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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ] | [TOKENS: 13779]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ (ืžืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช: Missio โ€“ 'ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช') ื”ื•ื ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืœื”ืคืฆืช ื“ืช ืื• ืืžื•ื ื” (ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช) ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื‘ื ื™ ื“ืช ืื—ืจืช ืื• ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื—ืกืจื™ ื“ืช, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืจื•ื‘ ืœื’ืจื•ื ืœื”ื ืœื”ืžื™ืจ ืืช ื“ืชื. ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื’ื ืืจื’ื•ืŸ, ืชื ื•ืขื” ืื• ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื–ื•, ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ ืœืžืงื•ื ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื. ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื–ืจืžื™ ื”ื“ืชื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื’ื ื›ื™ื•ื. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื—ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื“ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื”ืžืžื•ืกื“ืช ื•ืืฃ ื ื›ืคืชื” ืขืœ ืขืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืชื‘ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื (ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื•ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื) ื‘ืžืกืขื™ื”ื, ื•ื›ืš ื’ื ื‘ืืกืœืื (ื“ืขื•ื” ืื• ื’'ื™ื”ืื“). ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืื—ืช ื”ื“ืชื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื”ืŸ ื ืืกืจ ืขืœ ื”ืคืฆืช ื”ื“ืช ื“ืจืš ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื•ืช ืœืžื™ ืฉืœื ืžื•ื’ื“ืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ (ืื '), ื•ื‘ืคืจื˜ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ืฉืืฃ ืžืขืจื™ืžื” ืงืฉื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืœื”ืชื’ื™ื™ืจ. ื‘ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื›ืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœืื—ื“ ืžื–ืจืžื™ ื”ื“ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช. ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื”ื ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื“ืชื™ืช ื”ื ืจื—ื‘ืช ื•ื”ืžื’ื•ื•ื ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ืœืง ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื. ื”ื“ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื ื“ื™ื ืžื™ืช, ื•ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืจืื•ืช ื–ืืช ืœืžืฉืœ ื‘ืžืขื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืจื›ื– ื”ื“ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ ืœืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช, ืืคืจื™ืงื”, ืืกื™ื” ื•ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜, ืฉื ื—ื™ื™ื ืœืžืขืœื” ืžืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื. ืžื’ืžื” ื–ื• ื”ื•ืืฆื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื“ืขื™ื›ืช ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืกื“ื™ื ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช, ื›ื“ืช ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ืช, ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ื“ืช ืฉืคื•ื ื” ืœื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืžืขืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื•ืžืžืขืžื“ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื” ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ. ื”ืžื™ืœื” "ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ" ื›ืชืจื’ื•ื ืœืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช apostolฤ“, "ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช", ืžื•ืคื™ืขื” ืคืขื ืื—ืช ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ื‘ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”: "ื”ึฒืจึตื™ ืžึดื™ ืฉึถืืขื•ึนืจึตืจ ืึถืช ืคึถึผื˜ึฐืจื•ึนืก ืœึดืฉึฐืืœึดื™ื—ื•ึผืช ืึถืœ ื”ึทื ึดึผืžึผื•ึนืœึดื™ื ืขื•ึนืจึตืจ ื’ึทึผื ืื•ึนืชึดื™ ืึถืœ ื”ึทื’ึผื•ึนื™ึดื." (ืื™ื’ืจืช ืคืื•ืœื•ืก ืืœ ื”ื’ืœื˜ื™ื 2:8), ืืš ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ื›ื™ ืจืžื–ื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ื’ื•ื™ื™ื ืžื•ืคื™ืขื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘ืชื "ืš. ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžืช ื‘ื ื™ ื ื— (ืฉื‘ืข ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ ื ื—), ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ืžื’ื“ืœ ื‘ื‘ืœ ื•ื‘ื‘ืจื›ืช ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ืืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื ("ื•ื ื‘ืจื›ื• ื‘ืš ื›ืœ ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ื”ืื“ืžื”") ืจื•ืื™ื ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืจืžื–ื™ื ืœื“ืื’ื” ืฉืžื’ืœื” ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ืœื›ืœ ื”ืขืžื™ื. ืžื˜ืจืช ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืคืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ืืœื•ื”ื™ื™ื ืžื•ืคื™ืขื” ื›ืžื” ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืชื "ืš ื•ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ื‘ืจื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื ื‘ื™ื ื™ืฉืขื™ื”ื•: "ื•ืืชื ืš ืœื‘ืจื™ืช ืขื ืœืื•ืจ ื’ื•ื™ื™ื". ื‘ื™ืฉืขื™ื”ื• ืžื•ืคื™ืขื” ื’ื ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื”ื•ืฉื™ืข ืืช ื”ืขืžื™ื "ื•ื ืชืชื™ืš ืœืื•ืจ ื’ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื™ืฉื•ืขืชื™ ืขื“ึพืงืฆื” ื”ืืจืฅ". ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื™ืฉ ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ืขืœ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืืœ, ื”ืžื•ื‘ืข ืœืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืชื "ืš, ืฉื›ืœ ืขืžื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื™ืกื’ื“ื• ืœื•. ื•ืœื›ืŸ, ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื™ื ื ืฉืœื—ื™ื ืœืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ื ืื™ืŸ ืกื•ื’ื“ื™ื ืœืืœื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืงื™ื™ื ืืช ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืืœ ื•ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืกื’ื™ื“ื” ืืœื™ื•. ื™ืฉื• ืื•ืžื ื ื”ื˜ื™ืฃ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“, ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืืžืจื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ืกื•ืช ืœื• ืงื™ื™ืžืช ื”ืฆื”ืจืช "ื”ื”ืกืžื›ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”" ื”ืžื•ืคื™ืขื” ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื‘ืฉื•ืจื” ืขืœ-ืคื™ ืžืชื™: "ื•ื™ื™ื’ืฉ ื™ืฉื•ืข ื•ื™ื“ื‘ืจ ืืœื™ื”ื ืœืืžื•ืจ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ ื›ืœ ืžืžืฉืœ ื‘ืฉืžื™ื ื•ื‘ืืจืฅ, ืœื›ื• ืืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืขืžื™ื ืœื”ื•ืจืชื ื•ืœืขืฉื•ืชื ืœื™ ืœืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืœื˜ื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื ื‘ืฉื ื”ืื‘ ื•ื”ื‘ืŸ ื•ืจื•ื— ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ ื•ืœืžื“ืชื ืื•ืชื ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ื›ืœ ืืฉืจ ืฆื•ื•ื™ืชื™ ืืชื›ื ื•ื”ื ื” ืื ื›ื™ ืื”ื™ื” ืขืžื›ื ืขื“ ืื—ืจื™ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืœืขืช ืงืฅ ื”ืขื•ืœื". ืคืกื•ืงื™ื ืืœื” ื”ื ื”ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ ืœืฆื™ื•ื•ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืคืฆืช ื”ื“ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืขืžื™ื ื‘ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”. ื”ืžืคื™ืฆื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ืฉื ื™ื-ืขืฉืจ ื”ืฉืœื™ื—ื™ื ื•ื‘ืจืืฉื ืคื˜ืจื•ืก ืฉื”ื˜ื™ืคื• ืœื“ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช, ืื‘ืœ ืžื™ ืฉืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืื—ืจืื™ ืขื™ืงืจื™ ืœืชืคื•ืฆืช ื”ื“ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื” ืคืื•ืœื•ืก (ืฉืื•ืœ ื”ืชืจืกื™) ื”ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ. ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืจืฉืช ืฉืœ ืžืกื™ื™ืขื™ื, ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ื ื ืฉื™ื, ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืคืื•ืœื•ืก ืœื ืฆืจ ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืืกื™ื” ื”ืงื˜ื ื” ื•ื“ืจื•ื ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืจื•ืžื. ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช, ืฉื”ื—ืœื” ื›ื›ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ืจื›ืฉื” ืžืืžื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช, ื•ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ืช, ื›ืฉื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ืจื•ืžื™ ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ืขืœ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื›ื“ืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช, ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื• ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื›-10 ืื—ื•ื– ืžืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื”, ื•ืœื“ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ืžืžืกื“ ื”ื™ืจืจื›ื™ ืžืกื•ื“ืจ. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื”ื—ืœ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื’ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืชื™ื”. ืื•ืœืคื™ืœืก ื”ืืจื™ืื ื™ (311โ€“382), ืคืขืœ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ื’ื•ืชื™ื ื”ืœื•ืžื‘ืจื“ื™ื ื•ื”ื‘ื•ืจื’ื•ื ื“ื™ื. ืžืจื˜ื™ืŸ ืžื˜ื•ืจ (316โ€“397) ืฉืจืช ื‘ื’ืืœื™ื” ื•ืคื˜ืจื™ืง ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ (389โ€“461) ืขืžืœ ื‘ืื™ืจืœื ื“. ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœืช ื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืžื”ืžืื” ื”-3 ืœืกืคื™ืจื” ื‘ืžืืœืื‘ืจ ืฉื‘ื“ืจื•ื ื”ื•ื“ื• ื˜ื•ืขื ืช ื›ื™ ืชื•ืžืืก ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ื™ืกื“ื”. ืคืจื•ืžื ื˜ื™ื•ืก ืžืฆื•ืจ ืคืขืœ ืœื ืฆืจ ืืช ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื‘ืืชื™ื•ืคื™ื” ื•ื”ืคืš ืœืคื˜ืจื™ืืจืš ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื–ื•. ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืก ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” "ื”ืžืื™ืจ" ืคืขืœ ื‘ืืจืžื ื™ื”. ืžืืจืžื ื™ื” ื”ื•ืคืฆื” ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ืœื’ืื•ืจื’ื™ื”. ื‘ืžืื” ื”-5 ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื”ื ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ื ืœืกื™ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ืช 476 ื”ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื” ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช, ืื‘ืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช, ืฉื‘ื™ืจืชื” ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ, ืฉื”ื•ืงืžื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ื—ื–ื™ืงื” ืžืขืžื“ ื›ืืœืฃ ืฉื ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื•ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืจื›ื– ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ืคืฆืช ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ. ืœืžืจื•ืช ืื•ื‘ื“ืŸ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืื—ืจื™ื” ืชืงื•ืคืช ืคืจื™ื—ื” ื•ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืฉืžืจื›ื–ื” ื‘ืจื•ืžื. ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ื”ืชืืคื™ื™ื ื” ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื ืžืจืฆืช ืฉื ื—ืœื” ืืช ื”ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืฉืžืœื›ื™ ืขืžื™ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•, ื•ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืขื‘ืจื” ื›ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื‘ืฉืœื™ื˜ืชื ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 496 ื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืœื• ื›ืœื•ื‘ื™ืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืœืš ื”ืคืจื ืงื™ื ื•ื—ื™ื™ืœื™ื• ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 596 ื ื™ืฆืจ ื”ื ื–ื™ืจ ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ื™ื ื•ืก ืืช ื”ืžืœืš ืืชืœื‘ืจื˜ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ืงื ื˜ ื•ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืœื• ื’ื ื ืชื™ื ื™ื•. ื‘ื•ื”ืžื™ื” โ€“ ืขื‘ืจื” ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืœืš ื•ื•ื ืฆ'ืกืœืืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ (907โ€“929). ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ื• ื”ืžืœืš ืžื™ื™ืฉืงื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืœ ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘-966 ืื• 967, ื•ื”ื•ืฉืœืžื” ืชื—ืช ื‘ื ื• ื‘ื•ืœืกืœืื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ. ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืžื™ื• ืฉืœ ืžืœื›ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ืื™ืฉื˜ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ (ืžืœืš 1000โ€“1038). ืงื ื•ื˜ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืฉืžืœืš ื”ืŸ ืขืœ ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืŸ ืขืœ ื“ื ืžืจืง ื•ื ื•ืจื•ื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื™ื•ืช, ื—ื•ื ืš ื›ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื•ืคืขืœ ืœื ืฆืจ ื’ื ืืช ื“ื ืžืจืง ื•ื ื•ืจื•ื•ื’ื™ื”. ืื•ืœืืฃ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืœืš ื ื•ืจื•ื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื ื–ื™ืจ ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ื•ืคืขืœ ืœื ืฆืจ ืืช ืžืžืœื›ืชื•, ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ืฉืœืžื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื™ื•ืจืฉื• ืื•ืœืืฃ ื”ืฉื ื™. ืฉื•ื•ื“ื™ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ืกื•ื•ืจืงืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ (1130โ€“1156). ื”ื™ื• ื›ืžื” ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื•ืœื ืชืžื™ื“ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื”ื’ื•ืจื ืœื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžืœืš ืื• ืฉืœ ืขื. ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืจืื• ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื™ืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ื•ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืื•ืœืฆื• ื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืœื”ืชื ืฆืจ ื‘ื›ืคื™ื™ื”. ื›ืš ืœืžืฉืœ ืงืจืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ (ืžืช 814) ื”ืขืžื™ื“ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืกืงืกื•ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืจื” ืœื”ืชื ืฆืจ ืื• ืœืžื•ืช. ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืคื™ื ืœื ื“ ื”ืชื ืฆืจื• ื‘ื›ืคื™ื™ื” ืœืื—ืจ ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉื” ืฉืœ ืคื™ื ืœื ื“ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉื•ื•ื“ื™ื. ื’ื ืœื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืฉืžืจื›ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ ื”ื™ื• ื”ืฆืœื—ื•ืช. ื”ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ื™ื–ืžื• ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื‘ืœืงืŸ ื•ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืขืžื™ื ื”ืกืœืื‘ื™ื™ื. ื‘-865 ื”ืชื ืฆืจ ื‘ื•ืจื™ืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืœืš ื‘ื•ืœื’ืจื™ื” ื•ืขื™ืžื• ื ืชื™ื ื™ื•. ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื“ื•ืžื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ ื‘ืกืจื‘ื™ื”. ืื‘ืœ ื”ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ืคื›ื• ืื—ืจึพื›ืš ืœืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื”ื ืกื™ืš ื•ืœื“ื™ืžื™ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžืงื™ื™ื‘ (956โ€“1015) ื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืœ ื‘ื˜ืงืก ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘-988 ื•ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ืขืžื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ืžื•ื”ื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืฉืชื—ืจืจื• ื”ืจื•ืกื™ื ืžื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื ื’ื•ืœื™, ื”ื ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื• ืืช ืžืฉื›ืŸ ื”ืžื˜ืจื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ ืžืงื™ื™ื‘ ืœืžื•ืกืงื‘ื”, ื•ื›ื ืกื™ื™ืชื ื”ืคื›ื” ื•ื ื•ืชืจื” ื’ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ึพืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืžื’ืŸ ื•ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช. ืขื ื ืคื™ืœืช ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœ ืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื‘ืฉื ืช 1453 ื”ืคื›ื” ืžื•ืกืงื‘ื” ืœืžืจื›ื– ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ื•ื›ื•ื ืชื” ืžืื– "ืจื•ืžื ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช". ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-12 ื”ื•ืื˜ ืงืฆื‘ ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื•ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ืžืจื•ืช ื”ื“ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื”ื•ืฉื’ื• ื‘ื›ื•ื— ื”ื—ืจื‘. ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื”ื›ื ื™ืขื• ืื‘ื™ืจื™ื ืžื”ืžืกื“ืจ ื”ื˜ื‘ื˜ื•ื ื™ ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ืกื™ื ื”ืคื’ื ื™ื™ื, ื•ื”ืฉื•ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื›ื ื™ืขื• ืืช ื”ืคื™ื ื™ื. ืืš ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ืžืืžืฅ ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ ื”ื•ืคื ื” ืœื“ืจื•ื ืžื–ืจื— ื•ืœืžืขืจื‘ ื‘ืฉืœ ืขืœื™ื™ืช ื›ื•ื— ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ื–ื™ืจื”, ื”ืืกืœืื. ืžืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžื•ื—ืžื“ ื‘-632 ื•ืขื“ ืชื‘ื•ืกืช ื”ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืคื•ืื˜ื™ื™ื” ืฉื‘ื’ืืœื™ื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ืคืจื ืงื™ื ื‘ืคื™ืงื•ื“ื• ืฉืœ ืงืจืœ ืžืจื˜ืœ ื‘-732 (ืงืจื‘ ื˜ื•ืจ), ื›ื‘ืฉื• ื”ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ, ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื, ืืช ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื•ืื– ืคื ื• ืฆืคื•ื ื” ื•ื›ื‘ืฉื• ืืช ืกืคืจื“ ื•ืœืชืงื•ืคื” ืงืฆืจื” ืคืœืฉื• ื’ื ืœื“ืจื•ื ืžืขืจื‘ ืฆืจืคืช. ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืื” ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ื”ืืกืœืื ืœืžื—ื•ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™. ืชื’ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจื” ืฆื‘ืื™ืช, ืžืกืขื™ ื”ืฆืœื‘ (1095โ€“1396) ืฉื ื›ืฉืœื• ื‘ืžื˜ืจืชื ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ืืช "ืืจืฅ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ" ื‘ืžื–ืจื—, ื•ื”"ืจืงื•ื ืงื™ืกื˜ื”" (ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ืžื—ื“ืฉ) ืฉืœ ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ื”ืื™ื‘ืจื™ (742โ€“1492) ืฉื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื” ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ืืช ืกืคืจื“ ื‘ืžืขืจื‘. ืืš ื”ื™ื• ื’ื ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื™ื (ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืคืจื ืฆื™ืกืงื ื™ื ื•ื“ื•ืžื™ื ื™ืงื ื™ื) ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ ืฉืœื•ื ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื. ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื™ื‘ืฉืช ืืžืจื™ืงื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื•ืก ื‘-1492 ื‘ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช ืกืคืจื“ ื•ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ืช ืฉื›ื™ื•ื ืžืฆื•ื™ื” ื‘ื• ื‘ืจื–ื™ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืคื“ืจื• ืงื‘ืจืœ ื‘ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืช ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื’ืœ ื‘-1500 ืืคืฉืจ ืœืฉืชื™ ื”ืื•ืžื•ืช ืžืกืขื•ืช ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ืฉื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื• ื‘ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ื•ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ืคื’ื ื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื”. ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืกืคืจื“ ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ืช ื•ืขื ื–ืืช ื ืจืื” ื›ื™ ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื” ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื• ืชื•ืฆืื” ื™ืฉื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ ื•ื›ืคื™ื™ืช ื”ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ื‘ื›ื•ื—. ื—ืœืง ืžืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืงืžืช ื›ืคืจื™ื ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ื™ื ืœื”ื’ื ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื (ื”"ืจื“ื•ืงืกื™ื•ื ืก"). ื”ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ื”ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืชื•ืคืขื” ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœืžื—ืฆื” ืฉื”ืงื™ืžื• ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื™ื ื‘ืคืจื’ื•ื•ืื™ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ื“ื•ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื’ื•ืืจื ื™. ื›ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื“ืจื•ื ืืžืจื™ืงื” ืืช ืขืฆืžืื•ืชืŸ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19 ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ื”ื™ื˜ื‘. ื’ื ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืื—ืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื, ื”ืคื™ืœื™ืคื™ื ื™ื, ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื•ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืชื ืฆืจื” ื‘ื”ืชืื. ืœืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ ื‘ืืกื™ื” ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžืื•ืช ื”-16 ื•ื”-17 ื›ืžื” ื”ืฆืœื—ื•ืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืฉืœ ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื™ื. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื™ื ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ ืคืจื ืกื™ืกืงื• ื—ืื•ื•ื™ื™ืจ (1506โ€“1552). ื‘-1542 ื”ื’ื™ืข ื—ืื•ื•ื™ื™ืจ ืœื’ื•ืื” ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื• ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื’ืœ, ื™ืกื“ ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ืœื”ื“ืจื›ืช ื›ืžืจื™ื. ื‘ื™ืคืŸ ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืœ ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื’ืฉื’ ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš ืฉื‘ืฉื ืช 1600 ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื›-300,000 ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื™ืคืŸ. ื‘-1582 ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจ ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื™, ื”ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ ืžึทื˜ึถืื•ึน ืจื™ืฆ'ื™ (1552โ€“1610) ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœืกื™ืŸ. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื•ื”ื ื–ื›ื• ืœื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื—ืœืงื™ืช. ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžืกื•ื™ื ื’ื™ืจืฉื• ื”ืกื™ื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื•ืจื“ืคื• ืืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื‘ืฉื ืช 1800 ื ื•ืชืจื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื›-250,000 ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืŸ. ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœืคืงื— ืขืœ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื•ืœืชืื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ื”ืขื•ืกืงื™ื, ื”ืงื™ื ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืก ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืขืฉืจ ื‘-1622 ืžืฉืจื“ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ("ืงื•ื ื’ืจื’ืฆื™ื”" ื‘ืžื™ื ื•ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ืจื™ื” โ€“ ื”ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช) ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจื’ืฆื™ื” ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื” ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืคืฆืช ื”ืืžื•ื ื” (ืื ') (Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide) ืื• ื‘ืงื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”"ืคืจื•ืคื’ืื ื“ื”". ืžืฉืจื“ ื–ื” ืงื™ื™ื ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ืื—ืช ืžืชืฉืข ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจื’ืฆื™ื•ืช (ืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื) ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื•ืชื™ืงืŸ, ืื ื›ื™ ืฉืžื• ืฉื•ื ื” ื‘-1982 ืœื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจื’ืฆื™ื” ืœื‘ื™ืฉื•ืจ ืœืื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื (Congregatio pro Gentium Evangelizatione). ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-18 ื—ืœื” ื ืกื™ื’ื” ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™. ืคื™ืจื•ืงื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืกื“ืจ ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื™ ื‘-1773, ื”ื™ื—ืœืฉื•ืชืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ืืœื™ื•ืช ืกืคืจื“ ื•ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื’ืœ ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจื” ื”ืื ื˜ื™ึพื“ืชื™ืช ืฉืœื™ื•ื•ืชื” ืืช ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ื•ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื ืคื•ืœื™ืื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืชืงื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœื™ืœ ืืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™. ืœืื—ืจ ืžืคืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื ืคื•ืœื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืœ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ ืœื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉ, ื”"ืคืจื•ืคื’ื ื“ื”" ื”ืฉืชืงืžื”, ื”ืžืกื“ืจ ื”ื™ืฉื•ืขื™ ื”ื•ืงื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื•ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืก ื”ืฉื™ืฉื” ืขืฉืจ (ื›ื™ื”ืŸ 1831โ€“1846) ื™ืฆืจ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ื“ื™ื•ืงืกื™ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช, ื•ืžื™ื ื” ื”ื’ืžื•ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ืฉืžืฉื• ื›ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื. ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืงืžื• ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ืืฃ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื”ืฆืœื—ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœื”ืชื‘ืกืกื•ืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืฆื•ืžืฆืžื• ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ืกืžื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืคืจื•ืคื’ื ื“ื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ื ื™ื›ืจืช. ื‘-1517 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืžืจื˜ื™ืŸ ืœื•ืชืจ ืืช ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืจืคื•ืจืžืฆื™ื” ืฉื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ืขื ื”ืฉื ื™ื ืœื›ืชื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืช, ืื‘ืœ ืจืง ื›-275 ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจึพื›ืš ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืœื—ืžื•ืช ื”ื ืคื•ืœื™ืื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ื•ืคื™ืข ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื™ื. ืžื™ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืืช ื”ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจื•ืช ืœื—ื•ื‘ืจืช ืฉื”ืคื™ืง ื”ื‘ืคื˜ื™ืกื™ื˜ ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ืงืืจื™ (1761โ€“1834) ื‘-1792, ืฉื›ื•ืชืจืชื” "ืžื—ืงืจ ืขืœ ื—ื•ื‘ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื™ื ืœื”ืžืจืช ื“ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื•ืคืจื™ื", ื•ื”ืคื›ื” ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืœืืžื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื™ื. ื‘-1795 ื”ื•ืงืžื” "ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ" ื•ืชื•ืš ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืงืžื• ื’ื "ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืกืงื•ื˜ืœื ื“" (1796), "ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื•ืœื ื“" (1797) ืฉืคืขืœื” ื‘ืื™ื ื“ื•ื ื–ื™ื” ื•"ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื”" (1799). ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื ื”ื•ื’ื” ื”ืคืจื“ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ืช ืœืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื”ื‘ื”ื™ืจื• ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื›ื™ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืื“ื ื ื•ืฆืจื™, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื”ืชืื’ื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช. ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื” "ื•ืขื“ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ ืœืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื ื›ืจ" (1810) ื•ืื—ืจื™ื• ืงืžื• ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื™ื ืขืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื”. ืขื™ืงืจ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื ืฉืœ ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ืืœื” ื”ืชืจื›ื–ื” ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘ืžื”ื’ืจื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื•ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ื™ื. ืž-1890 ื”ื•ืคื ืชื” ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื ืืœ ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ื™ื• ื›-70% ืžื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืžืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ืช. ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ ืคืขืœ ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืŸ, ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื•, ื‘ืื™ื ื“ื•ื ื–ื™ื”, ื‘ืื™ื™ื ืฉื‘ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜, ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื•ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช. ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ื“ืขื™ื ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ืคื™ืฆื•ืœ ื”ืจื‘ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื™ื (ืœืคื ื™ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื• ืžืขืœ 200 ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช) ืžื–ื™ืง ืœืžื˜ืจืชื, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื• ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืฉื™ืื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1910 ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ ืฉืœ ืื“ื™ื ื‘ื•ืจื•. ืื—ืช ืžืชื•ืฆืื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืงืžืช "ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช", ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ื™ื•ื ื›-340 ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื•ืช ื•ืชืชื™-ื–ืจืžื™ื ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ื™ื. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืฉื•ืœื‘ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉื ื•ืกื“ ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื›ื™ื ื•ืก ื‘ืื“ื™ื ื‘ื•ืจื•, "ื”ืžื•ืขืฆื” ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช". ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืื—ืจื™ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืœื ื ื™ื‘ืื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ. ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื ืืกืจื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ืคื›ื• ืœืงื•ืžื•ื ื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ืกื™ืŸ ื•ืงื•ืจื™ืื”, ื•ื’ื ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ืขืฆืžืื•ืชืŸ ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ื”ื•ื“ื• ื•ืกืจื™ ืœื ืงื” ื”ืงืฉื• ืขืœ ืคืขื•ืœืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ ืฉืจื™ื“ ืžืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ืืœื™ื–ื. ื•ืขื ื–ืืช, ื›ื™ื•ื ืžืกืคืจ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืืกื™ื”, ืื™ื™ ื”ืื•ืงื™ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืฉืงื˜, ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื•ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ื‘ืกื™ืกื• ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™. ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื›ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ื ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืงืฆื‘ ืฉืœ ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื‘ืžืื” ื”-20, ื•ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื”ื•ื ืคื™ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื”ืจื™ื‘ื•ื™ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขื™ ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื”. ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ืžืื•ืคื™ื™ื ืช ื’ื ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื™ื—ืก ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืช ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช. ืฉื ื™ ืžืกืžื›ื™ื ืฉืขื™ืฆื‘ื• ืืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื–ื” ื”ื™ื• "Ad Gentes Divinitus" (1965) ืฉื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ื•ื•ืชื™ืงืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื•-"Evangelii Nuntiandi" ("ื‘ื™ืฉื•ืจ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™") ืื ืฆื™ืงืœื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ืคืื•ืœื•ืก ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™ (1975). ืขื™ืงืจ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืช ื›ื™ื•ื ืžืงื•ืจื• ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืฉืžืžื ื” ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืœืคืขื•ืœืชื. ื‘ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื‘ื™ืœื™ ื’ืจื”ื, ืื—ื“ ืžืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืื•ื•ื ื’ืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื ืขืจื›ื• ืฉื ื™ ื›ื ืกื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืขืกืงื• ื‘ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช, ื‘ืœื•ื–ืืŸ ืฉื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ืฅ (1974) ื•ื‘ืžื ื™ืœื” ืฉื‘ืคื™ืœื™ืคื™ื ื™ื (1989). ื›ื™ื•ื, ืขื ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ืœื•ืŸ ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื•ื™ืจื™ื“ืช ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช, ืคื—ืชื” ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื›ืžืขื˜ ื ืขืœืžื”. ืขื ื–ืืช ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช ืขื ืคื” ืฉืœ ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช, ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืงืžื• ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืœืžืฉืœ ื”ื–ืจื ื™ื•ืฆื ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืกื ื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืคื ื˜ืงื•ืกื˜ืœื™ื–ื, ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืจืžื•ื ื™ืช (LDS) ื•ืื—ืจื•ืช. ื‘ึพ1861 ืžื™ื ืชื” ื—ื‘ืจื” ืจืคื•ืื™ืช-ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช, Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society (E.M.M.S), ืืช ื”ื“"ืจ ืคืงืจื“ื•ื ื™ ืงืœื•ืกื˜ ื•ืจื˜ืŸ ืœื™ื™ืกื“ ื•ืœื ื”ืœ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืื™.ืž.ืž.ืก ื”ืกืงื•ื˜ื™ ื‘ื ืฆืจืช. ืžืฉื ืช 1908 ื ื™ื”ืœ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื“"ืจ ืคืจื“ืจื™ืง ื’'ื•ืŸ ืกืงืจื™ืžื’'ืจ ืืฉืจ ื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ื›ืกืคื™ ืชืจื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ. ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ืช ืื“ื™ืช ื’'ื•ื ืงื•ืง, ื”ืื—ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื”ืกืงื•ื˜ื™, ื ื™ื”ืœื” ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื—ื•ืœื™ื ืื™.ืž.ืž.ืก ื”ืกืงื•ื˜ื™ ื‘ื ืฆืจืช ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื‘ืฉื ื™ื 1914โ€“1917, ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืกื’ื ื™ืชื” ื”ืื—ื•ืช ื’'ืกื™ ืงืจื•ืคื˜. ื™ืฉื ืŸ ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• "ื™ื“ ืœืื—ื™ื" ื•"ืœื”ื‘"ื”" ืฉืคื•ืขืœื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื•ืช ื•ืžื” ืฉื”ืŸ ืจื•ืื•ืช ื›ื›ืืœื• ื•ืžืคืจืกืžื•ืช ืžื™ื“ืข ืขืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืืœื•. ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืฉืœ"ื— ื ื•ืกืคื• ืœื—ื•ืง ื”ืขื•ื ืฉื™ืŸ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉื ื™ ืกืขื™ืคื™ื (174ื ื•-174ื‘) ืฉื‘ืื• ืœืžื ื•ืข ื”ืžืจืช ื“ืช ืขืงื‘ ืคื™ืชื•ื™ ื—ื•ืžืจื™, ืืš ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ืง ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืœืฉื“ืœ ืœื”ืžืจืช ื“ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ืชื ื“ื‘ื•ืชื™ (ืœืœื ืฉื›ืจ) ื•ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืคื™ืชื•ื™ ื—ื•ืžืจื™. ื‘ืžืกืžืš ืฉื”ืงืจื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืฃ 2015 ื”ืงืจื“ื™ื ืœ ืงื•ืš, ื”ืžืžื•ื ื” ืขืœ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจื™ืช ื‘ื•ื•ืชื™ืงืŸ ืœื™ื—ืกื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื-ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื, ื‘ืžืœืืช 50 ืฉื ื” ืœื ื•ืกื˜ืจื” ืื˜ืื˜ื”, ื”ืฆื”ื™ืจื” ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช ืจืฉืžื™ืช ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื ืชืชื ื’ื“ ืžืขืชื” ื•ื”ืœืื” ืœืชื•ืคืขืช ื”ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ (ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™) ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื™ื ืžื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2021 ื“ื•ื•ื— ื›ื™ ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ื›ืกืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืชื‘ื˜ืœ ืืช ื–ื›ื•ืชืŸ ืฉืœ ืขืžื•ืชื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ืœื”ื˜ื‘ื•ืช ืžืก.[ื“ืจื•ืฉื” ื”ื‘ื”ืจื”] ื™ื—ืก ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืœืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื ืืกืจ ืขืœ ื”ืคืฆืช ื”ื“ืช ื‘ื›ืคื™ื™ื” ืื• ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ื’ื•ื™ื™ื, ื›ืฉื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ืืฃ ืžืขืจื™ืžื” ืงืฉื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืืœื” ืžืชื•ื›ื ื”ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ื ืœื”ืชื’ื™ื™ืจ. ื‘ืขืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”, ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื”ืœื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ื•ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช, ื”ื•ืคืฆื” ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืคืขื™ืœ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืขืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื (ื’ื™ื•ืจ ื”ืื“ื•ืžื™ื ื•ื”ื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื). ืื•ืœื ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืžื ื”ื’ ื–ื” ืคืกืง ื›ืœื™ืœ ื•ืืฃ ื ืืกืจ: ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ืžื•ืจื” ืฉืืฃ ืื ื’ื•ื™ ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ื“ื•ืจืฉ ืœื”ืชื’ื™ื™ืจ, ื™ืฉ ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืื•ืชื• ืงื•ื“ื ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื ื•ื›ืจื™ ืขื ืกื™ื‘ื” ืžื•ืฆื“ืงืช ื•ื”ื’ื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืื•ืชื• ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ืฉื‘ืข ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ ื ื—, ื•ืจืง ืื ื”ืชืขืงืฉ ืขืœ ื“ืจื™ืฉืชื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง, ื—ื•ื–ืจ ื•ื ืฉื ื”, ืื– ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืชื™ืจ ื‘ื”ืชื—ืœืช ืชื”ืœื™ื›ื™ ื”ื’ื™ื•ืจ. ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื”ื•ืจืชื” ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ื’ื•ื™ื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ืฉื‘ืข (7) ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ ื ื— - ื•ืจืง ืื•ืชืŸ (ืœืขื•ืžืช ืชืจื™"ื’ (613) ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ื—ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™), ืžื” ืฉืžื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื”ื ื—ืœืง ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื‘ื, ื•ื‘ืชื ืื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื ืžืงื‘ืœื™ื ืืฃ ืžืขืžื“ ื’ืจ ืชื•ืฉื‘, ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืขื™ืŸ ืžืขืžื“ ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืœื’ื•ื™. ื”ื”ืœื›ื” ื’ื ื”ืชื™ืจื” ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ืœื”ืจื•ื’ ื’ื•ื™ื™ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ืืœื™ืœื™ื, ืื ื ื”ื™ื” ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ื›ืš, ืื‘ืœ ืืš ื•ืจืง ืื ืกื™ืจื‘ื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื ืœื›ืœ ื”ืคื—ื•ืช ืืช ืฉื‘ืข ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ ื ื—. ื›ื™ื•ื ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ื”ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ื’ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืืช ืฉื‘ืข ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ ื ื—, ื›ืฉื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื ื”ื‘ื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื”ื ื—ื‘"ื“ ื•ื”ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืœื‘ื ื™ ื ื—. ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืœื™ื“ื” ืฉืื™ื ื ืžืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ืงื‘ืข ืืช ื›ืœืœ ืชืจื™"ื’ ื”ืžืฆื•ื•ืช (ื—ื™ืœื•ื ื™ื, ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ื•ื›ื“ื•ืžื”), ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืจื•ืื” ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ืจื‘ื” ื‘ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ืœืงื™ืจื•ื‘ ืœื‘ื‘ื•ืช ืืœ ื—ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช (ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”), ื•ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ืื“ื•ืงื™ื ืฉืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื ืืžื ื” ืœืžืขืŸ ืžื˜ืจื” ืžืื—ื“ืช ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืคืจื˜ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืš ื’ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื’ื•ืœื” ื”ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืชืจ ืฉืืช ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื•ืช. ื‘ืืกืœืื ืจืื• ื’ื ืœืงืจื™ืื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื] | [TOKENS: 2862]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ื˜ื” ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ื”ื“ื•ื’ืœืช ื‘ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืœ ืืช ื›ื•ื—ื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื•ืืช ืขื•ืฉืจื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉืชืœื˜ื•ืช ืขืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื•ื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื”ืŸ. ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืฉื ื‘ืžื•ืฉื’ ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื”, ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช, ืœืžืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื”ืฉื•ืœื˜ืช ืขืœ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ืžืชื’ื•ืจืจื•ืช ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืืชื ื™ืช ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ืžืžืจื›ื–ื” ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื™. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ืฉืœื˜ ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ืžื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืฉื•ืœื˜ืช, ืขืœ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื ื›ื‘ืฉืช. ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืžืคืœื”, ืœืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื–ืจื— ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื ืœืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ ื“ื•ื›ืื” ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื›ื•ื—. ื‘ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”ึพ19 ื”ืคื›ื• ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช. ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ื ื™ืกืชื” ืœื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืขืœ ื›ืžื” ืฉื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ื•ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช, ื•ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืคืš ืœืžืจื•ืฅ. ืฉื ื™ ื’ืœื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื’ืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืžืื” ื”ึพ15, ื•ื ืžืฉืš ืขื“ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ื”ึพ70 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”ึพ19 (ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื•ืืฆื” ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช). ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื•, ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื™ื” ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืกื—ืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉื™. ืœืฉื ื›ืš, ื”ื•ืงืžื• ืชื—ื ื•ืช ืžืกื—ืจ ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ืคื™ ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉื•ืช. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื ื•ืฆืจื• ืงืฉืจื™ื ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื ื•ืขืกืงื™ื™ื ืขื ื”ืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืœืžื˜ืจืช ืกื—ืจ ืžื•ื–ืœ. ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช (ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ืืœื™ื–ื) ื”ืชื‘ืฆืขื” ืจืง ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื”. ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื‘ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ื–ื” ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืขืœ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช ื•"ืœื—ื ืš" ืื•ืชื” ื‘ื“ืจืš ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช, ืืœื ืœื’ืจืฉ ืื• ืœื”ื›ื—ื™ื“ ืื•ืชื” ืœืฉื ื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ืžื™ื˜ื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื”ื’ืœื ืฉื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื”[ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืžืงื•ืจ]. ื”ื’ืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ืชืืคื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžืขืฉื™ ืื›ื–ืจื™ื•ืช ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ื™ืœื™ื“ื™ื, ื‘ื›ืคื™ื™ืช ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ืขื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ื•ื‘ืกื—ืจ ืขื‘ื“ื™ื ืžืคื•ืชื— (ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื” ืœืงืจื™ื‘ื™ื™ื ื•ืœื‘ืจื–ื™ืœ). ื”ื’ืœ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™, ื”ื—ืœ ืขื ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ืžืื” ื”ึพ19, ื•ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื ืขื ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ื“ื”ึพืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื–ืฆื™ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ืžืื” ื”ึพ20, ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”. ื‘ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื–ื• ืขืžื“ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืขืœื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืื“ื ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืขืžื™ื ื”ื ื›ื‘ืฉื™ื ื•ื—ื•ื‘ืชื• ืœื”ืคื™ืฅ ืืช ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื• ื”ื ืขืœื” (ื•ืืช ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช) ื’ื ืœ"ืขืžื™ื ื”ื ื—ืฉืœื™ื". ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ืงื‘ืขื” ื›ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืขืœ ื”ืื“ื ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ื ื˜ืœ โ€“ ืœืœืžื“ ืืช ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžื”ื™ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช "ื”ื ื›ื•ื ื”" ื•ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืœื™ื”ื ืืช ื”ืงื“ืžื” ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช. ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ื—ืœื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ื’ื™ืฉืช ื”ืกื—ืจ ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ื•ื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขืœื• ืžื›ืกื™ ืžื’ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื”ื. ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื•ืช (ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช) ืœื ื ืชืคืกื• ืจืง ื›ืžืงื•ืจ ืœื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื’ืœื, ืืœื ื’ื ื›ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ืœืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื™ื. ืœืฉื ื›ืš ื”ืฉื™ื’ื• ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ื, ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืขืœื™ื•ื ื•ืชื ื”ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื•ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ืช, ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืžืœืื” ื‘ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื•ืช, ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื™ืฉื™ืจื”, ื•ืœื ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืฉืœื™ื˜ื™ื ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ื‘ื’ืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ. ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืฉื™ื ื”ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ืืœื™ืช, ื•ืžืขืœ 75% ืžื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช. ื™ืฉ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื”ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื ื›ื™ ื’ื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืžืื” ื”ึพ20 ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืื” ื”ื–ื•, ืงื™ื™ื ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื‘ืœืชื™ึพืคื•ืจืžืœื™. ืœืคื™ ื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื•, ื”ื’ืœ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื”ื•ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื•ื‘ืจืืฉืŸ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช (ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ื’ื ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืžื•ืขืฆื•ืช). ื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื• ืงื•ื‘ืขื•ืช ืืช ืกื“ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื•ืื•ื›ืคื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื’ื•ืคื™ื ื”ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื™ื˜ืชืŸ, ื›ืžื• ื”ืื•"ื. ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื™ื ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ื”ืืกืœืื ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ ืœืื’ืŸ ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืขืœ ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ื“ืจื•ืึพืžื–ืจื—ื™ ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” (ื”ื‘ืœืงืŸ). ื ื•ืฆืจื” ืžืขื™ืŸ ืกืชื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื“ืจื›ื™ ืžืกื—ืจ ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื›ื•ื— ื“ื—ืฃ ืœืžืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช, ื›ืš ื ื•ืฆืจ ื”ื“ื—ืฃ ืœืฆืืช ืœืกื—ืจ ื”ืื˜ืœื ื˜ื™, ืฉื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื’ืœ. ืชืื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ืืช ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœื™ื–ื ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื ืชืง ืžืฉื ื™ ืžืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื: ืจืื• ื’ื ืœืงืจื™ืื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ_ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ] | [TOKENS: 19128]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืžืกื•ื ืฃ ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืš ืฉื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ื ืคืจื“ ืžืžื ื• ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืฉืขืจ ื”ืคืจื—ื™ื. ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ืฉื›ื ื• ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžืฉืจื“ื™ ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ืฉื”ื•ืงื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ื•ื ื—ื ืš ื‘ืฉื ืช 1938, ืงืจื•ื™ ืขืœ ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื ื“ื‘ืŸ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื”ื ื•ื“ืข ื’'ื•ืŸ ื“. ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ, ื”ื‘ืŸ. ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืžืื–ื•ืจ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืžืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ื•ืœื”. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื•ืœื˜ื™ื ืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ืื“ื ื”ืงื“ืžื•ืŸ ืžืžืขืจื•ืช ื”ืื“ื ื”ืงื“ืžื•ืŸ ื‘ื›ืจืžืœ, ืื•ืกืฃ ืชื›ืฉื™ื˜ื™ ื”ื–ื”ื‘ ืฉื ืชื’ืœื• ื‘ืชืœ ืืœ-ืขื’'ื•ืœ ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืžืฉ, ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉื ื”ื‘ื™ ืžื’ื™ื“ื•, ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ืœื›ื™ืฉ (ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ืขื‘ืจื™ ืงื“ื•ื), ืชื‘ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื”ืกื˜ื•ืงื• ืžืŸ ื”ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ืื•ืžื™ื™ ืžื—'ืจื‘ืช ืืœ-ืžืคื’'ืจ ืฉืœื™ื“ ื™ืจื™ื—ื•, ืกืคื™ื ื™ ืขืฅ ืื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžื”ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื•ืžืฉืงื•ืคื™ ืื‘ืŸ ืžื’ื•ืœืคื™ื, ืžืŸ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ืช ืžื›ื ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืงื‘ืจ. ื‘ืขื‘ืจ ืื›ืกืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื’ื ืืช ืžื’ื™ืœื•ืช ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื”. ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืขื ืชื•ื ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ ื•ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื”ื™ื• ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืžืขื˜ื™ื ื•ื”ืชืจื›ื–ื• ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื“ืช. ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœืคืจื™ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื—ื“ ื’ื™ืกื ื•ืžื—ืงืจ ืžื“ืขื™, ื•ืื™ืกื•ืฃ ืฉืœ ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืžืื™ื“ืš ื’ื™ืกื. ื›ืœ ื–ื” ืขืžื“ ื‘ืกืชื™ืจื” ืœืขื•ืฉืจ ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ืžืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ืข ืžืขื™ืกื•ืงืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื–ื” ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ื—ืฉื™ืคืช ืฆืคื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจ. ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™, ืฉืจืื• ืขืฆืžื ื›ืžืžืฉื™ื›ื™ ื“ืจื›ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื ื•ื›ืŸ ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื’ื™ืœื• ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืจื‘ ื‘ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื˜ื™ืคื•ื— ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื‘ืืจืฅ. ื›ืš ืื™ืจืข ืฉืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื‘ืืจืฅ (ื‘ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืชื•ืจื ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™) ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” โ€“ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ, ืฉืžื‘ื ื”ื• ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืื—ื“ ื”ื™ืคื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1919 ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ืคื˜ืจื™ืง ื’ื“ืก ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืžืชืืจ ืœืขื™ืจ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืฉื ื•ื“ืขื” ื‘ืฉื ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื’ื“ืก, ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื•ืฆืข ืœื”ืงื™ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ืœืžื—ืงืจ ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœื—ื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”. ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ื•ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืืชืจ ื ื™ื˜ืข ื‘ืœื™ื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื’ื“ืก ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืจื™ืก ืฉืฅ ืืœื™ื• ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื’ืฉืช ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืฉืคื•ืจืกื ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ "ื”ืืจืฅ" ื‘ืฉื ืช 1920. ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ื–ื” ืฉื˜ื— ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ืืช ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ื”ืžืงื™ืฃ ืœืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืขื ื”ืชื‘ืกืกื•ืช ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื•ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืงืจ ื”ืžื“ืขื™ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื—ืœื• ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืขืจื ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ื™ ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™. ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืžืคื•ืจื˜ืช ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžืจื›ื– ืžื—ืงืจ ื•ืžืจื›ื– ืœื•ื’ื™ืกื˜ื™ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื•ื’ืฉื” ื‘ืฉื ืช 1924. ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ืžืชื•ื›ื ืŸ ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืœืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืฉืคืขืœื• ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื: "ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืคืจื ืฆื™ืกืงื ื™ ื”ืžืงืจืื™" ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ื‘ืฉื ืช 1902, "ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™" ืฉื”ื•ืงื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1922 ื•"ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืืกืœืื" ืฉื”ื•ืงื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1923 ืขืœ ื”ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืช. ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ ื•ื”ืื’ื™ืคื˜ื•ืœื•ื’ ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ื”ื ืจื™ ื‘ืจืกื˜ื“ ืžื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื”ืื•ืจื™ื™ื ื˜ืœื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ืฉื™ืงื’ื• ื’ื™ืœื” ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ืจ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ ื”ื ื•ื“ืข ื’'ื•ืŸ ื“. ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ, ื”ื‘ืŸ ืœืชืจื•ื ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืœืื—ื–ืงืชื•. ืชืจื•ืžืชื• ืฉืœ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ, ืฉื”ื•ื›ืจื–ื” ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ, ื”ืœื•ืจื“ ื”ืจื‘ืจื˜ ืคืœื•ืžืจ, ื‘-13 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1927, ื ื—ืœืงื” ืœืฉื ื™ื™ื: ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืกื›ื•ื ื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœื”ืงืžืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื•ืžื—ืฆื™ืชื• ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื•ืฉืงืขื” ื‘ืงืจืŸ, ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœืžืžืŸ ืืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืคืช. ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ืžืœืื›ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื ืฉื›ืจื• ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืงื‘ืœื ื™ืช ืืจื ืกื˜ื• ื“ื™ ื' ื“ื” ืคืืจื•. ื—ื‘ืจืช ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ืฉื‘ื™ืฆืขื” ืืช ืžืจื‘ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜. ืœื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื™ื• ืžืฉืจื“ื™ื ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืงื”ื™ืจ ื•ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจื™ื”. ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื‘ื ืชื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืืช ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘, ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื’'ื ืจืœื™, ื›ื ืกื™ื™ืช ืื ื“ืจื• ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ, ื•ืกืœืœื” ืืช ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืžืœืš ื’'ื•ืจื’' ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื•ืขืกืงื• ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ืขืจื‘ื™ื; ืžืชื•ืš ื›-160 ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1931, ืจืง ืฉืžื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืื‘ืŸ ื”ืคื™ื ื” ื”ื•ื ื—ื” ื‘-19 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1930, ื‘ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืกืจ ื’'ื•ืŸ ืฆ'ื ืกืœื•ืจ. ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื‘ื•ืฆืขื” ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ื”ืžื”ื ื“ืก ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืฉืคื™ืจื. ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืืžื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื™ืžืฉืš ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื ื™ื ื”ื™ื ื”ืชืืจื›ื” ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ืฉื›ืœืœื• ืงืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ืืกืคืงืช ืื‘ื ื™ื ืœืฆื™ืคื•ื™ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆืœื”, ื•ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ืœื”ืขืžื™ืง ืืช ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ. ืื™ ืœื›ืš ื ืžืฉื›ื” ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื, ื•ื‘-20 ื‘ืžืื™ 1935 ืขื‘ืจื” ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื” ืจื•ื›ื–ื• ื‘ื• ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืœืงืจืืช ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ืฉืชื•ื›ื ื ื” ืœืื‘ื™ื‘ 1936. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื ืคืชื— ืœืงื”ืœ ื”ืจื—ื‘ ื‘-13 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1938 ื•ื ืงืจื ื‘ืฉื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืฉืœ ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” โ€“ ื"ื™ Palestine Archaeological Museum. ืขื ื”ืงืžืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ืžืขื‘ืจ ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ืืœื™ื•, ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ื”ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื• ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืจืื•ื™ ืœืฉืžื• ื•ืชืงืฆื™ื‘ ื ื“ื™ื‘ ืœืฉื ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื™ื•ื-ื™ื•ืžื™ืช. ื—ื ื•ื›ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื”, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืื—ื“ ื”ืื•ืจื—ื™ื ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ืœืกืœื™ ืกื˜ืจืงื™, ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ ื ื•ื“ืข, ื ืจืฆื— ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ืœื˜ืงืก ื‘ื“ืจืš ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืœื‘ื™ืช ื’ื•ื‘ืจื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื›ื ื•ืคื™ื™ืช ืขืจื‘ื™ื ื—ืžื•ืฉื™ื, ืฉื”ืกืœื™ืžื• ืืช ืžืื•ืจืขื•ืช ืชืจืฆ"ื•โ€“ืชืจืฆ"ื˜ ื•ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืชืงื•ืฃ ื’ื ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ื. ืžื™ื™ืกื“ื™ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœื ื–ื›ื• ืœืจืื•ืชื• ืžืžืœื ืืช ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื•. ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ืขื–ื‘ ืืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื”, ื”ื™ื–ื ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ื”ื ืจื™ ื‘ืจืกื˜ื“ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1935 ืืš ื ืคื˜ืจ ืžื“ืœืงืช ืจื™ืื•ืช ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ืžืžืกืข ืžื—ืงืจ ื‘ืžืฆืจื™ื ื—ื–ืจื” ืœื‘ื™ืชื• ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื•ื”ืชื•ืจื ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžืงื•ื. ืžื™ืงื•ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืืชืจ ืฉื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ื”ื™ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื‘ืฉื ื›ืจื ื-ืฉื™ื™ื—' ืขืœ ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ืฉื™ื™ื—' ืžื•ื—ืžื“ ืืœ-ื—'ืœื™ืœื™ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื•ื ื™, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืคืชื™ ื”ืฉืืคืขื™ ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืžืื” ื”-17. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1711 ื‘ื ื” ื‘ืืชืจ ื–ื”, ืขืœ ื’ื‘ืขื” ืžื•ืœ ื”ืคื™ื ื” ื”ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืžื•ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืืช ืžืขื•ืŸ ื”ืงื™ืฅ ืฉืœื• โ€“ ื”ืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื’ื ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-21. ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ื•ื‘ื• ืฉื›ื ื” ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืฉื™ืžื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช. ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื”ื•ื ืื—ื“ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื ื• ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื—ื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”. ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ืงื•ืžื•ืช โ€“ ืงื•ืžืช ื”ืงืจืงืข ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื™ืžืฉื” ื‘ื™ืช-ื‘ื“, ื•ื”ืงื•ืžื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืงื•ืžืช ื”ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื. ืฉื™ื—' ืืœ-ื—'ืœื™ืœื™ ื”ื™ื” ืคืขื™ืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื”ื™ื• ืœื• ืžื™ื–ืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื. ื”ื•ื ืขื•ื“ื“ ืจื‘ื™ื ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ื‘ืชื™ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื—ื•ืžื•ืช ื•ื‘ื–ืžื ื• ื”ื™ื• ื›ืžืื” ืงึทืกึฐืจื™ื (ืืจืžื•ื ื•ืช ืงื™ืฅ). ื”ืฉื™ื™ื—' ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืืชื• ืฉื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœื—ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ืง ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื‘ืขื•ื ืช ื”ืงื™ืฅ, ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืฉื•ืคืขืช ื‘ืžื’ืคื•ืช ื•ื‘ื–ื™ื”ื•ืžื™ื ืฉื ืคื•ืฆื• ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื—ื•ืžื•ืช, ื ื•ืกืคื” ื”ืฉืื™ืคื” ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืคื™ืชื•ื— ื—ืงืœืื™ ื•ืืฃ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ื ื™ โ€“ ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื•ืขืœ ื”ืืจืฅ ืžืคื ื™ ื—ื“ื™ืจืช ื–ืจื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1906 ืชื›ื ื ื” ื”ืงืจืŸ ื”ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืจื›ื•ืฉ ืืช ืงืฆืจ ืืœ-ืฉื™ื—' โ€“ ื”ืืชืจ ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื•ืงื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ โ€“ ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื‘ื ื•ืช ืขืœื™ื• ืืช ื”ืืงื“ืžื™ื” ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื•ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ "ื‘ืฆืœืืœ", ืœืคื™ ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืจื™ืก ืฉืฅ, ืฉืจืฆื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ื‘ืืชืจ ืžื›ืœื•ืœ ืฉืœ "ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื" ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื โ€“ ืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื•ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืฆื™ื•ืŸ ืคื•ืขืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืขืœ ื”ื’ื‘ืขื” ืฉืžืžื ื” "ื™ื—ืœื•ืฉ ื”ืžื‘ื˜ ืขืœ ืžืงื•ื ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ". ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื”, ื”ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ื”ืœื ืชื›ืœื™ืชื™ ืžืฆื“ ื”ื”ื ื”ื’ื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ื”ืขืœืช ื”ืžื—ื™ืจ ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืžื’ืจืฉ ืœื”ื›ืฉืœืช ื”ืขืกืงื”. ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ืžื™ืงื•ื ื–ื” ื ืขืฉืชื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคื™ืœื™ืค ืœื ื’ืกื˜ืฃ ืื•ืจื“ ื’ื™ื ืืฉืจ ืฉื™ืžืฉ ื›ืžื ื”ืœ ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืฉืœ ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ื•ืจื™ืช. ื’ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื–ื” ืฉื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื”ืงื™ืžื• ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ื ื™ืฆื‘ ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ืงื™ืžื• ื‘ืžื’ืจืฉ ื”ืกืžื•ืš ืœืžืœื•ืŸ ื”ืžืœืš ื“ื•ื“ (ืžืงื•ื ืฉื ื™ืฆื‘ ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื”ื™ื‘ืจื• ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืŸ ืงื•ืœื’'). ืœื™ืžื™ื, ื”ืฆื˜ืขืจ ืขืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ื–ื•, ืฉื›ืŸ ื‘ืขื˜ื™ื” ื ื•ืชืจ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ื•ืจื™ืช, ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ืฉืœื™ื˜ืชื” ืฉืœ ื™ืจื“ืŸ. ืื–ื•ืจ ื›ืจื ืืœ ืฉื™ื™ื—' ื”ื™ื” ื—ืœืง ืžื ืงืจื•ืคื•ืœื™ืก โ€“ ืฉื“ื” ืงื‘ืจื™ื ืื“ื™ืจ ืžืžื“ื™ื ืฉื”ืงื™ืฃ ืืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ ื—ื•ืงืจื™ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื™ื ืขืžื“ื• ืขืœ ืงื™ื•ืžื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืงื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืง ื•ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ ื”ื™ื“ื•ืข ืฉืืจืœ ืงืœืจืžื•ืŸ-ื’ื ื• ืกืงืจ ืืช ื”ืืชืจ ื•ืชื™ืืจ ืžืขืจื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ื•ืกืจืงื•ืคื’ื™ื ืฉื ืžืฆืื• ื‘ื•. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ืขืจื›ื” ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ "ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆืœื”" ื‘ื˜ืจื ื™ื•ืงื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ืืœื• ื ืชื’ืœื• ืžืขืจื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืจื”, ืงื‘ืจื™ื ื•ืืจื•ื ื•ืช ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ืžื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช ื•ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ืช. ื‘ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆืœื” ืฉื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื ืช 2001 ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื”ื ื—ืช ืงื• ื‘ื™ื•ื‘ ื ื—ืฉืคื• ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืงื‘ืจื™ื ื•ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืกื˜ืŸ ืกื™ื™ื ื˜ ื‘ืืจื‘ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ, ืžื ื”ืœ ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ื•ืจื™ืช, ืฉื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ืชื›ื ืŸ, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ, ืืช ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘, ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื“ื•ืืจ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื•ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื“ืคื™ืก ื”ืžืžืฉืœืชื™. ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื™ืฆื ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ืœืกื™ื•ืจ ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื•ื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืžืกืคืจ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื›ื•ืœืŸ ืžื‘ื ื” ืฉื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื• ื—ืฆืจ ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช. ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1927 ื”ืฉืœื™ื ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ, ื•ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืืฃ ื”ื•ืงื ืžื“ื•ืจ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืชืคืงื™ื“ื• ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื”ืœ ืืช ื‘ื ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืœ ื–ืžืŸ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืฉื”ื” ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืš ืขื ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช โ€“ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื ืช 1937, ืขื•ื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื” ื”ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ืขื–ื‘ ืืช ื”ืืจืฅ, ืืœื™ื” ืœื ืฉื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ืืœืžื ื˜ ืžืขื•ืจืจ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ืžื’ื“ืœ ื”ืžืชื•ืžืŸ ื”ืžืชื ืฉื ืžืขืœ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื ื”ื“ืคื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืจืกื˜ื“ โ€“ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ืฆื™ื’ื• ืฉืœ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ื‘ืคืจื•ื™ืงื˜, ืฉืจืื” ื‘ืžื’ื“ืœ ื—ืœืง ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืคืจื“ ืžื”ืžื‘ื ื”, ืืš ื“ืจืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ืžื’ื“ืœ ืœื ื™ืชื—ืจื” ื‘ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื—ื™ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืžืกื’ื“ื™ื ืฉื‘ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”. ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ืžืชื•ืžื ืช ื”ื™ื ืืœืžื ื˜ ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ ืžื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ืช, ืฉืžืงื•ืจื•ืชื™ื• ื ืขื•ืฆื™ื, ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื”, ื‘ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื ื•ืžื ื˜ืœื™ ืฉืœ ื›ื™ืคืช ื”ืกืœืข, ื•ื‘ืื™ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื‘ื›ื ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื”. ืืœืžื ื˜ ื–ื” ืžืฉืชืงืฃ ื‘ืžื’ื“ืœื™ื ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ ื•ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ โ€“ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืงืžื• ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™, ืฉืจืื” ืขืฆืžื• ื›ืžืžืฉื™ืš ื“ืจื›ื ื”ื™ืฉื™ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื. ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ืœืžื ื”ืœ ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ืžื™ื•ื ื”-28 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1928 ืžืกืคืจ ื‘ืจืกื˜ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืชืจืฉืžื•ืชื• ืžื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื•ืžืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ ืืฆื™ืœื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ืฆืข, ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ื• ื”ืžื›ื•ื‘ื“ ื•ื”ืžืื•ืคืง ืขื•ืจืจื• ื‘ื• ื”ืชืคืขืœื•ืช. ืขืœ ืคื™ ืชืคื™ืกืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ, ืชืคื™ืกื” ืฉื‘ืื” ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื’ื ื‘ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘, ื ื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ื•ืช. ื›ืš ืฉื•ืœื‘ื• ื‘ืžื‘ื ื” ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืฉืœ ื’ื’ื•ืช ืžืขื•ื˜ืจื™ื ื‘ื›ื™ืคื•ืช โ€“ ื•ืืœื• ื—ื•ื–ืงื• ื‘ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ืžื–ื•ื™ืŸ. ืกื™ืชื•ืช ื”ืื‘ืŸ ื‘ืฉื™ื˜ื•ืช ื•ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ืžืงื•ืžื™ ื ืชืžืš ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืงื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ืŸ ื•ืงื•ื ืกื˜ืจื•ืงืฆื™ื™ืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ. ืžืขืจื›ืช ืืกืคืงืช ื”ืžื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ืŸ ื ืขืฉืชื” โ€“ ื›ื›ืœ ื‘ื ื™ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ื‘ืืจืฅ ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื” โ€“ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื‘ื•ืจื•ืช ืื’ื™ืจื”. ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ืžืจื•ื‘ื” ื ื™ืชื ื” ืœืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื”, ื•ื–ื• ื ื™ื›ืจืช ื‘ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืจืžืช ื”ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื, ื”ืžื™ื™ื—ื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ. ืœืฆื™ืคื•ื™ ืงื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ื—ืจ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ื‘ืื‘ืŸ ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช ืฉืฆื‘ืขื” ืœื‘ืŸ, ื•ืžืงื•ืจื” ื›ื ืจืื” ื‘ืžื—ืฆื‘ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื“ืจืš ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืœื™ืจื™ื—ื•. ื”ืื‘ืŸ ืžืกื•ืชืชืช ื‘ืกื™ืชื•ืช "ืชืœื˜ื™ืฉ" ื•ืื™ืœื• ืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ื” ืžืกื•ืชืชื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืชื•ืช ืขื“ื™ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ื ื™ืชื ื” ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืขืฅ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ โ€“ ื”ื“ืœืชื•ืช ืขืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืฅ ืื’ื•ื– ืฉื™ื•ื‘ื ืžื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”. ืžืกื’ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืชื›ืช ืœื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจื• ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืœืคื™ ื”ื•ืจืื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ื•ื›ืš ื’ื ืคืจื˜ื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืชื›ืช ื”ื“ืงื•ืจื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื”ื ื”ื™ื“ื™ื•ืช, ื”ืžื ืขื•ืœื™ื ื•ื”ื‘ืจื™ื—ื™ื. ื“ืœืชื•ืช ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืฉื‘ืฉืขืจ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ (ืžืฉืงืœืŸ ื›-700 ืง"ื’) ืฆื•ืคื• ื‘ืœื•ื—ื•ืช ื ื—ื•ืฉืช ืžืขื•ื˜ืจื™ื ื‘ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืžื”ืื•ืžื ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ืฆืคื•ืŸ ืืคืจื™ืงื” โ€“ ืžื•ื˜ื™ื‘ ืฉืœ ืืจื‘ืขื” ืžืœื‘ื ื™ื. ื‘ืจื™ืฆื•ืฃ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื ืขืฉื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื: ื‘ื—ืœืœื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ืชืงืจื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื ื‘ื ืชื” ืจืฆืคื” ืฉืœ ืœื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืขื ืฉืขืžืขืžื• ืืช ืจืขืฉ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื. ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ืจื•ืฆืคื• ื”ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ื‘ืœื•ื—ื•ืช ืื‘ืŸ ื’ื™ืจ ื•ื‘ื—ืœืœื™ื ืฉืœื ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื ืขืฉื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืžืจืฆืคื•ืช ืžืœื˜. ืงื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื—ื•ืคื• ืžื‘ืคื ื™ื ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื’ืก ืขืฉื•ื™ ื’ืจื’ืจื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื. ื›ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ืฉื ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื ืขืฉื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืื•ืจ ื”ืฉืžืฉ ืœืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ืชืื•ืจื”. ื›ืš ื ื‘ื ื• ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื•ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ืงืžื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืงื ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืจื•ืช ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืืคืฉืจ ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืžืงืกื™ืžืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ืื•ืจ, ื•ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืงืจื™ื ื” ื™ืฉื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื. ื‘ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื•ื‘ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ืžืงืฉืจื™ื ืืช ืื’ืคื™ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืชืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืžืŸ ื”ืชืงืจื” ื ื‘ืจืฉื•ืช ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช, ื”ืžืขื•ืฆื‘ื•ืช ื›ื’ื•ืคื™ื ืžืจื•ื‘ื™ ืฆืœืขื•ืช ืื• ื›ื›ื“ื•ืจื™ื. ื”ืคืกืœ ื•ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ื’ืจืฃ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืืจื™ืง ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื•ื–ืžืŸ ืžืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืขืฆื‘ ืืช ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื˜ ื•ืื—ื“ ืขืฉืจ ืชื‘ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืื‘ืŸ ื”ืžืงืฉื˜ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ืžืขืœ ืœืฉืขืจ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืชืœื•ื™ ืœื•ื— ื•ื‘ื• ืชื™ืื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืขืฅ ืขื‘ื•ืช ื”ืฆื•ืžื— ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืกื™ื” ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื•ืžืฆื™ื’ ืืช ืžืคื’ืฉ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืฉืงืฃ ืืช ื”ืชืคื™ืกื” ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ื”ืจื•ืื” ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื’ืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืกื•ืคื•ื˜ืžื™ื” ืœืžืฆืจื™ื. ืžืฉื ื™ ืขื‘ืจื™ ื”ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ื ืงื‘ืขื• ืขืฉืจื” ืชื‘ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืื‘ืŸ ืžืจื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื”ืžืชืืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื˜ื‘ื™ืขื• ืืช ื—ื•ืชืžืŸ ืขืœ ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ: ื›ื ืขืŸ, ืžืฆืจื™ื, ื™ื”ื•ื“ื”, ืคื™ื ื™ืงื™ื”, ืืฉื•ืจ-ื‘ื‘ืœ, ื™ื•ื•ืŸ, ืจื•ืžื™, ื‘ื™ื–ื ื˜ื™ื•ืŸ, ืืกืœืื ื•ื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ื. ืขืœ ืงื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืื‘ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื ื—ืงืงื• ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื‘ืฆื‘ืข ืื“ื•ื ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉืคื•ืช ืื ื’ืœื™ืช, ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ืขืจื‘ื™ืช. ื”ืกื’ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื•ืช ื ืฉืžืข ืžืขื˜ ืืจื›ืื™: "ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจื™ื", "ื”ืžืฉื•ืžืŸ (ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžืชื•ืžืŸ) ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™", "ืžืœื‘ื•ืฉื™ื" (ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžืœืชื—ื”), ื•ื›ื“ื•ืžื”. ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื•ืช, ื’ื ื”ื™ื, ื ืจืื™ืช ืžืฉื•ื ื”. ืืจื™ืง ื’ื™ืœ ืœื ื™ื“ืข ืฆื•ืจืช ืื•ืช ืขื‘ืจื™ืช. ืืช ื”ื”ืฉืจืื” ืœืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžืŸ ื”ืื•ืชื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืคื™ืขื•ืช ื‘ื›ืชื•ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ืขื•ื–ื™ื” ืžืœืš ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืฉื”ืชื’ืœืชื” ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืื•ืคื™ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืฉืืœืช ืื•ืคื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื‘ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื”ื™ื” ื ืชื•ืŸ ืœืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื ื”ืœ ื”ืžืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ื’'ื•ืŸ ืื™ื™ืœื™ืฃ, ืฉื’ืจืก ื›ื™ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื’ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืืชื ื•ื’ืจืคื™ ืขืจื‘ื™, ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืกื˜ื“ ืฉื”ืชื ื’ื“ ืœื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื•, ื•ื‘ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ื‘ืื•ืคื™ ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื•, ื•ืœื ื™ื•ืฆื’ื• ื‘ื• ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ื, ื‘ื™ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืื• ืืชื ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื™ื. ื”ืื•ืกืฃ ืขืฆืžื• ื ื‘ื ื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืงืจื™ ื•ื”ื•ื ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ ืืช ื”ื—ืคืฆื™ื ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ืฉื ืชื’ืœื• ื‘ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื•ืช ืฉื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืจืืฉื™ืช ื”ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื โ€“ ืฉื•ืžืจื•ืŸ, ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืืŸ, ืœื›ื™ืฉ, ืžื’ื™ื“ื•, ืชืœ ื‘ื™ืช ืžื™ืจืกื™ื, ืืฉืงืœื•ืŸ, ื•ืืชืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžืฆื™ื’ ืžืžืฆืื™ื ื”ื—ืœ ืžื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืคืจื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืžื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช ื ื—ืœ ืžืขืจื•ืช, ื•ืขื“ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื. ืืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ืžืกื•ื“ืจื™ื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืกื™ืžื˜ืจื™ ื•ื‘ื”ืŸ ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื”ื—ืคืฆื™ื ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ื™ื ืœืงื”ืœ. ื‘ืืจื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืžืชื—ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื˜ืจื™ื ื•ืช ืžืื•ื—ืกื ื™ื ื—ืคืฆื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ืฉืžืงื•ืจื ื‘ืื•ืชืŸ ื”ื—ืคื™ืจื•ืช. ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืžืืช ืื™ืชืŸ ื“ื•ืจ-ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ื—ืœืงื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื”ื“ื—ืงืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ื”ืคืŸ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื‘ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื”ืงื‘ื•ืขื”, ืžื•ื‘ื ื”ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื ืขืœ ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ: ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื”ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ื”ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืขื•ืงืคืช ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืืช ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช. ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื›ืœ ืฉืืจ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ื–ื•ื›ื•ืช ืœื”ื’ื“ืจื” ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ืœืคื™ ืžื™ ืฉืฉืœื˜ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ (ืžื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ื›ื ืขื ื™ืช ื•ืขื“ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืื™ืกืœืืžื™ืช ืื• ื”ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ืช), ื™ืžื™ ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื ื›ืืŸ ื“ื•ื•ืงื "ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื‘ืจื–ืœ", ื•ืชืงื•ืคืช ื‘ื™ืช ืฉื ื™ ื ืงืจืืช ืจืง "ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืคืจืกื™ืช ื•ื”ื”ืœื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช". ืขืœ ืคื™ ืื•ืชื• ื”ื™ื’ื™ื•ืŸ, ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžื•ื›ืชืจืช ื‘ืฉื "ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ". ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ื”ื•ื ืื•ืœื™ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื ืฉื›ื—, ืฉืœื ืœื•ืžืจ ืžื•ื–ื ื—, ืืš ืฉืžื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื• ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื ื›ืกื™ ื”ืœืื•ื ื”ื ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœื ื•. ืืคื™ืœื• ื ืชืขืœื ืžื”ื”ืชื•ื•ื™ื” ื”ืžื’ืžืชื™ืช ืฉืชื™ืืจื ื•, ื™ืจื•ืฉื” ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ (ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื˜ "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืŸ" ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื•ื”ืฆื’ืช ืžื˜ื‘ืขื•ืช ื—ืฉืžื•ื ืื™ื™ื ืชื—ืช ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช "ืžื˜ื‘ืขื•ืช ืคืœืกื˜ื™ืŸ"), ืžื” ืืžื•ืจ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื ื ืชืงืœ ื‘ืืงืจืื™ ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ืœื›ื™ืฉ โ€“ ืžืžืžืฆืื™ ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื” ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื โ€“ ืžื•ื ื—ื™ื ื‘ืขืจื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื” ื‘ืืจื•ืŸ ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ืื—ื“ ืขื ืขืจื™ืžืช ืชื›ืฉื™ื˜ื™ื, ืžืฉืงื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื’ืจื–ื ื™ื ืขืชื™ืงื™ื? ืžื” ืื•ืžืจ ื”ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ื–ื” ืขืœ ืขืจื›ื ืฉืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ืœื›ื™ืฉ? ื•ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื“ื•ื’ืžื” ืื—ืช ืžื ื™ ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœื ื˜ืจื•ืœ ื”ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™ ืฉืœ ืชืคืงื™ื“ื ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™-ืœืื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืฆืื™ื ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื‘ืžืงื•ื. ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ื ื™ื”ื•ืœื• ืžืฉื”ืชืงืจื‘ ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ืœืงื™ืฆื• ื•ืžืชื•ืš ืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœ ืื•ืคื™ื• ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืœืžื ื•ืช ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื ืืžื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืฉื‘ื™ื“ื™ื” ื”ื•ืคืงื“ ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช ื•ืืงื“ืžื™ื•ืช ืœืžื“ืขื™ื ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ. ื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ื ืืžื ื™ื ืžื˜ืขื ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืคืจื•ืค' ืืœืขื–ืจ ืœื™ืคื ืกื•ืงื ื™ืง. ืกื•ืงื ื™ืง ืชื•ืฉื‘ ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื” ืœื ื–ื›ื” ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื ืืžื ื™ื ื–ื•. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ื›ื‘ืฉ ื”ืœื’ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™ ืืช ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ื›ื›ืœ ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื•ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื”. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ื•ืœืื ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžืœืš ื—ื•ืกื™ื™ืŸ ื‘-1966 ื•ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ื ืืžื ื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœืกื™ื•ืžื”. ืชื—ืช ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื™ืจื“ื ื™ ื ื›ื ืก ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœ "ืชื ื•ืžื”" ื•ืงื™ืคืื•ืŸ. ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืฉื ื—ืคืจื• ื‘ื’ื“ื” ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื™ืจื“ืŸ ื‘ืขืžืืŸ, ื•ื”ื‘ื•ืœื˜ืช ื‘ื”ื ื”ื™ื ืžื’ื™ืœืช ื”ื ื—ื•ืฉืช ืžืŸ ืžื’ื™ืœื•ืช ืžื“ื‘ืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื”. ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ืœื ืขื•ื“ื›ื ื” ืžืื– ืชื•ื ื”ืžื ื“ื˜ ื•ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืœื ื”ืชืขื“ื›ื ื•. ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™ื ื˜ืจื—ื• ื•ื”ื“ื‘ื™ืงื• ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื“ื‘ื™ืงื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื—ืœืง ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ ื‘ืฉืœื˜ื™ื ืžืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืžื ื“ื˜. ื’ื ื›ืกืคื™ ื”ืงืจืŸ ืœืชืคืขื•ืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื”ื•ืœืืžื• ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื•ืช. ื‘ืžืœื—ืžืช ืฉืฉืช ื”ื™ืžื™ื, ื‘-5 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1967, ื—ืฆื• ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื• ื”ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™ ื•ื›ื‘ืฉื• ืืช ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื ื™ ืœืžืœื—ืžื”, 6 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™, ื’ื“ื•ื“ 28 ืฉืœ ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช ื”ืฆื ื—ื ื™ื 55 ืคืจืฅ ื“ืจืš ืฉื˜ื— ื”ื”ืคืงืจ ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืงืจื‘ ืขืงื•ื‘ ืžื“ื ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ืฉืขืจ ืฉื›ื, ื‘ืงื˜ืข ืฉื›ื•ื ื” "ืกืžื˜ืช ื”ืžื•ื•ืช", ื”ืชืงื“ื ืืœ ืžืชื—ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ื›ื‘ืฉ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉืขื” 07:30 ืœืื—ืจ ืงืจื‘ ืงืฆืจ. ื”ืืชืจ ืฉื™ืžืฉ ืžื™ื“ ืœื—ืค"ืง ืฉืœ ืžืคืงื“ ื”ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ื”, ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ื’ื•ืจ, ืืœื™ื• ื”ืชืœื•ื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืžื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ืฉื“ืื’ื• ืœืฉืœื•ื ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ื™ืงืจื™ ื”ืขืจืš ืฉื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช ืขื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ-ืคื™ื”ืŸ ืขื ืคืจื•ืฅ ื”ืœื—ื™ืžื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื ืขืจื›ื• ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™ื ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžืžืฆืื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืœื™ืจื“ืŸ, ืืš ืœื ื”ืกืคื™ืงื•. ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืชื—ืช ืืฉ ืฆืœืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื‘ื ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™ ื‘ืขืช ืฉืžืคืงื“ ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช ื”ืฆื ื—ื ื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช ืžืคื™ืงื•ื“ ื”ืžืจื›ื– ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืช ืขื•ื–ื™ ื ืจืงื™ืก: "ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื™ ืœื›ืชืจ ืืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื•ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžืฆื‘ ืœื›ื ื™ืขืชื”. ืœื—ืœื•ืคื™ืŸ ื™ื™ืชืŸ ื”ื›ื™ืชื•ืจ ืงืจืฉ ืงืคื™ืฆื” ืœื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืขื™ืจ". ืขืœ ื”ืฆื ื—ื ื™ื ื”ื•ื˜ืœ ืœื”ืชืืจื’ืŸ ื‘ืžืชื—ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ืฉื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืคืงื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžืจื“ื›ื™ ื’ื•ืจ ื•ืœื”ืชื›ื•ื ืŸ ืœื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืžื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžืชื—ื ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ื” ื•ื™ืงื˜ื•ืจื™ื”. ื‘ืฉืขื” 19:00 ื™ืฆื ื›ื•ื— ืžื’ื“ื•ื“ 28 ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืจื›ืก, ืืš ื˜ืขื” ื‘ืคื ื™ื™ื” ื•ื ื›ื ืก ืœืžืืจื‘ ื™ืจื“ื ื™ ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืฉืขืจ ื”ืืจื™ื•ืช. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงืจื‘ ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ ื—ื–ืจ ื”ื›ื•ื— ืœืžืชื—ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื”ื™ื•ื ืงืจืกื” ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™ืช, ื•ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื ื•ืชืจื• ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื”ืชื ื’ื“ ืœืžื”ืœืš ื”ื”ืชืงืคื™ ื”ื‘ื, ื•ืœืื—ืจ ื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืจ ื”ื–ื™ืชื™ื ื ื•ืชืจื• ืžื›ื•ืชืจื™ื ื•ืขื ืžืขื˜ ืชื—ืžื•ืฉืช. ื‘ืฉืขื” 9:45 ื™ืฆืื• ื”ืฆื ื—ื ื™ื ืžืžืชื—ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื•ืคืจืฆื• ืืœ ืชื•ืš ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื“ืจืš ืฉืขืจ ื”ืืจื™ื•ืช. ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื•ืš ื”ืงืจื‘ื•ืช, ื‘ื—ืกื•ืช ื”ืฆื‘ื, ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ืคืจื•ืค' ืื‘ืจื”ื ื‘ื™ืจืŸ, ืฉืฉื™ืžืฉ ืื– ืžื ื”ืœ ืื’ืฃ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™, ืคืจื•ืค' ื ื—ืžืŸ ืื‘ื™ื’ื“ ืžื”ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ื™ื•ืกืฃ ืื‘ื™ืจื, ืžื ื”ืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ืœื—ืงื™ืจืช ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืขืชื™ืงื•ืชื™ื”. ื ืžืฆื ืฉื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืขืœ ืชืฆื•ื’ืชื•, ืžื—ืกื ื™ื• ื•ืกืคืจื™ื™ืชื• ื ื™ื–ื•ืง ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžื•ืขื˜ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ื”ืงืจื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ืชื ื”ืœื• ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื•. ื‘-2 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1968, ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืฉืฉืช ื”ื™ืžื™ื, ื ืคืชื—ื” ื”ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ื”ื™ื ื ืงืจืื” "ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ืงื“ื•ืžื™ื ื‘ืขืžืง ื”ื™ืจื“ืŸ" ื•ื›ืœืœื” ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืžืชืœ ื™ืจื™ื—ื• ืฉืขืจ ื”ื’ื•ืœืŸ, ืชืœ ืขืœื™ ื•ื—ื•ืจื‘ืช ืžื ื—ื” ืœื™ื“ ืงื™ื‘ื•ืฅ ื’ืฉืจ. ื”ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ื›ืœืœื” ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืžื—ืคื™ืจื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืงืชืœื™ืŸ ืงื ื™ื•ืŸ, ืžืฉื” ืฉื˜ืงืœื™ืก ื–'ืืŸ ืคืจื• ื•ืžืฉื” ืคืจืื•ืกื ื™ืฅ. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1973 ื”ื•ืคื™ืข ืกืคืจ ื™ืœื“ื™ื "ืžืกืข ื”ืืจื™ื•ืช" ืžืืช ืจื™ื ื” ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ, ืฉืžืกืคืจ ืขืœ ื ืขืจ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจ ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ื•ืคื•ื’ืฉ ืืจื™ื•ืช ืžืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืฉื ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืžืชื—ื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืขื•ืœื™ื ืžื”ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื”ืขื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœื—ื•ืžืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื•ืงืจื•ื™ "ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืฆื ื—ื ื™ื" ืขืœ ืฉื ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ืช ื”ืฆื ื—ื ื™ื ืฉื ืœื—ืžื” ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืžืœื—ืžืช ืฉืฉืช ื”ื™ืžื™ื. ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืฉืฆื•ืจืชื” ืืœื™ืคื˜ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืชืจืขืช ืžื•ืœ ื”ื—ื–ื™ืช ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉืฆื•ืจืชื• ื›ืžืฆื•ื“ื” ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ืช-ืฆืœื‘ื ื™ืช. ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืขืœ-ืคื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื›ืžืขื˜ ืกื™ืžื˜ืจื™ืช. ืฆื™ืจื• ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืžืฉืขืจ ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื“ืจืš ื—ืฆืจ ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช, ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื ื‘ื ื• ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื”ืžืœื‘ื ื™ื™ื. ื—ืฆืจ ื–ื• ืฉื™ืžืฉื” ื”ืฉืจืื” ืœื—ืฆืจ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืžืฉื ื™ ืฆื“ื™ ืื•ืœื ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ ื™ื•ืฆืื•ืช ืฉืชื™ ื–ืจื•ืขื•ืช ืืœื›ืกื•ื ื™ื•ืช: ื‘ืื—ืช ื ืžืฆืืช ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื”, ื•ื‘ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืื•ืœื ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื. ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžืคื’ืฉ ืฉืœ ืื•ืœื ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืขื ื”ื–ืจื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืืœื›ืกื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื•ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื”, ื‘ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื—ืœืœื™ื ืžืชื•ืžื ื™ื ืฉื‘ืฆืœืขื•ืชื™ื”ื ื’ื•ืžื—ื•ืช ืœืชืฆื•ื’ื” ืฉืœ ื—ืคืฆื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื. ื—ื“ืจื™ ื”ืžื ื”ืœื” ื•ื”ืžืฉืจื“ื™ื ื ื‘ื ื• ืœืื•ืจื›ื ืฉืœ ืžืกื“ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฆืจื™ื ื•ืืจื•ื›ื™ื. ืขืฅ ื”ืื•ืจืŸ ื”ืขืชื™ืง ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ื—' ืืœ-ื—ืœื™ืœื™ ื•ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื“ื•-ืงื•ืžืชื™ ืงืฆืจ ืืœ-ืฉื™ื—' ื ืฉืžืจื• ื•ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ื—ืœืงื• ื”ืื—ื•ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื”. ืขืฅ ื”ืื•ืจืŸ ืงืจืก ื‘ืฉืœื’ ืฉืœ ืฉื ืช 2000. ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื”ืจืืฉื™ืช ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืฉืขืจ ืจื—ื‘, ืฉืืœื™ื• ืขื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ ื’ืจืžื™ ืžื“ืจื’ื•ืช ื™ืฉืจื™ื ืžื™ืžื™ืŸ ื•ืžืฉืžืืœ. ืžืขืœ ืื•ืœื ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื ื™ืฉื ืžื’ื“ืœ ื”ืฆืจื™ื— ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืฉืฆื•ืจืชื• ืžืชื•ืžื ืช ื•ืขืœ ืจืืฉื• ื›ืชืจ ืขื ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ืื‘ืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ื›ื™ื–ืืŸ. ื‘ืžื’ื“ืœ ื ืงื‘ืขื• ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ื“ืžื” ื”ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื‘ืืจื•ืง ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ืช. ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื—ืฆืจ ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช, ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืกื“ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืœืคื™ ืกื“ืจ ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ืžื’ื•ื‘ืฉ. ื”ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ืžืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืชื‘ื ื™ืช ืžืœื‘ื ื™ืช, ืชืงืจื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื•ืช ื•ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื ืงื‘ืขื• ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืชืงืจื” ื•ืžื›ื ื™ืกื™ื ืื•ืจ ื™ื•ื ืžืจื•ื›ืš. ืชืงืจืช ื”ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ืขื•ืฆื‘ื” ืชื•ืš ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืžื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืจื•ืžื™ืช. ื”ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช, ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช, ื”ื™ื ืžืจื›ื– ื”ื›ื•ื‘ื“ ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžื‘ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ื—ืฆืจ ื–ื• ืžืฆื•ื™ื” ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ืฆื™ืจ ื”ืื•ืจืš ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื•ืžืฉืชืจืขืช ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžืคืœืกื™ื ืžื“ื•ืจื’ื™ื. ื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžืคืœืก ื”ื ืžื•ืš ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ืฉื ื” ื‘ืจื™ื›ืช ื ื•ื™ ืžืœื‘ื ื™ืช ื”ื ื™ื–ื•ื ื” ืžืžื™ ื‘ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืื’ื™ืจื” ื”ืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืงืฆื•ืชื™ื”. ื”ื—ืฆืจ ืชื—ื•ืžื” ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืื›ืกื“ืจืื•ืช ืฉื”ืŸ ืžืงืฉืชื™ื (ืืจืงื“ื•ืช) ื‘ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืงืœื•ื™ืกื˜ืจ ืฉืœ ืžื ื–ืจ ืžื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื. ื‘ืžืคืชื—ื™ ื”ืงืฉืชื•ืช ืžื•ืฆื‘ื™ื ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืจืงื•ืคื’ื™ื ื”ืจื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžืชืœ ืžื‘ื•ืจืš ื•ืžืชื•ืจืžื•ืก ืขื™ื. ื‘ืงืฆื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื›ื” ืžืฆื•ื™ ื—ื“ืจื•ืŸ ืงื˜ืŸ ื”ื“ื•ืžื” ืœืžื—ืจืื‘ โ€“ ื’ื•ืžื—ื” ื‘ืงื™ืจ ืžืกื’ื“, ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืืœ ืžื›ื” (ืžึทื›ึทึผื” ืืœึฐืžึปื›ึทืจึทึผืžึทื”), ืืœื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืžื•ืกืœืžื™ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ื‘ืขืช ื”ืชืคื™ืœื”. ืงื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ื•ืžื—ื” ืžื—ื•ืคื™ื ื‘ืืจื™ื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ืงืจืžื™ืงื” ืืจืžื ื™ืช, ื”ื ื•ืฉืืช ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื ื ื˜ื•ืจื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื™ื. ื‘ื—ืœืœ ื–ื” ื”ื•ืชืงื ื” ืžื–ืจืงื”, ืฉืคื•ืจืงื” ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจื“ื ื™, ืฉืžื™ืžื™ื” ืžื™ืœืื• ื‘ืจื™ื›ื” ืžืชื•ืžื ืช ืงื˜ื ื”. ื”ื”ืฉืจืื” ืœื—ืฆืจ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ื‘ืื” ืžืืจืžื•ืŸ ืืœื”ืžื‘ืจื” ื‘ื’ืจื ื“ื” ืฉื‘ืกืคืจื“, ืืชืจ ืžื•ืจืฉืช ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื•ืื—ื“ ืžืฉื™ืื™ ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ืืกืœืืžื™ืช. ื—ืฆืจ ื–ื• ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ื™ื ืขืœ ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ "ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ื™ื" ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื™ื ืงืฉืจื• ืืช ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ืœืื•ืคื™ ื”ื™ืจื•ืฉืœืžื™ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ืืœืžื ื˜ื™ื ืžื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื•ืœื˜ื™ื, ื•ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืฆืจ ืžืฉืงืฃ ื•ืžืฆื˜ื˜ ืžืชื•ืš ืžืื’ืจ ื”ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ. ื‘ืžืืžืจ ืฉืœ ืžื™ื›ื” ืœื•ื™ืŸ (ืžืจืฆื” ื‘ืคืงื•ืœื˜ื” ืœืื“ืจื™ื›ืœื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื›ื ื™ื•ืŸ) ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื›ื™: โ€ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ืžืจื•ืงืคืœืจ, ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืขืฆื ื˜ื‘ืขื• ืื™ื ื• ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ืœืงื”ืœ ื”ืจื—ื‘. ื‘ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ ืกื•ื’ ื”ืื‘ืŸ ื”ื›ืื™ืœื• ืขืชื™ืงื”, ื”ืฆืžื—ื™ื™ื” ื•ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืžืขื ื™ืงื™ื ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื ื•ืคืš ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ื—ื ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช "ืงืจื”" ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•"ืœื ื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืชื™ืช", ื•ืขื ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื ืžืงืจื™ื ื” ื”ื•ื“ ื•ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ื•ืช, ื•ืžื“ื’ื™ืฉื” ืืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื‘ื ื”.โ€ ื”ืื•ืœื ื‘ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ืงื•ืžื•ืช ื ื‘ื ื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืื™ืจื•ื— ืฉืœ ื›ื ืกื™ื ืžื“ืขื™ื™ื. ืžืชื—ืช ืœืžืคืœืก ื”ื‘ืžื” ื ื‘ื ื• ื—ื“ืจื™ ืื™ืจื•ื— ื•ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื. ื‘ืื•ืœื 15 ืฉื•ืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ 14 ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื”. ื—ื“ืจ ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืชื•ืžืŸ ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืจืฉื™ื ืฉื‘ื—ื“ืจื™ ืื’ืฃ ื”ืžื ื”ืœื”. ืงื™ืจื• ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื“ืจ ืžืขื•ื’ืœ ื•ืžืจืื”ื• ื›ืฉืœ ืžื’ื“ืœ ืฉืžื™ืจื”. ืชืงืจืช ื”ื—ื“ืจ ืžืงื•ืจื” ื‘ื›ื™ืคื”, ื•ืžืชื—ืชื™ื”, ื‘ื—ืœืงื• ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืจ, ื•ืœื›ืœ ืื•ืจื›ื•, ืžืฆื•ื™ืจืช ืขืœ ืืจื™ื—ื™ ืงืจืžื™ืงื” ื›ืชื•ื‘ืช ื‘ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช: ืขืœ ื”ืขืžื™ื, ืขืœ ื”ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืขืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื•ืขืœ ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื, ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื•ืกื“ื• ื‘ื™ืžื™ ืงื“ื ื•ื‘ืงื™ืฆื•ืจ โ€“ ืขืœ ื›ืœ ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื™ืžื™ ืงื“ื (ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”) โ€“ ื”ื ืื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืข ื”ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ืืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืคื™ืืก, ืชืœืžื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ืกื•ืงืจื˜ืก, ืœืฉืืœืช ืจื‘ื• ืžื” ื”ื ื”ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ืื”ื•ื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืขืชื™ื“ ืœื ืื•ื. ื”ืืจื™ืกื•ืŸ ื‘ื—ืจ ื‘ืคืกื•ืง ื”ื–ื” ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ ืืคืœื˜ื•ืŸ (ืžืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ืช ืœืคืกื”"ื ) ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื ื–ื›ืจืช ื‘ื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื”ืžื™ืœื” "ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื”", ื‘ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ืงืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ืžื™ ืงื“ื. ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ื™ื” ื›ื‘ื–ื™ืœื™ืงื” โ€“ ื—ืœืœ ืžืœื‘ื ื™ ืื•ืจื›ื™ ืฉื‘ืงืฆื”ื• ืืคืกื™ืก ื”ืคื•ื ื” ืœืžื–ืจื—, ื•ืžืฉื ื™ ืฆื“ื“ื™ื• ื—ื“ืจื™ ืฉื™ืจื•ืช. ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืืœ ื”ืื•ืœื ื”ื™ื ื“ืจืš ืคืชื— ืงื˜ืŸ. ื—ืœืœ ื”ืื•ืœื ืžืงื•ืจื” ื‘ืงืžืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฆื•ืœื‘ื™ื ื•ืžื—ื•ื“ื“ื™ื. ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื’ื ืžืจื•ืฆืคืช ื‘ืืจื™ื—ื™ ืฉืขื, ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื• ืœืขืžืขื ืืช ืจืขืฉ ื”ืงื”ืœ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจ ื‘ืกืคืจื™ื™ื”. ืžืฉื ื™ ืฆื“ื™ ื”ืื•ืœื ื˜ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืช, ื”ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ืœืื•ืœื ื›ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ืื•ืจ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“. ืžืชื—ืช ืœืื•ืœื ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ืžืฆื•ื™ ืžืจืชืฃ ื•ื‘ื• ื ืžืฆื ืžื—ืกืŸ ื”ืกืคืจื™ื ื•ื›ืชื‘ื™-ื”ืขืช. ืื•ืœื ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ืžื—ื•ื‘ืจ ืœืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ. ืขื ื—ืœื•ืงืชื” ืฉืœ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช, ื ื•ืชืจื” ืžื—ืœืงืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ืœืœื ืกืคืจื™ื™ื”, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ื”ืงืžื” ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉืช ืฉืœ ืกืคืจื™ื™ื”. ืขื ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืขื™ืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืฉืฉืช ื”ื™ืžื™ื, ื•ืžืขื‘ืจ ืื’ืฃ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืœืžืฉื›ื ื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉ-ื™ืฉืŸ, ืื•ื—ื“ื• ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื’ื ื”ืกืคืจื™ื•ืช. ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-21 ืžื—ื–ื™ืงื” ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ื›-25,000 ืกืคืจื™ื ื•ื“ื•"ื—ื•ืช ื—ืคื™ืจื”, ืžืขืœ 1,000 ื›ืชื‘ื™ ืขืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื•ื‘ืกืš ื”ื›ื•ืœ ืžืกืคืจ ื”ื›ื•ืชืจื™ื ื‘ื” ืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ 100,000. ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2016 ืžืชื›ื ื ืช ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื” ืœื‘ื™ืช ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื•ืื—ืช ื›ื—ืœืง ืžืชื”ืœื™ืš ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ื”ืžืฉืจื“ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื’ืฃ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื (ืœื™ืžื™ื ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช) ืœืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื ื”ืœื” ืฉื‘ื‘ื ื™ืŸ. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืกื•ื ืฃ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ื 2007โ€“2010, ื›ืฉื”ืื’ืฃ ื”ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื™ื” ืกื’ื•ืจ, ื”ื•ืฆื’ื• ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ืฉืœื• ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจื•ืงืคืœืจ. ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื ื•ืชืจื” ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื”ืงื‘ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืฉื ื—ืฉืคื• ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžื•ืฆื’ื•ืช ื’ื ืชืขืจื•ื›ื•ืช ืžืชื—ืœืคื•ืช ื”ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืกื•ืช ืœืžื—ืงืจ ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ ื‘ืŸ ื–ืžื ื ื•. ืœืžืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืคื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืžื‘ื ื” ื•ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื”ื•ื ื ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืชื—ื•ื ื”ืžื˜ื™ื™ืœื™ื, ื•ื–ืืช ื‘ืฉืœ ืžื™ืงื•ืžื• ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืชื•ื™ื™ืจ, ื‘ื”ื™ืขื“ืจ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืจืื” ื•ื‘ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘, ื”ื ื“ืจืฉื™ื ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ืชืื™ืžื• ืœืžืื” ื”-21, ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืกืจ ื—ื ื™ื” ื‘ืžืงื•ื. ืœืื—ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื ื™ื, ื•ื‘ื”ืŸ ืคืจื•ืฅ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื—ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ, ื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืกื’ื•ืจ ืœืžื‘ืงืจื™ื, ื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื• ื‘ื• ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื”ื™ ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืžืื™ 2025, ื‘ืชืคืขื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžื’ื“ืœ ื“ื•ื“, ื•ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช. ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890] | [TOKENS: 625]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื 1890 ืฉื ืช 1890 ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉื ื” ื”-90 ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19. ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืฉื ื” ืจื’ื™ืœื”, ืฉืื•ืจื›ื” 365 ื™ืžื™ื. 1 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1890 ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ืžืงื“ื™ื ืืช 1 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ ื‘-12 ื™ืžื™ื. ื›ืœ ื”ืชืืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉืœื”ืœืŸ ื”ื ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™. ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื ื•ืœื“ื• ื ืคื˜ืจื• ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ืœื”ืœืŸ ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ โ€“ ืขื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ืขื ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื. ื—ื’ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื: Nothing. ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ื ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ืื– ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™, ืฉื ืช 1890 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื›"ื ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช ื”'ืชืจ"ืŸ (ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ื—ืœื” 12 ื™ืžื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘-ื˜' ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช). ืื•ืจื›ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ื” ื–ื• ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ 365 ื™ืžื™ื - ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ. ืœื”ืœืŸ ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ - ืขื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ืขื ื—ื’ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื: Nothing. ืจืื• ื’ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื 1885 โ€ข 1886 โ€ข 1887 โ€ข 1888 โ€ข 1889 โ€ข 1890 โ€ข 1891 โ€ข 1892 โ€ข 1893 โ€ข 1894 โ€ข 1895
