื ืืฉืื ืขืื ืชืืืื ืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืื ืฆืขืืจืื, ืืื ืืืงืืืืืื, ืขืืจืื ืขืืชืื ืื ืืขืืจืื ืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืืงืืืืืช. ืืื ืกื, ืืืคืืื ืืืืชื ืืคืืืืช ืื ืืืข ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืืืชื ืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื, ืืืื ืื ืชืื ืืืืง, ืืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ื ืชืืื ืื ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืืงืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืื ื. ืืืืจ ื ืืจืคืืง, ืืืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืขืจืื, ืื ืงื ืืก, ืงืืืืจืื, ืงืืืคืืจื ืื, ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืื ืชืื ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืื ืขื, ืืชื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืงืื ืืขืืจืช ืขืฆืืืืช, ืืื ืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืช (ืืืื ืืฉืืคืืื). ืืงืืืคืืจื ืื, ืืฉื ืฉืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืืฆืืืข, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืชื ืื ืืื ืืืจ ืฉืื ืขื ืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืืืื 1911, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืก ืืงืืื ืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืืก ืื ืื ืืช ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื. ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืฉื ืืจืืฉ ืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืืืก, ืฉืขืืจ ืืืืืืกืื ืืืคืื ืืืืฉื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืืข ืงืืื ืืื, ืืืืื ืจืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืืช. ืืืืกืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืืชืขืจื ืืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืืฃ. ืขืืืจื, ืืืืืืื, ืืืขื ืงืจืก ืืืืชื. ืืืืขืืื ืืืืชื ืืคืืืืช ืืืฉื ืืจืืขืื ืกืืืืืื. ืืฃ ืืืขืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืข ืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืงืืืืช. ืฆ'ืืืค ืงืืืจืง ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื, ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืฉืืื ืืืง ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืจื ืืืืฃ ืืจืกื, ืื ืืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืืืื ื'ื ืื ืืก ืืจืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืขืื ื-1896, 1900 ื-1908, ืืชื ืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืืจืื ืืชืืื ืื. ืืกืืืื ืืขืฉืืจื, ืื ืืืฉืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืชืืื ืืงืืืจืง. ืืจืืืื ืืืจืื ืืกืืืื ื-14 ืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืงืืืจืง, ืืขืืฆืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืืขืืืช. ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืจ ืขืงืฃ ืืช ืงืืืจืง. ืืจืืืื ืชืื ืืืืืืกืื, ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืขืื ืืกืืืื ื-46. ืืืืกืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื, ืื ืจื ืืืจืื ืืื (ืืื), ืื ืืงืื ืชืจืืืืช ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืชืจืืืืช ืงืื ืืช ืืืฆืืืืจ. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืื ืื ื'ืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืฉืืืืื ืืชืืืกืช ืืืืขืืืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืจ ืื ืื ืข ืืขื ืืช ืฉื ืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืืกืื ื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืชืจืช, ืืืชืืืืก ืื ืจืืืืืื ืืืืืืจ, ืืฉืืื ืืชืืจ ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ื"ืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืฆืืขืื ืืช". ืืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืฆืืช ืืืกืข ืฉื ืขืฆืจืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืืื ืขืฉื ืืืช, ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช ืื ืื. ื ืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืืืื ืืืคืืืืก ืืขื ืฉืืจืืืฉ ืคืืืช ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืืงื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืืืงืฉ ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืจื ืืืืก ืืชืืื ืืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืฆืืข ืฉืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืจืฉ ืืืกืื ืืืื ืืคืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืจืฉ ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืกืื ื ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืฉืืง ืืืืคืฉื. ืืืื ืืืื ืคืืืืก, ืืขื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืืง ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืคืฉ ืืืฉ ืืืืจืืงื. ืชืืื ืืช "ืืืืคืฉ ืืืืฉ" ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืฉื ืคืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืื ืขื ืืืืคื ื ืืงืฉื ืฉื ืืืงืื ื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืืจื ืจืืืจื. ืืฉืจืืืืืื ื ืคืฆืข ืืืื ืืชื ืงืฉ, ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืืช ื ืืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืจืง ืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืืื. ืืื ืืจืืจ ืฉืืคืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืงืืืจืื. ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืชืืืื ืืงืจื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืฆืคืื ืืฉืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื. ืืืจืื, ืจืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืืข. ืืืืกืื ืืฉืื 41.8% ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ื-435 ืืืงืืืจืื ื-40 ืืืื ืืช. ืื ืืจืืจ ืื ืจืืืืืื ืืงื ืืืชืจ ืงืืืืช ืืืืคื, ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื ืืฉืขืืจ, ืื ืืืืืกืื, ืืคืจืืืจืกืืื. ื ืฉืืืืชื (1913โ1921) ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืื ื'ืืืฃ ืืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืชื. ืืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืชืืกืก ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืกืงืืื ืืงืืืจ ืฉื ืื ืฉืื. ืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืื, ืืชื ื-6 ืืืืืืกื 1914, ืืืื ืืชืืชื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืื ื-1915. ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื. ืืืืขืฅ ืืจืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืก, ืขื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืืกืชืืกื ืืืชื ื-1919, ืืคื ื ืฉืืจืืืฉ ืฉืืืขื ืืืชื ืืืืขืืืช ืืฉืืื. ืกืื ื, ืืืืฉื ืืฉืขืืจ ืชืืืืก ืืจืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ื, ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืฉื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ื'ื ืื ืืก ืืจืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืคืืื, ืฉืืชืคืืจ ืืชืคืงืืื ื-1915 ืืืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ื ืื ืืจืื ืื, ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืชื ื ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืก ืืงืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืคืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื: ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ื ืืืืกืื ืขืฉืจืื ืฉืืคืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืจืขืืจืื, ื-52 ืฉืืคืืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืืืื. ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืืื ืขื ืืืืกืื ืืคืืืก ืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฃ ืืืจืืื ืืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื, ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืจืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืฆืคืื ื ืืืคืจื-ืขืกืงื, ืฉืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืืื. ืขืื ื-1907 ืืขื ืฉืคืืืืืืงื ืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืชืคืืช. ืื ืืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืช "ืืืืคืฉ ืืืืฉ" ืฉืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื. ืขื ืจืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืืื ืืจืืื, ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืกืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืคืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืงืืงื ื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืขืืืจ ืจืคืืจืื ืืื ืงืืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืข. ืืืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื ืคืขืืืื ืืฉืืืข ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืคืขื ืืจืืฉืื ื ื-15 ืืืจืฅ 1913. ืืืชืืื ืืืจืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืฉืืืืช. ื-1913, ืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืช ื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืืื 1801, ืืฉืชืืืืก ื'ืคืจืกืื ืืคืกืืง ืืช ืืืกืืจืช. ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื, ืืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืกืงืจ ืื ืืจืืื, ืืืจ ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืื"ืจ ืืขืืช ืืืืืื. ืจืื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืชืื ืืืื ืืืืง ืฉืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืกืื, ืืืกืคืืืืจ ืืืืง ืขืืจ ืืกื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชื ืขืืื ืืขืืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืื ืขื ืืฉืคืขื ืืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืืืกืื ืืขื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉืืชืืืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืจืื ืืงืก ืืชืืื ืืืืืจ ืขื ืืืืง. ืืืื ืกื ืฉืืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืืืฉ, ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืขืืจืช ืืชืืงืื ื-16 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืกืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืื ืฉืื- ืืื ืงืืืช, ืื ืืื ืืืื ื 1913. ืืืืจ ืฉืืชืืืขืฅ ืขื ืืจื ืืืืก, ืืืจืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืขืจืืช ืืื ืงืืืช ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืืฉืืชืืช. ืืื ืงืื, ืืืขื ืชื, ืฆืจืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืกืงืื, ืืื ืฉืืืืืื. ืืื ื ืืกื ืืคืืืก ืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืฉืืจื ืื, ืืื ืืืช ืืกื ืืืืจ ื ืืกืื ืืืืืจืืฅ', ืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืงืจืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ื'ื ืื ืืก ืืจืืืื, ืฉืชืืขื ืื ืงืื ืคืจืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืกืืจืื. ืืจืืืื ืืจืฉ ืื ืง ืืจืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืช ืฉืืืคืืก ืืกืฃ ืื ืืืจ ืืืืืช ื ืคืฉื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืกืืฃ, ืืคืฉืจื ืืจืฉืชื ืืื ืงืื ืคืจืืืื ืืฉืืื ื-12 ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืฆืจื ืืขืจืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืกื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ืข ืืช ืชืืืื ืืจืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืง ืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืืข ืืคื ืืืืืฉ ืืืชืจ. ืฉื ืื ืขืฉืจ ืื ืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืคืขืช ืืื ืงืื ืื ืื ืืืจืง, ืืจืืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืขืจื. ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืืช ืคืืื ืืจืืืจื ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืืช. ืืืืฃ ืื ืื ืืืจืงืจื ืฉืื ืืื ืง ื"ืจืืฉืื ืืื ืฉืืืื". ืืืขืจืืช ืืืื ืืคืขืื ื-1915, ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื. ืืกืืฃ 1913, ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืชืจ ืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืฉืขืืจื. ืืืืกืื ืืืฃ ืืืงืืงื ืฉืืกืชืืืื ืืืงืืงืช ืืืง ืืขืืช ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืืืช ืืกืคืืืืจ 1914. ืืื ืื ืฆืขื ืื ืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืชืคืงืื, ืฉืกืืจื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืฆื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื. ืืขืืช ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจืืืช ืืคืขืืื ืจืืืืฆืื ืฉืขืืืื ืชืืจืืช ืืืงืืื ื ืืช ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื, ืืืงืง ืืืืกืื ืืืง ื ืื ืืื ืืคืืืื, ืฉืืกืจ ืขื ืืคืืืืช ืืืืืจืื, ืขื ืืกืืืื ืฉืืกืจื ืขื ืืงืืขืื ืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืฆืจืื ืืกืคืงืื ืืืจืื, ืืืกืืืื ืฉืืืจืชื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืื. ืืืื ืฉื ืืงืืงื ืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืงืื ืงืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืืืชื ืฉื ื ืฆืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืืงืื. ืืืืง ื ืืฉื ืืืื ื ืงืจืื ืฉื ืืืงื ืืขืืืื. ื-1916, ืชืืช ืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืฉืืืชื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืกืื ืืืง ืฉืืขืื ืฉืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืช ืฉืขืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืคืืขืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืชื. ืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืืืฉ ืืืืืจื ืืืืฉ, ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืกืืจื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืกืืืข ืืืงืืืื. ื-1914 ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืฆืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืช ืชืืฆืจืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืงืืื. ื-1916 ืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืฉืืขื ืืง ืืืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืจืืืืช ื ืืืื ืืืงืืืื. ืืขืกืงืช ืืืืื ื ืืกืจื ืืืืง ื-1916, ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขื ืฉืืืืง ืืื ื ืืืงืชื ื-1918. ืจืง ืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืืฉืื ื ืืงืงื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื ื ืื ืืขืกืงืช ืืืืื. ื-1914, ืกืืกืื ืืื ืืืจื ืคืื ืืงืืืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืจื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืืื ื ืฉืืืชืื, ืืื-ืขืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืฉืชื ืืืืืช. ืืื ืืืืขืืื, ื'ืื ื. ืจืืงืคืืจ, ืืื, ืกืืจื ืืืฆืขืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืจืจืืช, ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืืจ. ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืกืืจ ืืืคืืื ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืืืื, ืืืื ืื ืืขืช ืืืืจืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืืชื ืชืืืกื ืงืฉื. ืืงืืฅ 1916, ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืกืื ื ืขืงื ืฉืืืชืช ืจืืืืช. ืื ืฉืื ืงืจื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืกื โ ืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืื ืชืืฆืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืขื ืืื, ืืืืขืืืจ ืืืง ืืืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืฉืขืืช. ืืืืง ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืชื, ืืืงื ื ืืืืืืกืื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืื ืืขืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืืื. ืืฉืืจื ืื ืืืงืจื ืืช ืืืืง ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืกืื ื ืื ืข ืืืืืืืื, ืืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืชืจ ืืจืืื ืืช. ืืฉืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืื ืกื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืคืจืื 1917, ืืคื ืืืืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืขืฆืช ืืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืืืืชืืช, ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืจื ืจื ืืจืื, ืืืงืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืขืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืขืชืื ืืจืืจื ืืืืจ ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ื, ืฉืืกืคืง ืืืื. ืืื ืืืกืื ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืื ืฉืขืื ืงืืฅ, ืืืกืคืงืช ืืืืง ืืืงืฆืื. ืืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื. ืืงืืื ื ืืืืืืชื ื ืคืืฉ ืขื ืืืืกืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืืืข. ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืื ืฉื ืขืกืงืื ืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืคืื ืืื, ืืื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืชืืื ืืชืคืงื ืืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืขืืืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืกืื ืขืื ืขื ืืืืืื ืขืืืืื ืืชืื ืื, ืฉืฆืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืชื. ืืืืขืืจ ืืงืฆืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืจืงืืขื ืฉืืงืื, ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืขืื ืืืคืืขืืื ืกืืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืจื ืืืฆืืื. ืืืฆืืื ืื ืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื. ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืจืืืกืืื, ืงืืืื ืืกืืื, ืืืจื IWW ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ื ืจืืคื ืืืื ืืืืงืช ืืืฉืคืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืฉื ืคืืืืจ. ืื ืืืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืื ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืฉืืช ืืกืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืจืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืฉืจื ืืชืขืืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืจืืฉืื, ืืืืขืื ืืืืืข ืฆืืืืจื, ืฉืืคืืฆื ืืกืจืื ืื ืื-ืืจืื ืืื ืืฆื ืืจื ืืืืจ ืฉืืฆืื ืืืกืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืขืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืง ืืจืืืื ืฉื 1917 ืืืช ืืืง ืืืืจืื ืฉื 1918 ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืืงืื ืืกืจื ืขื ืืฆืืจืืช ืื ืื-ืืจืืืืืช, ืคืจื-ืืจืื ืืืช ืืื ืื-ืืืืืชืืืช. ืืขืื ืฉืชืื ืืกืืฆืืืืืกืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืฃ ืืืขืฆืจื ืืืืืจืืฉื ืฉื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืืืจืื ืจืืื, ืฉืืื ืชืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืจืืืช, ืืืชื ืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืืืืื, ื ืฉืืื ืืจืืกืื ืืกืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืง ืืืืืจื ืฉื 1918. ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืฆืข ืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืก, ืืืืืฃ ืืืืกืื ืืคืงืืื ืฆืืืืื ืืืงืจ ืืช ืืืืงืช ืืืืืืื. ืืื"ื ืืืงืืจื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืฉืืืชืืช ืื ืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืก, ืืฃ ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ. ืืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืจืจ ืืช ืืืืืืื ืขื ืกืืื ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืช ืืขืื ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืกื ืื. ืืืงืื ืืืช, ืืขืืืฃ ืืืืกืื ืืคืจืง ืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืื. ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืจื ืืื ืฉืืจืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืชืื ืื, ืืื ืืกืฃ, ืขื ืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืจืคืืืช. ืืืืขื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืชืืฆืจืช ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืคืืฆืฆื, ืืืงืืืื ืจืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืจืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช. ืฉืืืชืืช ืืชืขืฉืืืช ืืคืืื, ืืคืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืคืืขื ืืืืืื ื-1919. ืืื ื ืืืขืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืงืืฅ, ืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืงืื, ืืืืืื, ืืืขืจืื ืจืืืช ืืฆืคืื. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืคื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืชื ื ืื ืขืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืขืืจืช ืืืืง. ืฉืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืชื ืืจืืช, ืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืจืื ืืื (ืืืื ืืืจื ืืืกืืืืช) ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืกืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉื ืืชืืงืื ืืืงืชื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืฉ. ืชืืงืื ืืืงืชื ืขืืจ ืืืฆืืืจ 1917, ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื. ื-16 ืืื ืืืจ 1919, ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืื 36 ืืชืื 48 ืืืืื ืืช. ื-28 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1919, ืืืงืง ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืืืง ืืืืกืื, ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืจืืืฉ ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืง, ืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉืื. ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ื-16 ืืื ืืืจ 1920 (ืฉื ื ืืืืจ ืืฉืจืืจ ืืชืืงืื). ืืืืจื, ืืืฆืืจ, ืืืื ืืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื, ืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืชืืื, ื ืืกืจื. ืฆืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืื ื ืืกืจื, ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืฉืืจื ืขื ืืืื ืคืจืื ืืืคื ื ืืชืงืืคื ืืฆืื. ืืืืกืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืฉื ืฉืื ืื ืืจืชืฃ ืืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืื ืชื. ืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืง ืืชืืืฉื: ืืฉืืง ืืฉืืืจ ืืชืคืชื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืขืงืืฃ ืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืืืืืืื ืจื ืืืคืง ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืืื ื. ืืืกื ืืกืคืืง ืืืื, ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืงืืืช, ืฉืืฉื ืืขืจืื, ืืขืืืจืืช ืืืืคืจืื. ืืืืกืื ืชืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืืขื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืก ืชืืืื ืืชืืงืื ืืืงืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืชื ืื ืืชืืงืื ืฉืืคืืข ืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืคื ื ืืฉืืขืชื ืื ืฉืื, ื ืขืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฆืขื ืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืก ืคืื, ืืืกื ืืจื ืก ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื, ืืื 1917 ื-1919, ืืคืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืืืช ืชืงืคื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืขื ืืืกืจ ืคืขืืืชื ืื ืืฉื. ืืืืกืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืงืฉืจ ืขื ืืืง ืืืกืืคืจื'ืืกืืืืช ืืืชืื ืืช. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชืขืื ืืื ืืฉื ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืฆืคืื ื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืชืื ืืื: ืืฉืื ืขื ื-1917 ืื ืื ืืืจืง, ืฉืชืื ืื ืืฉื, ืืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืจ 1918, ื ืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืืง. ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืื ืืกื ืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืืืง ืขื ื-1919, ืืื ืืชืืงืื ื ืฉืื ืืืฉืจืืจ ืืืืื ืืช. ืืืืจ ืืืคืืช ืืืงืืืืจ ืืจืืกืื ืืฆืืจืืช, ืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืฉืฉื ืืืืคืื ืงืืืื ืืกืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืคืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืจืืืกืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืื'ื ืืืื ื ืืืฆืขื ืกืืจืช ืคืืฆืืฆืื ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-1919. ืืชืืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืฉืคื, ืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืฉื ืคืืืืจ, ื"ืคืฉืืืืช ืคืืืืจ" ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืกืืง ืืืืืื ื ืคืขืืืื ืจืืืงืืืื. ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคื ื ืืชืงืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ื-1920, ืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืขืืจ ืืื ืชืงืจืืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืงืจื ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืขืื (ืืคื ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืืกืื, ืืกืคืจื "ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืขื ืืืืจืืงื ื", ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืืจืืคืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืขืื ืฉืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืืข ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช). ืืคื ืืืืงืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืขืืืืช ืืืืชื ืฉืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืขืืืืื, ืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืกืจืืื. ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืฉืืืขื ืชื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืขืืืื ืืคืฉืืืื. ืื ืืฉื ืฉื ืชืงืืคืช ืืฉืืงืื, ืกืืจ ืืืืกืื, ืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืฉืืืจืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืื ื"ืฆืงืืื ืืื", ืืคืืืืืืงืืื ืฉืืื ืืืฆืคืื ืืื ืืชืคืืก ืืืจืื ืขืืืืช ืืื, ืืฉืืขืฉืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืจืืืงืืื ืืฆืืืงื ืืขืฉืื ืงืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืง ืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืงืจืืืืช. ืืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืฉืจื, ืืืืงืช ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืืกืื ืืืฆืข ืืืช ืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืฉืืจืืชืื, ืืงืคืืืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืืืืืื ืืืืก ืืงืืื, ืืชืืจ ืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืจื ื ืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืขืืืื. ืืกืืฃ 1913, ืืืืงืืช ืจืืืช ืืืคืจืื ืืืืขืื, ืื ืืื ืคืงืืื ืืคืืจืฉืช. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืื 1913, ืืืขื ืฉืืืคืจืื ืืืืขืืช ืืคืืืชื ืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืื ืืืืขืื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืคืขื ืืคื ืืขืช ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฉืืชืืช. ืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืชืืื, ืคืืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืช, ืืชืืืช ืขืืื ืืช ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆื ืื ืกืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช. ืชืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื, ืฉืขืืื ืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืื, ืืชืืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืืื ืขื ืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉืื. ืืขื ื ืฉืฉืืงืจ ืืฉืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืคื ื ืื ืฆืืง ืืืขื. ืืคืจืื ืืืขืืช ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืฉืืชืืื, ืืืคืืื ืืืชื ืชืขืกืืงื ืืืื ืืืจ ืืฆื ืชืืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื, ืืื ืฉืื ืืืคื ืืืฉืื ืืืชื. ืืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืจืืฃ ืืช ืืืฆื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ื ืืจืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช ืืฉืืื ืชืืื ืืช. ืืืืงืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืกื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืฉืืืจืื ืืฆืื, ืื ืชื ื ืืื ืชืฉืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื, ืืืื ืืืชืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืขื ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื, ืื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืจืืช ืขื ืืคืงืืื ืืื ืื, ืืื ื ืืืื ืจืื ืืืื. ืืฉืืฉืืืช ืฉืืืจืื ืืืชื ืขื ืื, ืืขื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืืคืจืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ื ืืฉืคืื ืืื ืจืืื. ื-1918, ืืืฆืขื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืจืืืจื ืื ืืืื โ ืืืืกื ื-NAACP ืฉืชืื ืืืืืืกืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืืื "ืืจืืื ืืืืจื" โ ืืฉืจื ืฆืืืืช ืฉืชืขืกืืง ืื ืืฉืื ืืืืขืื. ืื ืืืื ืงืืื ืืืช, ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืงืืื ืืฆืื. ื-1916, ืืชื ืื ืื-ืืืื ืืืืืืกืื, ืืืขื ืฉืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืชื "ืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืจื ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืงื ื'ืื ืงืจืืื ืืืคืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืจืื". ืืืืกืื ื ืื ืก ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืงืกืืงื ืืช, ืืืขื ืืืจื ืืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืคืจื ืกืืกืงื ืืืื ืืกืื ืืืจื, ื ืฉืื ืืงืกืืงื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1911 ื-1913. ืืืืกืื ืื ืืืืจ ื"ืืืฉืืช ืืงืฆืืื" ืฉื ืืืงืืืจืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืฉ ืืืงืกืืงื ืืงืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืงืจืืืืช. ืืืฉืชื ืืกืจืช ืืชืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืื ืขื ืืืืืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืชื. "ืืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื" ืืคื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืช ืขื 1933, ืืฉืคืจื ืงืืื ืจืืืืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืกืจืืช ืืืคื ืืืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืจืื ืขืฆืจ ื ืืชืื ืื ืื, ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืจ. ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืงืกืืงื ื ืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืชื, ืื-1916, ืืฉื ืืกื ืืืืืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืืขื ื ืชืืืื ืืืืกืื ืฉ"ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืืืชื ื ืืืืฅ ืืืืืื". ืืืืจืื ื ืืฉ ืืช ืืงืกืืงื ืืืืืืฃ ืืืื ืืกืืืื ื ืงืืจืื ืกื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืชื, ืกืื ื ืฉื ืงืืจืื ืกื, ืคื ืฆ'ื ืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฆืื ื ืืืชืจ ื-1916. ืืชืืืืช 1916, ืืืืื ืืืื ื-1,500 ืืืจืืื ืืงืกืืงื ืืื ืืืชืงืคื ืขื ืืขืืืจื ืงืืืืืืืก ืฉืื ืื ืืงืกืืงื, ืืชืืืื ืืืืืขืช ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืงืืจืื ืกื. ืืืชืงืคื ื ืืจืื 17 ืืชืืฉืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืชืื ืจืืื ื ืฉืจืคื. ืืขื ืืจืฉ ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืขืื ืฉื. ืืชืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืืืช ืฉื 4,000 ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืช ื'ืื ืคืจืฉืื ื ืืืืจื ืืชืคืืก ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืคื. ืืืคืจืื, ืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืคืจืฉืื ื ืืืกืื ืืช ืชืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืื ื ืฉืืจ ืืืคืฉื ืืคืจืฉืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืจืืืฃ ืืืจืื ืื ืชืื ืืงืกืืงื. ืงืืจืื ืกื ืืื ืื ืื ืืคืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืื ืืื. ืขืืืืช ืขื ืืืื ืืงืกืืงื ื ื-12 ืืืคืจืื ืืจื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืืืคืฆืืขืชื ืฉื ืฉืืฉื, ืืืืืืช ืงืืจืื ืืช ืืงืกืืงื ืืื. ืืงืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืขื ืคืจืฆื ืืกืืฃ ืืื ื, ืืฉืืจืฉ ืืืืกืื ืืช ืฉืืจืืจื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงื ืื ืฉืืื ืขืฆืืจืื. ืื ืฉืืืจืจื, ืืืชืืืืช ืืชืคืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื. ืืชืืืืช 1917, ืืืชืืืืช ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืืกืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืขืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืจืง ืฆืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืงืกืืงื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืข ืืืืงืกืืงื ืื ืืฉืชืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืขื ืคืจืฉืื ื ืืกืืช ืืืงืกืืงื. ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืืืจืื ืขืื ื-5 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1917. ืืืืจืืงื ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืง ืฆืืืจืื ื-23 ืืคืืจืืืจ, ืืืืฉืื ืฉื ืงืืจืื ืกื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืคืืืืืืช ืืืคืจืื, ืืืืจ ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื. ืื ืืฆืืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืงืืจืื ืกื โ ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืก ืืืงืกืืงื ืื ืืชืจ ืืืคืฉื ืืคืชื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืืื ืืืฅ ืืืจืืงื ื. ืืืจืืฃ ืืืจื ืคื ืฆ'ื ืืืื ืืื ืชืงืจืืช ืฆืืืืช ืงืื ื, ืืืื ืืฉืคืืข ืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืงืืจืื ืกื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืขืก ืืฆืืืืจื, ืืืืง ืืช ืืขืืื ืืคืืืืื ืืืจื ืืฉื ืื ืืืคื ืืืืจืืงื ืื ืืฆื ืืืงืกืืงื ืื. ืืฆื ืืืืจืืงื ื, ืคืจืฉืื ื ืืคื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืฆืจืคืช ื-1917 ืื-1918. ืืืฉืืืช ืืืื 15,000 ืืืืื ืงืืข, ืืขืื 110,000 ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืงืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืืืช. ืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืฉืื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืื, ืชืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืกืืืงื. ืืฉืื ืืื, ืืชืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืจืฆืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืชืื ืื, ืืืืก ืืื ืขืช ืืืืืืช. ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืชืกืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืง ืืืืจืืคืื, ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืืชื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืชืื. ืืื 1914 ืืชืืืืช 1917, ืืืจืชื ืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืข ืืืืจืืงื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืชื ื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืฉืืคืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ื ืืืื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืจืื (ืืจืื ืื, ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืืกืืจื-ืืื ืืจืืช, ืืืืืคืจืื ืืขืืช'ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืจืื) ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื (ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืฆืจืคืช, ืืืืืคืจืื ืืจืืกืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช). ืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-1914, ืืขื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืืืืืงืืช ืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืคืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช, ืืฉืขื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืชืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืช ืื ืืืืืืช. ืืื ืืฆืืข ืืฆืขืืช ืืชืืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืืก ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืคืืืืืืืช. ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืื ืืช ืืฆืขืืชืื. ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื. ืจืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืื. ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื, ืืืืืืช ืชืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื, ืืืงืจื ืืช ืกืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืช ืืช ืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืชืืืืช ืคืขืืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืชืืื. ืืฉืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืืื ืขื ืกืคืื ืืช ื ืืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืื ืกืืืจื ืืืืจืืช ืื ืืจืื ืื, ืืื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืคืจืช ืืืืืืชืื ืื ืืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืจืืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืงืืืก ืืื ืขืืืจ ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืชืืืืช 1915, ืืืจืืื ืืจืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืฉืืืจ ืืืชื ืืืืื, ืืืจืฉ ืฉืืจืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืกืคืื ืืช ื ืืืืจืืืืช. ืฆืืืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืกืคืื ืช ืงืืืืจ ืืจืืืืช ืืืจืฅ 1915, ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืฉื 111 ืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืจืืงื ื ืืื. ืืืืกืื ืกืืจื ืืืจืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ื ืืื. ื-1915, ืคืฆืฆื ืืจืื ืืช ืคืืขื ืืกืคืื ื ืืืจืืงื ืืช, ืืฆืืืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืงื ืืช. ืืืืกืื, ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืจืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืช, ืื ืื ืฉืืืงืจืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืช, ืืฉืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืคืืฆืืืื ืืชืจืืฉ ืืกืืฃ ืืืืืื. ืืืกืืฃ, ืฆืืืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืชื "ืืืกืืื ืื" ืืืื 1915, ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืคืื, ืืืื ืืืจืืงื ืื ืจืืื. ืื ืืื ืืกืืฃ ืืฉืืืข, ืืขื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืฉ ืืืื ืืช ืฉืฆืืืงืืช ืื ืื ืขื ืฉืื ืื ืฆืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืช ืืงืจื. ืจืืื ืืขืกื ืขื ืชืืืื ืืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืื ืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืืช ืื ืื ืกืคืื ืืช ืืกืืจ. ืืืจืื ืื ืืชืืืงื ืืขืืจืจื ืืขืก ืืืจืืงื ื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืจืืืื, ืคืฆืืคืืกื ื ืืืข, ืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืืืจื ืืืืืื, ืืชืคืืจ ืืืืืืฃ ืืจืืืจื ืื ืกืื ื. ืืืืจ ืืืืขืชื ืฉื ืขืื ืกืคืื ื, ื ืืจืื ืขืื ืฉื ื ืืืจืืงื ืื. ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืง ืืงืฉืจืื ืืืืคืืืืืืื ืื ืืจืื ืื ืื ืชืืื ืขื ืื, ืืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืจืื ื ืืืืืข ืฉืฆืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืช ืื ืืืืืขื ืืื ืืืช ืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืจื. ืืขืช ืขืชื, ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ื ืื ืกื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืชืืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืืืกืื ืืงืืื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืงืฆืืืช ืืกืืฃ 1916 ืืื ืืืืืก ืขืื 500,000 ืืืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ื ืขืจืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืฉ ืืฉืืคืืฅ ืกืคืื ืืช ืืงืจื, ืื ืืืช ืืกืืืจ, ืืืฉืืชืืช ืืืฆืืืืืช-ืืื ืืืคืื ืจืฆืื ื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืฆื ืืืื. ืืืจืฅ 1916 ืืืืืขื ืืขืืืจืช ืืืชื ืืืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืฆืจืคืชื ืขืืื, ืืืจืืขื ืืืจืืงื ืื ื ืืจืื. ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืกืืื ืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืจืื ืื ืืืคืกืืง ืขื ืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืฉืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืช ืกืืืจ ืืืื. ืืจืื ืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืงื ืืืกืื, ืืืืกืืฃ ืืคืจื ืืืชื. ืืืืกืื ืืจืฉ ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื 1916. ืืื ืืขื ืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ื ืืจืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืืืช ืืจืืืืจืืืืืช ืืืืคืฉ ืืชืืงืคื ืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืขื ืฉืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืฉืืชืคื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืืืช ืืงืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื. ืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืช. ืืืจืืืื ืืืฆืจืคืชืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืืืืจืืคืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืฉ. ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืคื. ืืืืกืื ืืฆืืข ืืช ืืฆืขืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉืื ื-18 ืืืฆืืืจ 1916. ืืฆืขื ืืงืืื, ืืืงืฉ ืืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฆืืืจ ืขื ืืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืขืชืืื. ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืจืื ืืขื ื ืฉืื ืืฆืืื ืงืจืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืจืฉื ืืช ืคืืจืืง ืืืืืคืจืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืืื ืจืฆืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืฆืขื ืืืืขื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืงืฉื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืื ืืืืจืืืืช, ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืคืจื ืืช ืืืืืืชืื ืื ืืืข ืืฆืืืืืช. ืืชืืืืช 1917, ืืืืข ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืจืื ื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืื ืกืื ื ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืืช, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืข ืฉืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืืื ืืจืืคื. ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืืฉืฃ ืืืจืง ืฆืืืจืื, ืฉืื ื ืืกืชื ืืจืื ืื ืืืืืก ืืช ืืงืกืืงื ืืืขืืช ืืจืืช, ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืืจ ื ืืฆืืื ื, ืืื ืชืชืืื ืืืงืกืืงื ืืงืจื ืขื ืืงืกืก, ื ืื ืืงืกืืงื ืืืจืืืื ื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืืืจ ืืืชืืืขืฆืืช ืขื ืืงืืื ื ืืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืช- ืืจืืฉื ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืคืืืืืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืื. ืื ืฉืื ืืขื ืฉืืื ืจืืฆื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืขื ืืืจืื ื, ืืฉืืื ื ืืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืจืื ื ืขืืื ืืืคืืื. ืืืจืฅ 1917, ืืืืืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืื ืกืคืื ืืช ืืืจืืงื ืืืช, ืืชืืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืืขื ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืคืฉืื ืืช ืขืืจื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืก ืืืืกืื ืคืืืฉืช ืงืืื ื ื-20 ืืืจืฅ, ืืื ืชืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืงืืื ื ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืื. ืืืืกืื ื ืื ืืช ื ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-2 ืืืคืจืื 1917, ืืืืจืื ืฉืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืืจืื ืื ืกืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืืืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืชืื ืฉืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื. ืืื ืืฆืืข ืฉืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืืื ืก ืืืืืื ืืืขื ืืฉืืื ืืืฆืืง ืืืื ืืขืืื, ืืื ืืืขืฆืื ืืกืืืืชื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช. ืืืขื ืช ืืืืกืื, ืืืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืจืื ืืช ื ืืืฉื ืืืขืชื ืืกืืกื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื. ืืื ืืขื ืฉืื ืืืกืจ ื ืืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืืจื. ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืขืืจื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืฉื ื ืฆืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืฆื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืขืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืกืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืืจืื ืืคืจืืื ืืจืืืงืื ืืืจืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชื ืขื ืืืฆืืจื ื-6 ืืืคืจืื 1917. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืื ื ืื ืืืกืืจื-ืืื ืืจืื, ืืืฆืืืจ. ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืืชืื ืขื ืืจืืช ืขื ืืจืืื ืื ืื ืฆืจืคืช, ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืจืช ืืืืื ื"ืืื ื ืืืื". ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืคืืงืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืจื ื'ืื ืคืจืฉืื ื. ืืืืืจื ืืืืก, ืฉืืื ืืืขืฆื ืืืืชื-ืจืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืฅ, ืืคื ืืขืจืืฅ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืืก ืืฆืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืงืฉืจืื ืขื ืืจืืืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ื ืจืื, ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืืฉืืืช. ืืืจืฅ 1917 ืืชืจืืฉื ืืืคืื ืจืืฉืื ื ืืชืื ืฉืชืืื ืืจืืกืื, ืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืกืจืืช ืืกืืจื ืืืกืื ืจืฆืื ื ืืืฆืืจืคืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืืจืืคืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืคืื ืืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืืจ, ืฉืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืจืื ืื ืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืืช, ืืคื ืชื ืืจืื ืื ืืช ืขืืงืจ ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืืช, ืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืคืื ืืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ื-1918. ืืืืกืื ืกืืจื ืืืฆืขืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืืืืช ืฆืืืืื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืฉืืืงืื, ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ื ืืกืืื ื ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืขื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืงืกืืงื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืฉืืื ืข ืืืืกืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืืชื, ืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืืจื. ืืืจืื ืื ืชืงืคื ืืืจืืก, ืืืจืื ืืืืืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืืช. ืขื ืืืืืกื 1918 ืืืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงื ืื ืืฆืจืคืช. ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืชืงืคื ืืกืื, ืืขื ืืืืืกื ื ืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชืืื ื ืืื ืืชืงืคืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื. ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืืืข ืืืืืืกืื ืงื ืฆืืจ ืืจืื ืื ืืืืฉ, ืืงืก ืคืื ืืืื, ืขื ืจืฆืื ื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ. ืืชืืืืคืช ืืืชืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื, ืืกืืืื ืขื ืืจืืข-ืขืฉืจื ื ืงืืืืช ืขืงืจืื ืืืช ืฉืืืฉืืจื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืืฉ. ืืืืก ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืืคื ื ืืืจืืืื ืืืฆืจืคืชืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืืชืื ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืืขืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืขืื ืืจืฆืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืจื ืคืจืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืคืกืงืช ืืืฉ ืืืืจืืฉ ืื ืืขื ืืื ืชื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืจืื ืื. ืืืจืื ืื ืืชืื ืขื ืืกืื ืืื ืืขื ื-11 ืื ืืืืืจ 1918, ืืกืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืกืืจื-ืืื ืืจืื ืืชืื ืขื ืืกืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืงืืื ืืื, ืืืืืืคืจืื ืืขืืช'ืืื ืืช ืืชืื ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืืจืืก ืืืืงืืืืจ. ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืื ื ืคืืฉื ืืืืขืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืจืื ื-1919 ืืื ืืงืืืข ืืช ืชื ืื ืืฉืืื. ืืืืกืื ืฉืืจ ืงืืืฆื ืฉื ืืืืืจืคืืื, ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืขื ื-ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืจืืคืืืช, ืืื ืืืช ืืงืืืื ื ืืืืก. ืืงืืืฆื ืกืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืจืฆืืืื ืืืกืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืช ืืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-8 ืืื ืืืจ 1918. ืื ืืืื ืืฆืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืจืืชืื ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืืจืื- ืืฆืืจืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืจื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ื ืฉืื. ืื ืืื, ืฉื ืืืข ืืืจืืข ืขืฉืจื ืื ืงืืืืช, ื ืืชื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืคืื ืืืคื ื ืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืคื ืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืื. ืฉืฉ ืื ืงืืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืขืกืงื ืืืืคืืืืืื, ืืืคืฉ ืืฉืื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืืืขืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืจืืืืจืืืืืื, ืืื ืงืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืงืจืื ืืืงืืช ืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืืืืชื ืืฉืืืืชื ืืืจืืืืจืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืช- ืืืจ ืืืืืื. ืื ืืื ืชืืจืื ืืฉืคืืช ืจืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืคืฅ ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ. ืืฉืืืืข ืืืื, ื ืกืข ืืืืกืื ืืคืจืื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืขืืืจ ืืขืืืช ืืฉืืื, ืืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืกืข ืืืืจืืคื ืืืื ื ืืชืคืงืื. ืืื ืืจื ืืืกืคืื ื ื-13 ืืืฆืืืจ. ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื (1โ6 ืืื ืืืจ 1919) ืคืืฉ ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืื. ืืื ืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืคืืฉ ืขื ืืคืืคืืืจ ืืฉืืืงืจ ืืช ืื ืืืงืืืก ืืืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ ืืืจืืื ืืืคืืคืืืจ. ืืืืกืื ืืงื ืืคืกืงื ืืืืฉื ืืืชื ืื ืกืข ืืืืชื ื-14 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1919, ืืืืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืจ ืืคืจืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืฉื ืขื ืืืืขื ืืืกืื ืืืื ื. ืืืืื ืืจืืขืช ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืขืืื, ื ืงื ืืืืกืื ืขืืื ืคืขืืื, ืืืกืก ืืช ืกืืจื ืืขืืืคืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืชืืืื ืืจืขืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื. ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืชื ืืฆืจืคืช ืืืืืชื ืืคืืจืืืจ. ืืืืื ืืืืขืืื, ืืืืงืืจื ืืืืช, ื ืจืื ืจืื, ืจืฆืื ื ืื ืืืฉ ืืจืขืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื. ืืฆืืืืจ, ืืขืืชืื ืืช, ืืื ืกืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืฉืืื ืชืืื ืืจืขืืื, ืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืคืฆื ืืืืืื ืืจืขืืื ืืื ืืคืืืข ืืืืืืกืื. ืืืืกืื ืื ื ืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืื ืืืข ืืืกืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ื'ืืจื' ืืคื ื ืืคืจืืื ื ืืืจืืื. ืื ืืืืืฅ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืก ืืช ืืชื ืืืื ืืฉืืจืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฉืชื ื ืืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืืฆืจืคืช, ืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช. ืืฆืจืคืชืื ืืื ืชืงืืคืื ืืจืฆื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืขืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืงืืจื ืืืืช, ืืฉื ืกืข ืืฆืจืคืช, ืกืื ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืกืื ืืืืืจืืจืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืจืืืืชื ืืืืืงืจืชื. ืืฉืืืืข ืืืืขืืื, ืืชืืจืจ ืฉืืืืก ืืชืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืข ืืจืฆืื ืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืขืืื, ืืืื ืืจื ืืืืืืกืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื ืืงืืืืื. ืฉืื ืืืคื ืืืจืง ืืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฆืืข ืฉืืืฉื ืชืืงืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืฉืืืขื ืชื ืืงืื ืขื ืืจืขืืื ืืืชืงืื ืืงืจื ืืืืจืืคืืื: ืืืืืช ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืชื ืกืืืืช ืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืื ืคื ืื ืืืฉืืจืช ืืืงืืจืื ืช ืืื ืจื ืขื ืื ื. ืืืืกืื ืงืืื ืืืืกืจ ืจืฆืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืกืื ืืกื ืื. ื-3 ืืืคืจืื, ืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืืขืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืจืื ืืชืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืฆืื ืืืจืืืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืจืืจ. ืืกืื ืืจืกืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืืงืื ืืช ืืืจ ืืืืืืื. ืืคื ืืฆืืขื ืฉืืื ืช ืืืืจ ืชืืืื ืกืขืืฃ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืืขื. ืืืืืืกืื ืืืจ ืื ืื ืฉืื ื, ืืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืกืืจืื ืืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืกืขืืฃ ื ืคื. ืืืืจ ืืืืขืืื, ืืขื ืืืืกืื ืฉืืขืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ืืืืฉืืขืช ืืขืืื. ืขืืืจ ืืขืฉืื ืืืืขืืื, ืืืขื ืง ืืืืืืกืื ืคืจืก ื ืืื ืืฉืืื ื-1919. ื'ืื ืืืื ืจื ืงืืื ืก, ืฉืืชื ืื ืืืืืืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืขื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืขืืื, ืืื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืื ืงืจื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจืืคืืืช. ืืฉืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืกื ืื, ืืกืืืื ืืืฉืื ืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืกืื ืืื ืงืืืฉืื. ืืขืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืขืืจืืช, ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื, ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืจื ืืชื ืืื ืืื. ืืคืืืฉืชื ืขื ืกื ืืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืงืฉื. ืืืจืืช ืืฆืื ืืืจืืืืชื ืืงืฉื, ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจื, ืืงืืข 29 ื ืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืงืฆืจืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืืืชื. ืืชืืืื, ืื ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืกืขืืฃ ืฉืงืืข ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืืงืจื ื"ืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืื", ืืืื ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืชื ืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืจืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืืคื ื ืืจืื ืื. ืืงืืฅ 1919, ื ืื ืืืืกืื ืื ืืืข ืืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืจืื ืื, ืืืขื ืฉืืืกืื ืืขื ืืฉ ืืืชื ืขื ืืืช ืืืขืืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืขืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืขืืื ืืชืจืืืชื, ืืฉืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืฉืื ืขื ืื. ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืงืคื ืฉืืฅ ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืกืืืจื ื-26 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1919. ืืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ื ืืชืจ ืืฉืืชืง, ืืืฉืชื ืืืคืื ืื, ืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืืืข ืืืฉืืช ืจืขืืช ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฆืื. ืืกื ืืืืจ ืื ืจื ืงืืืื ืืืื' ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืกืื ืืกื ืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืงื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืืืฉืื ืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืื, ืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืกืคืง, ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืกื ืืืืจืื. ืืืฉ ืืืืงืจืื ืืื ืชืื ืืืกืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืฉื ื ืชืื ืืืกืื ืืืื ืืชื ืื ืืื ืคืฉืจื ืื ืืืข ืืืื. ืืืื' ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื- ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ โ ืืจืฉื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืกืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืื ืืืข ืืกืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืื ืชืืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืืกืืฃ, ืงืืืฆื ืฉื 13 ืกื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืชื ืืืคืืืืช ืืชื ืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืคื ืืืื. ืืืืฆืข ื ืืืืืจ 1919, ืืืื' ืืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืฉืืชืคื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืกืื ืืืื ืงืจืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืืก ืขืืืจ ืืกืื ืขื ืคืฉืจืืช ืืกืืืืืช- ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืคืฉืจื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืจืืื ืชืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืกืื ืื ืืืฉืจ. ืืฉืืฅ ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืื ืข ืืื ื ืืฉืืช ืืืชืช ืขื ืืืื'. ืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืช ืงืืืคืืจื ืื ืืฆืืขื ืืงืืงื ืฉืชืื ืข ืืืคื ืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืืืกืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืกืืืืชื ืืคืืจืืืช ืืืงืื ืืงืืงืช ืืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืฉืืฉืฉื ืืคื ื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืจืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืืืืคืื ืืืคืืืืืืื ืืคืื ืืืฃ. ืืคื ืืจืฉื ืืกืื ืกืืจ ืืืฉ, ืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืกืืจืื ืืืื ืืื. ืชืืืฉืช ืืืขืก ืืืืฉืคืื ืืฆื ืืืคื ืื ื ืืชืจื ืืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉืื ืฉื ื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืขืจื ืืขืืชืื ืชืืืคืืช ืื ืืฉืื ืืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืช, ืื-1913 ืืขื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงืืช ืืืจืื-ืืืจืืงื ืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืชืขืจื ืืืงืกืืงื ื-1914, ืืืืืื ื-1915, ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืงื ืืช ื-1916, ืืงืืื ื-1917, ืืืคื ืื ื-1918. ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืืจื ืขื ืืืืืช ืฆืืืืื ืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืืฉืชืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืฉืื ื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืช ื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืชืื ืขื ืืกืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืขืจื ืืขื ืืื ืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืฆืื ืืืืืื โ ืืคืงืืืช ืืืืฉืื โ ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืขืื ืคืจื-ืืขืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืขื ืืฃ ืืืกืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืจืืื. ืืืืกืื ืฆืืืื ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืฆืืื ืฉื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืงื ืืช ืืขื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืชืคืืจ ื-1916. ืืฆืื ืขืื ืืื ืขื ืืขืื ืืืืืช ืขืฉืืจืื ืืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฆื ืืืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืฉ. ืืืืืืฉ ื ืืฉื ืขื 1924, ืืืื ืืืืข ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืฆืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืข ืืืกืื ืขื ืงืืืืืืื ืื ืืชื ืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขื ืืขืืจืืืชื ืืืืคืื ืืคื ืืืืช ื-1903โ1904. ืืงืืฅ 1914, ืืฆืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืคืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืกืคืื ืืช ืืืจืืงื ืืืช ืืชืขืืช ืคื ืื. ืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืชืื ืื ืืฉื, ืื ืจืื ืื ืืืืง ืืืคืืื ืืกืืจ. ืืขืกืงืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืฆืขื ืืื ืื ืคืืจืืืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืจืืกืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฅ ืืืืคืื ืืืืืฉืืืงืืช ื-1917, ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืืฉืืืงืืช ืื ืืจืื ืืช ืขื ืืืกื ื ืื ืฉืง ืืขื ืืกืคืงื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืืขืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืืืช. ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืช ืืฆ'ืืืกืืืืงืืื ืื ืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืจื ืก-ืกืืืืจืืช, ืืืืืืืง ืืขืจื ืืคืชื. ืืืจืืช ืืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืืงืื, ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืืืื ืขืืืืชืื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืกืืช ืืืืฉื, ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืืคืื ืื ืืจืืกืื. ืจืื ืืืืืืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ื-1 ืืืคืจืื 1920, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืงื ื ืฉืืจื ืฉื ืขื 1922. ื-1919, ืื ืื ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืืืจืืงื ืืช "ืืืืื" ืืช ืืฆืืจืช ืืืคืืจ ืืื ืชืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืฆืืื ืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืืืข ืชืืืื ืืืืืง ืืืืืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืคืืืื ืืืฆืจืคืช. ืืืื 1920, ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืฆืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืงืื ืื ืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื. ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืชื ืื ืืื, ืืืจืืช ืจืฆืื ื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืื ืื ืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืื ืื. ืจืง 23 ืกื ืืืืจืื ืชืืื ืืืฆืขื. ืืืืกืื ืืืงืจ ืคืขื ืืืช ืืื"ื ืืชืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืจ ืืคืขืืืื ืื ืฉืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืกืข ืืืืจืืคื, ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืขื ืฉืืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืื (ืคืจื ืืชืฉืขื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืื ื). ืืกืคืืืืจ 1919, ืืืืื ืกืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ืชืืืื ืืืกืื ืืจืกืื, ืืชืืืื ืืืืกืื. ื-1906 ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฅ ืื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืช, ืคืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืจืืขื ืืฉืืืืืช, ืืืื ืจืืฉ ืืจืืืื ืืคืืื. ื-2 ืืืืงืืืืจ, ืืืื ืฉืืฅ, ืื ืืชืจ ืืฉืืชืง ืืฆืืื ืืฉืืืื, ืืขื ืจืืืื ืืืงืืช ืืขืื ื ืืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืจืืชืง ืืืืืชื ืืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช, ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืคืจื ืืืฉืชื ืืืจืืคืื. ืืืฉื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืงื ืืืืื. ืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืชื ืืืช ืฉืืืจื ืืช ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืงืืื ืืงืืื ื. ืืืืกืื ืืืจ ืืืืคื ืืื ื ืืคืืืฉืืช ืงืืื ื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 1920, ืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ื ืืืข ืืฆืืืืจ. ืจืืื ืคืงืคืงื ืืืฉืืจืืชื ืืืืืช ื ืฉืื ืืฉืืืืืง ืขื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืข ืืฉืืื, ืืืฉืฉืืืชืืช, ืืืืื, ืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืืื ืงืืืื ืืกืื ืืืคืืขื ืืืืคืง. ืืฃ ืืื, ืืืื ืืฉืชื, ืจืืคืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืกืืจืื ืืืขืื ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืจ ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืฉืืืืช. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืื ืืืจื ืงืื ืืจืก ื ืืกื ืืฉืื ืข ืืช ืกืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฉื ืืจืฉืช ืืช ืืืืกืื, ืืจืฉื ืกืืจื ืืขืฉืืช ืื. ืืืฆื ืืืกืืื ืืจื ืืืขืืจืช ืืชืืงืื ื-25 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืืคื ืืืขืืจืช ืชืคืงืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืข ืืงืื ืฆืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืฉืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืฉืืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืจืื. ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืฉืืื ืขืื ืืืฉืืื ืืกื ืื ืืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืืชื ืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืขืืืืช ืืคืืืชื ืืื ืืชื ืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืกืืกืื "ืืื ืฉืืจ ืขืืื ื ืืืืฅ ืืืืืื", ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืจืฉ ืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืื. ืื ืืื ืงืืืช ืืืืขืืืืช ืฉืื ื-2 ืืกืคืืืืจ, ืืืืืจ ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืืช ืฆืืืืืช ืฉืชืืจืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ืื ืชืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืื. ืื ืจื ืืืจืื ืืื (ืืื) ืืืื ืืืืจืงืื ืืื ืื ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช. ืืงืืืื ื ืืืืก ืื ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช, ืชืื ื ืืช ืืื ื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืจ ืืืกืืจืืืื. ืืฉืืฆืข ืืืคืืื ืืืื, ืืจืฉื ืกื ืืืืจืื ืฉืืืืืกืื ืืืืฅ ืจืขืืื ืืช ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื, ืืืจื ืืืฉืื ืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืข ืืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืืงื ืืืืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืื, ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืขืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืฉืขืืช ืขืืืื. ืืชืืจื, ืืชื ืืืืกืื ืืฆืข ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืื, ืฉืืจืฉ ืืงืืงื ืคืืจืืืช ืืืขื ืฉืืจ ืืื ืืืื, ืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืฉืขืืช ืืฉืืืข ืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืฉื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช, ืืืกืืจ ืขืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืฆ'ืืจืืก ืืืื ืก ืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ื, ืืืฉื ื ืื ืืืจืง ืืฉืขืืจ ืฉืืื ืคืจืืืจืกืืื ืื ืืื. ืชืืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืืขื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืคื ืฉื ืืื. ืืืื ืืื ื ืืกื ืืคืืืก ืืื ืืฉืืจื ืื ืฉืชืืื ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืจืืืืืื, ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืงื ืืช ืืฆืข ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื. ืืืืกืื ืืชืืงื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืชืขืื ืืืื, ืืฉืืื ืชืืงืฃ ืืช ืจืืืืืื. ืืืขื ืชื, ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืกืื ืืกืคืืง ืื ืืกืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื. ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืืงืช ืืืฉื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืจืขื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืฆืืืืืช. ืืืืกืื ื ืืฆื ืืงืืืคืืจื ืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 3,773 ืงืืืืช ืืชืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืืคืฉืืืจ ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 54 ืงืืืืช. ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืืื ืกืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 393 ืงืืืืช ืืชืื 358,000. ืืืกืืฃ, ืืฉืื ืืืืกืื 277 ืืืงืืืจืื ืืขืืืช 254 ืืืื. ืืืืกืื ืืฆืืื ืืืฉืื ืงืืืืช ืจืืื ืืฆื ืชืืืื ืจืืืืืื ืืกืืฆืืืืืกืืื ืฉืชืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืื'ืื ืืืก. ืืืืชื ืืืช ืืคืขื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืฆืฃ (ืืจืืืจ ืงืืืืื ื ื ืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืคืจื ืืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื). ืืคืืืชื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืฉืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืกืชืืืืช, ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืข ืืงืื ืฆืื ืฉื 1918 ืืืฉืืื ืจืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืกื ืื. ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฆืขืชื ืืืงืืช ืืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉืืชืจืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืฉืจืืจ ืืชืืงืื ื-17 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืกื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืจื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืื ืืขื. ืืฉืืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืฉื ืช 1920 ืืชืงืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืืกืื ืืจืืข ืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืงืจืืืช ืืคืืืืช ืชืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืชืชืืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื. ืืฃ ืืื ืฉืขืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืื ืืคื ืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืื ืชืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืฉืืฆืืืืจ ืืชื ืื ืืจืขืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื. ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจื ืืืืฉื ื'ืืืืก ืงืืงืก ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืื ืืืจื ืืกื ืืืืจ ืืืจื ืืจืืื ื ืืืืืื. ืื ืืฆืืื ืกืืืฃ, ืืื ืืจืืื ื ื-60.3% ืืืงืืืืช ืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืืื ื ืคืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืจืืื ื ืืจืฉ "ืืืจื ืื ืืจืืืืืช", ืืืืคืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ื, ืกืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืช ืืขืืจืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืืชืื ืขื ืืกืื ืฉืืื ืขื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืจืื. ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืจืจื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืจืคื ืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื. ืกืืฃ ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืื ืชื ื-1921, ืขืืจ ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืฉืชื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืื ื ืกืข ืืื ืืื, ืื ืื ืืชืืืืจืื ืืืื ืฉืืช. ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืืื (ืชืืืืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืื) ืฉืฉืืจืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืืคื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืืจ ืคืจืกืืืจื, ืืฉื ืืช ืืช ืฉืื ื-"ืขืืจ ืืืืกืื", ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืืืืจืื ืขื ืืขืืจ ืืขืืจ ืืืคืฉืืช ืขื ืื ืช ืฉืื ืชืืคืื ืืืืง ืืืืืื ื ืืืืฉื โ ืฆ'ืืืกืืืืงืื. ืืืื ืืืฆืขื ื ืืืชื, ืืฉืื ืฉื ืืขืืจ ืฉืื ื ืจืฉืืืช ื-"ืืจืืืกืืืื" ืืืจืฅ 1919. ื-10 ืื ืืืืืจ 1923, ื ืื ืืืืกืื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืื, ืืกืคืจืืืช ืืืชื. ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืจืช ื ืื ืืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืชืจ ื-20,000 ืชืืืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืืชื. ื-3 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1924, ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืืฅ ืืืขืืืช ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื 67. ืืื ื ืืื ืืกืจืงืืคื ืืงืชืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืฉืงืืืจ ืืืืจื. ืืฉืชื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืืชื ืืืฉื 37 ืฉื ืื, ืืืชื ืืืื 89, ื-28 ืืืฆืืืจ 1961, ืืื ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืคืชืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืขื ืฉืื ืขื ื ืืจ ืคืืืืืืง. ืืื ืืืจืืฉื ืืช ืืืชื ืืืช ืจืื ืชืืื ื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืืืกืืืจื. ืืืชื ื ืคืชื ืืฆืืืืจ ื-1963, ืืืคื ืืืชืจ ืืืกืืืจื ื-1964. ืืืืกืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืืชื, ืืจืืจื, ืงืฆืื ืฉื 2,500 ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืื ืขืื ืชืืฉืืจ ืจืืืงื, ืืืืจืืฉ ืืื ืืชืื ืืช ืจืืืฉื ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืฉืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื. ืืช ืืฉืืจ ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืืช, ืืืืจื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืชืืืงื ืื ืืชืื ืืจืืืฉ. ืกืคืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืกืืืื ืื ืฉืืืืชืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืกืคืจืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/tools-and-services/] | [TOKENS: 331] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืจืืชืื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืืจืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/digital-pedagogy/] | [TOKENS: 836] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืขืจืืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืงืื ืืช ืืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืืื ืืืืืจืื.ืืืืืช ืงืืืื ืืืจื ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช, ืคืืชื ืืชืจ ืื ืืชื ืืขื ื ืืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืจื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืืืฉ ืืืืคื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืกืืืืืช ืขืชืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืืืช ืคืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืืืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืขืช ืืืืฉืจื ืข"ื ืืืืจืืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืื ืืืืืืจืืช ืืคืืืืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืฉ ืชืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืฉืืกืืืขื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืขืฆืื. ืขืืื ื "ืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช" ืืืืื ืืชืืืฉืช ืืืื ืืืจืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืืจืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/teaching-tools/podcast/] | [TOKENS: 2945] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช "ืืงืฉืื ืืืื" - ืืคืืืงืืกื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื "ืืงืฉืื ืืืื" - ืืคืืืงืืกื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืงืฆืืขืืช. ืืคืืื ืืืจื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืกืืฃ ืืื ืืจืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืืฆืืื. ืืคืจืงืื ืืืงืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืื.ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืคืืืงืืกื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื, "ืืงืฉืื ืืืื", ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ื ืฉืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืงืฆืืข ืืืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืขื ืืงื ืืืื ืืคืงืืืืืื ืฉืืกืืืขื ืืื, ืฆืืืชื ืืืื ืื, ืืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืขืื ืืืจ ืืืืงืจ ืืืืจืช ืืฉืชืืื ืกื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ. ื ืืชื ืืืืืื ืืคืจืงืื ืืจื ืืืืืื, ืกืคืืืืคืื, PodBean ืืืืื.ืื ื ืืงืืืื ืื ื ืฆืืื ืืชืช ืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืื, ืขืจื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืชืืืื ืชืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืืื. ืื ืืคืจืงืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืชืืจืื, ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืจื ืืืืื, ืืืขืฆืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคืดื ืืืืจื ื ืงืจืฉืืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืืื ืกืคืืืืคื PodBean ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืคืจืง ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืืชืืจืื, ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืจื ืืืืื, ืืืขืฆืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืคืดื ืืืืจื ื ืงืจืฉืืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. "ืืฉืจ ืขื ืืื ืกืืขืจืื" - ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืจืื ืืฆืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช. ืืืืืืช ืืฅ ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืฉืืืืื, ืืืื ื ืขื ืชืืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื ืืืืจื ื ืงืจืฉืืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื. ืืืืืื ืกืคืืืืคื PodBean ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืคืจืง "ืืฉืจ ืขื ืืื ืกืืขืจืื" - ืฉืืชืคืืช ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืจืื ืืฆืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช. ืืืืืืช ืืฅ ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืฉืืืืื, ืืืื ื ืขื ืชืืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื ืืืืจื ื ืงืจืฉืืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื. "ืืื ืื ื ืืื" - ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืชื - ืืจื ืืื, ืืืื ื ืขื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืค"ื, ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืกืคืืืืคื PodBean ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืคืจืง "ืืื ืื ื ืืื" - ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืชื - ืืจื ืืื, ืืืื ื ืขื ืืงืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืค"ื, ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืขืืฆื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืฅ ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืชื, ืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืจืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืชืืื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืืขืืฆื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช. ืืืืืื ืกืคืืืืคื PodBean ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืคืจืง ืืืืืืช ืืฅ ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืชื, ืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืจืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืชืืื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืืขืืฆื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช. ืคืจืง ืจืืฉืื ืืกืืจื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืคืจืงืื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืชื. ืืืืืืช ืืฅ ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืจื ื ืงืจืฉืืืื - ืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช, ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืฉืค"ื โ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืืขืืฆื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืืื ืกืคืืืืคื PodBean ืืืื ืชืืืื ืืคืจืง ืคืจืง ืจืืฉืื ืืกืืจื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืคืจืงืื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืชื. ืืืืืืช ืืฅ ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืจื ื ืงืจืฉืืืื - ืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืขืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช, ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืืฉืค"ื โ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืืืืขืืฆื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืืืืืื ืกืคืืืืคืื PodBean ืืืื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืืืจืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megan_McArdle] | [TOKENS: 1766] |
Contents Megan McArdle Megan McArdle (born January 29, 1973) is an American columnist and blogger based in Washington, D.C. She writes for The Washington Post, mostly about economics, finance, and government policy. McArdle began her writing career with a blog, "Live from the WTC", started in November 2001. Other publications she has worked for include The Atlantic, Newsweek, The Daily Beast, and Bloomberg View. She published book reviews and opinion pieces in the New York Post, The New York Sun, Reason, The Guardian, and Salon. Early life McArdle was born and raised in New York City. Her father, Francis X. McArdle, was former managing director of the General Contractors Association of New York during the Koch, Dinkins, and Giuliani administrations. He served as Commissioner of Environmental Protection under Koch. Her mother, Joan McArdle, was a real estate broker for Prudential Douglas Elliman. McArdle attended high school at Riverdale Country School. At the University of Pennsylvania, she earned a B.A. in English literature, followed by an MBA from University of Chicago's Booth School of Business. During her junior year, she worked as a canvasser for the Public Interest Research Groups, the nonprofit founded by Ralph Nader. Her experience there accelerated her "transition from ultraliberal to libertarian." The organization was, she later wrote, "the most deceptive, evil place I've ever worked". Career Dave Weigel called McArdle "the original blogger-turned-MSM journo". In 2012, David Brooks called McArdle one of the most influential bloggers on the right. McArdle began blogging in November 2001 with a blog called "Live From The WTC," which arose from her employment with a construction firm involved in cleanup at the World Trade Center site following the September 11 attacks. She wrote under the pen name "Jane Galt," playing on the name "John Galt," a central character in Ayn Rand's Objectivist novel Atlas Shrugged. In November 2002 she renamed the site "Asymmetrical Information," a reference to the economics term of the same name. That blog had two other occasional contributors, Zimran Ahmed (writing under the pen name "Winterspeak"), and the pseudonymous "Mindles H. Dreck." McArdle gained some online attention in May 2003 for coining what she termed "Jane's Law" in a blog post discussing political behaviors. The law, written with regard to the two main U.S. political parties, Republicans and Democrats, reads: "The devotees of the party in power are smug and arrogant. The devotees of the party out of power are insane." McArdle was an outspoken supporter of the Iraq War both before and after the invasion by the United States. She later made a partial admission of error for this position. Another post by McArdle, from April 2005, discusses why she takes no position on the issue of same-sex marriage. She wrote: "All I'm asking for is for people to think more deeply than a quick consultation of their imaginations to make that decision... This humility is what I want from liberals when approaching market changes; now I'm asking it from my side [libertarians], in approaching social ones." In 2003 McArdle was hired by The Economist to write for their website, in the "Countries" and "News" sections, and in October 2006 she founded The Economist's "Free Exchange" blog. In August 2007 McArdle left The Economist and moved to Washington, D.C., to work as a full-time blogger for The Atlantic, keeping "Asymmetrical Information" as her blog's name. In 2009, she criticized an article in Playboy by eXile Online editors Mark Ames and Yasha Levine that detailed the influence of the Koch brothers in American and Tea Party politics. Playboy took down the article as a result of the negative response. IN 2010, McArdle was The Atlantic's business and economics editor. In February 2010, her blog lost the title "Asymmetrical Information," as The Atlantic switched to having every blog (except Andrew Sullivan's The Daily Dish) be identified solely by its author. She was a Bernard L. Schwartz fellow at the public policy think tank New America. In June 2012, McArdle left The Atlantic, and began writing for Newsweek/The Daily Beast. In June 2013, McArdle announced that she was joining Bloomberg View. McArdle is an occasional television and radio commentator, appearing on The Kudlow Report, Fareed Zakaria GPS, American Public Media's Marketplace, and Left, Right & Center. McArdle joined The Washington Post as an opinion columnist in March 2018. In 2025, McArdle became a contributing writer at The Dispatch while remaining at the The Washington Post. McArdle also began podcasting with fellow journalists Josh Barro and Ben Dreyfuss in a new show entitled "Central Air." Views McArdle has described herself as a "right-leaning libertarian". David Brooks categorized her as part of a group of bloggers who "start from broadly libertarian premises but do not apply them in a doctrinaire way". McArdle was critical of libertarian politician Ron Paul, taking him to task for not strongly disavowing racist statements that appeared in his newsletters, criticizing his tax credit proposals, and accusing him of lacking specificity about cutting government spending. McArdle said he "doesn't understand anything about monetary policy", and that "he wastes all of his time on the House Financial Services Committee ranting crazily". In late 2008, McArdle critiqued a proposed federal bailout of the U.S. auto industry (executed in early 2009). In November 2008, various blog posts on the subject were quoted approvingly by Brooks, Michael Barone and John Podhoretz, among others. Since 2009, McArdle has argued against instituting a system of national health insurance in the United States, and specifically against the Affordable Care Act. In addition to blog posts, she wrote an article, "Myth Diagnosis," in the March 2010 Atlantic. In a July 2009 blog post, McArdle listed two reasons that she objected to such a system: first, that it would stifle innovation, because "Monopolies are not innovative, whether they are public or private." and that "Once the government gets into the business of providing our health care, the government gets into the business of deciding whose life matters, and how much." Post commentator Ezra Klein criticized this post, writing, "In 1,600 words, she doesn't muster a single link to a study or argument, nor a single number that she didn't make up (what numbers do exist come in the form of thought experiments and assumptions). Megan's argument against national health insurance boils down to a visceral hatred of the government." In an August 2009 post, McArdle reiterated, "My objection is primarily, as I've said numerous times, that the government will destroy innovation. It will do this by deciding what constitutes an acceptable standard of care, and refusing to fund treatment above that. It will also start controlling prices." On February 4, 2026, at minute 14:38 on an episode of the "Central Air" podcast titled We're All in the Epstein Files (feat. Ross Douthat), during an extended discussion of Jeffrey Epstein, McCardle said, "She's 16. It's not like she's four. And we have now really shifted on how we think about that, I think, in a good way. Right. Right. I do not think that 50 year old men should be having sex with 16 year old girls. But I think that you're not going to find the evidence of a pedophile ring where he is actively trafficking these girls because until Me Too... It's not like a pedophile, right? There are 16-year-old girls around who are vulnerable and can be exploited, but not in this, like, there is a mastermind who is going on the dark web and selling these girls to you. They're just around, and they're close enough to the age of consent that a lot of people probably felt like it was okay to hit on them." Personal life McArdle married Peter Suderman, an associate editor for the libertarian magazine Reason, in 2010. McArdle is Catholic. Bibliography References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืขืจ_ืืืื?action=edit&redlink=1] | [TOKENS: 590] |