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-306] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-305] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื”ืฉืคืขืช_ืžื’ืคืช_ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”_ืขืœ_ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื”] | [TOKENS: 20788]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืจื—ื‘, ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืœืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื•ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื ื™ื›ืจื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื. ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ืฉืคืจืฅ ื‘-2020, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” "ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”", ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ื™ืจื™ื“ื•ืช ื—ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•ืงื™ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ. ืงืจืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื” ื‘-14 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ืฉื›ืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช G7 ื›ื‘ืจ ื ื›ื ืกื• ืื• ืขืžื“ื• ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœ"ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ืขืžื•ืง" ื•ื—ืœื” ื”ืื˜ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ืขืจื™ื›ื” ืฉืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืงืฉื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื– ื”ืฉืคืœ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื•ืืฃ ื—ืžื•ืจ ืžื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ืฉืœ 2008. ื‘ืจื‘ืขื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ 2021 ื ืจืฉืžื” ื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉื•ืช ื”ื“ืจื’ืชื™ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžืช. ืจืงืข ืžืื– ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘-2008, ื—ืœื” ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืื’ื™ื“ื™ื, ืž-84% ืžื”ืชื•ืฆืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘ืจื•ื˜ื• ื‘ืฉื ืช 2009 ืœ-92% ื‘ืฉื ืช 2019, ืื• ื‘ืขืจืš 72 ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ื‘ืฉืžื•ื ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื - ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื” ื”ืขืžืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ืŸ, ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื™ืคืŸ, ื”ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช, ืฆืจืคืช, ืกืคืจื“, ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื” ื•ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” - ื”ื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืชืื’ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืกืš ื”ื›ืœ ื›ึพ51 ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช 2019, ืœืขื•ืžืช 34 ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช 2009. ืื ื”ืืงืœื™ื ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ืžื“ืจื“ืจ, ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืขื ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ืžืกืชื›ื ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืื™ื ืŸ ืžืกื•ื’ืœื•ืช ืœืฉืœื ืืช ืชืฉืœื•ืžื™ ื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ ืœืžืœื•ื•ื™ื ืื• ืœืžืžืŸ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื—ื•ื‘ืŸ. ืžื›ื•ืŸ ืžืงื™ื ื–ื™ ื•ืฉื•ืช' ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช 2018 ื›ื™ ื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื™ื”ื™ื• ืœืฉื•ืง ืžืชืขื•ืจืจ ื›ืžื• ืกื™ืŸ, ื”ื•ื“ื• ื•ื‘ืจื–ื™ืœ, ืฉื ื”ื•ื ืคืงื• 25-30% ืžืื™ื’ืจื•ืช ื—ื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื’ื‘ื•ื”. ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืกื—ืจ ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ืž-2018 ืขื“ 2020, ื•ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2018, ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื“ื•ื ืœื“ ื˜ืจืืžืค ื”ื—ืœ ืœืงื‘ื•ืข ืžื›ืก ื•ืžื—ืกื•ืžื™ ืกื—ืจ ืขืœ ืกื™ืŸ ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืืœืฅ ืื•ืชื” ืœื‘ืฆืข ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ื‘ื ื•ื”ื’ื™ ืกื—ืจ. ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื ื ื•ื”ืœื™ ืกื—ืจ ื•ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืชื™ื”ื ื”ื ื”ื’ื™ืจืขื•ืŸ ื”ืžืกื—ืจื™ ื”ื”ื•ืœืš ื•ื’ื•ื‘ืจ, ื’ื ื‘ื” ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ืงื ื™ื™ืŸ ืจื•ื—ื ื™ ื•ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื›ืคื•ื™ื” ืœื›ืื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ืœืกื™ืŸ. ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 2020 ื ื—ืชื ื”ืกื›ื ืกื—ืจ ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช. ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืกื—ืจ ื™ืฆืจื” ืžืื‘ืงื™ื ืฉืœ ื—ืงืœืื™ื ื•ื™ืฆืจื ื™ื ื•ืžื—ื™ืจื™ื ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืฆืจื›ื ื™ื, ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ื ื›ื ืกื” ืœ"ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ืงืœ" ื‘ืžื”ืœืš 2019. ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื–ื” ื’ื ื’ืจื ืœื ื–ืง ื›ืœื›ืœื™, ื›ื•ืœืœ ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืฆ'ื™ืœื” ื•ื‘ืืงื•ื•ื“ื•ืจ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืขืœื™ื•ืช ืชืขื‘ื•ืจื” ื•ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ืื ืจื’ื™ื”, ืื ื›ื™ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช ื ื”ื ื• ืžื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžืœื ืืช ื”ืคืขืจื™ื. ื–ื” ื’ื ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื—ื•ืกืจ ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•ืง ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช. ืžืžืฉืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช, ื›ื•ืœืœ ืกื™ืŸ ื•ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื ืงื˜ื• ืฆืขื“ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื ื–ืง ืฉื ื’ืจื ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ื™ื“ืจื“ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื—ืกื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืชโ€“ืกื™ืŸ. ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื”ื•ืฉืคืขื• ืžืคืจื™ืฉืช ื”ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ืžื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™, ื”ื™ื“ื•ืข ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฉื ื‘ืจืงื–ื™ื˜. ื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื‘ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื•ื‘ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ืงืคืื” ืขืœ ืฉืžืจื™ื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ืช 2019, ืœืงืจืืช ื”ื‘ืจืงื–ื™ื˜, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืื™ ื•ื“ืื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ. ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื—ื•ื•ืชื” 'ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ' ื‘ืฉื ืช 2019, ืฉื”ื—ืœื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ืขื ื›ื ื™ืกืชื” ืœืฉื ืช 2020. ืขืกืงื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืขื–ื‘ื• ืืช ื”ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ืœืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™, ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ื‘ื“ืŸ ืกื—ืจ ื•ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื”ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื•ื”ืŸ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ืช 2019 ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื” ืงืจืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื›ื™ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืขื•ื‘ืจืช "ื”ืื˜ื” ืžืชื•ืืžืช", ืฉื ื›ื ืกื” ืœืงืฆื‘ ื”ืื™ื˜ื™ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœื” ืžืื– ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ (2008). "ืกื“ืงื™ื" ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื• ื‘ืฉื•ืง ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืกื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื’ืœืœ "ื”ื™ื“ืจื“ืจื•ืช ื—ื“ื”" ืฉืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื”. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื”ืขืจื›ื•ืช, ื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœืฉื™ืื” ื‘ืฉื ืช 2017, ื•ืื– ื”ืชืคื•ืงื” ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช ื”ื›ื•ืœืœืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžืชืžืฉื›ืช ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช 2018. ืงืจืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื”ืืฉื™ืžื” ืืช "ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื—ืจ ื•ื”ืžืชื—ื™ื ื”ื’ืื•-ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื" ื›ืกื™ื‘ื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ืœื”ืื˜ื”, ืชื•ืš ืฉื”ื™ื ืžืฆื™ื™ื ืช ืืช ืคืจื™ืฉืช ื”ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ืžื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ื•ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืกื—ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืกื™ืŸ ื›ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช ืœื”ืื˜ื” ื‘ืฉื ืช 2019, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื›ืœื›ืœื ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ืืฉื™ืžื• ืืช ืกื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื”ื ื–ื™ืœื•ืช. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 2019 ื—ืœ ื”ื™ืคื•ืš ื‘ืขืงื•ื ื”ืชืฉื•ืื” ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืžื” ืฉื”ืฆื™ืช ื—ืฉืฉื•ืช ืžืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ืขื•ืœืžื™. ืขืงื•ืžืช ื”ืชืฉื•ืื” ื”ื”ืคื•ื›ื” ื•ืคื—ื“ื™ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืกื—ืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืกื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœืžื›ื™ืจื” ื‘ืฉื•ืงื™ ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืจืฅ 2019, ืžื” ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืœื—ืฉืฉ ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ืžืชืงืจื‘. ืขืœื™ื™ืช ืจืžื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ื•ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชืžื™ื“ ื“ืื’ื” ืœื›ืœื›ืœื ื™ื. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื‘-2019 ื’ื‘ืจื” ื”ื“ืื’ื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื”ืื˜ื” ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ื•ื›ืœื›ืœื ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ืชืจื™ืข ืขืœ 'ืคืฆืฆืช ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช' ืฉืชืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ื‘ื. ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”, ืฉืคืจืฆื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืกื™ืŸ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ 2019, ื”ื™ื ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ืงื˜ืœื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื– ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช. ื”ื™ื ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืœืฉืืจ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื•ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืœืžืฆื‘ ื—ื™ืจื•ื ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ื•ื”ื›ืจื–ื” ื›ืžื’ืคื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘ึพ11 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020. ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืงืฉื”, ืžืฉื‘ืจ ืฉืจืฉืจืช ื”ืืกืคืงื”, ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื•ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืฆืจื™ื›ื”. ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื ืืœืฆื• ืœื™ื–ื•ื ื”ืกื’ืจื™ื, ืจื™ื—ื•ืง ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ื”ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช, ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืจืกืŸ ืืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ืžื’ืคื”. ื”ืฆืขื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ื‘ื‘ืช ืื—ืช. ื”ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื•ื‘ืคืจื˜ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื ืงื™ื ื•ื”ืชืขืกื•ืงื”. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ืื™ืจืขื• ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ "ื‘ื”ืœืช ืงื ื™ื•ืช", ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืžื•ืฆืจื™ ื™ืกื•ื“. ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื ืกื’ืจื• ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“, ืžื” ืฉื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื›-98.6% ืžื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื. ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ื”ื”ืกื’ืจ ื•ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืง ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืจ ืขืœ ืกื•ื’ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขืกืงื™ื, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืขืœ ืืœื” ื”ืžืกืคืงื™ื ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ืคืจื˜ื™ื™ื (ื›ื•ืœืœ ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืงืžืขื•ื ืื™ื•ืช, ืžืกืขื“ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืชื™ ืžืœื•ืŸ, ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื™ืœื•ื™ ื•ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ื ื™ื, ืžืจืคืื•ืช ืคืจื˜ื™ื•ืช ื•ืžื›ื•ื ื™ ื™ื•ืคื™ ื•ืกืคื). ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020, ืขืจื‘ ื”ืกืขื•ื“ื™ืช ืคืชื—ื” ื‘ืžืœื—ืžืช ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื ืคื˜ ืขื ืจื•ืกื™ื”, ืžื” ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ื ืคื˜. ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื ืคื˜ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ื™ื ื ืคืœื• ื‘-34%, ื”ื ืคื˜ ื”ื’ื•ืœืžื™ ื ืคืœ ื‘-26%, ื•ื ืคื˜ ื‘ืจื ื˜ ื™ืจื“ ื‘-24%. ื”ื™ื ื ื•ืฆืจื” ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืื™ ื”ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆืื•ืช ื ืคื˜ ื•ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืขืœ ืงื™ืฆื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื ืคื˜ ื‘ืขื™ืฆื•ืžื” ืฉืœ ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”. ื‘-10 ื‘ืžืจืฅ, ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื ืคื˜ ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘-30% ืžืชื—ื™ืœืช ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ืขืงื‘ ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืืคืจื™ืœ, ื‘ืฉืœ ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉื”ื•ื˜ืœื• ืœืื•ืจ ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ื ืคื˜ ื™ืจื“ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืืคืก ื“ื•ืœืจื™ื, ื•ื™ืฆืจื ื™ ื ืคื˜ ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืฉืœื ืœืจื•ื›ืฉื™ ื ืคื˜ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืื—ืกื•ื ื•. ื‘-12 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ, ื ื—ืชื ื”ืกื›ื ืฉืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืœื—ืžื”. ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื•ืช ืฉืขืจื™ื ื‘ื‘ื•ืจืกื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืจืฅ 2020 ื’ื™ื‘ืฉื” ืงืจืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ืกื™ื•ืข ื‘ืกื›ื•ื ืฉืœ 12 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืขื ื™ื•ืช, ื•ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืกื™ื•ืข ืฉืœ 7.7 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ื”ื‘ื ืงื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืงืฉื• ืžื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืงืœื•ืช ืจื’ื•ืœื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ื”ื•ืจื“ืช ื“ืจื™ืฉืช ื”ืœื™ืžืช ื”ื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ืขื‘ืจืช ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื” ืžื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืืคืจื™ืœ ื”ื•ื›ืจื– ื›ื™ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืขื ื™ื•ืช ื ืคื’ืขื•ืช ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื™ืงื‘ืœื• 133 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืžืื’"ื— ื”ืžื’ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™. ื‘ึพ20 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 2020 ื”ื—ืœื” ืงืจื™ืกื” ื‘ืฉื•ืง ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ (ืื '). ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”-24 ืœ-28 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ, ืฉื•ืงื™ ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ืขืœ ื”ื™ืจื™ื“ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืฉืขื‘ืจ ืžืื– ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ ื‘-2008. ื”ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืจืฅ ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืชื ื•ื“ืชื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื‘-9 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020, ืžืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ืขืœ ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ืงืฉื•ืช, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœืžื’ืคื” ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื•ืžืœื—ืžืช ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื ืคื˜ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช OPEC ื‘ื”ื•ื‘ืœืช ืกืขื•ื“ื™ื”. ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ื•ื ื” "ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ", ื•ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ื ืคื™ืœื” ื”ื—ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื– ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘-2008. ื‘-12 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020, ื”ื™ื” "ื™ื•ื ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ". ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื™ื•ื, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืชืจืกืงื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•ืง ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™. ืฉื•ืงื™ ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืกื‘ืœื• ืžื”ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ืžืื– "ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ" ืฉืœ 1987. ื”ื‘ื•ืจืกื” ื‘ืงื ื“ื” ืจืฉืžื” ืืช ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ืžืื– 1940. ื‘ื•ืจืกื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืกื’ืจื• ืืช ื™ื•ื ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ืžืขื•ืœื. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ, ืžื™ื•ื—ืก ื™ื•ื ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ืœืžื’ืคื” ื•ื—ื•ืกืจ ืืžื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืงื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื ืฉื™ื ื“ื•ื ืœื“ ื˜ืจืืžืค, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืืกืจ ื ืกื™ืขื” ืฉืœ 30 ื™ื•ื ืœืื–ื•ืจ ืฉื ื’ืŸ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™, ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืช ื›ืจื™ืกื˜ื™ืŸ ืœื’ืืจื“, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืฉื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ืœื ืชืจื“ ืœืžืจื•ืช ืฆื™ืคื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ืง, ืžื” ืฉื’ืจื ืœื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ S&P 500 ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-200 ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืฉืขื”. ื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื‘ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก ืฆื ื—ื• ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืœืฃ ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื•-500 ื”ื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ Standard & Poor's ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘-5% ื•ื”ืคืขื™ืœื• ืžืคืกืง. ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™ ื—ืชืš ืืช ื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ืœ-0. ื‘ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™, 16 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020, ื ื ืขืœื• ืฉื•ืงื™ ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืืกื™ื”, ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื‘ื™ืจื™ื“ื•ืช. ื‘ืœื˜ื• ืžื ื™ื•ืช ืžื’ื–ืจ ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช. ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ื™ื•ื, ื”ืžื“ื“ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ืœ ืกื˜ืจื™ื˜ ืจืฉืžื• ืืช ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ืžืื– ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ (1987) ืขื ื ืคื™ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”-13% ืฉืœ ืžื“ื“ ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก, ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ืœ ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื“ื“ ื ืฆื‘ืขื• ื‘ืื“ื•ื ื‘ื•ื”ืง. ืžื“ื“ ื”ื ืืกื“"ืง ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ืžืขื•ืœื ืขื ื ืคื™ืœื” ืฉืœ 12.3%, ื•ืžื“ื“ S&P 500 ืฆืœืœ ื‘ื›-12% ืœืจืžื” ื”ื ืžื•ื›ื” ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ. ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื ืคื˜ ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘-10%. ื”ื™ื•ื ื›ื•ื ื” "ื™ื•ื ืฉื ื™ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™". ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ื”ืงื•ื“ื ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ื”ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื˜ืจื™ืช ื‘ืกืขื•ื“ื™ื” ืขืœ ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ืืฉืจืื™ ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” 13 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ื•ืช, ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื ืฉื™ื ื“ืจื•ื ืืคืจื™ืงื”, ืกื™ืจื™ืœ ืจืžืคื•ื–ื”, ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืขืœ ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ื’ื™ืจื•ื™ ืคื™ืกืงืœื™ืช. ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™ ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ื›ื™ ื™ืงื˜ื™ืŸ ืืช ื™ืขื“ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ื”ื›ืกืคื™ื ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™ื™ื ืœ-0%-0.25%,ื™ืชื—ื™ืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืงืœื” ื›ืžื•ืชื™ืช ื•ื›ื•'. ื”ืฉืคืœ ื”ื™ื” ื‘-23 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020. ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื™ืžื™ ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื• ืื—ืจื™ื•, ื–ื™ื ืง ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก ื‘-21.3%. ื‘ืื•ืชื ื™ืžื™ื ืงืคืฅ S&P 500 ื‘-17.2%. ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ืชืœืช ื™ื•ืžื™ืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก ืžืื– 1931, ื•ื‘-S&P 500 ืžืื– 1933. ื‘ืžืจืฅ, ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก ืกื’ืจ ื ืคื™ืœื” ืฉืœ 23.2% ืžืชื—ื™ืœืช 2020 - ื”ืจื‘ืขื•ืŸ ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืื– 1987. ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื, ื”ื‘ื•ืจืกื” ืขื‘ืจื” ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉืœ ื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉื•ืช, ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืชื•ืš ืชื ื•ื“ื•ืช. ื“ื•ื•ื— ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ืฉืกื•ื›ื ื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ืจื•ื’ ืคื™ืฅ' ืจื™ื™ื˜ื™ื ื’ืก ื”ื•ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ 2020 ืืช ื“ื™ืจื•ื’ ื”ืืฉืจืื™ ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช - 33. ืžื“ื“ ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช 2020: ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื’ืจืฃ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ืžื ื™ โ€“ ื”ื”ืจื—ื‘ื” Graph ืœื”ืฆื’ืช ืชืจืฉื™ืžื™ื ืžื•ืฉื‘ืชืช ื›ืจื’ืข. ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ืžื“ื“ ื“ืื• ื’'ื•ื ืก. ื”ื”ืฉืคืขื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืœื›ืš ืฉื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืœื™ืฉ ืžืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื•ืฉื‘ืชื” ืขืงื‘ ืกื’ืจ ืฉื ื•ืขื“ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื ื’ื™ืฃ. ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืกื’ืจื• ืืช ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื™ื–ืžื• ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืจื™ื—ื•ืง ื—ื‘ืจืชื™. ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืืœื” ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ืœื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืงืฉื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ื—ืœื” ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื•ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช. ื”ืื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ื•ืช ื—ื–ื” ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 2020 ื›ื™ ื”ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืชื—ืกืœ 6.7 ืื—ื•ื– ืžืฉืขื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื‘ืจื‘ืขื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ 2020 - ืฉื•ื•ื” ืขืจืš ืœ-195 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉืจื” ืžืœืื”. ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ื”ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 10%, ื›ืืฉืจ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื ืคื’ืขื• ืงืฉื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ืžื’ืคื” ืขื ืฉื™ืขื•ืจื™ ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžืชืคืชื— ื”ื•ืฉืคืข ื’ื ืžื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ. ื‘ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ื”ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื•ืช ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ื ืคื˜, ื”ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื•ืช ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช, ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ื—, ืขื ืฃ ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื•ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืฆืจื›ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืขืฉื•ืจ ื”ืงื•ื“ื. ื”ืขื ืฃ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืข ืžืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขื ืฃ ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช. ืฉื ืช 2019 ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ืžืชื•ื™ืจืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื”ืฉื™ืœื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื˜ื™ืกื•ืช ืžื•ื–ืœื•ืช ื•ืขืœื™ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžืขืžื“ ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ืžืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ืŸ ื›ืžื• ืกื™ืŸ ื•ื”ื•ื“ื• ื’ืจืžื• ืœื›ืš ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ. ืžื’ื•ื•ืŸ ื™ืขื“ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืชืจื•ืงื ื• ืžืชื™ื™ืจื™ื. ืœืžื’ืคื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืขืœ ืขื ืฃ ื”ืชืขื•ืคื” ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ื ืกื™ืขื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืงื‘ืœื•, ื›ืžื• ื’ื ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืžื˜ื™ื™ืœื™ื. ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืกื’ืจื• ืืช ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืชื™ื”ืŸ ืื• ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื• ืืช ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ื“ื•ื“ ืœืชืงื•ืคื”. ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ, ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืชืขื•ืคื” ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื˜ืœื• ืืช ื˜ื™ืกื•ืชื™ื”ืŸ ืœืกื™ืŸ. ืขื ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื• ื˜ื™ืกื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœื™ืขื“ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื ืžืฆืื• ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžื’ืคื”. ืื™ื’ื•ื“ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืชืขื•ืคื” ื™ืื˜"ื ื”ืขืจื™ืš ืฉื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืชืขื•ืคื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื™ืคืกื™ื“ื• ื”ื›ื ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ 314 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื— ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื• ืขืœ ื”ืคืกืงื” ืฉืœ ืžื›ื™ืจืช ืคื•ืœื™ืกื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื ืกื™ืขื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช. ื”ื™ื• ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื”ืชืขื•ืคื” ืฉืคืฉื˜ื• ืจื’ืœ ืื• ืขื‘ืจื• ืœืžืžืฉืœ ((Administration (law): ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืžืฆืคืŸ ืื™ื™ืจืœื™ื™ื ืก, Flybe, ื˜ืจืื ืก ืกื˜ื™ื™ื˜ืก ืื™ื™ืจืœื™ื™ื ืก, ื•ื™ืจื’'ื™ืŸ ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื”, ืื™ื™ืจ ืžืื•ืจื™ืฆื™ื•ืก ื•ืื•ื•ื™ื ืงื”. ื‘ืžืื™ 2020, ืขืงื‘ ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืชื—ืœื•ืื”, ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื“ื ื• ืื• ื—ืชืžื• ืขืœ ื”ืกื›ืžื™ื ืœืคื™ื”ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื‘ืจ ื›ืžืขื˜ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช. ื”ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ื—ื–ืจืช ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื˜ื™ืกื•ืช. ืžื’ื–ืจื™ ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ื ืคื’ืขื• ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ. ืœื“ื•ื’ืžื”, ืžื›ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘-40% ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020. ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื•ืช ื”ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืกื’ืจื• ื–ืžื ื™ืช ืืช ื”ืžืคืขืœื™ื ืฉืœื”ืŸ. ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื ื›ื ืกื” ืœืžืฉื‘ืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืกื‘ืœื” ืžื“ื™ื–ืœื’ื™ื™ื˜, ื›ืžื• ื’ื ืžืชื—ืจื•ืช ืžืฆื“ ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื—ืฉืžืœื™ื•ืช. ื‘ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฆื ื™ื—ื” ื—ื“ื” ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ. ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ื—ื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื ืคื˜ ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื”ืคืš ืœืฉืœื™ืœื™, ืฉื›ืŸ ืกื•ื—ืจื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœืฉืœื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื™ื ืฉื™ื™ืงื—ื• ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฆืจ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื’ืžืจ ื›ื•ืฉืจ ื”ืื—ืกื•ืŸ. ื–ืืช ืœืžืจื•ืช ืขืกืงื” ืงื•ื“ืžืช ืขื ืื•ืค"ืง ืฉืงื™ืฆืฆื” ืืช ื”ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘-10% ื•ืกื™ื™ืžื” ืืช ืžืœื—ืžืช ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื ืคื˜. ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืงื ื™ื•ืช ื•ืงืžืขื•ื ืื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืฆืžืฆืžื• ืฉืขื•ืช ืื• ื ืกื’ืจื• ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ. ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœื‘ื• ื•ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื’ื“ื™ื ื ืคื’ืขื• ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“. ื”ื™ื• ืจืฉืชื•ืช ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช ืฉืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ืจื™ื•ื•ื—ื™ื•ืช. ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ื”ืืœืงื˜ืจื•ื ื™ ื”ื•ืฉืคืข ื’ื ื”ื•ื, ื›ืฉืžื›ื™ืจืช ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื›ืคืคื•ืช ื—ื“ ืคืขืžื™ื•ืช ืขืœื• ื‘-670% ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020 ืœืขื•ืžืช 2019. ืขืงื‘ ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื‘ืžื’ืคื”, ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืขืกืงื™ื ื ืกื’ืจื• ื–ืžื ื™ืช. ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžื•ืขืกืงื™ื ืขื‘ืจื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช. ื”ื™ื” ืฆืคื™ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืขืกืงื™ื ืฉื™ืกื’ืจื• ืœืงื‘ื™ืขื•ืช. ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ืกืคื•ืจื˜ ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื• ื•ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ื‘ืชื™ ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื ืกื’ืจื• ืœืชืงื•ืคื•ืช ืืจื•ื›ื•ืช. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ 2020, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืขืœื™ื” ื‘ืคืชื™ื—ืช ืขืกืงื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœืงืจื™ืกืช ืื—ืจื™ื. ืคืขืžื™ื ืื—ื“ื•ืช ืขื•ื›ื‘ื• ืื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืชืขื ื•ื’ื•ืช ืขืœ ืืœืคื™ ื ื•ืกืขื™ื”ืŸ, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ืชื’ืœื• ื‘ื”ืŸ ื—ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื ื’ื™ืฃ ืื• ืฉืขืœื” ื—ืฉื“ ืœื›ืš. ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ืืœื” ื’ืจืžื• ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื”ื–ืžื ื•ืช ื•ื”ืคืœื’ื•ืช. ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื•ื•ื™ ื”ืฉื™ื™ื˜ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘-70-80%. ืฉืจืฉืจืื•ืช ื”ืืกืคืงื” ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ืื˜ื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ืœืžืฉืœ, ืืกืคืงืช ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืŸ ื ืคื’ืขื”, ื•ืฉื™ื‘ืฉื” ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžืคืขืœื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืชื‘ืกืกื™ื ืขืœ ืจื›ื™ื‘ื™ื ืืœื”. ืืกืคืงืช ืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื–ืžื ื• ืžืกื™ืŸ ื“ืจืš ืืชืจื™ ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ืกื™ื ื™ื™ื ื ืคื’ืขื”. ื™ื™ืฆื•ื ืžืกื™ืŸ ื ืคืœ ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ 2020 ื‘-6.2% ื•ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืจืฅ 2020, ื›ืžื” ืขืจื™ื ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื• ื›ื™ ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ืžืกืขื“ื•ืช ื™ื™ืกื’ืจื• ืœืกื•ืขื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื•ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœื™ื ืœื”ื–ืžื ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉืœื•ื— ื•ืžืกื™ืจื”. ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืคื•ื˜ืจื•, ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื—ืกืจื™ ื—ื•ืคืฉืช ืžื—ืœื” ื‘ืขื ืฃ ืœืขื•ืžืช ืขื ืคื™ื ื“ื•ืžื™ื. ื›ืš ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื. ืฉื ื”ื•ืฆืื• ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืœื—ืœ"ืช ื•ืžืกืขื“ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืขืฉื• ืžืฉืœื•ื—ื™ื. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš, ืžืกืขื“ื•ืช ื ืคืชื—ื• ืชื—ืช ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ืชืคื•ืกื” ื•ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ืจื™ื—ื•ืง ื—ื‘ืจืชื™. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš 2021, ืขืœื” ื”ืฉื›ืจ ื”ืžื™ื ื™ืžืœื™ ื‘ืขืกืงื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื. ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื•ืฉืคืขื” ื’ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ืžื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืกื™ืŸ. ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืŸ ื•ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื ืคื’ืขื”. ืœืžืฉืœ, ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื—ื•ืžื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืกื™ืŸ ื ืกื’ืจ ืœืžื‘ืงืจื™ื ื•ื›ืš ื’ื ื—ืœืง ืžืืชืจื™ ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช. ื—ื’ื™ื’ื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืกื™ืŸ, ืฉื”ื™ื• ืืžื•ืจื•ืช ืœื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ืืœื•, ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื•. ื‘-4 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ืžืงืื• ืขืœ ืกื’ื™ืจืช ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืงื–ื™ื ื• ื‘ื” ืœืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื™ื. ืจืฉืช ื”ื™ืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืกื’ืจื” ื–ืžื ื™ืช ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœ-150 ืžืœื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ืŸ. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžื’ืคื”, ืกืคื’ ื”ืžืฉืง ื”ืกื™ื ื™ ืžื›ื” ื›ืคื•ืœื”, ื›ืฉืžื—ื“ ื’ื™ืกื ืžื’ื–ืจ ื”ื™ื™ืฆื•ืจ ื”ืกื™ื ื™ ื—ื•ื•ื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื—ื“ื” ื‘ื”ื–ืžื ื•ืช ืžื”ืขื•ืœื ื•ืžืื™ื“ืš ื’ื™ืกื ืžื’ื–ืจ ื”ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ื ื ืคื’ืข ืžื”ืื˜ื” ื‘ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช. ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืข ืžื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ื™ื• ืžื”ื’ืจื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžื”ื›ืคืจื™ื. ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืจื—ื•ืง, ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ, ื›ืœื›ืœืช ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื” ื”ืขืžืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ืŸ ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฆื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžื–ื” ื›ืžืขื˜ 50 ืฉื ื”. ื”ืชืž"ื’ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ื‘ืจื‘ืขื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ 2020 ืฆื ื— 6.8% ืžืฉื ื” ืœืฉื ื”, ื•ื”ืชืž"ื’ ื‘ื—ื•ื‘ื™ื™ ืฆื ื— ื‘-39.2%. ื”ื•ื ืขืœื” ื‘-2 ื”ืจื‘ืขื•ื ื™ื ื”ืขื•ืงื‘ื™ื, ืื—ืจื™ ื“ื™ื›ื•ื™ ื”ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช. ื‘ื”ื•ื“ื• ื”ื™ื” ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื– ืขืฆืžืื•ืชื”, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื›ืœื›ืœืชื”, ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช ื‘ื’ื•ื“ืœื” ื‘ืืกื™ื”, ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฆื” ืจื‘ืขื•ืŸ ืฉื ื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ืคื•ืช. ื‘-28 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ, ื”ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื˜ืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ืกื™ื ื’ืคื•ืจ (MAS) ืืžืจื” ืฉื”ื™ื ืชื™ื›ื ืก ืœืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ืžื›ื” ืžืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืกื™ื ื’ืคื•ืจ ื•ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื•ื›ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื™ื‘ื•ื“ ืžืฉืจื•ืช ื•ืฉื›ืจ ื ืžื•ืš ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืขื ืื™ ื•ื“ืื•ืช ื‘ืืฉืจ ืœืžืฉืš ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื”ืื˜ื”, ื”ืชืœื•ื™ ื‘ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื•ื™ืขื™ืœื•ืชืŸ ืฉืœ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื. ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœืช ืžืฆืจื™ื, ื”ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช, ื”ืžืขืกื™ืงื” ืขืฉื™ืจื™ืช ืžืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืžืฆืจื™ื ื•ืชื•ืจืžืช ื›-5% ืžื”ืชืž"ื’, ื ืคืกืงื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื”, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื’ื ื”ืขื‘ืจื•ืช ื›ืกืคื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื”ื’ืจื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ื—ื•"ืœ (9% ืžื”ืชืž"ื’) ื”ื™ื• ืฆืคื•ื™ื™ื ืœืจื“ืช. ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื“ืœืง ื”ื–ื•ืœื™ื ื•ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ ื”ืื™ื˜ื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื• ื’ื ื›ืžื” ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืฉื™ืœื•ื— ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืžืชืขืœืช ืกื•ืืฅ, ื•ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ืœื ืกื•ืข ื‘ื›ืฃ ื”ืชืงื•ื•ื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื”, ืžื” ืฉื”ืคื—ื™ืช ืืช ื“ืžื™ ื”ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืžืžืฉืœื”. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ืฉืžื“ืจื•ื ืœืกื”ืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœื” ืžื–ื” 25 ืฉื ื”, ืืš ื”ืคืขื ืœืžืฉืš ื–ืžืŸ ืืจื•ืš ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืฆืคื” ื›ื™ ื›ืœื›ืœืช ืืคืจื™ืงื” ืฉืžื“ืจื•ื ืœืกื”ืจื” ืชืงื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ 2.1% ืœ-5.1% ืขื“ ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฉื ื”. ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืœืกื™ืŸ 152 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืžื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ืฉื ืœืงื—ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ 2000 ืœ-2018; ื‘ืžืื™ 2020, ืกื™ืŸ ืฉืงืœื” ืœื”ืืจื™ืš ืืช ืชืืจื™ืš ื”ื™ืขื“ ืœื”ื—ื–ืจ. ื‘ื ืง ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื”ื•ืจื™ื“ ืืช ื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืžืžืœื›ื” ืœืฉืคืœ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ ืฉืœ 0.1%. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืฉืจ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ืฉื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืชื•ืฆื™ื 350 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืœื™ืฉ"ื˜ ืœื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื”. ื‘-24 ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื ืกื’ืจื• ื‘ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืขืกืงื™ื ื•ื ืกื™ืขื•ืช ืœื ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ื ื’ื™ืฃ. ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ืžืฉืง ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื™ืจื“ื• ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 2020 ื‘-41.2% ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืืคืจื™ืœ 2019. ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื•ืฆืื• ืœื—ื•ืคืฉื” ืœืœื ืชืฉืœื•ื ื•ื‘ืžืื™ ื”ื™ื• 23 ืื—ื•ื–ื™ื ืžื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื—ืœ"ืช. ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื”, ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ, ืกื‘ืœื” ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืžื’ืœ ืฉืจืคื•ืช ืงืฉื” ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“, ืฉืคื’ืข ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื•ื‘ื ืชื™ื‘ื™ ื”ืกื—ืจ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื. ืœื ืจืง ื–ืืช, ืืœื ืฉืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื” ื—ื•ื•ืชื” ื”ืื˜ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืฆืžื™ื—ืชื ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ื›ืืฉืจ ื›ืœื›ืœื ื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืฃ 2019 ืืžืจื• ืฉืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื” "ืขืœ ืกืฃ ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ". ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื›ืš ื•ื”ืฉืคืขื•ืช ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ, ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื” ืฆืคืชื” ืžื™ืชื•ืŸ ื•ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื ืกื™ื’ื” ื‘ืชื•ืฆืจ ืฉืœ 6.7% ืขืœ ืคื™ ืงืจืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ืจืžืช ื”ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ืฉืœ 5.1% ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืœืขืœื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื ืฉืœ 25 ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœ 10.0%, ืขืœ ืคื™ ื ืชื•ื ื™ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืคื•ืจืกืžื• ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ. ืขื“ ืžืื™, ืžืฉืงื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื™ื˜ืœื• ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื‘ื”ื™ืงืฃ ืฉืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžืื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืžื”ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื”ืžืชืขื•ืจืจื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช. ืœืคื™ ืชื—ื–ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘ืžืื™, ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืœื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืฅ ื‘ื›-4% ื‘ืฉื ืช 2020, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื”ืฆืžื™ื—ื” ื›-3.3% ืฉื ืฆืคืชื”, ื›ืœื•ืžืจ ืคืขืจ ืฉืœ ืœืžืขืœื” ืž-7%. ื›ืžื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืœื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ 0.3% ืœ-1.7%, ื›ืœื•ืžืจ 40 ืขื“ 120 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื. ื”ื™ื• ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื• ืขืœ ืคืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจื’ืœ. ืœืžืฉืœ, ื—ื‘ืจืช ื‘ื’ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื•ืงืจื” Brooks Brothers ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื‘ืงืฉื” ืœืคืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจื’ืœ. ื›ืš ื’ื ืขื ืงื™ืช ืคืฆืœื™ ื”ื ืคื˜ ืฆ'ืกืืคื™ืง ืื ืจื’'ื™. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืืคืจื™ืœ, ื”ื™ื• ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื”ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื•ื”ืŸ ื“ื ื• ืขืœ ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ื•ืช ื™ืฆื™ืื”. ืžื˜ืจืชืŸ ื”ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืฉื’ืจื” ื‘ืฆืœ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”. ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืื™, ื”ื•ืกืจื• ื”ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช - ืœืคืขืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ืฉื ืจืื” ืฉื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ื•ื‘ืกื” ื•ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื›ืกื•ื’ ืฉืœ "ื”ื™ืžื•ืจ". ืžื ื’ื“, ื›ืžื” ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื—ื•ื• ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื•ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื• ืขื ืžืงืจื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื, ื•ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื™ื›ืœื• ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืฉื’ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืชื ื”ื™ืงืคื™ื. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืื™ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืชืงื“ืžื• ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืฉืœื”ืŸ ื•ื”ื’ื“ื™ืจื• ื”ืงืœื•ืช ื•ื›ืœืœื™ื. ื—ืœืงืŸ ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื• ืขื ืขืœื™ื” ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉืช. ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ, ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื ืขืœ ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ืžืฆื‘ ืขื•ืจืจ ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืจื—ื•ืง, ืฉื ื‘ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืžืฉืคื—ื•ืช ืœืกืฃ ืจืขื‘. ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืŸ ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื‘ืชื•ืคืขืช ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ ื”ืงื˜ื™ื ื•ืช, ืื• ืžื›ื™ืจืช ืงื˜ื™ื ื•ืช ืœืžื˜ืจื•ืช ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ - ืชื•ืคืขื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžื’ืžืช ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”. ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ ืืœื• ื‘ืื™ื ืœืขื™ืชื™ื ืขืœ ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืงื‘ืœืช ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื•ื›ืœื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ื–ืง ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ืืช ื”ืงื˜ื™ื ื•ืช, ื•ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื ืขืœื•ืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืื™ื‘ื•ื“ื” ืขืœ ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ืฉืœื”ืŸ. ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช ืฉื“ื•ื•ื—ื• ื ื’ืขื• ืœืกื’ื™ืจืช ื‘ืชื™ ืกืคืจ ืœืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืกื’ืจ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘ื• ื”ืฉื›ืœื” ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื”ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ืœืฆืืช ืžื—ื™ื™ ืขื•ื ื™ ื‘ืขืชื™ื“, ื•ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืืœื• ื ืกื’ืจื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื, ืžื” ืฉื”ื™ื” ืขืœื•ืœ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžื”ื ืžืขืฉื™ืช ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœืฆืืช ืžื”ืขื•ื ื™. ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืกื’ื™ืจื” ืื• ื”ื”ื’ื‘ืœื” ืฉืœ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืขืกืงื™ื, ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžืจื—ื•ืง ื•ื›ื“ื•ืžื”, ื—ืœื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ืฉื›ืจ ื”ื“ื™ืจื” ื‘ืขืจื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช. ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ ื’ื•ื‘ืจ ืœื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืคืจื•ื•ืจื™ื ืขื ืžืจื—ื‘ ืžื—ื™ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื—ืœื” ืขืœื™ื” ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ื“ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจื™ ื”ืฉื›ื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื. ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืกื‘ืœื• ืžื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ื”ื™ืงืฃ ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืฅ. ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ 2021, ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื”ืชื—ืกื ื•ืช, ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื• ื”ืกื’ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืžื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื˜ืœื• ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืžื’ืคื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™. ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืœื ื‘ื™ื˜ืœื• ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช, ืื‘ืœ ื”ื—ื–ื™ืจื• ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ืขื ืคื™ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื”, ืื• ืืช ื›ื•ืœื. ืื‘ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืขืกืงื™ ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ื–ืžืŸ ืœื”ืชืื•ืฉืฉ ืžื”ืžื›ื•ืช ืฉืกืคื’ ื‘ืžืฉื‘ืจ, ื•ืจืžืช ื”ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ ื‘-2019 ื›ืžืขื˜ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื. ืฉื•ืง ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืœื ื—ื–ืจ ืœืงื“ืžื•ืชื• ื‘ืžืœื•ืื• ื•ื”ื™ื• ืฉืขื‘ื“ื• ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื–ืžืŸ. ืœืฆื“ ื–ืืช, ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ืžื’ืคื” ื”ืชืงื“ืžื” ื”ืœื›ื” ื•ืขืœืชื” ืชื•ืคืขืช ื”ื”ืชืคื˜ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”, ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืชื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืขื–ื‘ื• ืืช ืžืงื•ื ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ื—ืœ ื–ื™ื ื•ืง ื‘ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ ืœืžื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื•ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืฉืจืฉืจืื•ืช ืืกืคืงื”, ื•ื›ืŸ ืขืœืชื” ื”ืื™ื ืคืœืฆื™ื”. ื ื™ืชื•ื—ื™ื ืžืชื—ื™ืœืช 2022 ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืขื• ืขืœ ืคืขืจื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืงื•ื ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืชื—ื•ืช ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืชืคืชื—ื•ืช. ื‘ืฉืœื”ื™ 2021, ืžืžืฉืœื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื ื™ืกื• ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืืคืฉืจ ืžืกื’ืจื™ื ืžื—ืžื™ืจื™ื ืฉื™ืคื’ืขื• ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ืื•ืœื ื‘ืฉืœ ืขืœื™ื” ื‘ื”ื“ื‘ืงื”, ืขืกืงื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ื‘ืขืฆืžื ืœื‘ืฆืข ืกื’ื™ืจื” ื–ืžื ื™ืช - ืื ื‘ืฉืœ ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ืœืงื•ื—ื•ืช, ื•ืื ื‘ืฉืœ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืฉื ื“ื‘ืงื• ื‘ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ืื• ื—ืฉืฉ ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื ืฉืœ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ืจื™ืื™ื. ื’ื ื˜ื™ืกื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื•. ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืฉืจืฉืจืื•ืช ื”ืืกืคืงื”, ืืฉืจ ื’ื ื”ื•ืฉืคืขื• ืžืžื–ื’ ื”ืื•ื•ื™ืจ. ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื ื™ืชืŸ ืกื‘ื‘ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉืœ ืกื™ื•ืข ืœืขืกืงื™ื ืฉื ืคื’ืขื•. ื—ื•ืกืจ ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ืชื–ื•ื ืชื™ ื‘-21 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 2020 ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจื” ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืฉืฆืคื•ื™ ืจืขื‘ ื‘ื›ืžื” ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ืžื’ืคื”. ืคืจืกื•ื ื”ื“ื•"ื— ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืขืœ ืžืฉื‘ืจื™ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉื ืช 2020 ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ 55 ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื ืžืฆืื• ื‘ืกื™ื›ื•ืŸ, ื›ืืฉืจ ื“ื™ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ ื‘ื™ื–ืœื™ ื”ืขืจื™ืš ื›ื™ ื‘ืชืจื—ื™ืฉ ื”ื’ืจื•ืข ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ "ื›-36" ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื™ื™ื›ื ืกื• ืœืจืขื‘. ื‘ืœื˜ื• ืžื™ ืฉื ืคื’ืขื• ืžืžืœื—ืžื”, ื›ื•ืœืœ ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืจื™ื” ื•ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ื‘ืชื™ืžืŸ, ื•ืžื™ ืฉื ืคื’ืขื• ืžืกื•ืคื•ืช ื”ืืจื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ืช 2019 ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืืคืจื™ืงื”. ื ืกื˜ืœื”, ืคืคืกื™ืงื•, ืงืจืŸ ื”ืื•"ื ื•ืื™ื’ื•ื“ื™ ื”ื—ืงืœืื™ื ืคื ื• ืœ-G20 ืœืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืฉืžื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื—ืœื•ืงื•ืช ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืžื—ืกื•ืจ ื‘ืžื–ื•ืŸ. ื”ืื•"ื ืฆืคื” ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ื•ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ื™ื ืขื ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ืชื–ื•ื ืชื™ ืœืงื•ื™ ื”ืžืกื•ื•ื’ื™ื ืชื—ืช ื”ืฉืœื‘ื™ื 2, 3, 4 ื•-5 ื‘ืžื“ื“ ื”-IPC ื‘ืฉื ืช 2020. ืกื™ื•ืข ื•ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ื›ืžื” ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื• ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™. ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœืœื• ื”ืฉืงืขื” ื”ืชืงืฆื™ื‘ื™ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช. ืœืžืฉืœ, ื‘-25 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020, ืื™ืฉืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ื”ื˜ื‘ื•ืช ืœืžืฉืง ื‘ืกื›ื•ื ืฉืœ ืฉื ื™ ื˜ืจื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ื”ืชื›ื ื™ืช ืžื™ืžื ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ ื”ืขืœืืช ื“ืžื™ ืื‘ื˜ืœื”, ื‘ื“ื™ืงื•ืช ื—ื™ื ื ืœื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”, ื”ื˜ื‘ื•ืช ืžืก ืœืขืกืงื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื•ืกื™ื•ืข ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืชืœื•ืฉื™ ืžื–ื•ืŸ ื•ืžื“ื™ืงื™ื™ื“, ื•ื‘ืฉื ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืขื‘ืจื• ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช. ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื”ืžืฆื‘, ื‘ืžืงืจื™ื ื”ืžืชืื™ืžื™ื ื ืขืฉืชื” ื”ืชืืžื” ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื ืจื—ื‘ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช. ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื™ืžื•ืช, ื”ืชืืคืฉืจื” ื“ื—ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืชืฉืœื•ื ืขืœ ืžืฉื›ื ืชื•ืช. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืจืฅ 2020 ื’ื™ื‘ืฉื” ืงืจืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ืกื™ื•ืข ื‘ืกื›ื•ื ืฉืœ 12 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืขื ื™ื•ืช, ื•ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืกื™ื•ืข ืฉืœ 7.7 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ื”ื‘ื ืงื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ืงืฉื• ืžื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืงืœื•ืช ืจื’ื•ืœื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ื›ื“ื•ื’ืžืช ื”ื•ืจื“ืช ื“ืจื™ืฉืช ื”ืœื™ืžืช ื”ื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ืขื‘ืจืช ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื” ืžื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™. ื‘ืžืจืฅ, ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื” ืขืœ ื—ื‘ื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ, ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื– ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ื‘-2008. ื”ื—ื‘ื™ืœื” ื›ืœืœื” ืžืกืคืจ ื—ืœืงื™ื, ืชืฉืœื•ื ื—ื“ ืคืขืžื™ ื‘ืชืฉืœื•ื ืฉืœ 750 ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืกื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืช 6.5 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืงื‘ืœื™ ืจื•ื•ื—ื” ื‘-31 ื‘ืžืจืฅ, ืกื™ื•ืข ื‘ืขืกืง ืงื˜ืŸ ืขื 700,000 ืžืขื ืงื™ื ืขื“ 25,000 $ ื•ืกื‘ืกื•ื“ ืฉื›ืจ ืฉืœ 50% ืขื‘ื•ืจ 120,000 ื—ื ื™ื›ื™ื ืื• ื—ื ื™ื›ื™ื ืขื“ 9 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื, ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืžื’ื–ืจื™ื, ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ืฉืคืขื• ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ื•-700 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœื”ื’ื“ืœืช ืžื—ื™ืงืช ื”ืžืก ื•-3.2 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื”ืฉืงืขื•ืช ืขืกืงื™ื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืœื˜ื•ื•ื— ืงืฆืจ. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื“ืžื™ ื”ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ื”ื•ื›ืคืœื•. ื‘ืขืช ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช, ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ืฉืจ ื”ืื•ืฆืจ ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”, ืจื™ืฉื™ ืกื•ื ืืง, ืขืœ ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ืชืžืจื™ืฆื™ื ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ 30 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื™ื•ืจื• (39 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ) ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ - ื”ื—ื‘ื™ืœื” ื›ืœืœื” ื”ื•ืจื“ื•ืช ืžื™ืกื™ื ืžืžื•ืงื“ื•ืช ื•ืžืชืŸ ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ืœืขืกืงื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื. ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื‘ื ืง ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื”ื•ืจื™ื“ ืืช ื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืจื›ื™ืฉื•ืช ื”ืื’"ื— ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘-200 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืœื™ืฉ"ื˜ ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืœื”ื™ืงืฃ ื›ื•ืœืœ ืฉืœ 645 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืœื™ืฉ"ื˜ (755 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ). ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื• ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”, ื‘ื•ืจื™ืก ื’'ื•ื ืกื•ืŸ ื•ืกืื ื•ืง ืขืœ ื—ื‘ื™ืœืช ืกื™ื•ืข ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ 330 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืฉ"ื˜ ืœืžื’ื–ืจ ื”ืขืกืงื™, ื•ื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื•: ืงืจืŸ ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ืœื›ืœ ื”ืขืกืงื™ื, ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื”. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžืจืฅ, ื›ืฉื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ื›ื™ ื”ืžืฉืง ืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืฉืœ ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”, ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื‘ื—ืงื™ืงื” ืžื”ื™ืจื” ื—ื‘ื™ืœื” ื”ืžืืคืฉืจืช "ื™ื“ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ืช" ืœื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืœืคื ื•ืช ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช Kurzarbeit. ื‘-2008, ื›ืฉื”ื™ื›ื” ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื‘ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืฉืžืฆืื” ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ื”ื™ื” ืžืชืŸ ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื”ืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืžืฉืžืจื•ืช, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืคื˜ืจ ืื•ืชื. ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืคื™ืฆืชื” ืืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืขืกืงื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ื“ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ืขืกืงืช ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ื–ืžื ื™ ืžืฉื‘ืจ, ื•ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ื”ื ื ืžื ืขื• ืžืคื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื. ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืืžื ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืคื—ื•ืช ื›ืกืฃ, ืื‘ืœ ืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ืžืงื•ื ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื. ื”ืžื•ื“ืœ ื”ื•ืขืชืง ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื’ื ื ืงื‘ืขื” ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืชืžืจื™ืฆื™ื ื‘ืขืœืช ืขืœื•ืช ืชืงืฆื™ื‘ื™ืช ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื” ื™ื—ืกื™ืช. ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืื–ืจื‘ื™ื™ื’'ืŸ, ื“ื•ื•ื— ื›ื™ ื ืฉื™ื ืื–ืจื‘ื™ื™ื’'ืŸ, ืื™ืœื”ื ืืœื™ื™ื‘, ื”ืงืฆื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ืœืงื‘ื™ื ื˜ ืžืชืงืฆื™ื‘ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืฆืขื“ื™ื ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ. ื‘-1 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื“ื•ื•ื— ืฉืื•ื–ื‘ืงื™ืกื˜ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉื” ืžื”ื‘ื ืง ืœืคื™ืชื•ื— ืืกื™ื” ื”ืœื•ื•ืื” ืฉืœ ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืื•ื–ื‘ืงื™ืกื˜ืŸ. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืืคืจื™ืœ, ื“ื•ื•ื— ืฉืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืขื ื™ื•ืช ื ืคื’ืขื•ืช ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื™ืงื‘ืœื• ืžืื’"ื— ื”ืžื’ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ 133 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ื‘ืขืช ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”, ื”ื•ืคืกืงื• ื›ืœ ื”ืœื™ื›ื™ ืคืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืจื’ืœ ื•ื”ื•ืฆืื” ืœืคื•ืขืœ ืขื“ 30 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ, ืœืžืขื˜ ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื“ืžื™ ืžื–ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืžื–ื•ื ื•ืช ื™ืœื“ื™ื. ืžืžืฉืœืช ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื” ืืคืฉืจื” ืœืงืจืŸ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ืช ืœื”ืฉืชืœื˜ ืขืœ ื—ื‘ืจื•ืช ื‘ืžืฆื•ืงื” โ€“ ืžื”ืœืš ืฉืฆืคื•ื™ ืœืขืฆื‘ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ืขืœ ื”ืžืชื•ื•ื” ืœืคื™ื• ืชืคืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืกื™ื•ืข ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื ื•ืช. ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ ืชื›ื ืŸ: ืงืจืŸ ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ 750 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื™ืจื• ืœืžืื‘ืง ื‘ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ืœืคื™ ื”ืฆืขื” ืฉื˜ืจื ืื•ืฉืจื”, 500 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืžืชื•ืš ื”ืกื›ื•ื, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ืžื• ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ืŸ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ืฆืจืคืช, ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ืžื’ื™ื•ืก ื—ื•ื‘ ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ื•ื™ื—ื•ืœืงื• ื›ืžืขื ืงื™ื ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื–ืงื•ืงื•ืช ืœืชืžื™ื›ื”, ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“. ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืงืจืŸ ื ืชืงืœืช ื‘ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ืฆืคื•ืŸ-ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช. ืกื›ื•ื ื–ื” ืžืชื•ื•ืกืฃ ืœืงืจืŸ ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ 540 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื™ืจื• ืขืœื™ื” ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ื”ื ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื™ื•ืœื™, ื”ื•ืกื›ื ืขืœ ื—ืœื•ืงืช 390 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื™ืจื• ื‘ืžืขื ืงื™ื ื•-360 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืื™ืจื• ื‘ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ื ืžื•ื›ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™, ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœื’ื‘ืฉ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื—ื™ืœื•ืฅ ื•ืกื™ื•ืข. ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื›ืœืœื• ื’ื ืชืžืจื™ืฆื™ื ื ืงื•ื“ืชื™ื™ื, ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื”ืžืจื™ืฅ ืืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื•ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื”. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ื‘ืฉื "ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ืจื™ื ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช", ืขืœื™ื” ื—ืชื•ืžื™ื 83 ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื”ืืœืคื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ, ืคืจืกืžื” ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ืฉืงื•ืจืืช ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ืืช ื”ืžื™ืกื•ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื”, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกื™ื™ืข ืœื›ืœื›ืœื” ืœืฆืืช ืžื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ. ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 2020, ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ื’ืจืžื” ืœืื™ืฉื•ืจ ืžืก ื—ื“ ืคืขืžื™ ืขืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื•ืŸ. ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 2021, ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืื—ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืฆื™ื’ื•ืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืœื”ืขืœืืช ืžื™ืกื™ื ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืฆืžืฆื ืืช ื”ื’ื™ืจืขื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื™ืฆืจื” ื”ืžื’ืคื”. ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ, ื‘ืฉืœ ืื™ื ืคืœืฆื™ื” ืฉื’ื“ืœื”, ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ืœื›ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืžืขืœื” ืืช ื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ืžืื– ืคืจื•ืฅ ื”ืžื’ืคื”. ืฆืขื“ ื“ื•ืžื” ื‘ื•ืฆืข ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช. ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื”ื•ื—ืœื˜ ืœื”ื—ื™ืฉ ืืช ืงืฆื‘ ื”ืฆืžืฆื•ื ื”ื›ืžื•ืชื™ (ืจื›ื™ืฉืช ืื’"ื— ืžื”ืฉื•ืง ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื ื–ื™ืœื•ืช ื•ืœืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื”). ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื ืงื˜ื• ื‘ื›ืžื” ืฆืขื“ื™ื, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืื ืจื’ื™ื” ื•ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื—ืฉื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ืžื•ื ื•ื”ื—ืฉืžืœ, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืงืœ ืขืœ ื”ืฆืจื›ื ื™ื. ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2022, ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืขืœืชื” ืืช ื”ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืื– 2018. ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื•ืข ื‘ื”ืŸ ื ืงื˜ื• ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”, ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืœืขืœื™ื™ืช ื”ืื™ื ืคืœืฆื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื”ื—ืœ ืžืฉื ืช 2021. ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืฉืœ ืกื™ืŸ ืคืจืกื ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 2022 ืจืฉื™ืžื” ืฉืœ ืฆืขื“ื™ื ื•ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื• ืœื—ื–ืง ืืช ื›ืœื›ืœืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ืขืœื™ื” ื—ื“ื” ื‘ืชื—ืœื•ืื”. ืจืื• ื’ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_River] | [TOKENS: 15142]
Contents Columbia River The Columbia River (Upper Chinook: Wimahl or Wimal; Sahaptin: Nchโ€™i-Wร na or Nchi wana; Sinixt dialect swah'netk'qhu) is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. The river forms in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, Canada. It flows northwest and then south into the U.S. state of Washington, then turns west to form most of the border between Washington and the state of Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The river is 1,243 mi (2,000 km) long, and its largest tributary is the Snake River. Its drainage basin is roughly the size of France and extends into seven states of the United States and one Canadian province. The fourth-largest river in the United States by flow,[note 1] the Columbia has the greatest flow of any river into the eastern Pacific. The Columbia and its tributaries have been central to the region's culture and economy for thousands of years. They have been used for transportation since ancient times, linking the region's many cultural groups. The river system hosts many species of anadromous fish, which migrate between freshwater habitats and the saline waters of the Pacific Ocean. These fishโ€”especially the salmon speciesโ€”provided the core subsistence for native peoples. The first documented European discovery of the Columbia River occurred when Spanish explorer Bruno de Heceta sighted the river's mouth in 1775. On May 11, 1792, a private American ship, Columbia Rediviva, under Captain Robert Gray from Boston became the first non-indigenous vessel to enter the river. Later that same year William Robert Broughton of the British Royal Navy commanding HMS Chatham as part of the Vancouver Expedition, navigated past the Oregon Coast Range and 100 mi (160 km) upriver to what is now Vancouver, Washington. In the following decades, fur-trading companies used the Columbia as a key transportation route. Overland explorers entered the Willamette Valley through the scenic but treacherous Columbia River Gorge, and pioneers began to settle the valley in increasing numbers. Steamships along the river linked communities and facilitated trade; the arrival of railroads in the late 19th century, many running along the river, supplemented these links. Since the late 19th century, public and private sectors have extensively developed the river. To aid ship and barge navigation, locks have been built along the lower Columbia and its tributaries, and dredging has opened, maintained, and enlarged shipping channels. Since the early 20th century, dams have been built across the river for power generation, navigation, irrigation, and flood control. The 14 hydroelectric dams on the Columbia's main stem and many more on its tributaries produce more than 44 percent of total U.S. hydroelectric generation. Production of nuclear power has taken place at two sites along the river. Plutonium for nuclear weapons was produced for decades at the Hanford Site, which is now the most contaminated nuclear site in the United States. These developments have greatly altered river environments in the watershed, mainly through industrial pollution and barriers to fish migration. Course The Columbia begins its 1,243-mile (2,000 km) journey in the southern Rocky Mountain Trench in British Columbia (BC). Columbia Lake โ€“ 2,690 ft (820 m) above sea level โ€“ and the adjoining Columbia Wetlands form the river's headwaters. The trench is a broad, deep, and long glacial valley between the Canadian Rockies and the Columbia Mountains in BC. For its first 200 mi (320 km), the Columbia flows northwest along the trench through Windermere Lake and the town of Invermere, a region known in BC as the Columbia Valley, then northwest to Golden and into Kinbasket Lake. Rounding the northern end of the Selkirk Mountains, the river turns sharply south through a region known as the Big Bend Country, passing through Revelstoke Lake and the Arrow Lakes. Revelstoke, the Big Bend, and the Columbia Valley are collectively referred to in BC parlance as the Columbia Country. Below the Arrow Lakes, the Columbia passes the cities of Castlegar, located at the Columbia's confluence with the Kootenay River, and Trail, two major population centers of the West Kootenay region. The Pend Oreille River joins the Columbia about 2 miles (3 km) north of the United Statesโ€“Canada border. The Columbia enters eastern Washington flowing south and turning to the west at the Spokane River confluence. It marks the southern and eastern borders of the Colville Indian Reservation and the western border of the Spokane Indian Reservation. The river turns south after the Okanogan River confluence, then southeasterly near the confluence with the Wenatchee River in central Washington. This C-shaped segment of the river is also known as the "Big Bend". During the Missoula Floods 10โ€“15,000 years ago, much of the floodwater took a more direct route south, forming the ancient river bed known as the Grand Coulee. After the floods, the river found its present course, and the Grand Coulee was left dry. The construction of the Grand Coulee Dam in the mid-20th century impounded the river, forming Lake Roosevelt, from which water was pumped into the dry coulee, forming the reservoir of Banks Lake. The river flows past The Gorge Amphitheatre, a prominent concert venue in the Northwest, then through Priest Rapids Dam, and then through the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. Entirely within the reservation is Hanford Reach, the only U.S. stretch of the river that is completely free-flowing, unimpeded by dams, and not a tidal estuary. The Snake River and Yakima River join the Columbia in the Tri-Cities population center. The Columbia makes a sharp bend to the west at the Washingtonโ€“Oregon border. The river defines that border for the final 309 mi (497 km) of its journey. The Deschutes River joins the Columbia near The Dalles. Between The Dalles and Portland, the river cuts through the Cascade Range, forming the dramatic Columbia River Gorge. Via the gorge, the Columbia crosses the Cascades at a lower elevation than any other river. The gorge is known for its strong and steady winds, scenery, and its role as a transportation link. The river continues west, bending sharply to the north-northwest near Portland and Vancouver, Washington, at the Willamette River confluence. Here the river slows considerably, dropping sediment that might otherwise form a river delta at the Columbia's mouth. Near Longview, Washington and the Cowlitz River confluence, the river turns west again. The Columbia River empties into the Pacific Ocean just west of Astoria, Oregon, over the Columbia Bar, a shifting sandbar that makes the river's mouth one of the most hazardous stretches of water to navigate in the world. Because of the danger and the many shipwrecks near the mouth, it acquired a reputation as the "Graveyard of Ships". The Columbia drains an area of about 258,000 mi2 (670,000 km2). Its drainage basin covers nearly all of Idaho, large portions of British Columbia, Oregon, and Washington, all of Montana west of the Continental Divide, and small portions of Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada; the total area is similar to the size of France. Roughly 745 mi (1,199 km) of the river's length and 85 percent of its drainage basin are in the US. The Columbia is the twelfth-longest river and has the sixth-largest drainage basin in the United States. In Canada, where the Columbia flows for 498 mi (801 km) and drains 39,700 mi2 (103,000 km2), the river ranks 23rd in length, and the Canadian part of its basin ranks 13th in size among Canadian basins. The Columbia shares its name with nearby places, such as British Columbia, as well as with landforms and bodies of water. Discharge With an average flow at the mouth of about 265,000 cu ft/s (7,500 m3/s), the Columbia is the largest river by discharge flowing into the Pacific from the Americas and is the fourth-largest by volume in the U.S. The average flow where the river crosses the international border between Canada and the United States is 2,790 m3/s (99,000 cu ft/s) from a drainage basin of 102,800 km2 (39,700 mi2). This amounts to about 15 percent of the entire Columbia watershed. The Columbia's highest recorded flow, measured at The Dalles, was 1,240,000 cu ft/s (35,000 m3/s) in June 1894, before the river was dammed. The lowest flow recorded at The Dalles was 12,100 cu ft/s (340 m3/s) on April 16, 1968, and was caused by the initial closure of the John Day Dam, 28 mi (45 km) upstream. The Dalles is about 190 mi (310 km) from the mouth; the river at this point drains about 237,000 mi2 (610,000 km2) or about 91 percent of the total watershed. Flow rates on the Columbia are affected by many large upstream reservoirs, many diversions for irrigation, and, on the lower stretches, reverse flow from the tides of the Pacific Ocean. The National Ocean Service observes water levels at six tide gauges and issues tide forecasts for twenty-two additional locations along the river between the entrance at the North Jetty and the base of Bonneville Dam, its head of tide. *1858โ€“1899: 6,280 m3/s Geology When the rifting of Pangaea, due to the process of plate tectonics, pushed North America away from Europe and Africa and into the Panthalassic Ocean (ancestor to the modern Pacific Ocean), the Pacific Northwest was not part of the continent. As the North American continent moved westward, the Farallon Plate subducted under its western margin. As the plate subducted, it carried along island arcs which were accreted to the North American continent, resulting in the creation of the Pacific Northwest between 150 and 90 million years ago. The general outline of the Columbia Basin was not complete until between 60 and 40 million years ago, but it lay under a large inland sea later subject to uplift. Between 50 and 20 million years ago, from the Eocene through the Miocene eras, tremendous volcanic eruptions frequently modified much of the landscape traversed by the Columbia. The lower reaches of the ancestral river passed through a valley near where Mount Hood later arose. Carrying sediments from erosion and erupting volcanoes, it built a 2-mile (3.2 km) thick delta that underlies the foothills on the east side of the Coast Range near Vernonia in northwestern Oregon. Between 17 million and 6 million years ago, huge outpourings of flood basalt lava covered the Columbia Plateau and forced the lower Columbia into its present course. The modern Cascade Range began to uplift 5 to 4 million years ago. Cutting through the uplifting mountains, the Columbia River significantly deepened the Columbia River Gorge. The river and its drainage basin experienced some of the world's greatest known catastrophic floods toward the end of the last ice age. The periodic rupturing of ice dams at Glacial Lake Missoula resulted in the Missoula Floods, with discharges exceeding the combined flow of all the other rivers in the world, dozens of times over thousands of years. While the exact number of floods is unknown, geologists have documented at least 40; evidence suggests that they occurred between about 19,000 and 13,000 years ago. The floodwaters rushed across eastern Washington, creating the channeled scablands, which are a complex network of dry canyon-like channels, or coulees that are often braided and sharply gouged into the basalt rock underlying the region's deep topsoil. Numerous flat-topped buttes with rich soil stand high above the chaotic scablands. Constrictions at several places caused the floodwaters to pool into large temporary lakes, such as Lake Lewis, in which sediments were deposited. Water depths have been estimated at 1,000 feet (300 m) at Wallula Gap and 400 feet (120 m) over modern Portland, Oregon. Sediments were also deposited when the floodwaters slowed in the broad flats of the Quincy, Othello, and Pasco Basins. The floods' periodic inundation of the lower Columbia Plateau deposited rich sediments; 21st-century farmers in the Willamette Valley "plow fields of fertile Montana soil and clays from Washington's Palouse". Over the last several thousand years a series of large landslides have occurred on the north side of the Columbia River Gorge, sending massive amounts of debris south from Table Mountain and Greenleaf Peak into the gorge near the present site of Bonneville Dam. The most recent and significant is known as the Bonneville Slide, which formed a massive earthen dam, filling 3.5 miles (5.6 km) of the river's length. Various studies have placed the date of the Bonneville Slide anywhere between 1060 and 1760 AD; the idea that the landslide debris present today was formed by more than one slide is relatively recent and may explain the large range of estimates. It has been suggested that if the later dates are accurate there may be a link with the 1700 Cascadia earthquake. The pile of debris resulting from the Bonneville Slide blocked the river until rising water finally washed away the sediment. It is not known how long it took the river to break through the barrier; estimates range from several months to several years. Much of the landslide's debris remained, forcing the river about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south of its previous channel and forming the Cascade Rapids. In 1938, the construction of Bonneville Dam inundated the rapids as well as the remaining trees that could be used to refine the estimated date of the landslide. In 1980, the eruption of Mount St. Helens deposited large amounts of sediment in the lower Columbia, temporarily reducing the depth of the shipping channel by 26 feet (7.9 m). Indigenous peoples Humans have inhabited the Columbia's watershed for more than 15,000 years, with a transition to a sedentary lifestyle based mainly on salmon starting about 3,500 years ago. In 1962, archaeologists found evidence of human activity dating back 11,230 years at the Marmes Rockshelter, near the confluence of the Palouse and Snake rivers in eastern Washington. In 1996 the skeletal remains of a 9,000-year-old prehistoric man (dubbed Kennewick Man) were found near Kennewick, Washington. The discovery rekindled debate in the scientific community over the origins of human habitation in North America and sparked a protracted controversy over whether the scientific or Native American community was entitled to possess and/or study the remains. Many different Native Americans and First Nations peoples have a historical and continuing presence on the Columbia. South of the Canadaโ€“US border, the Colville, Spokane, Coeur d'Alene, Yakama, Wanapum, Nez Perce, Cayuse, Palus, Umatilla, Cowlitz, and the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs live along the US stretch. Along the upper Snake River and Salmon River, the Shoshone Bannock tribes are present. The Sinixt or Lakes people lived on the lower stretch of the Canadian portion, while above that the Shuswap people (Secwepemc in their own language) reckon the whole of the upper Columbia east to the Rockies as part of their territory. The Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin outlines the traditional homelands of the Canadian Kootenayโ€“Ktunaxa. The Chinook tribe, which is not federally recognized, who live near the lower Columbia River, call it Wimahl or Wimal in the Upper Chinook (Kiksht) language, and it is Nchโ€™i-Wร na or Nchi wana to the Sahaptin (Ichishkรญin Sษจฬnwit)-speaking peoples of its middle course in present-day Washington. The river is known as swah'netk'qhu by the Sinixt people, who live in the area of the Arrow Lakes in the river's upper reaches in Canada. All three terms essentially mean "the big river". Oral histories describe the formation and destruction of the Bridge of the Gods, a land bridge that connected the Oregon and Washington sides of the river in the Columbia River Gorge. The bridge, which aligns with geological records of the Bonneville Slide, was described in some stories as the result of a battle between gods, represented by Mount Adams and Mount Hood, in their competition for the affection of a goddess, represented by Mount St. Helens. Native American stories about the bridge differ in their details but agree in general that the bridge permitted increased interaction between tribes on the north and south sides of the river. Horses, originally acquired from Spanish New Mexico, spread widely via native trade networks, reaching the Shoshone of the Snake River Plain by 1700. The Nez Perce, Cayuse, and Flathead people acquired their first horses around 1730. Along with horses came aspects of the emerging plains culture, such as equestrian and horse training skills, greatly increased mobility, hunting efficiency, trade over long distances, intensified warfare, the linking of wealth and prestige to horses and war, and the rise of large and powerful tribal confederacies. The Nez Perce and Cayuse kept large herds and made annual long-distance trips to the Great Plains for bison hunting, adopted the plains culture to a significant degree, and became the main conduit through which horses and the plains culture diffused into the Columbia River region. Other peoples acquired horses and aspects of the plains culture unevenly. The Yakama, Umatilla, Palus, Spokane, and Coeur d'Alene maintained sizable herds of horses and adopted some of the plains cultural characteristics, but fishing and fish-related economies remained important. Less affected groups included the Molala, Klickitat, Wenatchi, Okanagan, and Sinkiuse-Columbia peoples, who owned small numbers of horses and adopted few plains culture features. Some groups remained essentially unaffected, such as the Sanpoil and Nespelem people, whose culture remained centered on fishing. Natives of the region encountered foreigners at several times and places during the 18th and 19th centuries. European and American vessels explored the coastal area around the mouth of the river in the late 18th century, trading with local natives. The contact would prove devastating to the indigenous Chinookan speaking peoples; a large portion of their population was wiped out by a smallpox epidemic. Canadian explorer Alexander Mackenzie crossed what is now interior British Columbia in 1793. From 1805 to 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition entered the Oregon Country along the Clearwater and Snake rivers, and encountered numerous small settlements of natives. Their records recount tales of hospitable traders who were not above stealing small items from the visitors. They also noted brass teakettles, a British musket, and other artifacts that had been obtained in trade with coastal tribes. From the earliest contact with westerners, the natives of the mid- and lower Columbia were not tribal, but instead congregated in social units no larger than a village, and more often at a family level; these units would shift with the season as people moved about, following the salmon catch up and down the river's tributaries. Sparked by the 1847 Whitman Massacre, a number of violent battles were fought between American settlers and the region's natives. The subsequent wars over Northwest territory, especially the Yakima War, decimated the native population and removed much land from native control. As years progressed, the right of natives to fish along the Columbia became the central issue of contention with the states, commercial fishers, and private property owners. The US Supreme Court upheld fishing rights in landmark cases in 1905 and 1918, as well as the 1974 case United States v. Washington, commonly called the Boldt Decision. Fish were central to the culture of the region's natives, both as sustenance and as part of their religious beliefs. Natives drew fish from the Columbia at several major sites, which also served as trading posts. Celilo Falls, located east of the modern city of The Dalles, was a vital hub for trade and the interaction of different cultural groups, being used for fishing and trading for 11,000 years. Prior to contact with westerners, villages along this 9-mile (14 km) stretch may have at times had a population as great as 10,000. The site drew traders from as far away as the Great Plains. The Cascades Rapids of the Columbia River Gorge, and Kettle Falls