ืืฆืืจืช ืืืฃ "ืืขืจ ืืืื" ืืืฆืืจืช ืืฃ ืืืฉ, ืืชืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืช ืืืงืกื ืืืื (ืืขืืจื ื ืืกืคืช). ืื ืืืขืชื ืืืฃ ืื ืืืขืืช, ืืืชืื ืฉืชืจืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืชืืจ Back ืืืคืืคื. ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืื ืขืจื ืืืฉ: ืืืจื ืคืจืกืื ืขืจื: ืืืืชืืื ืืืฉืื: ืขืจื ืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคืืื, ืืฉืืืฉืคื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืขืจื. ืืืงืืคืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืฆืืคืืื ืืื ืฉืืขืจืืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืงืฆืช ืืขืืจ ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืช. ืขืจื ืงืฆืจ ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืืง, ืืืคืืื ืืืืืฅ ืืืฉืงืืข ืืืชืืืช ืคืกืงื ืื ืฉืชืืื ืืคืืืช. ืกืืื ื ืคืืกืืง: ึพ โ โ โฆ ืงืื ืืืงื: โข ยท [] [[]] () {{}} {{{}}} ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืื: ~ | ยฐ ยฑ โ ร ยฒ ยณ + ืชืืืื ืขืืจืืื: ืึผ ืึน ืึผ ืึท ืึธ ืึถ ืึต ืึด ืึณ ืึฒ ืึฑ ืึฐ ืึป ืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืืช |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 5951] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื (ืืืืืืงืืช: Monna Lisa) ืื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื (ืืืืืืงืืช: La Gioconda) ืืื ืฆืืืจ ืฉื ืืืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ืฆ'ื ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-16. ืืฆืืืจ, ืฉืืืจืืื ืืืืช ืืืืงื ื ืฉื ืืืฉื, ืืคื ืืืื ื-19 ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืขื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืื, ืื ืจืื ืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืื ืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ. ืืื ืืืื ื-20 ืฉืืืฉ ืืฉืจืื ืืืขืจืฆื, ืืืื, ืืขื ืืืืงืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืคืืคืืืจืืช. ืืืืืงื ืืืฆื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืชืืื ืช ืืืื ื ืืืื (ืืืืืืืช: ืืืืจืช ืืืื) ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืืงื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื (ืืจืืจืืื ื), ืืฉืชื ืฉื ืกืืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืจื ืฆื ืืฉื ืคืจื ืฆ'ืกืงื ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื (ืืืืื ืืฉื La Gioconda ืืืืืืงืืช ืืืกืคืจืืืช, La Joconde ืืฆืจืคืชืืช ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืฉืคืืช). ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืืืขื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืืืืืจื ืฉืืฆืื ืืชืืืืกืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืืขืจื ืฉื ืืชืื ืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ "ืืชืืื ืืืืจืื" ืฉื ืงืืงืจื, ืขื ืืื ืืืืกืืื ื ืืกืคืืฆ'ื (ืฉืขืื ืขื ืืงืืืืืื). ืืืขืจื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1503 ืืชื ืืกืคืืฆ'ื ืฉืืืื ืจืื ืขืืื ืขื ืชืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื. ืืฉื ื ืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืฆืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืจืื, ืงืชืจืื ื, ืฉืืืจ ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืฆืืืจื. ืืจืขืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืฆืืืจ. ืืืื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื, ืฉืื ืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืจืง ืืืืื ืืฆืืืจ. ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ื ืืฆืจ ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืืง ืขื ืืืื. ืืคืจืืื ืืืืืขืื ืื ื ืฉืืืืื ืืชืืืืจื ืฉื ื'ืืจื'ื ืืืืจื, ืฆืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืืืจืคืืืช ืฉื ืฆืืืจื ืืคืกืื ืืจื ืกืื ืก, ืฉืืชื ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืื ืืืจื ืืืฆืืข ืืืฆืืจื, ืืื ืจืื ืืืชื ืืขืื ืื ืืืฉ. ืืืืจื ืืืจืก ืื ืืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืคืจื ืฆ'ืกืงื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืคืืจื ืฆื, ืืื ืื ืจืื ื-1503, ืืืฆืืื, ืืื ืงืืืื, ืื ืืขืช ืฆืืืจ ืืืืืงื ืืืืื ืืืื ืจืื ื ืื ืื, ืืืจืื ืืืืฆื ืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืฉืช ืืกืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืคื ืืืืจื, ืืืื ืจืื ืขืื ืขื ืืืฆืืจื ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืื ืืืขืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืกืจ ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืงื. ืืขืืืื ืขื ืืืฆืืจื ืืกืชืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืฉืืื 1506 ืื ื-1507, ืืฃ ืื ืืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืืฉื, ืฉืื ืชืืืืจ ื-1508 ืืฆืื ืืืชื ื"ืื ืืืืจื". ืืฉื ืช 2006 ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืงื ืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืชืืชึพืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืชืช-ืืืื, ืืืฉืคื ืฉืืืืช ื ืกืชืจืืช ืืฆืืืจ. ืืืืช ืืื ื ืืฉืฃ ืฆืขืืฃ ืฉืฉืืืฉ ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ื-16 ื ืฉืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืจืืื ืื ืกืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืฉืขืจื ืฉืืืฆืืืจืช ืืื ืืืื ืื ื'ืืงืื ืื, ืฉืืืฆืืืจ 1502 ื ืืื ืื ื ืืฉื ื. ืืฉื ืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืื ืจืื ืืฆืจืคืช, ืืืกืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืฆืจืคืช ืคืจื ืกืืื ืืจืืฉืื. ืืืืจ ืืืช ืืืื ืจืื ื-1519 ืจืืฉ ืคืจื ืกืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืืืกืืคื ืืืืกืฃ ืืืืืืชื, ืฉืืคื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืืกืฃ ืืืืืื ืืฆืจืคืชื, ืฉืขืืงืจื ืืืฆื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ. ืืื ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืช ืคืื ืื ืืื, ืืืืจื ืฉืื ืืืฆืื, ืงืืฆืฅ ืืื ื ืืื ืฅ' ืืืืื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ื-19, ืืจืื ืืืืืช ืชืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืื ื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืชืืื ืฆืจืคืชืืื, ืืคื ืืืืืงื ืืืื ืืืืฆืืื ืื ืืืขืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ. ื-21 ืืืืืืกื 1911 ื ืืฆื ืฆืืข ืืืืืงื ืืฉื ืืื ืฆ'ื ืฆื ืคืจืื'ื ืืช ืืฉืืืจื ืืืงืืื ืขื ืืืฆืืจื, ืื ื ืืืชื ืืืืืืื. ืคืจืื'ื ืฉืืจ ืืืชื ืืืขืื ืืฉื ืชืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืื, ืื ื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฆืจ ืงืฉืจ ืขื ืกืืืจ ืขืชืืงืืช ืืคืืจื ืฆื ืืืืืข ืืช ืจืฆืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืงืืืช ืชืืืจืช ืกืืื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืกืื ืืืืฆืืืช. ืืฆืืืจ ืืืฆื ืืืฉื ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืคืืฆื ืืคืืจื ืฆื, ืืืืขืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ื-4 ืืื ืืืจ 1914. ืขื ืคืจืื'ื ื ืืืจ ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืขืื ืฉ ืฉื ืฉื ืช ืืืกืจ, ืืฉืงืืืช ืืขืื ืฉ ืืืกืืจืช ืืขืืชืื ืชืืืคืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืืงืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืืืืืชื (ืคืจืื'ื ืขืฆืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืชืืืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืื ืชืืื ื ืืืจืช). ืืกืขืจื ืฉืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืขืฆืจื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืกืขืืจื ืืช ืืขืช ืืงืื ืืืขืฆืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืช ืืคืืคืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืฆืืืจ, ืฉืืื ืืชืฉืืืช ืื ืืืฉืืชืืช ืจืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื, ืืืขืงืืืชืื ืื ืืื ืฉื ืืชืืืืกืืืืช ืืชืจืืืช ืืคืืคืืืจืืช. ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืฆืืืจ, ืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืฆืืจืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจืื ืขื ืืื ืกืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืืื, ื'ืืง ื'ืื'ืืจ, ืืืืกืชืจ ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืฆืจืคืช. ืืืื ืืืฆืืช ืืชืืื ื ื"ืกื ืื ืืื" ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืคืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืื ืช ืขื ืืืืฉื ื ืืืขืงื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืชื. ืืฉื ืช 2012 ืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืืคืจืืื ืฉืืขืชืง ืฉื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืืฆื ืืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1819 ืืืืื ืืขืชืง ืืืืืง ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืจืื ื ืื ื ืืกืืฃ 2011. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืงืจืื ืืกืืจื ืืืฆืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืขืืืื ื ืื ืืฆืื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืจ ืืืช ืคืจื ืฆ'ืกืงื ืืืฆ'ื, ืชืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืฆ'ื, ืฉืืขืชืืง ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืฆืืืจ ืืฆืืื. ืืชืืื ื, ืฉืืฉืชืืจื ืืืฆื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืชืืื ืช ืืืงืืจ, ืืืฆืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืืืืื ืืคืืจืืืจ 2012. ืืขืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช, ืืขืืชืง ืื ื ืจืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืื ืฆืขืืจื ืืืชืจ, ืืขืืช ืืืืช, ืืื ืืืืฉื ืฉืื ื ืืขื. ื-28 ืืื ืืืจ 2024, ืคืขืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืงืืื ืฉืคืื ืืจืง ืขื ืชืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืกื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืื ื ืคืืขื. ืืฆืืืจ ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืฆืืืจ ืฉืื ืขื ืืื (ืื ') ืขืฅ ืฆืคืฆืคื ืืืืื 77 ร 53 ืก"ื. ืืฆืืืจ ืืืืกื ืฉืืื ืขืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ื, ืฉืืฆืืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืงืื, ืืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืืง ืืืื ืืืฆืืืจ ืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืคืจืื ืืฆืืืจ. ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืขืืจืจ ืื ืืฃ ืฉืืจืงืข ืืชืืื ื. ืื ืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืื, ืืืืืคืืื ืื ืืฆืืงืื ืืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืคืืื ืืื ืื ืืคืื ืฉืฆืืืจ ืื ืืื ืฆ'ื ืืชืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ื, ืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืชืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืฉื. ืืืืง ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืง ืฉืืฉืืืื ื ืงืืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ื. ืืคืงื ืื ืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืชื ืืืชื. ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืฆืืืจ ืขืืื ืืืื ืืกืชืืจื ืื ืกืคืง-ืืืื, ืื ืืืข ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืฆ'ื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืื ืืงืช ืกืคืืืืื (ืืคืืฃ ืขืฉื, ืืืืืืงืืช) ืืืืืืืช ืขืื ืื ืืืคืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืฆืืืจืช. ืืืืจ ืืงื ื ืชืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืื. ืขืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืื ื ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืคื ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืฆืคื ืืชืืื ื. ืขื ืืื ืจื ืืขืืจืจืืช ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืขืื ืคื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืฆืืคื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืืช ืื ืื ืขื ืืกืขื ืืืกื ืืืฆืจืื ืจืืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืงืืืขื, ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืขื ืืงื ืืจืืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืขื ืจืืขืืช. ืฉืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืจ ืชืืืฉื ืฉื ืืฆืืืืช ืืชื ืืขื ืื-ืืื ืืช. ืืชืจืืืช ืืคืืคืืืจืืช ืืืื ืชืืื ื ืืคืจืกืืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืงืื ืืืืืืจืื ืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืจืืืช ืืคืืคืืืจืืช. ืขืืงืจ ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืฆืืืจ ื ืืฆืจื ืืืืฆืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-19, ืืืฉืจ ืืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืงืืจ, ืชืืืคืื ืืืืืื, ื'ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจืื, ืืชืื ืขื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืืฆืืืจืช ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืขืชืข. ืืืืืืจืื ืืชืจืื ืืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืื ืืช ืืฆืืืจ ืืืฉืืชื, ืฉืืขื ืืงื ืืืฆืืจื ืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืขืฉืืจ ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืจืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืืืคืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืฆืืืจืื ืืฆืจื ืคืจืืืืืช ืฉืื, ืืื ืื ืฉื ืื'ื ืืืืื ืฉืฆืืืจ ืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืฉื ืช ืืงืืจืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืฆืืื ืืช ืื'ืืงืื ืื ืืขืืื ืคื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืขืช, ืืคืืืช, ืืจืงืืช, ืคืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืืืฆื ืืื. ืืืช ืืคืจืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืืช ืืืืชื ืื ืฉื ืืจืกื ืืืฉืื, ืฉืฉืจืื ืืขืืคืจืื ืฉืคื ืืืงื ืงื ืขื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืืืกืืฃ ืฉืืจืช ืืืชืืืช (L.H.O.O.Q.) ืฉืงืจืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื "ืื ืื ืืชืืช" (ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืจืื ืืช). ืคืจืืืื ืืืื, ืืฃ ืื ืืกื ืคืืืช, ืืฆืจ ืกืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืฉื ืืช ื-40 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20, ืืืฉืจ ืฆืืืจ "ืืืืงื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ื ืืืื". ืืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืชืืืฉื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฆืืืจ ืืคื ืืืืื ืขื "ืืื ืืช" ืืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืืง ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืืจืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืจืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืจืื, ืืฉืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืจืื "ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ" ืฉื ืงืื ืคืืจืืจ, "ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื" ืฉื ืคืื ืืง! ืื ืื ืืืกืงื ืื "ืืื ื ืืืื" ืฉื ื ื ืงืื ื ืงืื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGTN_America] | [TOKENS: 1308] |
Contents CGTN America CGTN America is a channel of China Global Television Network (CGTN), the international division of the state-owned media organization China Media Group (CMG), the headquarters of which is in Beijing, China. It is one of six international language news channels run by CGTN, under the control of the Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party. CGTN America is headquartered at 1099 New York Avenue NW, Suite 200 in Washington, D.C., and manages bureaus in New York City, Washington, D.C., as well as spanning coverage in North and South America. CGTN America began broadcasting in the United States on December 31, 2016, replacing the former English language CCTV-NEWS in the region. CGTN America employs American, Chinese, and other international journalists and produces U.S.-based programs with a focus on Asia for CGTN. It maintains a separate schedule of programs each day from noon to 7 p.m. MST (7 p.m. to 2 a.m. GMT), and like its African counterpart, it simulcasts CGTN International at all other times. CGTN America's director general is Ma Jing, with veteran Asia journalist Jim Laurie as executive consultant. Observers have noted that the "aim [of CGTN] is to influence public opinion overseas in order to nudge foreign governments into making policies favourable towards China's Communist party" through subtle means. Researchers Thomas Fearon and Usha M. Rodrigues argued that CGTN has a "dichotomous role as a credible media competing for audience attention on the world stage, and a vital government propaganda organ domestically." According to James Palmer at Foreign Policy, the contrasting aims of RT (formerly Russia Today) and CGTN, "mirrors wider strategies: Moscow wants chaos it can exploit, while Beijing wants a stable world orderโon its terms". In 2018, the United States Department of Justice directed CGTN America and Xinhua News Agency to register as foreign agents under the Foreign Agents Registration Act (FARA), which CGTN America did on February 1, 2019 while Xinhua did not register. In 2020, the United States Department of State designated CGTN and its parent company, CCTV, as well as Xinhua, as foreign missions, requiring them to submit lists of all employees and to seek approval to buy any property. Controversies and criticism CGTN America initially claimed that it had "editorial independence from any state direction or control". This claim was debunked by The New York Times reporter Paul Mozur in interviews with "current and former CGTN employees [who] say CCTV editors in Beijing often dictated plans for covering China. American employees sometimes pushed back, they said, and Ms. Ma allowed some flexibility when Beijing's orders didn't specifically forbid or dictate content. But three people interviewed said they had little choice but to air propaganda clips when Beijing said so". CGTN employees were disciplined when a news report mentioned Falun Gong, the religious group labeled as a cult and banned by the PRC. The Flag of the Republic of China, which the PRC does not recognize, is banned from broadcasts. In November 2018, amid growing international criticism of China's imprisonment of hundreds of thousands of Uyghurs in internment camps, CGTN America aired a pro-Beijing documentary portraying the camps as successful vocational training and anti-terrorism centers and Uyghurs as grateful. In addition, CGTN America has broadcast "exclusive" coerced confessions of people accused of a wide variety of crimes in China, most notably the example of a Briton, Peter Humphrey. In addition, some CGTN journalists "recall being asked to cross a sometimes blurred line between news reporting and intelligence gathering as they were asked to report on high-level government meetings". The United States Department of State characterized "CGTN America's relationship with a foreign government and a foreign political party as one of interest to Washington". The United States Department of Justice was concerned about an "expanding influence campaign being waged by Beijing through the global arms of state media outlets" like CGTN and Xinhua News Agency. In putting pressure upon Xinhua and CGTN, a senior US official noted that US grievances towards the lack of reciprocity from Beijing on trade and media access as many American and international news outlets are blocked in China. The Justice Department directed CGTN America and Xinhua News Agency to register as foreign agents under the Foreign Agent Registration Act (FARA). CGTN America registered under FARA on 1 February 2019, but said that it disagreed with the Justice Department's decision, but nevertheless registered as a foreign agent. While this permits CGTN America to continue operating in the United States, it is required to disclose information about its annual budget and ownership structure, and also to include disclaimers on broadcasts, published materials and social media identifying itself as a registered foreign agent. On March 8, 2019, after CGTN America registered under FARA, its director general Ma Jing and a dozen other staffers were recalled to Beijing. In the FARA filing Ma had said that CGTN America enjoyed editorial independence from any state control and that it operated like other news media organizations. It has been speculated that the recall is a result of her claim of editorial independence, which deviates from the Chinese Communist Party's position. In 2020, the United States Department of State designated CGTN and its parent company, CCTV, as well as Xinhua News Agency, China Radio International, the distributors of the official People's Daily and English-language China Daily, as foreign missions, requiring them to submit lists of all employees and to seek approval to buy any property. In November 2018, amid growing international criticism of China's imprisonment of hundreds of thousands of Uyghurs in internment camps, CGTN America aired a piece portraying the camps as successful vocational training and antiterrorism centers and Uyghurs as grateful. In addition, CGTN America has broadcast "exclusive" forced confessions of people accused of a wide variety of crimes in China, most notably the example of a Briton, Peter Humphrey. Awards In 2016, CGTN America won an Emmy for a feature on Jen Bricker, a gymnast who was born without legs. In 2019, it won 27 White House News Photographers Association awards for its photographic coverage. References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-299] | [TOKENS: 12221] |
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#third_406031] | [TOKENS: 332] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืชืจืืช? ืืืขืืื ืืคืชื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืชืงืืคืช_ืืืืืฉ] | [TOKENS: 27410] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ (ืืื ืืืืช: Prohibition) ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1920 ืืขื 1933, ืื ื ืืกืจ ืืื ืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืืจื, ืืืฆืืจ, ืืืื ืืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืกืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืืืช ืืืืกืจ ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืช ืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืจืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืง ืืืชื ืืขื ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (ืื '), ืืขืืงืจ ืคืจืืืกืื ืืื ืืคืจืืื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืฆืข ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืจืื (ืื '). ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืื ืขื ืคื ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืื (National Prohibition Act, ืื ืืคื ืฉืืื ืงืจืื Volstead Act, ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืจื ืืืืกืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืงืืงืชื), ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืคืชื ืฉื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืกืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืกืืจ. ืืืืืื, ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจื. ืืืืงื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืคืจืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืื ืืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืงื ืขื ืคื ืืืืง ืืคืืจืื, ืื ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืืจืื ืจืืื, ืืื ืืืืงืื ืืืงืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ, ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืกืจื ืืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืงืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืจืฆื ืืชืืื ืขื ืืฉืจืืจื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-21 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ื-5 ืืืฆืืืจ 1933. ืืืืื ืืืื ื-19 ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-20 ืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืื. ืชืืืื ืืืืืฉ (drys), ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืจ ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืกืจ ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืฉ (wets), ืืชืื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืืืืกืืจ ืืจืื ืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืืืืื ืืคืจืืืกืื ืืื ืืืคืจืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืจืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืจืื, ืฉืืจืืื ืืื ืงืชืืืื. ืืืจืืช ืฉืขื ืคื ืืขืช ืืงืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ื ืืฉื, ืืื ืืคืืืช ืืช ืฆืจืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืืืฆื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจืืื ื ืฉืืจื ืืจืื ืฉืืคื ื ืื ืืืช ืืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืืขืื, ืืืื ืืืืจ, ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืคืืืช ืืืืคื ืืื ื. ืืื ืืืืืงืจืื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืืฉืืื ื ืฉื ืืืืง ื ืืข ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืกืืืจืืืช ืืืืคืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืขืงื ืืืคืืื ื ืืืืง ืขืฆืื. ืืืงืจื ืืืืง ืืืขื ืื ืขื ืืืื ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฆืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืคืฉืข, ืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืฉืืชืคืชืื ืืืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืื. ืืื ืืขื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืคืืขืืื ืืฆืจื ื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืงืืื (Moonshiners), ืืืืืืช ืืจืืืื ืกืืื ืืฉืขืืจ, ืืฉืจ ืืืืงืื ืืืจืฉืืืืช ืืคืืขืืื ืืกืชืจ, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจื'ืื ืื, ืืืจื'ืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืงื ืืงื ืืื ืกื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืฆืจืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืฉืขืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืจืืงื ืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืงืืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืื 1657, ืืืงืงื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืงืงืช ืฉื ืืกืฆ'ืืกืืก ืืืง ืืืืกืจ ืขื ืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืื ืืฉืงื ืืฉืืจ ืืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืจืื, ืืืกืงื, ืืื ืืืจื ืื. ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืืกืืื ืืืจืชืืื ืืืชื ืคืืจืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืืืื, ืกืืืขื ืืืื ื ืฉืฆืจืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืจืืช ืื ืืง. ืชืืคืขืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืฉื, ืื ืจืง ืืชืื ืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืื ืืื ืขืืืจื ืขื ืืืงื ืืืช. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืืฉืงืืืช ืขืฆืื ืื ื ืชืคืกื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืจืืข, ืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืชืืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืืจื ืืช. ืืืืจืืืช ืขื ืฆืจืืื ืืืคืจืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืืช ืืืืชื ืคืืจืืืืืช ื ืืฉืื, ืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืงืืืช. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืขืฆืืืืชื, ืืชืืืื ืืืขืจื ืคื ืกืืืื ืื ืืจื ืืืืืกืงื, ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืช ืืืกืื ืืืฉืืชื ืขื ืืืืืกืงื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืกืื ืืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืื ืืืกืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืื ืื ืืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืชืงื ืื ืืืจืชืืื, ืฉืงืืื ืฉ"ืืก ืืืืื" ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืืืงืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืืื. ืืืก ืขื ืืืืืกืงื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช-ืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืชืืืืก ื'ืคืจืกืื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืืคืืจืืืกืืืช ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืืกื ืืจ ืืืืืืื ืื'ืืจื' ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืขืืชื ืืฉืืืื ื-1800. ืื ื'ืืื ืจืฉ (Rush), ืืื ืืจืืคืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ื-18, ืืืืื ืืืืชืื ืฆืจืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืืกืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจ ืฉืคืืจืกื ืขื ืืื ื-1784 ืืฉื ืงืจื "ืฉืืืช ืืืฉืคืขื ืฉื ืฆืจืืื ืืืคืจืืช ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืขื ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืขื ื ืคืฉื", ืืขื ืจืฉ ืฉืฆืจืืืช ืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืืงื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืื ืคืฉ, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืื. ื-1789 ืืืกืื ื-200 ืืืืืื ืืงืื ืืืงื ืืืืืช ืืชื ืืจืืช, ืืฉืื ืืืฉืคืขืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืจืฉ. ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืืืจื'ืื ืื ื-1800 ืืื ืื ืืืจืง ื-1808. ืชืื ืขืฉืืจ ืืืงืื ืืืืืืช ืืชื ืืจืืช ืืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืฆืืื. ืชืืจืชื ืฉื ืจืฉ ืืฉื ืชืืืื ืืชื ืืจืืช ืืฉืชืืื ืืืืื, ืกืืืขื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ื ืฉืื. ืืขืื ืฉืืืจืื ื ืื ื ืืฉืชืืื ืืืขืืชืื ืจืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืจืืืืชื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืืืืืืืืืื ืฉื "ืืืืืืช ืืืืชืืช" ืืืืืื ืข ืืฆืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ื ืฉืืช ืืืขืื ืืืื ืื ื, ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืืกืจืืช ืืืชืืื, ืืื ืืช ืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืืื, ืฉืืืชื ืจืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืคืืืชืืื. ื-1830 ืขืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืืืฆืขืช ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืขื 1.7 ืืงืืืงืื ืื ืคืฉ ืืฉืืืข, ืคื ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืชืื ืฉืชืืขื ืืฉื ืช 2010. "ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืืชื ืืจืืช" (American Temperance Society โ ATS), ืฉืืืงืื ื-1826, ืืืืชื ืืืกืืก ืืืงืืช ืชื ืืขืืช ืืชื ืืจืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืฉื. ื-1835 ืืื ืืืืืื 1.5 ืืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืฉืืชืื 60 ืกื ืืคืื, 35 ืืื ืืืงืื ืขื ืืื ื ืฉืื. ืืชื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืจืช ืื ืืืื ืื "ืืกืข ืืฆืื ืืืืฉ" (dry crusade), ืืืฉืืื ืืคืขืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-19, ืืฉืืจืืฉื ืืจืืื ืคืืืืืกืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืกืืื. ืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-19 ืขืื ืืกืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืชื ื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืืืืื ืขืืช ืืฆืจืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืขืช ื ืชื ื ืืช ืืขืชื ืืืชืจ ืืืืก ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืกืืืช ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืฆืจืืืช ืืืืืืืื. ืืืืคืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืจืง ื. ืืชืืืก ืงืืฉืจื ืืช ื"ืกืืื ืื", ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืื ืืืช ืื ืืืชื ืืจืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืช. ืืฆืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืชื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืืง ืฉืืืงืงื ืืืื ืช ืืืื (Maine law) ื-1851, ืฉืืกืจ ืขื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืืืจืืช ืืืช ืืืง ืื ืืืื ื-1856. ืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช (1865-1861) ืืืืื ืืชื ืืขื ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืื . ืืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืงื ืืชืืืื ืืกืข ืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉ. ื-1869 ืืืงืื ืืคืืืช ืืืืกืืจ ืื-1873 ื ืืกื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฆืจืืืช ืืืชื ืืจืืช (Woman's Christian Temperance Union โ WCTU). ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืฆืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืื. ืืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืงื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืชื ืื, ืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืืจืืช ื-WCTU ืืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืกืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืืฆืจื ืจืืฉืืช ืฉืืืืืื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืืกืืื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืคืจื ืกืก ืืืืืืจื (Frances Willard), ืื ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืฉื ื-WCTU, ื ืืกืื ืืช ืืืจืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืืื: "ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืจื, ืืืืจืช ืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืฆืขืืจ, ืืืขื ืืืืืจื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืขื ืฉืืงืื ืืืขืืืืช ืฉืืฉืชืืื ืฉืืืื ืืงืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฆื ืืื ืืืฉืืขืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืกืืง ืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื (Dram shop ), ืืจืืืืืชืื ื, ืขื ืคื ืืืง". ืืขืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืช ื-WCTU ืืขืงืืืช ืืฉื ืช ื"ืืขืฉืืช ืืื" (Do Everything) ืฉื ืืืืืืจื ืืขืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืจืืกืช ืจืื ืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืงืืืื ื ืืฉืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืขืืืื. ื-1881 ืืืืชื ืงื ืืก ืืืืื ื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืืืกืืจืช ืืืืงื ืฉืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืืง ืฆืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืคืขืืืช ืชื ืืขืช ืืืชื ืืจืืช, ืงืจื ื ืืืฉื (Carrie Nation) ืืืชื ืืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืคืชื ืืช ืืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืฆืขืื ืืชืื ืืืืจืื, ืืขืจื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืื ืฉืืืืืงื ื ืคืฆื ืืงืืืงื ืืฉืงื. ื ืืืฉื ืืืืกื ื ืฉืื ืืชื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืฉื ืงืจืื ืขื ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืขืืื ืืจืืฉื. ืืขืื ืฉืคืขืืืืช ืืืจืกืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืจืืช, ืงืืืฆืืช ืคืขืืื ืืืจืืช ื ืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืืจืื, ืืฉืืจ, ืืืชืคืื ืืืืืืฅ ืืขืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืงื ืืก ืืื ืืืื ืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืฉืืืงืงื ืืืงื ืืืืฉ, ืืื ืฉืขืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืื ืืฉื ืขืื ืืกืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืคืืื ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืงื ืืก, ืืืื ืขืชืืจืืช ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืื ืฉืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืชืืื ืฉืฉืืจืชื ืืช ืืื ืืขืืืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชื ืฉืืชืคืชื ืืืืจืื. ืืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืคืืขืืื ืืคืื ืืืงืื ืืชืื ืกืืช ืคืืคืืืจื ืฉื ืืคืืขืืื ืืืจืื ืืืงืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืชื. ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืชื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืง ืืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืืคืฆื ืฉื ืชืืฆืจืชื. ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจื ืืชืืฆืจืชื ืืืืขืืืฃ ืืืชื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืจืืช ืฉืืืฆืจื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืชืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืขืกืงื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืกืก ืขื ืืชื ืืจืืืืช ืืื ื, ืฉืืืฉืื ืขื ืชืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืจืื ืืฆืื ืืฆื ืืกืืขืืื ืืืืฆื ืืืชื ืืจืืืฉ ืืฉืงืืืช, ืฉืืื ืืชืฉืืื. ืืชืงืืคืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืชื ืืขื ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืช (1920-1890), ืืืจื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืฆืื. "ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืจืื" (Anti-Saloon League), ืืืืืคื ืืช ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืคืืืช ืืืืกืืจ, ืืฉื ื-WCTU ืื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืง ืืืขื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืฉื ื ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืืืืง ืืืขื ืกืืืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื. ื ืืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืืื ืื ืืข ืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืืขืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-19 ืืขื ืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืื ื-20. ืืืืืืช ืืคืืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืขืื ืืืงื ืืชืืช. ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ื ืื ื ืคืืืืืกืืื ืคืจืืืกืื ืืื, ืืชืืืืกืืื, ืืคืืืกืืื, ืคืจืกืืืืจืืื ืื, ืงืืืืืงืจืื ืืืืชืจื ืืื ืกืงื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืกืฃ ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืกืืื ืืงืชืืืืช ืฉืชืืื ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืงืืืฆืืช ืืชืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืฉืืืชืืช ืคืืืืืืช ืืืช ืืฉืชืืื ืจืื ืืืื. ืืจืืื ืื ืคืขืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื "ืคืืจืฆืืืช ื ืฉืืช ืืื ืกืืื" (Women's Church Federation), "ืืกืข ืืฆืื ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืฉื ืื ืฉืื" (Women's Temperance Crusade) ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืื. ืื ืื ืขืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืคืืกืงืืคืืื, ืืืืชืจื ืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืกืืื ืืงืชืืืืช ืฉืืืงืืขื ืืช ืืจืขืืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืชืืืืจ ืืืกืจ ืืื. ืื ืื ืื ืืืจืง, ืฉืืืืชื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืคืขืื ืชื ืืขื ืคืขืืื ืืืขื ืืืืง, ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืื ืกืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืคืืขืืื ืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื, ืฉืืืืื ื ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ืขื ืืคืืขืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื. ืกืืืจื ืชื ืืืฆืจื ื ืืืื ืืช ืกืืื ืชืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืืื ื ืฉืืืกืืจ ืขื ืฆืจืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืชืืื. ืคืขืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ (Wayne Wheeler) ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืจืื, ืฉืืฆืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ื ืืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืกืืืื ืฉืืฆืชื ืืื ืืช ืคืืืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืชืืืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืง ืืชืคืงืืืื ืคืืืืืืื. ืืืืืจ ื ืืืข ืืืื ืื "ืื ืืื ืืืืฉืื" (dry boss), ืืฉื ืืฉืคืขืชื ืืืืื ืืคืืืืื. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืฆื ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืื ืืขืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขืืจืื ืืืช ืืืืคืจืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืขืงื ืงืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืืื ืจืืื ืืงืจื ืืชื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืคืฉืข ืืคืจื ืืืช ืืฉืืืชืืช ืืขืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืืจืื. ืืช ืืืืจืื ืืขืจืื ืืื, ืฉืขื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืงืืืืชืืื ื ืื ื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจืื, ืคืงืื ืืืืคื ืงืืืข ืคืืืืืืงืืื ืฉืจืฆื "ืืงื ืืช" ืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืจืื ืืืช ืงืืืืชืืื ืืชืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืขืืืื, ืกืืืข ืืฉืคืื, ืกืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืฆืืขื. ืื, ื ืชืคืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืงืจืงืข ืคืืจืืื ืืฆืืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืืืชืืช ืคืืืืืืช. ืืชืืืื ืืจืืคื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืืืืืจืคืื ืืืฉืชื ื, ืืืืฆื ืจืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืชืืจืช ืื ืืืืืืืื, ืฉืืืกืืจืชื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืจืขืืื ืฉืืืจืืงื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืขืืฆืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืืืชืื ืืืืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืฆื ืื ืืื-ืกืงืกื. ืืืื ื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืช ืืืคื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื, ืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืจืืฉืืช ื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืื ืืืง ืืชืืืื ืจืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ืืืฆืื ืฉืืชืจืืฉ ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื. ืขืืืจ ืชืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืฉื ื ืชืืงืื ืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืงื ืฉืืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืชื. ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืงืื ื-16 ืฉืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืก ืขื ืืืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืช ืืืก ืืื ืกื. ืืชืืงืื ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืชืืงืื ื-19 ืฉืืขื ืืง ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืฉื ืชืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ื ืื ืืจืืื ื ืืืชื ืืจืืช ืืชืืื ืืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืชืืงืื ืื. ืืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-1916 ืืชืขืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืขืืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื ืืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืืืืืขืื ืจืคืืืืืงื ื, ืฆ'ืืจืืก ืืืื ืก ืืื, ืื ืืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืืฉื ืฉืืชืขืืื ืืื ื ืืคืืืืชืืื. ืืฉืชื ืืืคืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืืืช "ืจืืืืืช" ื"ืืืฉืืช" ืืืงืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืฆืคืืืืช ืืืืืช ืฆืืืืืช, ืื ืฉืืฃ ืืื ืืืืืขืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืฉืืช ืืขืฆืื ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืฉืื ืืกืืก ืืืืื ืืคืืืืื. ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-65, ืฉืืชืื ืก ืืื ืืืจ 1917, ืืื ื"ืืืฉืื" ืืืคืืื ืืืืืงืจืืืช ืจืื ืฉื 140 ื ืฆืืืื ืขื ืคื ื 64 "ืจืืืืื" ืืืืคืืื ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืช ืื ื ื"ืืืฉืื" 138 ื ืฆืืืื ืขื ืคื ื 62 "ืจืืืืื". ืขื ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืคืจืื ืืืชื ืฉื ื, ื ืืืงื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืจืืงืืื-ืืจืื ืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืงืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ื ืฉืืข. ืื ืืกืฃ, ื ืืฆืจ ืฆืืืืง ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ: ืืืกืืจ ืืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืจืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืืชื. ืืขืื ืฉืืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืื ืืจื ืื ืืฆืืฅ ืืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืชื ืืขื ืืืขื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืคื ื ืฉืืืง ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ื ืืงืง. ืืกื ืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-18 ืืืฆืืืจ 1917. ืืืฆืขื ืืืืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืขืืจื ืืช ืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืฆืืืจ 1917. ืขื 16 ืืื ืืืจ 1919 ืืืฉืจืจ ืืชืืงืื ืขื ืืื 36 ืืชืื 48 ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืื ืืืคืื ืืืชื ืืชืงืฃ. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืจืง ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช, ืงืื ืืืงื ืืจืื ืืืืื ื, ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืืืฉืจืืจ. ื-28 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1919 ืืืงืง ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ืืืฉืจ ืื ืืืื ืก ืืชืืงืฃ ืฉื ื ืืืืจ ืืื, ื-17 ืืื ืืืจ 1920. ื-18 ืื ืืืืืจ 1918, ืืจื ืืฉืจืืจื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-18, ืืืงืง ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช "ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืื" (Wartime Prohibition Act), ืฉืืกืจ ืขื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืฉืชืืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืขืืื ืขื 2.75%. ืืืง ืื, ืฉืืืจืชื ืืืืชื ืืืฆืืจ ืืขืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืืชื, ื ืืงืง ืืืืจ ืฉืฉืืืชืช ืื ืฉืง, ืฉืกืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ื ืืชืื ื-11 ืื ืืืืืจ 1918. ืืืืง ื ืื ืก ืืชืืงืฃ ื-30 ืืืื ื 1919 ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืช, 1 ืืืืื ื ืืืข ื-"Thirsty First" (ืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืช, Thirsty โ ืฆืืืืื, First โ ืืืื ืืืืืฉ). ื-28 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1919 ืืืงืง ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืช ืืืง ืืืืกืื, ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืื, ืืืจืืช ืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื. ืืืืง ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืฉื ืืกืจื ืืืช ืืขืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืฆืืจื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืง ืืกืจ ืขื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื, ืืืืฉื ืืคืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืืชื. ื-1925, ืืขืืจ ื ืื ืืืจืง ืืืื, ืคืขืื ืืื 30,000 ื-100,000 ืืืกืืืช ืืืชื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืฉืืื ื ืกืคืืง ืืืื (speakeasy). ืื ืืฉืขื ืฉืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืฆืืื ืืืคืืืช ืืช ืืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืฉื ืฆืจืื, ืืื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืฉืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืคืฉืข ืืืืจืื. ื-22 ืืืจืฅ 1933 ืืชื ืื ืฉืื ืคืจื ืงืืื ืืืื ื ืจืืืืืื ืขื ืืืง ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืฉืืืง ืืืฆืจืื ืืืจื ืืืื ืขื ืชืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื 3.2%. ื-5 ืืืฆืืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ื, ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืจ ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-21 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืช ืชืืงืคื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-18. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืง ืืคืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขืืืื ืืืกืจ ืขื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืงืงืื ืฉืื ืชืืช ืจืืฉืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืคืืช ืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืขืฉืืช. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืคืขื ื-17 ืืื ืืืจ 1920 ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ื ืื ืก ืืชืืงืฃ. ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืืืื ืฉื 1520 ืกืืื ืื ืคืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืืง. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืงืช, ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืงืจื ืงืืืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืคืจืืืจืกืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืืง ืืฉื ื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืื, ืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ื ืฉืื, ืืจืืืืื, ืืคืจืืื ืืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื. ืขื ืืืจื ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืื ืืขืฆืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืฆืจืื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื, ืกื ืืืจ ืืืจืืก ืฉืคืจื ืืชืืื ืขื ืื ืฉ"ืืกืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ืฉืงืื ืืกืืืื ืฉืฆืืคืืจ ืงืืืืืจื ืชืืืก ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืจืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืงืฉืืจื ืืื ืื". ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืชืคืจืกืื ืฉืืจืื ืฉืฉืื ืืช ืืืืง ืืืขื. ืืืืืจื, ื ืกืื ืืืืืก ืกืืคืจ ืฉืืืกืขื ืืงื ืื ืืฉื ืช 1919 ืืื ืฉืืข ืคืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืฉืืื ืช ืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืจืฆืืช: ืฉึฐืื ึตื ืชึฐึผืจึตืืกึทืจ ืึทึผื ึฐืงึดืื, ืึธืงืึผ ืึฐึผืฆึดืึธึผืืึนื, ืึธืฆืึผ ืึถืช ืึทืึฐึผืืึผื, ืึดืฉึฐืืชึผืึนืช ืฉึตืืึธืจ-ืฉึดืืืคืึนื. ืึฐึผืฉึถืืึทืึทึผืงึฐืึผืึผืง ื ึดืคึฐืชึทึผื, ืคึธึผืฆึฐืืึผ ืึตื ืึฐึผืึดืึฐืืึนืจ, "ืึตื, ืึธึผืจึตืึฐ ืึธืึตืจึดืืงึธื, ืึทืึฐ ืึถืึถืึฐ ืึตื ื ึฐืฆึนืจ!" Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry, Went across the border to get a drink of rye. When the rye was opened, the Yanks began to sing, "God bless America, but God save the King!" ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืงืจื ืืืื ืืจืคืืื, ืืืช ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืฆืขื ืจืืคืื ืฉื ืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืจืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืืคืืื. ื-1921 ืงืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืื ืขื ืขืจืื ืืจืคืืื ืฉื ืืืืจื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืจืืคืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืงืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืฉืืืืจ ื ืืข ืืืฉืงืืืช ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืืืฆืขื ืจืืคืื. ืืขืื ืฉืืืฆืืจ, ืืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืงื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืกืขืืฃ 29 ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ืืชืืจ ืืืฆืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืฉื ืกืืืืจ ืืขืฉืื ืคืืจืืช, ืื ืื ืฉื ืืืจื. ืืืฆืืจ ืฉื ืื ืืืชืจ ื-200 ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืกืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืคืฉืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืืืง ืื ืืกืจ ืขื ืฆืจืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื, ืืชืงืืคื ืืงืฆืจื ืฉืืื ืืฉืจืืจื ืฉื ืืืืง ืืขื ืืื ืืกืชื ืืชืืงืฃ, ืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืื ืืฆืจืืืชื ืืืืฉืืช. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืื ืืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืืชืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืงืงืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืงื ืื, ืืืงืกืืงื ืืืงืจืืืืื ืคืจืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืฆืจืืื ื ืจืืฉื ืขื ืืื ืชืืืจืื ืืืจืืงืืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืืชื ืืืงื ืืชืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ื ืืจ ืืืจืืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืงื ืื, ืืื ืืืืข ืื ืืจ ืงืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืงืืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืจืื ืฉืืืฆืจ ืืืื ืืืืจ. ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืื ื ื ืืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืจืืืื ืฉืงืืืืช ืืชืืจื ืชืืช ืืืืง ืืืืจืืงืื ืืกืืืขื ืฉื ืคืงืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืกืื, ืืื ืืืืื, ืกืืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืชืขืจื. ืืื ืกืืื ืฆ'ืจืฆ'ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื "ืขืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืืช". ืืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืขื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืกืืขืจืืช, ื ืขืฉืชื ืฉืืงืื ืืื ืขืื ืืืคืจืื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืจืืื ืืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืขืื ืืฉืืฆื ืฉื ืฉืืงืื, ืืืื ืื ืงืคืื ื ืืืจืืื, ืืืืก ืืืจื, ืืจืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืขื ืืกืืฃ ืืขืฉืืจ ืฉืื ืื ืงืคืื ื ืขื 10,000 ืืกืืืืช ืฉื ืงืจืื ืกืคืืง ืืืื ืืฉืืงืื ืืขื ืขืกืงื ืืืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืงื ืื ืืืื ืคืืืจืืื. ืืกืคืจ ืจื ืฉื ืกืืื ืคืฉืขืื, ืืืื ืื ืื ืืจืฆื, ืืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืืคืขืืืืช ืืคืจืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืฉืืงืื ืืืืงืืืืช ืืืจืื. ืขื ืฉืืืฉ ืกืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืง ืืืืกืืื: ืืืืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง ืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืคืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉ-11 ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืจืื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1927-1925, ืืืืงื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ, ืฉ-56 ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืจืื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1927-1920, ืืืืืงื ืืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื ืฉ-34 ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืจืื ืืื ืืฉื ืื 1934-1930. ืกืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1924 ืฆืืื ืฉืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ. ืื ื ืงืืข ืฉืืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืชื ืืฉืชืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืืคืื. ืขื ืืืืฃ ืืืื ืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืง ืืืืฆืจ ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืขืืืืช, ืืืง ืฉืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืฉืืื ืืขืืืคืืช ืืืืคื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช. ืืชืืืฉื ืืืืชื ืฉืืืืง ืคืืขื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืจืง ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืงืจื ืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืืชืืืื, ืืขื ืืื ืื ื ืืขืื ืืขืืืืื. ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืื: "ืืฉืคืื ืขืฉืืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืชืฃ ืฉืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืกืชืืจ, ืื ืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืคืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืงืืืง ืืื, ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืจืง ืืฆืจืืช". ืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืกืชื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืขืกืืงืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช, ืืขืื ืฉืืื ื ืื ืข ืชืขื ืื ืื. ืืคื ื ืื ืืกืชื ืืชืืงืฃ ืฉื ืชืืงืื 18 ืืื ืืืจ 1920, ืจืืื ืืื ื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืืจ ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืื ืจืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืจื ืืฉืงืืืช, ืจืืงื ื ืืช ืืืืกื ืื ืฉืืื, ืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืช ืืืืกื ืื ืฉื ืืืืขืืื ืื. ืืืืืงืงืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืคื ืืืฉื ืืืืชื ืฆืืจื. ืื ืฉืื ืืืืกืื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืฉืื ืืืขืื ื ืืคืจืื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืชืงืืคืช ื ืฉืืืืชื. ืืืจืฉื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืจื ืืจืืื ื ืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืคืจืื ืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืขืชื. ืืืืงืืืืจ 1930, ืฉืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืข ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืฉืฃ ืืืจืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ื'ืืจื' ืงืกืืื ("ืืืืฉ ืขื ืืืืืขืช ืืืจืืงื") ืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืจืื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืงืกืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉืืฉืคื ืืช ืกืืคืืจื ืืคืืืื. ืืื ืคืจืกื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืคืืกื. ืืื ืืขืจืื ืฉื-80% ืืืืจื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืกื ืืืจืื ืฉืชืืืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืฆืืืขื ืืขื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืืคืจืกืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืฉืคืขื ืืืงื ืขื ืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืข ืืืืื ื. ืืจืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืขืืจ ืืจืื ืจืคืืืืืงื ื "ืืืฉ" ืืจืื ืืืืงืจืื "ืจืืื", ืฉืืืื ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืืืืืื. ืขื ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืชืืช ืืืืกืจ ืืคืืคืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืง, ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืืจืื ืืื, ืืืืชื ืฆืืคืืื ืืจืืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืง ืื ืงืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืงืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ื-1920, ืืขืจื 14% ืืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืคืืจืื, ืืืืื ืชื ืืืืงืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืกืื ืกืืจ ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืืืืฉืื ื ืืงืงื ืืืื ืกื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืฉืืืืืฉ ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืงืืืืช ืขืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืฆืื ืืคืชืจืื ืืืืืื. ื-22 ืืืจืฅ 1933 ืืชื ืื ืฉืื ืคืจื ืงืืื ืืืื ื ืจืืืืืื ืขื ืชืืงืื ืืืืง ืืืืกืืื, ืืืืืข ืืฉื ืืืง ืงืืื-ืืืจืืกืื (CullenโHarrison Act), ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืจืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื 3.2 ืืืื ืืืฉืงื (4 ืืืื ืื ืคื) ืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืช ืงืืื. ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืงื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืขืื ืขื 0.5% ืืืฉืงื ืืจืืฃ. ืืืขืื ืืชืืืช ืืืืง ืืขืืจ ืจืืืืืื ืืช ืืขืจืชื ืืืคืืจืกืืช: "ืื ื ืกืืืจ ืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืก ืืืจื". ืืืง ืงืืื-ืืืจืืกืื ื ืื ืก ืืชืืงืฃ ื-7 ืืืคืจืื ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืืืจืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืช ืื ืืืืืจ-ืืืฉ ืขืืื ืจืชืืื ืืฆืื ืกืืกื ืงืืืืืกืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืื. ื-5 ืืืฆืืืจ 1933, ืขื ืืฉืจืืจื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-21 ืืืืงืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืื ืืชืืงืื ื-18. ืืืจืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืจ ื'. ืืจืื ื (Heber J. Grant), ื ืฉืื ืืื ืกืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืช, ืืฉืจืจื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ืืืืฉ ืืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืฉืืช ืืืืื ื ื-36 ืฉืืฉืจืจื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื-21, ืืชืืงืื ืืืฉืจืจ ืืืืชื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืคื ืกืืืื ืื ืืืืืื. ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืขืืงืจืืืช ืืื ืืฆืืืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืืื ืืืืกืจ ืืืืฆืขืื ืืืืืคืชื. ืืืจ ืืชืืืืช ืชืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืฉืื, ืืกืจื ืืชืืงืื ื-18 ืืืืืืืืืช ืืขืื ื ืืฆืืืืจ. ืืืื ืืงืจืื ืจืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืฉืจืืจืืชื ืืืืชื ื ืืืฅ, ืืืคืืื ืื ืืื ืืืคืจื ืฉืื. ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืขื ืืืืคืช ืืืืง ืืฆืื ืขืฆืื ื ืืืืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืคืฆื ืืืชื ืืืงืืช ืืืืื ื ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช. ืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืืชื ืื ื ืฆืคืชื ืื ืฆืจืื ืืื ืืกืจื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืื ืืืืฆืืขื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืืคืช ืืืืง ืื ืืืฆืข ืชืืช ืืกืืชื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืืช. ื ืืกืืื ืืช ืจืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ื ืืฉืื ืขืงื ืืืกืจ ืืฉืงืืคืืช ืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืคืืจืืืืช ืืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืชืืืช. ืืืชืจ ืืื, ืืืืืืจืคืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืื ืืงืฉืืื ืืืืืคืช ืืืืง. ืจืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืืงืื, ืืืจืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืฆืืช, ืื ืืกืฃ ืื ืชืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืงื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขื ืฉืื ืืชืื, ืงื ืื ืืืงืกืืงื, ืืจืื ืืงืฉืืื ืืจืืืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ, ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืง, ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืื ื ืฉืืืืฆืขืื ืฉืืืงืฆื ืืืืืคื ืืืืง ืืื ืืืชื ืืขืฉืืื. ืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืฆืขื ืจืืฉืื ืืงืจืืช ืฉืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืขืกืงื ืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืขืืจ ืกื ื ืืืืืก, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืช ืืืฆืจื ืืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืคื ื ืืงืืงืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืขื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืฆืื ืขื ืืืจื ืืช ืืงืืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืื. ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืขืืจ ืขืืื 50,000 ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืช ืืืคืฆื ืืื 22 ืืืจืฅ 1933 ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืกืคืงื ืืฉืืง ืืฉืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืจื ืืขืงืืืชืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืง ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืช ืจืืืช ืจืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืจื ืืขืกืงื ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืฉืงืืืช. ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืจื, ืืืจื ืืืคื ืคืืขืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืกืงืื ืฉืื ืืชืขืฉืืื. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืฆืจ ืฉืืง ืฉืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืชืืจืืช ืืชืขืฉืืื ืืจืฉืืืช, ืฉืืืืชื ืื ืื ืชืืช ืืืฅ. ืจืืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืกืืก ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืื ืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืืื. ืฉืืงืื ืืื ืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืจืง ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืฉืชืืื ืืืชืืจืืช ืืืฆืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืฉืืืจ. ืืืจ ืื ืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-21 ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืืชืืงืื ื-21 ืื ืืืกืจ ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืชืืช ืืืช ืืื ืืืกืจ ืขื "ืืขืืจื ืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื "ืืื ืืืื ื, ืืจืืืืจืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช", " ืชืื ืืื ืืคืจื ืฉื ืืืืงืื ืืืงืืืืื" ืืืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืชืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ื ืืชื ืืืืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืคื ืืืงื ืืืืง, ืื ืื ืืื, ืืขืจืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืกืืืืช. ืืืงืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืฉืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืงื ืืืืืฉ. ืืืกืืกืืคื, ืฉืืกืจื ืขื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืจ ื-1907, ืืืืชื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ื-1966. ืงื ืืก ืื ืืชืืจื ืขื 1987 ืืช ืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืงืื. ืขื ืืืื ืื ืืืกืืจ ืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืืืืช ืจืืื (ืืืื ืืืื ื ืื ืฉืืงื ืืงื) ืืืขืจืื ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืืกืืจืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืื, ืืืง ืฉืืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-18. ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืื ืจืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ื. ื'ืื ื. ืจืืงืคืืจ, ืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืขืืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉืืชื ื-1932: ืืืฉืจ ืืืฆืข ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืงืืืืืชื ืฉืืื ืืงืื ืชืืืื ืืืขืช ืืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืจืขืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืืื. ืื ืื ืืืืืกืจ ืจืฆืื, ืืืขืชื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืฉืื ืื ืืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืง. ืชืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืืืงืฃ ืืฉืชืืื, ื"ืกืคืืง ืืืื" ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืืกืืื, ืฆืฅ ืฆืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื ืืืง, ืจืืื ืืืืจืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืชืขืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืง, ืืืืื ืืืืง ืืชืจืืคืฃ ืืืืคื ื ืจืื ืืืคืฉืข ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืจืื ืงืืื ืืื. ืื ืืจืืจ ืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืงืืื ืืช ืฆืจืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืื ืคืฉ. ืขื ืคื ืืืง ืืืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืฆืจืืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืืืจื ืืจืื ืฉืืคื ื ืื ืืกืช ืืืืง ืขื ืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืฉืื. ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืจืกืื ืฉืฆืจืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืข ืืจืื ืฉืืคื ื ืชืืืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืจ ืฉื ืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืจ ืกืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืขืืืช. ืฉืืขืืจ ืฉืืืช ืืืื, ืฉืืืืคื ืจืืื ืืื ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืืืื, ืืจืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืขืฉืืจืื ืฉืืืืจ ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ, ืืกืืจื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืื ืกืืืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืฆืจืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืขื ืคื ืกืงืจ ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืค ืฉื ืขืจื ืืืขื ืื ืฉื ื ืืื 1939, ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืืจืืงืืื ืืขื ืืื 18, ืฆืืจืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-20 ืืื ืืขื ืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืืชืืงืื ื-18. ืกืืืืื ืคืืื (Patten), ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืง ืืืขื ืื ืืืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ, ืฆืคื ืฉืืืืง ืืขืืืจ ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืกืืืืช ืชืืจืืชืืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืชืืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ื ืคืืฉืจ ืืื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืืง ืืฉืจ ื ืื ืืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืจืืื ืขื ืืืืง ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืืืืจื "ืืืืืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ" (The Economics of Prohibition), ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืง. ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืคืืฉืจ ื ืืงืคืื ืืืืคืืื ืื ืืืืงื ืืืกืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืื ืืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืืจืืืืื ื. ืื ืงืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืขื ืืคืฉืข, ืขื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืคืจืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืืืฉื "ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืื" (Blue Monday), ืืชืืืืก ืืืืจืืืจืช ืฉืืืืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืกืืคื ืืฉืืืข ืื ืืืื ืืฉืชืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืคืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืคืจืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืคืฉืข ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืงืืื ืืช ืืืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืขื ื-1920, ืืืืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืคืื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืื ืืช, ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืจืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืฉืืง ืฉืืืจ ืจืืืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืืื, ืืกืืจ ืืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืคืจืื. ืืจืืื ื ืคืฉืข ืืืงืื ืืจืื ืืชืืคืขืช ืฉืืืชืืช ืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืคืช ืืืง ืืืกืืื ืืช. ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืกืืคืง ืืกืืก ืืืืื ืืคืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืืคืฉืข. ืืืงืื ืืฆืืฆื ืืช ืืืื ืืคืฉืข, ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืคื ืืื ืขืจืื ืืฉืืืช ืงืจื ืืื ืื ืืคืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฉืขืกืงื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืงืืืช. ืืืืงืจ ืฉื ืขืจื ืขื ืืืชืจ ื-30 ืขืจืื ืจืืฉืืืช ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืฉื ืื 1920โ1921, ืืชืืจืจ ืื ืืืืช ืืขืฉื ืืคืฉืข ืืืื ื-24%. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืขืฉื ืื ืื ืืคืจืืฆืืช ืืืื ื-9%, ืืขืฉื ืจืฆื ื-12.7%, ืืืืช ืืชืงืืคืืช ืขืืชื ื-13%, ืฆืจืืืช ืกืืื ืขืืชื ื-44.6% ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืขืื ื-11.4%. ืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืื ืฉื ืงืจื "ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืืง ืืฉืืืจ" ืืืกืืช ืืืขืช ืืคืฉืขืื ืฉืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืชืืืืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืงืืื ืฉืืืฆืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืฅ ืืืืง ืชืคืืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืคืฉืืขื, ืืืฆืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ืฉืืจื ืืฉืืขืืจื ืคืฉืข ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืคื ื ืื ืืืช ืืืืง ืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืืคืฉืข. ืืชืจื ืืื, ืืคืืคืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืงืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืงื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจืืชื ืืืืชื ืจืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ. ืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืืจืืื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืชืขืฉืืืชื ืืฆืืจื ืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืืชื ืืืงืืื, ืืืจืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืช ืขื ืืคืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชื ืืจืขืื. ืืชืืืื, ืฉืืจื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืืืื, ืฉืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืฉืชืืื. ืืชืืืื ืืื, ืืืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืฆืจื ื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืฃ ืื ืจืขืืื ืืืงืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืื ืืช ืืจืขื ืืืืง ืืืืืื, ืืชื ืื. ืืืงืจื ืืงืจื ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืชื ืืื ืืืจืืคืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืฉื ืืกืื ื ืฉืืืืืชื ืืืื ืืื. ื-10,000 ืื ื ืืื ืืชื ืืฉืชืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืื ืขื ืืกืืฃ ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืืงืจ ืืงืจื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืืจ ื ืื ืืืจืง, ืฆ'ืืจืืก ื ืืจืืก ืืืืื ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืงืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืจืฆื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืขื ืฉืืจืขืืช ืืืืื ืื ืชืจืชืืข ืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืชืืช ืืืชื ืืืืจืืช ืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืจืขืื ืืืื ืชืขืฉืืืชื. ื ืืจืืก ืืขืืจ: "ืืืืฉืื ืืืขื ืฉืื ืื ืืขืฆืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืืฉืชืืื... ืขื ืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืจืขืื, ืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืชืืช, ืฆืืจืืื ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืื ืืช ืืจืขื. ืืืืืขืชื ืฉืืืื ืืืืช, ืืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืกืจืืช ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืงืจื ืืืืช ืืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืื ื ืืฉืคืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืื". ืืืืจ ืงืืื ื ื ืืกืฃ ืฉืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ื'ื ืืขืจื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืงืจื Sterno. ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืกื ื ืื ืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืจื ืืกื ื ืืืืืชืจ, ืืื ืืืคืืช, ืืื ื ืืฆืจ ืชืืืืฃ ืืก ืืืืงืจ. ืขื ืืืช, ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืชื ืจืขืืื, ืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืชื ืงืืื ืืช. ืจืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืขืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืชืืจืื ื ืืชืืืขืช ืคืืฆืืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืื ืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืืืช ืืืืชื ืชืืคืขื ื ืคืืฆื ืืืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืื ืืืืช ื ืืืจ ืชืจืืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืขืืื ืชืืืืืช "ืืืืจื", ืฉืืื ืคืืจืื ืืฆืขืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืงืื ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืคืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืืื. ืืืืง ืืืชื ืืืจืงืืช ื ืืืจ "ืืื ืจืคืืื" ืขื ืจืืืื ืฉื 22% ืืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืื ืืขื ืฉื ืชืจืืคื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืจืช ืืืืืืื ืชืืฆืจืช ืืืช ืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืงืืช ืืื ืืืืืชื ืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืก, ืืืืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง ืจืืคื ืืื ืืจืฃ ืืช ืืืฆืจื ืื. ืืชืืืื, ืืชืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืฉืืืืช ืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืื ืืขืื ืืืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืกืืืืืืื ืืื ืกืืื ื ืืืืคืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืชืคื ืื ืื ืคืขืืื ืขื ืฉืืง ืืืืืืืื ืืืืชืจืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืกื ืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืืคื ืืืงื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืืืืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืืืชื ืื ืืฉืคืขื ืขื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืืืืงื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืืืื ืื'ืื. ืืกืืืืช ืกืคืืง ืืืื ื ืขืฉื ืคืืคืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืืฉืคืขืช ืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืคืฆืช ืืืืืงืช ืื'ืื. ืชื ืืขืช ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืก ืืืืืข ืขื ืืฉืืงืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืง. ืชืืคืขื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืคืชืืืชื ืฉื ืกืื ืื ืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืขืจืื ืฉืื ืืช. ืืฉื ืืคืืคืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืืกืืืืช ืืกืคืืง ืืืื, ืืืฉื ืืชืคืชืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฆืขื ืืงืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืชืจ, ื ืขืฉื ืื'ืื ืคืืคืืืจื ืขื ืืืจื. ืืืืืงืช ืื'ืื ืงืืจืื ืืื ืืืืืืงืืื, ืฉืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืงืื ืืืื ืืจืืื. ืืื ืขื ืืืฉืคืขืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืื ืืืชื ืืืืืคืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืฉืืชืืืช. ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืื ืืชืงืฆืื ืืฉื ืชื ืฉื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืคืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ (Bureau of Prohibition) ื-4.4 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ื-13.4 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืฉืืจ ืืืืคืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฆืื 13 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ื ืขื ืืืืคืช ืืืง ืืืืืฉ. ืืกืคืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืคื ืืืืฉื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืชื. ืขื ืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ ื-1933, ืืืืื ืืจืืื ื ืืคืฉืข ืืืขื ืืช ืื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืกืืจ ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืฉืืง ืืฉืืืจ ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืช ืืฉื ืืชืืจืืช ืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืืงืืืช ืฉืืืจื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืชืจ. ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื ืกืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืฉื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืจืืคืื. ืืฆืจื ืื ืืงื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืกืืจื ืืจืืื ืืช ืฉืขืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืจืืื ืคืจืืืื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืชื ืืืงื. ืกืืืจืช ืืืคืขืืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืฉืงืืืช ืืืขืกืงืื ืืืืืจืชื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืงืืขืชื ืฉื ืขื ืฃ ืืืืื ืื. ื-1930 ืืขืจืื ืื ืฆืื ืืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืฉื-1919, ืืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืงืืงืชื ืฉื ืืืง ืืืืกืืื, ืืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืืืฆืข 17 ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืขื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืจืืคืื. ื-1930, ืืฉื ืฆืืฆืื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืกืคืงื ืขืงื ืืืืคืช ืืืืง, ืื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืฉืงืืืช ื-35 ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื (ืืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืืชื ืืคืกืืช ืืชืงืืคื ืื). ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืชืคืชืื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืฉืงืืืช ืืืชื ืืืงืืช ืฉืืืืื 3 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื, ืฉืขืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืก. ืฉืชืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืฉืคืขื ืืฆืืจื ืืจืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืขืชื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฉืงื, ืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช, ืื ืืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืฉืืจืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืจืกื ืืื, ืืื ืงืฉืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืฉืงืืืช. ืงืืืฆืืช ืกืืืข ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืื ื ืขืืื ืืื ืขื ืืคืขืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืฉืงืืืช. ื-1935 ืืืงื ืืืฃ ืกืืืข ืืืฉ ืืืืืจืื, ืืืืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืื ืืืืื. ืขื ืกืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ ืฉืื ืจืง ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉืคืขืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืคืขืืืืช. ืืืชืื ืืืจื ืืืืื ืฉื ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืฉืืืง ืืืืืฉ ืืจืก ืืช ืชืขืฉืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืงืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืคืื ื ืืช ืืงืืื ืืืฆืจื ื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืคื ืื ืฉืืขื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืขืื ืงืืืคื ืขืื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืงื ืืืชืจ. ืื ืืืง ื ืืืจ ืืืืืข ืฉื ืืืจ ืขื ืืืฆืืจ ืืื ืืื, ืืื ืื ืขืงื ืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืฆืจื ื ืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืขืงื ื ืืืฉืช ืืขื ืฃ. ืืฉืงืืืช ืืืืงืงืื ืืคืื ืืคืืคืืืจืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืืฉื ืชืืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืชืกืกืื ืืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืืื ืืขืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืงืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืคื ืืคืืจืฉ ืืืงืืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืช ืืกืืืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืชืืช, ืืืื ืจืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืื. ืืืืื ืืคื ืื ืืืฆืจื ืชืจืืืื ืขื ืืื ืฉื ืงืจืื ืืขืืชืื "ืืื ื ืืื" (wine bricks ืื wine blocks). ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืงืืืคืืจื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื-700 ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืฉื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืฉ. ืชืจืืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืฉืขืืื ืืฆืืื ืช ืืืืจื: "ืืืืจ ืืืกืชื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืืื, ืืื ืืืืกื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉื 20 ืืืื, ืฉืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืคืื ืืืื". ืืฆืจื ื ืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืชืฉืขื ืื ืื ืฉื ืืคื ืื. ืืืง ืืืืกืืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืคืืืื. ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืืกื ืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืฉืืชืืช ืืืืื ืืฉืจืื. ืจืฉืืช ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืืืืงื ืจืฉืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืฉืืืจืฉื ืืจืืืฉ ืืื. ืืงืจื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืกืืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืจืขื ืชืืช ืืกืืื ืฉื ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืชืืื. ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืจืฆืืช_ืืืจืืช_ืืืืืืช_ืืขืืื_ืืจืืฉืื ื] | [TOKENS: 11091] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืื ืกื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืฆื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ื-6 ืืืคืจืื 1917, ืืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืคืจืกืืื ืฉื ืืืจืง ืฆืืืจืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉื ืืจืจื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืกืจ ืจืฆืื ืืืื ืฉื ืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื, ืืฆืื ืืื ื ืืกืืคื ืืื ืฆืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืขืฆืืช ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืกืจืืช ืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืขืจืื. ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืืช ืืฆืจืคืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืื ืจื ืืฆืืืืช ื'ืื ืคืจืฉืื ื. ืืืื ืืื 53,402 ืืจืืืื ืืฉืื ืืงืจื, 63,114 ืืจืืืื ืฉืื ืืงืจื (ืืชืืื 25,000 ืืชื ืืฉืคืขืช ืืกืคืจืืืช) ื-204,000 ืคืฆืืขืื. ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืืฉืืขืืช ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื, ืืืืืคื ืืืืจืืืช ืฉื ืชื ื ืืืืืืื ืืจืขื ื ืื ืืืขืื ืืจืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืจืขืช. ืจืงืข ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืคื, ืฉืืื ืงืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืื ืืจืฉืช ืกืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืชืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขื ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช, ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืงื ืืชืคืืกื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืฅ ืฉืื, ืืืชืื ืืืืงืืจืื ืช ืืื ืจื. ืืคืืื, ืืขืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืคื ื ืืจืจื ืขื ืืืจื ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืืื ืืืชืื ืืืจืืชืืช ืืืืืืืช, ื ืืชืจื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืงืืคื ืื ืืฆื. ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืื ืืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืจืืงืื ืืฆืืืจื ืขื ื ืืืืจืืืืช, ืื ืืืืชื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืจื. ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืกืืืขื ืื ืฉื ืขืกืงืื ืืืจืืงืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืฉืืื ืกืืืจืืช ืชืขืฉืืืชืืืช ืืชืืืืฉืช. ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืข ืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืชืืืืช ืืขื ืืื ื "ืืขืืื ืืืฉื". ืืืืกืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช 1916 ืขื ืืกืืก ืืฆืข ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืืกืืกืื "ืืื ืฉืืจ ืืืชื ื ืืืืฅ ืืืืืื". ืื ืืกืฃ, ืขืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืคื ื ืืืจ ืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืฆืืืืืกืืื, ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืจืืืื ื ืืกื ืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืขืช ืงืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืจืื ืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืกืจื, ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืคืจื ืืช ืจืืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืืช, ืืืื ืคืืฉื ืืื ืืชืืจืืช ืืฆืื. ืกืืกืืช ืชืขืืืื ืื ืืืืชื "ืืืจื ืืช ืืืืื". ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืื ื-7 ืืืื 1915 ืืืืืขื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืช ืื ืืกืขืื ืืืจืืืืช "ืืืกืืื ืื". ืืืื ืืื ื ืคืืขื ืืืืจืคืื ืฉืฉืืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืืืช ืืจืื ืืช. ืืขืงืืืช ืคืืืขืช ืืืืจืคืื ืืืขื ืืกืคืื ื ื-1,198 ื ืืกืขืื ื ืกืคื, ืืื 128 ืืืจืืงืืื. ืืชืงืคื ืื ืฉื ืฆืืืืช ืืจืื ืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืช ื ืืกืขืื ืขืืจืจื ืืขื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืคืืืืื, ืื ืขืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืืคื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืชืจ ืืฉืืืคืช ืื ืงื. ืืคืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืขืืจืจื ืืขืก ืืงืจื ืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืช, ืฉืืฉืฉื ืคื ืชืชืืจืืจ ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืจืืงืื, ืืืืืื ื'ื ืื ืืก ืืจืืืื, ืืชืคืืจ ืืืื ื ืืฉืกืืจ ืฉืืืฉืืชื ืชืืงืคื ืืช ืืชืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืืจืื ืื. ืืจืืฉืืช 1917 ืกืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืฆืจืคืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืช. ืืืืืื ื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืฆืจืคืช ื ืืจืื ืืงืจืืืช ืืื ืืืฉื, ืืฆืื ืืฆืจืคืชื ืคืจืฆื ืืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืขืงื ืืชื ืืื ืืงืฉืื ืืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืกืื ืืืจื ืืชืกืืกื ืฉืืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืคืืช ืืืงืืืืจ. ืืจืืื ืื ืฉืืืืขื ืืกืืืข ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืข ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืืข ืจืง ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืืคื ืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืฅ ืืชืืกืกื ืขื ืืืขืื ืื ืืฉืคืืืื ืืืืกืจืืื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืชืืช, ืืืืชื ืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืฆืจ ืขืืืจ ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขืืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืืื. ื-17 ืืื ืืืจ 1917 ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจืง ืฉื ืฉืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืฉื ืืจืื ืื, ืืจืชืืจ ืฆืืืจืื, ืื ืฉืืจืืจ ืืจืฆื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืขืืืจ ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืงืกืืงื. ืืืืจืง, ืฉื ืืืข ื"ืืืจืง ืฆืืืจืื", ืืืืชื ืืฆืขื ืฉืืืจืื ืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืงืกืืงื ืกืืื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืฉ ืืช "ื ืืืืชืื ืืืืกืืืจืืืช" (ืืงืกืก, ื ืื ืืงืกืืงื ืืืจืืืื ื) ืืื ืกื ืืืกืืช ืืช ืืคื ืื ืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืฉืืคืช ืืืืจืง ื ืชื ื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืขืืื ืืืืืื. ื-3 ืืคืืจืืืจ ื ืืชืง ืืืืกืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืืคืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆื ืขื ืืจืื ืื. ืื ืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืขื ืื, ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืื ืืืขืช ืืืื ืืจืก ืืืจืืงืื ืฆืจ, ืืื ืืชืื ืจืืืจืืงื ืฉื "ืฉืืืจ ืฉืืื" ืืืกืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืขืฆืื. ืชืคืืกื ืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืชืืก ืืืืจืืงืื. ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-2 ืืืคืจืื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืื: ืืืจ ืืคืืื ืืื... ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืืช... ืื ืืฆืืง ืืงืจ ืื ืืฉืืื, ืืื ื ื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืื ื ืชืืื ืงืจืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ื, ืขื ืืืืืงืจืืื, ืขื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืฉืืืชืืื, ืขื ืืืืืืชืืื ืืืืจืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืงืื ืืช, ืขื ืฉืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืจืกืื ืฉื ืืฆืืง ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืกืคืช ืขืืื ืืืคืฉืืื ืฉืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืคืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืคืฉื ืกืืฃ ืกืืฃ. ืืื ืื ื ืจืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืจืื ืื. ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืคืืื ืืื ืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช. ืื ืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืืฉืืชื ืืืืื ืก ืืืืืื ืืืืช... ืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืขืืื ืืคื ืฉืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืงืืืืื, ืืืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืื ื ืืขืฆื ืืฉืืืืื ืืขืืื ื-6 ืืืคืจืื 1917 ืืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืื-7 ืืืฆืืืจ 1917 ืืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืืกืืจื-ืืื ืืจืืช ืืฆื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื. ืชืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืฆืืจืคืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืงืจืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช. ืขื ืืืช, ืืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืืก, ืืชืืืฆืื ืฉืืฉื ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืืจ ืืื ืจืง 73,000 ืืชื ืืืื. ืืคืืื ืืืงืง ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืง ืืืืก ืืืื, "ืืืง ืืฉืืจืืช ืืกืืงืืืื" (Selective Service Act / Selective Draft Act (P.L. 65-12, 40 Stat. 76), ืฉืืจืฉ ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืื 21โ30 ืืืชืืืฆื ืืืืืก ืืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืกืืฆืืืืืกืืื ืืื ืจืืืกืืื, ืืืจืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืกื ืืจ ืืจืงืื, ืืฆืืื ืืืขืื ืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืจืก ืืืืื ืฉื ืชืขืฉืืื ืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืฉืืืงืื ืืชืืฆืจืชื, ืืื ืงืืื, ืฉืืขื ืืงื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืขืฆืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืื ืืขืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ื. ืืืื, ืืืฉืื ืืืืขืื, ืืฆืืืช ืืืืื ืงืื ื ืื ืืจื ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืืืก ืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืืืืื ืคืืขืืื ืืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืคืืขืืื ืืืงืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื. ืื ืืงืืื ืืช "ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืก" ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืฉืคืขืื ืืฆืขืืืช, ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืจื ืชืขืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืก. ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืชืคืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืขืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืชืืืื ืืืงืง ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-15 ืืืื ื ืืช "ืืืง ืืจืืืื" (Espionage Act of 1917, 18 USC ยง 792)โ ืฉืงืืข: "ืืื ืืฉืจ, ืขืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืชืื ื ืืืืืื, ืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืฉืชืื ืืืจืื ืืื-ืฆืืืช, ืืืกืจ ื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืจืืื ืื ืกืืจืื ืคืงืืื ืืฆืื ืื ืืฆื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืื ืฉืืคืจืืข ืืืืื ื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืืืืก ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช... ืืื ื ืืืกืจ ืขืฉืจืื ืฉื ื". ืืืืืื ืืืจืงืื ื ืืกืจื ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืง ืื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืจืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืืืขืฆืืช. ืืืืจ ืืืืกืจ ืฉืื ื ืจืืฉื ืืกืืฆืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืขืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืฃ ืืขื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืื. ืืชื ืืืืช ื ืืกืคืช ื ืืขื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืื-ืขืจืืืื ืขื ืืจืืื ืื, ืืช ืืจืืช ืืฆื ืืื, ืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืจืง ืืื ืฉื ืื ืงืืื ืืื (ืืืืืืช 1812). ืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืฆืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉืชืืขืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืื. ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ืงืืืื ืืืืข ืืืืชื ืขื ืื ืขืฉื ืืฉืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืืขื ืขื ืืืงืฃ ืืืจืืืื ืืขื ืืงืืคืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืืืข ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืข ืฆืืืืจื (Committee on Public Information), ืฉืืืืชื ืืืขืฉื ืืืฃ ืชืขืืืื ืืืฉืืชื ืฉืขืืื ืฆืขืืจืื ืืืชืืืืก. ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืืขืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืืก "ืืืื ืกื ืจืืฆื ืืืชื" (ืืืืืกืกืช ืขื "ืืืจื ืงืืฆ'ื ืจ ืจืืฆื ืืืชื") ืืฆื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืคืจืื ืื ืชื ืืขืช ื"ืืืื ืืคืืจืืืืืช". ืืคืืจืืืืื ืืชืืกืกื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืข ืฆืืืืจื ืืขื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืจืื ืื. ืฉืืจืื ืจืืื ื ืืชืื ืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืืชืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืชืื ืืฉืืจืื ืืคืืจืืืืื ืืื ื'ืืจื' ื. ืงืืืื, ืฉืืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืืจ You're a Grand Old Flag, ืขืืื ืืื ื-1936 ืืขืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืขืืืจ ืชืจืืืชื ืืืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืืืื ืืืจืืืช, ืืฉืืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืคืืจืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืคื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฉื ื, ืงืืกืจ ืืจืื ืื, ืืคืจื ืืจืืืื, ืืืขืืืช ืืืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืงืืงื ืืขืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงืื (ืืืืืฆื ืขื ืืื "ืืืื ืกื") ืื ืฉื "ืืจืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช" (ืืืืืช ืืืืื ื) ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืืคืฉ ืืื ืืฆืืื. ืืฉืื ืืงืจื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ 2.8 ืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืชืืื ืืืืืืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืื ืจื ืคืจืฉืื ื ืืชืขืงืฉ ืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืจืฆืื ื, ืืืื ืจืง ืืื ืืืืื 1918 ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงืืื ืืืืืช. ืืืื ื 1918 ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืคื ื-10,000 ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงื ืื ืจืขื ื ืื ืืื ืืื. ืืืืจืืงืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืืกืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืื ืืฉืืื ืขืฆืืื. ืืืื, ืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืคืื, ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืฆืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืฆืจืคืชื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื ืืคืืืจืืืจืืงื ืืื "ืืืฉืืื" ืืชืืืืจืช ืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืฉืืืืช. ืคืจืฉืื ื ืฉืืฃ ืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืชืคืงื ืืืืคื ืขืฆืืื ืืืื ืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฆืจืคืช ืืืจืืื ืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชืืจ ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืช ืืื ืื ืฉืง ืืืืืื, ืืืคืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืชืืชืื ืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืจืืืืจืื ืืฆืจืคืชืืช ืืืืจืืืืช: ืชืืชืื 75 ื"ื ืืืื 1897, ืชืืชื 155 ื"ื ืืืื 1917 ืฉื ืืืืจ (Canon de 155 C modรจle 1917 Schneider) ืืืืจืื. ืืืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงืืืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืืกื ืกืคืื ืืก XIII ืื ืืืคืืจื 28 ืฆืจืคืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฉืจืืื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืงื ืจื ื FT-17 ืฆืจืคืชืืื. ืืชืืืืช 1918 ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืื ืืืขืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืงืจืืืช ืืฆื ืืืืืช ืฆืจืคืชืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืช ืฉืงืืื ืืืืคื ืืืกื. ืืืื ืขืฆื ืืืขืชื, ืืคืจื ืืืืจ "ื ืืืฉืช" ืจืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืคืืช ืืืงืืืืจ, ืืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืจืืืื, ืืืืกืืจืืื, ืืงื ืืื ืืืฆืจืคืชืื. ืืคืขืืื ืืืชืงืคืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืชื ืืงืจื ืงื ืืื ื, ื-28 ืืืื 1918, ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืจืืงืื ืฉืื ืืืขืื ื-3,000 ืืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืช ืืืคืจ ืงื ืืื ื. ืืืขืื ื-1,000 ืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืจืื ืืงืจื. ืืืืจ ืงืจื ืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืช ืืขืืจืืืชื ืืงืจืืืช. ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื 1918 ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืงืคืช ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืคืจืื. ืืชืงืคื ืืืจืืงืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืงืฃ ืจืืฉืื ื ืืืื ื-12 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1918 ืืงืจื ืกื-ืืืื, ืื ืคืืงื ืคืจืฉืื ื ืขื ืืื ืฉื ืืืชืจ ื-500,000 ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงืืื. ืืืืชื ืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขื ืืืื. ืขื ืชืื ืืืืืื ืืกืคืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืงืจื ืืฉืชื ืืืืชืืช ื ืืกืคืืช. ืคืจืฉืื ื ืฉืื ืืช ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืื ื-332 ืืืืืืื, ืืฉื ื ืจืืืื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื (ื-27 ืื-339) ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืืช. ืืจืืข ืขืฉืจื ืื ืงืืืืช ืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉื ืืืืกืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ื-8 ืืื ืืืจ 1918, ืฆืืื 14 ื ืงืืืืช ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืืฉืช ืฉื ืืืจืืคื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืช ืื ืืฆืืื. ืจืื ื"ื ืงืืืืช" ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืฉื ืืืคืฉ ืชื ืืขื ืืืืื, ืืืกืื ืืืืคืืืืืื ืืืฉืืืช, ืืชืคืจืงืืช ืื ืฉืง, ืืฉืืช ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืขืฆืืืช. ืื ืืื, ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืื ืืื ืืืกืจืืช ืขืืืื ื, ืืื ืชืืืื ืขื ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืื, ืฉืืฃ ืืืืืข ืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืคื ืชืคืืกืชื ืฉื ืืืืกืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืจ ืืืืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืืชืืืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืฉืช ืฉื ืืืจืืคื ืืขืืื ืืืชืจ-ืืืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืฅ ืืฆืืืฆื ืฉืืื. ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืื ืชื ืืคืจืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืฆืืจืคืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืื. ืืขืื ืฉืืคืขืื ืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืจืืคื ื ืคืืขื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืื, ืืจื ืฉืชืขืฉืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช, ืฉืืจืืจ ืืชืืจืืช, ืฉืืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืจืืืื, ืฉืืจืฉื ืขืื ืืขืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืง ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืืงืื, ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืืกืจืืช ื ืขืื ืฉื ืืฆืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืคืชืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืื ืงื ืชื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขืืืคืืช ืขืืืืืช (ืืืื ืืืช, ืจืืื, ืืืคืื ืืขืื). ืืืืืื ืืขืืชื ืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืขื ืืกืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืืคืืืชื ืืืขืฆืืช-ืขื. ืฆืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืื ืืื ืกืืืจ ืืขืืจ ืืคื ื ืืืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืฆื ืืชืคืงื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืืงืกืืงื, ืืคื ืืืืฃ ืืืื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืฆืืื ืชืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืงืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืฉืืจืช ืืคืืงืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืก ืืงืืจืชืืจ, ื'ืืจื' ืืจืฉื ืื'ืืจื' ืคืืื. ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืขืฆืื ืืจืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืืืื, ืืคืื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืื ืื ืืฆืจืคืช ืืืืช ืืืขืฆืืืช ืืืจืืืืืช ืืงืืืขืช ืชื ืื ืืื ืืขื ืฉื ืืจืื ืื. ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืจืกืื, ืฉืื ืืชื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืืืืืืื ืฉื "ืืจืืข ืขืฉืจื ืื ืงืืืืช" ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจืืคืืืช ืื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืืกืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืคืจื ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืืขืืืช ืืจืืชื ืืืกืืจืช ืืขืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืจืื. ืืืืืืื ืฉืฉืื ืืฉืืืช ืืงืื ืฉื ืืืจืืคื ืฆืืคื ืืฉืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืกืื. ืืฉื ืชืืื, ืคืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืงืื ืก, ื ืืืืืืื, ื ืื ืชื ืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืฉืืชืืืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช ื"ืฉื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืกืืขืจืืช" ื"ืืืืจ ืืืืื". ืืืืืื-ืืืฆืจืื ืืืจืืงืืื ืฉืืืจื ืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืจื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืจื ืืืืจืืคืื ืืช ืืืจืืืชืื. ืืื ืืืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืืืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช ืืช ืืจื ืกื ืืืื ืืืืื ("ืืงืฅ ืื ืฉืง") ืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืื ("ื'ืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืืงืจื"). ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืกืืช ืืื ืืืจืื ื"ืืจืขืื ืืงืฉื" ืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืกืืฆืืืืืกืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืื ืื ืืืจืง (ืืืืืื ืืืจืงืื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืื). ืขื ืืืช, ืืงืจื ืืืืืืกืื ืืืืกื ืืฆืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืก. ืขืืืจื, ืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ืงืืืฆื ืืชื ืืช ืืฆืื, ืคืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืกืืืขื ืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืื.ืืืืืื ืกืืืืืกืื ืืื ื'ืืื ืงืืืคืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจืชื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืืช. ืืชื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืืจืื ื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืืืืื ื-39 ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืื "ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืื". ืฉืืจืฉืื ืืืงืืชื ื ืขืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืคื ืืก ืจืืื ืืจื ื-1915 ืืืงืื ืืืืืช ืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืงื ืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื, ืื ืืืืชื ืขืช ืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืฉืจ ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฆืืจืคื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืขืืืชื. ืืืืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืื ื-1917 ืืื ืืฆืืง ืื-ืฆืื ืืืื ืื-ืืืจืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืื ืื ื 5,000 ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืขืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืช "ืืืืืฅ" ื"ืคืืขืื ืฆืืื", ืืืื ืคืขื ืชืืช ืคืืงืื ืืจืืื. ืืคืงื ืืืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื ื ืืืืขืืจ ืืจืืืืื. ื-1918 ื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืฆืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืฉืืืืขื ืืฉืชืชืคื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืง ืืืจืื ืืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืง ืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืจืง ืืชืื ืืืืืื. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN_International] | [TOKENS: 3889] |
Contents CNN International Cable News Network International or CNN International (CNNi, simply branded on-air as CNN) is an international television channel and website, owned by CNN Worldwide. CNN International carries news-related programming worldwide; it cooperates with sister network CNN's national and international news bureaus. Unlike its sister channel, CNN, a North American-only subscription service, CNN International is carried on a variety of TV platforms across the world, and broadcast from studios inside and outside the United States, in Atlanta, New York City, London, Mumbai, Hong Kong, and Abu Dhabi. In some countries, it is available as a free-to-air network. The service is aimed at the overseas market, similar to BBC News, France 24, CGTN, DW, RT, DD India, NHK World, TRT World or Al Jazeera English. History CNN International began broadcasting on September 1, 1985, at first primarily broadcasting to American business travelers in hotels. The first studio for CNNI was at CNN's original studio building known as Techwood, home at that time to all of Turner Broadcasting System's channels. Today, it is home to the Techwood Studios complex that houses the entertainment channels. Other early studios in Atlanta were tucked away in various corners of the CNN Center, and the newsroom lacked even a digital clock. The vast majority of the network's programming originally consisted of simulcasts of the two domestic CNN channels (CNN/US and Headline News). In the United Kingdom, the channel began broadcasting on September 17, 1987, the office was located at 25/28 Old Burlington Street, London. In 1990, however, the amount of news programming produced by CNNI especially for international viewers increased significantly. Paul Vessey, an executive of CNN International, said in 1992 that CNN will go international style and get "less and less American". A new newsroom and studio complex was built in 1994, as CNN decided to compete against BBC World Service Television's news programming. CNNI emerged as an internationally oriented news channel, with staff members of various national backgrounds, even though some accusations of a pro-U.S. editorial bias persist. CNN International was awarded the Liberty Medal on July 4, 1997. Ted Turner, in accepting the medal on behalf of the network, said: "My idea was, we're just going to give people the facts... We didn't have to show liberty and democracy as good and show socialism or totalitarianism as bad. If we just showed them both the way they were ... everybody's going to choose liberty and democracy." In 1995, creative director Morgan Almeida defined a progressive rebranding strategy, to target CNNI's diverse global market, making the on-air look less overtly American and with a cleaner, simpler "international" aesthetic going forward. The word "International" in the channel's logo was replaced with a globe, and the new branding featured numerous international locations filmed in time-lapse, channel idents created in CGI with Velvet Design in Munich, and a news brand designed with The Attik in New York. The regionalization of CNN International was through the efforts of Chris Cramer, joining CNN in 1996. CNN International was split into three feeds โ Asia, Europe/Africa/Middle East and Latin America. By 1998, CNN International produced 90% of its content, up from 50% in 1996. The rest of the percentage is for domestic CNN broadcasts from the United States. According to an annual PAX survey, in 1998 and 1999 CNN International was the leading cable and satellite network in Asia in terms of viewership among affluent households and among business decision-makers. CNN International planned to air shows in 1999 including World Beat, its popular weekly international music segment, and the global arts round-up Art Club. The channel was banned in China in June 1999, on the tenth anniversary of the Tianamnen Square massacre. The network undertook another major rebranding effort in 2006 overseen by Mark Wright and London agency Kemistry. The ticker was replaced by a flipper, on-screen graphics were more unified and from October 2007 until August 2008, new studios were progressively rolled out. However, on January 1, 2009, CNN International adopted the "lower-thirds" that CNN/US had introduced a month earlier which was inspired by the clean modern design of the CNNI rebrand efforts. In the U.S., CNNI North America was distributed overnight and on weekends over the CNNfn financial channel, until that channel's demise in December 2004. It is now available as a standalone, full-time channel, usually as part of high-tier packages of subscription providers including Time Warner Cable, AT&T U-Verse, Verizon FiOS and Cox Communications. From January until September 2009, CNN International adopted more programs that became geared towards a primetime European audience with a few titled after CNN International personalities, most notably the interview program Amanpour. On September 21, 2009, the channel launched a new tagline "Go Beyond Borders", along with a new logo, and consolidated its general newscasts (World News, CNN Today, World News Asia, World News Europe and Your World Today) into a single newscast entitled World Report. The slogan "Go Beyond Borders" emphasizes the international perspective that gives the information in this string and the plurality of the audiences. With this tagline, CNN also refers to the various platforms to disseminate their content. The new image was created by the creativity and marketing department, and agency CNN Tooth & Nail. An important element of the rebrand was a new evening program that added the broadcast of programs Amanpour and World One. The makeover of CNN International has been subject to a lot of criticism on both the new prime-time lineup and the redesigned graphics. On January 11, 2009, in a bid to compete directly with Al Jazeera English, the network launched a new production center: CNN Abu Dhabi, based in the United Arab Emirates. Then, CNN International adapted half-hour shows in its schedule with a new evening prime program for the Middle East viewers, Prism. In 2010, CNN International launched new programs for its evening lineup to improve its schedule. In 2011, programs from CNN U.S. were added to the CNN International schedule, including the talk program Piers Morgan Live which was later canceled and replaced with CNN Tonight hosted by Don Lemon. "This is CNN" represents CNN International's rebrand with new sets and output in full 16:9 high definition. The "This is CNN" slogan is also used on its sister network CNN in the United States. The managing director of CNN International from 2003 to May 2019 was Tony Maddox. In 2019, CNN International announced it was reducing its programming and staff based in London to reduce costs, with CNNI losing $10 million per year. Later that year, CNNI cancelled its Asia-Pacific Primetime Show, News Stream, anchored by Kristie Lu Stout, effectively ending production output from its Hong Kong Studios. In 2022, WarnerMedia closed CNN International in Russia due to Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Regional and online versions There are five variants of CNN International: The schedules of the different regional versions no longer differ significantly from each other, but there are still minor variations such as content during the commercial breaks (e.g. weather forecasts and local airtimes shown). CNN has reported that its broadcast agreement in mainland China includes an arrangement that its signal must pass through a Chinese-controlled satellite. With this method of transmission, Chinese authorities have been able to black out CNNI segments at will. CNN has also said that its broadcasts are not widely available in mainland China, but rather only in certain diplomatic compounds, hotels, and apartment blocks. In June 2015, CNN International was made available online in the United States for CNN/U.S subscribers on participating television providers through the CNNgo service. In 2023, much of CNN International's original programming was made available through CNN Max, its streaming channel in the United States through the HBO Max streaming service. This allowed viewers to tune in to the channel without a linear pay-TV subscription. On 28 October 2025, CNN International became available part-time on CNN.com and the CNN App to those in the United States who subscribe directly to its CNN All Access tier (weekdays from 09.00 to 17.00 Eastern time). CNNj is a Japanese version of CNN International distributed by Japan Cable Television that first launched on March 1, 2003. CNNj is tailored specifically for a Japanese audience, with all programming broadcast from 7:00 a.m. to 12:00 a.m. (Japan Standard Time) being translated into Japanese. The channel used to broadcast a mixture of CNN International and CNN/US, but since 2008, CNNj has been a direct relay of CNN International Asia Pacific. Starting late 2010, the high-definition feed of CNN US was launched in Japan for American viewers under the name "CNN/US HD", the first such feed available outside of the United States. Programming Some of the programs produced by CNN/US are not broadcast on CNNI in full. High definition CNN International HD is the high-definition simulcast feed of the channel broadcasting at 1920x1080p, which was launched in September 2012. Before June 3, 2013, only programming from CNN/US was available natively in HD, while shows made for CNN International were produced in 4:3 576i. In February 2013, the European SD feed of CNN International began broadcasting in widescreen by downscaling the HD feed, which resulted in all 4:3-native programming being broadcast in pillarbox until the June 3 switchover, and finalized on June 17 of the same year, when the switchover was completed. Following the March 2003 launch of CNNj, a live relay of CNN/US and CNN International, with simultaneous audio translation into Japanese, starting in late 2010, the high definition feed of CNN/US was launched in Japan under the name CNN HD. CNN/US (both SD and HD) is also available on Greater China-based satellite service DishHD, a subsidiary of Dish Network in the United States. On June 28, 2016, CNN International HD was launched for Sky customers in the UK (including on Freesat from Sky), on channel 506 or 579, making the next news channel launch in the 600s. The HD version is available free-to-air within the British Isles, and is provided on satellite and IPTV services, and also live-streamed for U.K. users (and geo-blocked outside the U.K.), through CNN International's official U.K. video site. However, viewers with non-proprietary Freesat boxes will need to add the channel manually as Freesat does not market CNN International HD publicly as part of its offerings. Online CNN debuted its news website CNN.com (initially an experiment known as CNN Interactive) on August 30, 1995. The site attracted growing interest over its first decade and is now one of the most popular news websites in the world. The widespread growth of blogs, social media and user-generated content have influenced the site, and blogs in particular have focused CNN's previously scattershot online offerings, most noticeably in the development and launch of CNN Pipeline in late 2005. In April 2009, CNN.com ranked third place among online global news sites in unique users in the U.S. according to Nielsen/NetRatings; with an increase of 11% over the previous year. CNN Pipeline was the name of a paid subscription service, its corresponding website, and a content delivery client that provided streams of live video from up to four sources (or "pipes"), on-demand access to CNN stories and reports, and optional pop-up "news alerts" to computer users. The installable client was available to users of PCs running Microsoft Windows. There was also a browser-based "web client" that did not require installation. In July 2007, the service was discontinued and replaced with a free streaming service. The now-defunct topical news program Judy Woodruff's Inside Politics was the first CNN program to feature a round-up of blogs in 2005. Blog coverage was expanded when Inside Politics was folded into The Situation Room. In 2006, CNN launched CNN Exchange and CNN iReport, initiatives designed to further introduce and centralize the impact of everything from blogging to citizen journalism within the CNN brand. CNN iReport which features user-submitted photos and video, has achieved considerable traction, with increasingly professional-looking reports filed by amateur journalists, many still in high school or college. The iReport gained more prominence when observers of the Virginia Tech shootings sent in first-hand photos of what was going on during the shootings. In early 2008, CNN began maintaining a live-streaming broadcast available to those who receive CNN at home. CNN International is broadcast live, as part of the RealNetworks SuperPass subscription outside the U.S. CNN also offers several RSS feeds and podcasts. On April 18, 2008, CNN.com was targeted by Chinese hackers in retaliation for the channel's coverage of the 2008 Tibetan unrest. CNN reported that they took preventive measures after news broke of the impending attack. The company was honored at the 2008 Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for development and implementation of an integrated and portable IP-based live, edit and store-and-forward digital newsgathering system. On October 24, 2009, CNN launched a new version of the CNN.com website, revamping it by adding a new "sign up" option where users may create their user name, a new "CNN Pulse" (beta) feature along a new red color theme. However, most of the news archived on the website has been deleted. CNN also has a channel on the popular video-sharing site YouTube, which as of October 2025 has 18.7 million subscribers. In April 2010, CNN announced via Twitter its upcoming food blog called "Eatocracy", which will "cover all news related to food โ from recalls to health issues to culture." CNN had an internet relay chat (IRC) network at chat.cnn.com. CNN placed a live chat with Benjamin Netanyahu on the network in 1998. CNN also maintains a wire service known as CNN Wire, a CNN Newsource division. Bureaus In parts of the world without a CNN bureau, reports from a local affiliate station are used to file a story. Present personalities Past personalities Criticism Former CNN Beijing and Tokyo bureau chief Rebecca MacKinnon described how the news-gathering priorities of CNN International were skewed to "produce stories and reports that would be of interest to CNN USA." Nevertheless, Jane Arraf, a former correspondent who was with the Council on Foreign Relations and later served as a Middle East-based correspondent for Al Jazeera English, noted that when she spoke on international affairs, CNN International would usually give her more airtime than CNN/US. For its part, former CNN executive Eason Jordan has defended CNN International's "international" perspective, saying "No matter what CNN International does, as long as CNN's headquarters is in the United States people are going to say, well, it's an American service. But the reality is that it's an international service based in the United States, and we don't make any apologies about that." CNN is one of the world's largest news organizations, and its international channel, CNN International is the leading international news channel in terms of viewer reach. Unlike the BBC and its network of reporters and bureaus, CNN International makes extensive use of affiliated reporters that are local to, and often directly affected by, the events they are reporting. The effect is a more immediate, less detached style of on-the-ground coverage. This has done little to stem criticism, largely from Middle Eastern nations, that CNN International reports news from a pro-American perspective. This is a marked contrast to domestic criticisms that often portray CNN as having a "liberal" or "anti-American" bias. [citation needed] A Chinese website, anti-cnn.com, had accused CNN and western media in general of biased reporting against China, with the catchphrase "Don't be so CNN" entering the Chinese lexicon as meaning one should not be biased and use exaggerated language in describing an event. Pictures used by CNN were allegedly edited to have completely different meanings from the original ones. In addition, the channel was accused of largely ignoring pro-China voices during the Olympic Torch Relay debacle in San Francisco.[citation needed] In October 2011, Amber Lyon gave her claims to the Syrian government news agency SANA that she had been directed by CNN to report selectively, repetitively, and falsely to sway public opinion in favor of direct American aggression against Iran and Syria, and that this was common practice under CNN. She subsequently repeated this claim, addressing the degraded state of journalistic ethics in an interview[citation needed] during which she also discussed the Bahraini episode, suggesting paid-for content was also taken from Georgia, Kazakhstan, and other states, that the war on terrorism had also been employed as a pretext to pre-empt substantive investigative journalism within the U.S., and that following the Bahrain reporting, her investigative department had been terminated and "reorganized", and her severance and employee benefits used as a threat to intimidate and attempt to purchase her subsequent silence. Lyon claimed to have met with Tony Maddox, president of CNN International, twice about this issue in 2011 and had claimed that during the second meeting, she was threatened and intimated to stop speaking on the matter. CNN issued a detailed response to Lyon's claims about its coverage of Bahrain. Lyon also claimed on the Russian news channel RT that CNN reporters, headed by Maddox, have been instructed to over-cover Iran as a form of propaganda, and that CNN International has been paid by the Bahraini government to produce and air news segments intentionally painting them in a positive light.[citation needed] CNN became the official broadcaster of one of the biggest events of the UAE in 2021 when Dubai was hosting the Expo 2020. The official announcement was made in July 2021. However, months later, human rights organizations began to raise concerns around CNN's participation in the event, pointing out that the CNN was lending its legitimacy to the Emirates' propaganda efforts. Analyzing CNN's coverage of the UAE over 10 months, critics accused the news media of running a PR for the UAE. The rights groups also notified of the UAE's poor human rights and women's rights records They further urged CNN to be transparent about its dealings with the Arab nation. On July 7, 2010, Octavia Nasr, senior Middle East editor and a CNN journalist for 20 years, was fired after she expressed admiration on her Twitter account for a militant Muslim cleric and former Hezbollah leader who had recently died. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืฆืจืืช_ืืืืข?action=edit&redlink=1] | [TOKENS: 593] |
ืืฆืืจืช ืืืฃ "ืืืฆืจืืช ืืืืข" ืืืฆืืจืช ืืฃ ืืืฉ, ืืชืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืช ืืืงืกื ืืืื (ืืขืืจื ื ืืกืคืช). ืื ืืืขืชื ืืืฃ ืื ืืืขืืช, ืืืชืื ืฉืชืจืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืชืืจ Back ืืืคืืคื. ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืื ืขืจื ืืืฉ: ืืืจื ืคืจืกืื ืขืจื: ืืืืชืืื ืืืฉืื: ืขืจื ืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคืืื, ืืฉืืืฉืคื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืขืจื. ืืืงืืคืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืฆืืคืืื ืืื ืฉืืขืจืืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืงืฆืช ืืขืืจ ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืช. ืขืจื ืงืฆืจ ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืืง, ืืืคืืื ืืืืืฅ ืืืฉืงืืข ืืืชืืืช ืคืกืงื ืื ืฉืชืืื ืืคืืืช. ืกืืื ื ืคืืกืืง: ึพ โ โ โฆ ืงืื ืืืงื: โข ยท [] [[]] () {{}} {{{}}} ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืื: ~ | ยฐ ยฑ โ ร ยฒ ยณ + ืชืืืื ืขืืจืืื: ืึผ ืึน ืึผ ืึท ืึธ ืึถ ืึต ืึด ืึณ ืึฒ ืึฑ ืึฐ ืึป ืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืืช |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-302] | [TOKENS: 12221] |
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หrษdษชt/ โ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโincluding photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโand discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโfor both the general front page and for individual subredditsโis determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#third_406032] | [TOKENS: 332] |
ืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืืืชืจืืช? ืืืขืืื ืืคืชื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืคืืจืื ืื ื ืื ื ืขืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื. ืืขืืื ืืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชืจื ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื. ืชืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืื (ืืจืืืช ืคืจืกืืืืช) ืืื ื ืืืืจืืืช ืืขืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืื. ืื ื ืชืงืืชื ืืืขืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืจืืช ืื ืืืข ืืชืืื, ืืืคืฉืจืืชืื ืืคื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืงืืฉืืจ ืื. |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A9_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9F] | [TOKENS: 2172] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืกื ืึธืจึฐืึธืึถืฉื ืืจืืฉืื (๐ญ๐ ๐ผ๐น๐บ๐ข๐, โ558 ืืคื ื"ืก - 486 ืืคื ื"ืก), ืืืืืข ืื ืืืจืืืืฉ ืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืืืคืจืื ืืคืจืกืืช ืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉื ืช 521 ืขื ืืืืชื ื-486 ืืคื ื"ืก. ืืื ืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืืกืืกืคืก, ืืชืคืก ืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืง ืงืฆืจ ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืขื ืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืฉื ื. ืชืงืืคืช ืฉืืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืืืืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืฆืจืื, ืคืขื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืกืืก ืืฉืืืื ืืคืจืกื ืืืฆืจืื. ืืจืืืืฉ ืืฃ ืืฆืืื ืืืขืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืฆืืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืคืื ืืงื ืืืคืืืจ ืื ืืืืืื. ืืจืืืืฉ ื ืืกื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืื ืชืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืืจืืคืืช ืืฉื ืืกื ืืคืืืฉ ืื ืืืื, ืื ืคืืืฉืชื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืกื ืืืืืชืื ืืงืจื ืืจืชืื. ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืคืจืก ืืคื ืื, ืื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืืืืข ืืืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืช ืืชืืช ืืชืจืืืชืืช. ืืจืืืืฉ ืื ื ืืขืจืืช ืืจืืื ืืคืืชืืช ืืชืขืืืจืช ืกืืืจื ืื ืฉืง ืืื ืขืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืขืืืจ ืืืฉืื. ืืจืืื ืืื ืกืืืขื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืืืื ื. ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ื ืืฉืืืจืฉ ืืจืืฉืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืืืฉืืืจืืฉ ืืืืืืช ืืกืชืจ. ืขื ืืฆืืชื ืืงืืงื ืืืชืืืช: ืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืชืืืช ืื ื'ื ืืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืืืชืืจืช ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืช ืืขืฉื ืืืื. ืืืืืจืื ืืชื "ื ืขื ืคื ืืืขื ืืจืืืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืืืฉ ืื ืืืจ ืืกืคืจ ืขืืจื ืืืจืืืืฉ ืืืืื. ืขื ืืืช ืงืืืืช ืกืืจื ืื ืืื ืืืืงื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืฉื ื. ืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืขื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืคืืข ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืื: โืืจืืืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืฉืฉืื ืืฉืชืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืโ, ืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืื ื ืชืืืืื ืืืขื ื ืื, ืืขื ืื ืืฉ ืืืืืงื ืืขืืช ืืื ืืืงืจื ืืงืจื ืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืืชื ืฉื 'ืืจืืืืฉ' ืื. ืืืกืฃ ืื ืืชืชืืื, ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ื-1, ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืื ืงืจืื ืืืจืืืืฉ ืืฉื ืืืจ. ืืจืืืืืืก, ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ื-5 ืืคื ื"ืก, ืืืขืงืืืชืื ืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืคื ืืคืจืกืืช, ืืืขื ืื ืื "ืืจืืืืฉ" ืืื ืชืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืคืจืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ืืฉื ืืื "ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืื". ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืืืืฉ ืืืคืืขืื ืื ืืกืคืจืื ืืื ืืืืจืื: ืืืืืจืื ืืชืืืื ืืคื ืื"ื, ืืคืฉื ืกืคืจ ืื ืืื, ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืฉื ืืจืืืฉ. ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืฉืฆืจ ืืืจื ืืืชื. ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืจืฉ, ืืืืจืื ืืืฉืืืจืืฉ. ืืืกืืช ืจืืฉ ืืฉื ื ืืืชื ืชืืกืคืืช (ืชืืืื ืืืื, ืืกืืช ืจืืฉ ืืฉื ื, ืืฃ ื', ืขืืื ื', ืขื ืคื ืืืจืฉ ืืืงืจื ืจืื ืคืจืฉื ืื ืกืืื ื) ืื ืืจืืืืฉ ืืฉื ื ืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืืืฉืืจืืฉ ืืฉื ืืกืชืจ ืืืืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืื, ืืกืืช ืืืืื, ืืฃ ื"ื, ืขืืื ื', ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืฉืืขื ื ืืืืื ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืืฉ ืืฉื ื, ืืื ืฉืืคืืจืฉ ืืืืง ืืกืคืจืืื, ืืืื ืื: ืืื, ืืืจืื, ืืืืื, ืื ืืื, ืืจืื ืื ื ืจืื, ืฉืจืื ืื ืืืกืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉื. ืืจืฉ"ื ืืชืืืื ืืืื, ืืกืืช ืืืื, ืืฃ ื"ื, ืขืืื ื' ื ืืชื ืฉืืกืชืืงื ืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืช ืฉืชืื ืืืจืืืฉ. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHK_World-Japan] | [TOKENS: 961] |
Contents NHK World-Japan NHK World-Japan (formerly and also known simply as NHK World) is the international arm of the Japanese public broadcaster NHK. Its services are aimed at the overseas market, similar to those offered by other national public-service broadcasters, such as the British BBC (BBC World Service, the international feed of the BBC News channel, etc.), France 24, or the German DW. Contents are broadcast through shortwave radio, satellite, and cable operators throughout the world, as well as online and through its mobile apps. It is headquartered in Tokyo. NHK World-Japan currently provides three main broadcast services: an English-language current affairs TV channel (NHK World TV), a multilingual radio service (NHK World Radio Japan), and a Japanese-language general/entertainment TV service (NHK World Premium). NHK World-Japan also makes most of its programming available through its website (either live or on demand). A Chinese version of the channel, NHK Huayu Shijie (NHKๅ่ฏญ่ง็), which essentially provides news and select programs from NHK World-Japan with Mandarin dubbing and/or subtitles, was launched on January 15, 2019, and is only distributed online. History NHK World changed to its current name in April 2018, as an effort to "establish wider global recognition" as a service with "Japanese roots". On March 30, 2020, NHK World-Japan implemented a new policy for referring to Japanese names, following the common practice in the Japanese language of listing the surname first followed by the given name, in line with "moves in Japan in general". Television NHK World TV started broadcasting services for North America and Europe in 1995. On April 1, 1998, then-called NHK World Television started broadcasting. Today's NHK World-Japan is a current affairs and cultural channel that broadcasts internationally via satellite and cable TV. Programming is produced in English only. It began as a news channel in February 2009. NHK World-Japan's free-to-air broadcasts have been available in HD by satellite since then. NHK World-Japan HD currently broadcasts from Intelsat 19 166ยฐE, 68.5ยฐE, Astra 19.2ยฐE, Hot Bird 13ยฐE, 58ยฐW, to SES-3 103ยฐW. In the United States, NHK World-Japan is available on DirecTV channels 322 and 2049. Some of the shows are produced by production studio JIB TV, which is 60% owned by NHK with the remaining 40% owned by private investors like Microsoft and Japanese bank Mizuho. The NHK World-Japan digital on-screen graphic is not used at all when shows produced by JIB TV air as paid programming. NHK World TV in HD Version is also currently available on Rogers Cable channel 122 in Western Canada including Rogers Ignite TV. TV programs by NHK World-Japan include: Most recently, NHK World-Japan has promoting selections of their J-drama lineups under NHK Drama Showcase. NHK World Premium broadcasts a mixture of news, sports and entertainment in Japanese language worldwide, via satellite and cable providers, as a subscription service mostly targeted at Japanese expatriates. It is marketed with that very name in several regions of the world, including Asia, Oceania, Latin America and Europe. NHK World Premium's contents in Europe were previously shown on JSTV-branded subscription channels that were run by NHK Cosmomedia Europe and headquartered in the UK. The service was known as ใใฌใใธใฃใใณ (TV Japan) in the US, which was run by NHK Cosmomedia America until it closed on March 31, 2024; its replacement streaming service, named Jme, carries an NHK World Premium stream. Contents generally do not carry English subtitles. Radio NHK World Radio Japan (RJ) is the international radio arm of NHK. It broadcasts a weekly lineup of news, current affairs, cultural, and educative radio program focusing on Japan and Asia, for a daily total of 65 hours of broadcasts. Radio Japan provides two main feeds: NHK World Radio Japan runs a domestic SW relay station on 9750 kHz from 8:00 to 16:00 UTC: It also leases some hours by several external relay stations for English service in: Satellite and internet service NHK World-Japan broadcasts via C-band and Ku-band satellites around the globe. The programs and content are also available online. Only a limited number of programs are available online for free. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94] | [TOKENS: 3772] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืงึธืึดืืึฐืจึธืคึฐืึธื (ืืขืืจืืช: ืึฐึผืชึดืืึธื ืชึทึผืึธึผื), ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ืืงืืฉืืืืช. ืืื ื ืขืฉืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืืขืืื. ืืงืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช โ ืงืืืืก (ฮบฮฑฮปฮปฮฟฯ) "ืืืคื", ืืจืืคืืก (ฮณฯฮฑฯฮฟฯ) "ืืชืืื". ืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืื ืืืคืืืจืคืื (ืืขืืกืงืช ืืืืคื ื ืืคืืก ืืื ืืืชื ืื), ืืืืื ืืคืืืจืคืื (ืืงืจ ืชืืจืืื ืกืืื ืื ืืืืชืืืช ืืืชืืช ืื ืืื) ืื ืคืืืืืจืคืื (ืืงืจ ืืชืื ืื ืขืชืืงืื). ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืืจื ืืจืืืง ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืื ืชืืื ืืฉืื ืืขืชืืง ืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืกืื ืื ืคืืฆื ืืกืื ืื ืืืื. ืืื ื ืืฉืืช ืืฆืืจืช ืืฆืืืจ ืืืขืืื ืช ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืคืืขื ืขื ืกืื ืื ืืช ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืจื ืืกืืืชืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืฉื, ืกืึผืื ืึตื โ ืกืื ืื ืฆืืืขื ืกืื ื ืืืคื ื. ืืืจืืช ืฉื ืขืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืชืืืช ืกืื ืืืช ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืขืช ืกืื ืืช ืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืช ืืืคืืื โ ืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืคืฉืืช. ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืจื ืืกืืืชืืช ืขืืฉื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืกืืื ืื ืกืื ืืื (ๆฑๅฎ; ืืกืื ืืช โ ืึธืื ึฐืึฐืึฐื, ืืืคื ืืช โ ืงืื ื'ื ืืืงืืจืืื ืืช โ ืื ื'ื) ืืืื. ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืกืื ืืช "ืืืคื ืืืชืืื" (ืฉืึผืคึธื ไนฆๆณ\ๆธๆณ); ืืืคื ืืช "ืืจื ืืืชืืื" (ืฉืึนืืึน ๆธ้); ืืืงืืจืืื ืืช "ืืื ืืช ืืืชืืื" (ืกืึนืึตื Seoyae ๆธ่). ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืกืืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืขืจืืืช/ืคืจืกืืช ืขืืกืงืช ืืขืืืืจืื ืืืืืืจืืื (ืขืจืืกืงืืช) ืขื ืงืืจืืช ืืชืงืจืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื-ืื ืขื ืืฃ. ืขืืืจ ืืืืกืืืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ โ ืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืื ื โ ืืืกืคืงืช ืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืช. ืืืืืื ืฉืืืกืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช โ ืืฉืคื ืืืืชื ืืขืจืื ืืงืืืฉืื. ืืืื ืืจืืจื ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืช ืืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืื ืืช ืืงืืืฉืช. ืืชืคืืกื ืืืืกืืืืช ืื ืืขืฉื ืืชืืื ืืงืืื ืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืกืืคืจ ืกืช"ื ืืืืืืช. ืืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืืืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืช ืืืกืืื. ืืงืืจืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืฉืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืชืคืชืืืชื ืฉื ืืงืืืืจืคืื. ืืขืืื ืืืกืืื ืงืืืืช ืืกืืจืช ืงืืืืจืคืืช ืขืฉืืจื, ืฉืขืืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ื-ืืื ื ื ืืขืืืืชื. ืจืื ืื: ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืขืืื ืืืขืจืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืขืจืืืช ืขืืกืงืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืคืืืช ืืืืื ื ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืคืืืชื, ืืืืื ื ืืงืืจืืื. ืืจืกืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืืืคืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืืกืืืืืช 3000 ืืคื ื"ืก ืืืืืฉื ืืชืคืชืื ืืืืชืืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืชืืืช ืืืื ืืืช โ ืชืืืื ืืฆืืจืชื ื"ืืืืื" ืืืืืฉื ืืชืคืชืืืชื ืืืืชืืืช ื"ืงืื ืืช" (ืืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ืงืจื ืืืืื, ืงืืกืจ ืืืืืคืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืืงืืืฉื). ืืืืื ืืช ืคืคืืจืืก ืืจืืืื ืืืืืคื ืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืกืคืจืื ืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืคืืื ืขืฉืืืื ืขืืจืืช ืืขืื ืืืื. ืขืืื ืขืฉืืื ืงืฉ ืืชืืืคื ืืงืืืืืกื ื ืืฆื. ืื ืฆืจืืช ืืจืื ื ืืช ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืขืชืงืชื ืฉื ืกืคืจื ืชื "ื ืืืชืื ืงืืืฉ ืืืจืื. ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืชืฉืืขืืช ืจืืชื ืืืจืืคื ืคืจืืื ืืืฉื ืืชืคืืฆืชื ืฉื ืืชืื-ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืขืืืจืื (ืืืืืื โ ืงืืืฅ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืื ืืืกืคืืจื). ืืงืืกืจ ืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืงืืืื (Alcuin) โ ืจืืฉ ืืื ืืจ ืฉื ืืืจืง, ืื ืืืื โ ืืืืจืชื ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืขืืื ืืชืืื ืืกืืื ื ืช. ืืืงืืืื ืืืฆืข ืจืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืกืื ืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ืืืืงืกืืื ืืืกืืคื ืคืืชื ืื (hand โ ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืืขืืชื ืกืื ืื ืงืืืืจืคื) ืืืฉื ืืงืจื ืื ืขื ืฉื ืคืืจืื ื โ ืืืื ืืกืงืื ืืงืจืืืื ืื. ืืืืจืื ื, ืกืงืืืื ื ืืฉืืจ ืชืคืืฆืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืืืจืืคื ืืชืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชืืืช ืืึผื ืงึดืืืืืึนืช (Uncial). ืืืื ื-12 ืืืคืืข ืืืชื ืืืืชื (ืืืืืื ืืืืคืืืช ืืืชื) ืฉื ืงืจื ืื "ืืืช ืฉืืืจื" (Blackletter). ืืืืืื ืชืจืื ืืช ืืชืื ืฆ'ื ืกืจื (Chancery) ืืืืชื ืื ืืื (Italic). ืืืืจ ืืืฆืืช ืืืคืืก ืืชืขืฉืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืจื ืืืื ื-15, ืกืคืจืื ืืืงืกืืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืืืืช ืื ืืคืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ. ืืืื ื-19 ืชื ืืขืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืก ืืืืืชื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืงืืืืจืคืื. ืืืื ื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืจืืื ืืืฉืคืขื ืขื ืืื ืืืจืืก, ืืื ืืืืืจื ื'ืื ืกืืื, ืึถืจืืง ืึดืื ืืืืจืื. ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ื ืืื ื ื ืื ืืจืชืืจ ืืืืงืจ ืืืจืื ืืืคืฃ. ืืืืจ ืฉืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืชื-ืื ืืืืฆืขื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืคืืืช, ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืื ืืงืืืืจืคืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืืืืื โ ืืืฉื ืืืจืืืกื ืืจืื, ืงืขืงืืขืื, ืชืคืจืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืฉื ืืช ื-70 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ื ืคืืฅ ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืชืืืช ืงืืืืจืคืืืช ืืจืืืืืช ืืืืืืชืืืช ืืกืื ืื ืืืจืคืืื โ ืืฉืจ ืืงืืฉืจ ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืค ืืืค. ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืชื ืกืช"ื ืืื ืกืื ืื ืงืืืืจืคืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืจืชืืช ืฉืื ื ืืชืืื ืกืคืจื ืชืืจื, ืชืคืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฉ ืืืืืืืช. ืืกืคืจื ืชื "ื ืขืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืฉืืขืืช ืืืขืฉืืจืืช ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืฉืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืื ืืงืืช ืงืืืืจืคืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืกืืื. "ืืชืืื ืชืื" ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืชื ืืืชืืจ ืืชื ืื ืืจืืจ ืืืืงืคื. ืขื ืืกืืก ืืชื ืขืชืืง ืคืืชื ืืืคื "ืืจืืฉืืื". ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงืืืืจืคืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืคืืืจืคืื, ืืืคื "ืืืืื ืงืืืืจืคื": ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_channels] | [TOKENS: 44] |
Contents List of business news channels A business channels is a television channel that concentrate on business news. Business news channels See also References This article about a television station is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 93] |
Contents List of rivers of the United States The following list is a list of rivers of the United States. Alphabetical listing Listings of the rivers in the United States by letter of the alphabet: A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K - L - M - N - O - P - Q - R - S - T - U - V - W - XYZ By state and territory See also External links |
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