and Priest Rapids in eastern Washington, were also major fishing and trading sites. In prehistoric times the Columbia's salmon and steelhead runs numbered an estimated annual average of 10 to 16 million fish. In comparison, the largest run since 1938 was in 1986, with 3.2 million fish entering the Columbia. The annual catch by natives has been estimated at 42 million pounds (19,000 metric tons). The most important and productive native fishing site was located at Celilo Falls, which was perhaps the most productive inland fishing site in North America. The falls were located at the border between Chinookan- and Sahaptian-speaking peoples and served as the center of an extensive trading network across the Pacific Plateau. Celilo was the oldest continuously inhabited community on the North American continent. Salmon canneries established by white settlers beginning in 1866 had a strong negative impact on the salmon population, and in 1908 US president Theodore Roosevelt observed that the salmon runs were but a fraction of what they had been 25 years prior. As river development continued in the 20th century, each of these major fishing sites was flooded by a dam, beginning with Cascades Rapids in 1938. The development was accompanied by extensive negotiations between natives and US government agencies. The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, a coalition of various tribes, adopted a constitution and incorporated after the 1938 completion of the Bonneville Dam flooded Cascades Rapids; Still, in the 1930s, there were natives who lived along the river and fished year round, moving along with the fish's migration patterns throughout the seasons. The Yakama were slower to do so, organizing a formal government in 1944. In the 21st century, the Yakama, Nez Perce, Umatilla, and Warm Springs tribes all have treaty fishing rights along the Columbia and its tributaries. In 1957 Celilo Falls was submerged by the construction of the Dalles Dam, and the native fishing community was displaced. The affected tribes received a $26.8 million settlement for the loss of Celilo and other fishing sites submerged by the Dalles Dam. The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs used part of its $4 million settlement to establish the Kah-Nee-Ta resort south of Mount Hood. In 1977, 75 indigenous fishermen of the Yakama Tribe were arrested in a federal sting operation which claimed that fishermen were poaching up to 40,000 fish in the Columbia River. Fishermen placed on trial received sentences ranging from six months to five years. The federal government pinned Yakama Tribe member David Sohappy ringleader of the operation. After the trial ended, it was determined that the fish were not poached, but driven away because of harmful chemicals present in the power plant. These harmful chemicals consisted mainly of aluminum. This event is commonly known today as the Salmon Scam. Shortly after the Salmon Scam, many Columbia River-based indigenous tribes received federally recognized status. The Siletz Tribe was the first to restore its federal recognition in 1977, followed by the Cow Creek Band of the Umpqua Tribe in 1982, the Grand Ronde Tribe in 1983, the Lower Umpqua Tribe, Siuslaw Tribe, and Coos Tribe in 1984, the Klamath Tribe in 1986, and the Coquille Tribe in 1989. While all the aforementioned tribes received federally recognized status, the Chinook Indian Nation had their federal recognition revoked in 2002 by the Bush administration, and are fighting to have it restored. In 2023, members of the Yakama Nation expressed their dismay for the construction of a Goldendale-based pumped hydroelectric energy storage project. Jeremy Takala of the Yakama Nation embodies Yakama belief on the importance of Columbia River crops to food and medicine, stating "the [Goldendale] project being proposed here, it will definitely impact our life". The Goldendale-pumped hydro storage unit could allow for reused water use in reservoirs, which would be placed on mountainous terrain overlooking the Columbia River. The mountainous terrain where the unit would be placed in is Juniper Point, referred to by the Yakama as Pushpum. Pushpum has rock formations, as well as food and medicine capabilities that are essential to the Yakama. Members of the Yakama tribe wish for consent on the Goldendale project, as opposed to consultation. New waves of explorers Historian Derek Hayes believes that Japanese or Chinese vessels blown off course reached the Northwest Coast long before Europeansโ€”possibly as early as 219 BCEโ€”but the earliest known wreck is from the 19th century. The Maris Pacifici map published in 1589 features on the west coast of North-America an intriguing resemblance of two major coastline features: the mouth of the Columbia River identified as "Rio Grande" and the delta of the Fraser River labeled "Baia de las isleas". These rivers may have been sighted by European visitors long before official records would confirm nearly 200 years later. In spite of limited evidence of Francis Drake expedition 1579 whereabouts in the Pacific Northwest, Pacific Northwest BC history commentator Sam Bawlf posited that the Ortelius mapped coastal features were a proof that Drake sighted the mouth of the Columbia and the Fraser River delta. The Beeswax wreck proves that Spanish vessels reached the shore by the late-17th century, but if there were any survivors, they failed to send word home to Spain. In the 18th century, there was strong interest in discovering a Northwest Passage that would permit navigation between the Atlantic (or inland North America) and the Pacific oceans. Many ships in the area, especially those under Spanish and British command, searched the northwest coast for a large river that might connect to Hudson Bay or the Missouri River. The first documented European discovery of the Columbia River was that of Bruno de Heceta, who in 1775 sighted the river's mouth. On the advice of his officers, he did not explore it, as he was short-staffed and the current was strong. He considered it a bay, and called it Ensenada de Asunciรณn (Assumption Cove). Later Spanish maps, based on his sighting, showed a river, labeled Rรญo de San Roque (The Saint Roch River), or an entrance, called Entrada de Hezeta, named for Bruno de Hezeta, who sailed the region. Following Hezeta's reports, British maritime fur trader Captain John Meares searched for the river in 1788 but concluded that it did not exist. He named Cape Disappointment for the non-existent river, not realizing the cape marks the northern edge of the river's mouth. What happened next would form the basis for decades of both cooperation and dispute between British and American exploration of, and ownership claim to, the region. Royal Navy commander George Vancouver sailed past the mouth in April 1792 and observed a change in the water's color, but he accepted Meares' report and continued on his journey northward. Later that month, Vancouver encountered the American captain Robert Gray at the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Gray reported that he had seen the entrance to the Columbia and had spent nine days trying but failing to enter. On May 12, 1792, Gray returned south and crossed the Columbia Bar, becoming the first known explorer of European descent to enter the river. Gray's fur trading mission had been financed by Boston merchants, who outfitted him with a private vessel named Columbia Rediviva; he named the river after the ship on May 18. Gray spent nine days trading near the mouth of the Columbia, then left without having gone beyond 13 miles (21 km) upstream. The farthest point reached was Grays Bay at the mouth of Grays River. Gray's discovery of the Columbia River was later used by the United States to support its claim to the Oregon Country, which was also claimed by Russia, Great Britain, Spain and other nations. In October 1792, Vancouver sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton, his second-in-command, up the river. Broughton got as far as the Sandy River at the western end of the Columbia River Gorge, about 100 miles (160 km) upstream, sighting and naming Mount Hood. Broughton formally claimed the river, its drainage basin, and the nearby coast for Britain. In contrast, Gray had not made any formal claims on behalf of the United States. Because the Columbia was at the same latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River, there was some speculation that Gray and Vancouver had discovered the long-sought Northwest Passage. A 1798 British map showed a dotted line connecting the Columbia with the Missouri. When the American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark charted the vast, unmapped lands of the American West in their overland expedition (1803โ€“1805), they found no passage between the rivers. After crossing the Rocky Mountains, Lewis and Clark built dugout canoes and paddled down the Snake River, reaching the Columbia near the present-day Tri-Cities, Washington. They explored a few miles upriver, as far as Bateman Island, before heading down the Columbia, concluding their journey at the river's mouth and establishing Fort Clatsop, a short-lived establishment that was occupied for less than three months. Canadian explorer David Thompson, of the North West Company, spent the winter of 1807โ€“08 at Kootanae House near the source of the Columbia at present-day Invermere, BC. Over the next few years he explored much of the river and its northern tributaries. In 1811 he traveled down the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, arriving at the mouth just after John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company had founded Astoria. On his return to the north, Thompson explored the one remaining part of the river he had not yet seen, becoming the first Euro-descended person to travel the entire length of the river. In 1825, the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) established Fort Vancouver on the bank of the Columbia, in what is now Vancouver, Washington, as the headquarters of the company's Columbia District, which encompassed everything west of the Rocky Mountains, north of California, and south of Russian-claimed Alaska. Chief Factor John McLoughlin, a physician who had been in the fur trade since 1804, was appointed superintendent of the Columbia District. The HBC reoriented its Columbia District operations toward the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia, which became the region's main trunk route. In the early 1840s Americans began to colonize the Oregon country in large numbers via the Oregon Trail, despite the HBC's efforts to discourage American settlement in the region. For many the final leg of the journey involved travel down the lower Columbia River to Fort Vancouver. This part of the Oregon Trail, the treacherous stretch from The Dalles to below the Cascades, could not be traversed by horses or wagons (only watercraft, at great risk). This prompted the 1846 construction of the Barlow Road. In the Treaty of 1818 the United States and Britain agreed that both nations were to enjoy equal rights in Oregon Country for 10 years. By 1828, when the so-called "joint occupation" was renewed indefinitely, it seemed probable that the lower Columbia River would in time become the border between the two nations. For years the Hudson's Bay Company successfully maintained control of the Columbia River and American attempts to gain a foothold were fended off. In the 1830s, American religious missions were established at several locations in the lower Columbia River region. In the 1840s a mass migration of American settlers undermined British control. The Hudson's Bay Company tried to maintain dominance by shifting from the fur trade, which was in decline, to exporting other goods such as salmon and lumber. Colonization schemes were attempted, but failed to match the scale of American settlement. Americans generally settled south of the Columbia, mainly in the Willamette Valley. The Hudson's Bay Company tried to establish settlements north of the river, but nearly all the British colonists moved south to the Willamette Valley. The hope that the British colonists might dilute the American presence in the valley failed in the face of the overwhelming number of American settlers. These developments rekindled the issue of "joint occupation" and the boundary dispute. While some British interests, especially the Hudson's Bay Company, fought for a boundary along the Columbia River, the Oregon Treaty of 1846 set the boundary at the 49th parallel. As part of the treaty, the British retained all areas north of the line while the United States acquired the south. The Columbia River became much of the border between the U.S. territories of Oregon and Washington. Oregon became a U.S. state in 1859, while Washington later entered into the Union in 1889. By the turn of the 20th century, the difficulty of navigating the Columbia was seen as an impediment to the economic development of the Inland Empire region east of the Cascades. The dredging and dam building that followed would permanently alter the river, disrupting its natural flow but also providing electricity, irrigation, navigability and other benefits to the region. Navigation American captain Robert Gray and British captain George Vancouver, who explored the river in 1792, proved that it was possible to cross the Columbia Bar. Many of the challenges associated with that feat remain today; even with modern engineering alterations to the mouth of the river, the strong currents and shifting sandbar make it dangerous to pass between the river and the Pacific Ocean. The use of steamboats along the river, beginning with the British Beaver in 1836 and followed by American vessels in 1850, contributed to the rapid settlement and economic development of the region. Steamboats operated in several distinct stretches of the river: on its lower reaches, from the Pacific Ocean to Cascades Rapids; from the Cascades to The Dalles-Celilo Falls; from Celilo to the Priest Rapids; on the Wenatchee Reach of eastern Washington; on British Columbia's Arrow Lakes; and on tributaries like the Willamette, the Snake and Kootenay Lake. The boats, initially powered by burning wood, carried passengers and freight throughout the region for many years. Early railroads served to connect steamboat lines interrupted by waterfalls on the river's lower reaches. In the 1880s, railroads maintained by companies such as the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company began to supplement steamboat operations as the major transportation links along the river. As early as 1881, industrialists proposed altering the natural channel of the Columbia to improve navigation. Changes to the river over the years have included the construction of jetties at the river's mouth, dredging, and the construction of canals and navigation locks. Today, ocean freighters can travel upriver as far as Portland and Vancouver, and barges can reach as far inland as Lewiston, Idaho. The shifting Columbia Bar makes passage between the river and the Pacific Ocean difficult and dangerous, and numerous rapids along the river hinder navigation. Pacific Graveyard, a 1964 book by James A. Gibbs, describes the many shipwrecks near the mouth of the Columbia. Jetties, first constructed in 1886, extend the river's channel into the ocean. Strong currents and the shifting sandbar remain a threat to ships entering the river and necessitate continuous maintenance of the jetties. In 1891, the Columbia was dredged to enhance shipping. The channel between the ocean and Portland and Vancouver was deepened from 17 to 25 feet (5.2 to 7.6 m). The Columbian called for the channel to be deepened to 40 feet (12 m) as early as 1905, but that depth was not attained until 1976. Cascade Locks and Canal were first constructed in 1896 around the Cascades Rapids, enabling boats to travel safely through the Columbia River Gorge. The Celilo Canal, bypassing Celilo Falls, opened to river traffic in 1915. In the mid-20th century, the construction of dams along the length of the river submerged the rapids beneath a series of reservoirs. An extensive system of locks allowed ships and barges to pass easily between reservoirs. A navigation channel reaching Lewiston, Idaho, along the Columbia and Snake rivers, was completed in 1975. Among the main commodities are wheat and other grains, mainly for export. As of 2016, the Columbia ranked third, behind the Mississippi and Paranรก rivers, among the world's largest export corridors for grain. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens caused mudslides in the area, which reduced the Columbia's depth by 25 feet (7.6 m) for a 4-mile (6.4 km) stretch, disrupting Portland's economy. Efforts to maintain and improve the navigation channel have continued to the present day. In 1990 a new round of studies examined the possibility of further dredging on the lower Columbia. The plans were controversial from the start because of economic and environmental concerns. In 1999, Congress authorized deepening the channel between Portland and Astoria from 40 to 43 feet (12โ€“13 m), which will make it possible for large container and grain ships to reach Portland and Vancouver. The project has met opposition because of concerns about stirring up toxic sediment on the riverbed. Portland-based Northwest Environmental Advocates brought a lawsuit against the Army Corps of Engineers, but it was rejected by the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in August 2006. The project includes measures to mitigate environmental damage; for instance, the US Army Corps of Engineers must restore 12 times the area of wetland damaged by the project. In early 2006, the Corps spilled 50 US gallons (190 L) of hydraulic oil into the Columbia, drawing further criticism from environmental organizations. Work on the project began in 2005 and concluded in 2010. The project's cost is estimated at $150 million. The federal government is paying 65 percent, Oregon and Washington are paying $27 million each, and six local ports are also contributing to the cost. The lower Columbia River, the Snake River as far as Lewiston, and part of the Willamette River make up M-84, a route of the United States Marine Highway Program. Dams In 1902, the United States Bureau of Reclamation was established to aid in the economic development of arid western states. One of its major undertakings was building Grand Coulee Dam to provide irrigation for the 600 thousand acres (2,400 km2) of the Columbia Basin Project in central Washington. With the onset of World War II, the focus of dam construction shifted to production of hydroelectricity. Irrigation efforts resumed after the war. River development occurred within the structure of the 1909 International Boundary Waters Treaty between the United States and Canada. The United States Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1925, which directed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Power Commission to explore the development of the nation's rivers. This prompted agencies to conduct the first formal financial analysis of hydroelectric development; the reports produced by various agencies were presented in House Document 308. Those reports, and subsequent related reports, are referred to as 308 Reports. The 308 Reports generated 176 publications across the United States. Of those 176 documents, thirteen of them were generated in the Pacific Northwest. In 1932, one of the thirteen reports was released on the Columbia River, titled The Columbia River and Minor Tributaries. The report was backed by many engineers and state politicians who believed that the creation of dams along the Columbia River would be a strong candidate for generation of hydroelectric power. The report led to congressional action, where dams at Bonneville and Grand Coulee were authorized in 1933. The report itself emphasized the economic values of dam creation. Additionally, the reports emphasized the importance of dams for river navigation. Furthermore, the reports emphasized the importance of hydropower, storage of water for irrigation techniques, and flood control. To ensure that the dams did not affect biodiversity, many engineers and state politicians regarded the importance of salmon within the region. Thus, dams were to be built at a low height that would permit salmon to pass over. In the late 1920s, political forces in the Northwestern United States generally favored the private development of hydroelectric dams along the Columbia. But the overwhelming victories of gubernatorial candidate George W. Joseph in the 1930 Republican primary, and later his law partner Julius Meier, were understood to demonstrate strong public support for public ownership of dams. In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a bill that enabled the construction of the Bonneville and Grand Coulee dams as public works projects. The legislation was attributed to the efforts of Oregon Senator Charles McNary, Washington Senator Clarence Dill, and Oregon Congressman Charles Martin, among others. In 1948, floods swept through the Columbia watershed, destroying Vanport, then the second largest city in Oregon, and impacting cities as far north as Trail, BC. The flooding prompted the U.S. Congress to pass the Flood Control Act of 1950, authorizing the federal development of additional dams and other flood control mechanisms. By that time local communities had become wary of federal hydroelectric projects, and sought local control of new developments; a public utility district in Grant County, Washington, ultimately began construction of the Priest Rapids Dam. In the 1960s, the United States and Canada signed the Columbia River Treaty, which focused on flood control and the maximization of downstream power generation. Canada agreed to build dams and provide reservoir storage, and the United States agreed to deliver to Canada one-half of the increase in United States downstream power benefits as estimated five years in advance. Canada's obligation was met by building three dams (two on the Columbia, and one on the Duncan River), the last of which was completed in 1973. Today the main stem of the Columbia River has fourteen dams, of which three are in Canada and eleven in the United States. Four mainstem dams and four lower Snake River dams contain navigation locks to allow ship and barge passage from the ocean as far as Lewiston, Idaho. The river system as a whole has more than 400 dams for hydroelectricity and irrigation. The dams address a variety of demands, including flood control, navigation, stream flow regulation, storage, and delivery of stored waters, reclamation of public lands and Indian reservations and territories, and the generation of hydroelectric power. This river may have been shaped by God, or glaciers, or the remnants of the inland sea, or gravity, or a combination of all, but the Army Corps of Engineers controls it now. The Columbia rises and falls, not by the dictates of tide or rainfall, but by a computer-activated, legally arbitrated, federally allocated schedule that changes only when significant litigation is concluded, or a United States Senator nears election time. In that sense, it is reliable. The larger U.S. dams are owned and operated by the federal government (some by the Army Corps of Engineers and some by the Bureau of Reclamation), while the smaller dams are operated by public utility districts and private power companies. The federally operated system is known as the Federal Columbia River Power System, which includes 31 dams on the Columbia and its tributaries. The system has altered the seasonal flow of the river to meet higher electricity demands during the winter. At the beginning of the 20th century, roughly 75 percent of the Columbia's flow occurred in the summer, between April and September. By 1980, the summer proportion had been lowered to about 50 percent, essentially eliminating the seasonal pattern. Upon its creation in 1942, the Grand Coulee Dam required land inundation for construction. This flooding included parts of the Colville Reservation and Spokane Reservation. Reservation flooding has resulted in the displacement of 2,250 indigenous peoples located on those reservations. The installation of dams dramatically altered the landscape and ecosystem of the river. At one time, the Columbia was one of the top salmon-producing river systems in the world. Previously active fishing sites, such as Celilo Falls in the eastern Columbia River Gorge, have exhibited a sharp decline in fishing along the Columbia in the last century, and salmon populations have been dramatically reduced. Fish ladders have been installed at some dam sites to help the fish journey to spawning waters. Fish ladders have been seen as highly effective when configurations to fishway exits are properly configured, as reconstructing the Bradford Island fish ladder allowed Sockeye salmon to stray away from spillway zones, reducing fallback (the rate at which fish are found moving away from a dam post-migration) and mortality birthrates. However, improper construction of fish ladders can result in salmon populations exerting significantly more energy when breeding, which results in higher levels of fallback. Chief Joseph Dam has no fish ladders and completely blocks fish migration to the upper half of the Columbia River system. In 2019, both the Yakama and Lummi Northwest Nations proposed to remove the Bonneville, John Day, and The Dalles dams due to their belief removal would strengthen salmon population. Jay Julius, Chairman of the Lummi Nation, stated in 2019 that the fate of salmon without dam removal for the Lummi is a "horrifying reality". JoDe Goudy, Chairman of the Yakama Nation, stated that "the Columbia River Dams were built on [a] false legal foundation, and decimated the Yakama Nationโ€™s fisheries, traditional foods, and cultural sites." Both Nations have worked with nonprofit advocacy organizations to further removal agendas. Throughout 2021, the nonprofit organization Earthjustice represented 10 conservation and fishing organizations in negotiations with President Joe Biden over removal of dam operations on the Snake River. These negotiations culminated in a lawsuit, with Earthjustice requesting to completely halt operations due to their belief of Snake River dam effects on salmon and steelhead fish runs. On December 15, 2021, the two parties agreed to settle the dispute and focus on a plan to mitigate fish extinction. Joe Biden agreed to a $1 billion mandate, proposed in December 2023, which will attempt to reintroduce Columbia River salmon blockaded by dams. The mandate asked for the Bonneville Power Administration to supply US$300 million over a ten-year span starting in 2024, which includes habitat restoration and upgrades in fish hatcheries. Furthermore, the Biden administration stated it would examine the possibility of doubling fish and wildlife spending to meet tribal needs. As a benchmark for financial utilization, US$1 billion in backlogged projects have been identified in the Columbia River Basin. The mandate did not call for the removal of four dams on the Snake River. The Bureau of Reclamation's Columbia Basin Project focused on the generally dry region of central Washington known as the Columbia Basin, which features rich loess soil. Several groups developed competing proposals, and in 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the Columbia Basin Project. The Grand Coulee Dam was the project's central component; upon completion, it pumped water up from the Columbia to fill the formerly dry Grand Coulee, forming Banks Lake. By 1935, the intended height of the dam was increased from a range between 200 and 300 feet (61 and 91 m) to 500 feet (150 m), a height that would extend the lake impounded by the dam to the Canadaโ€“United States border; the project had grown from a local New Deal relief measure to a major national project. The project's initial purpose was irrigation, but the onset of World War II created a high electricity demand, mainly for aluminum production and for the development of nuclear weapons at the Hanford Site. Irrigation began in 1951. The project provides water to more than 670 thousand acres (2,700 square kilometers) of fertile but arid land in central Washington, transforming the region into a major agricultural center. Important crops include orchard fruit, potatoes, alfalfa, mint, beans, beets, and wine grapes. Since 1750, the Columbia has experienced six multi-year droughts. The longest, lasting 12 years in the midโ€‘19th century, reduced the river's flow to 20 percent below average. Scientists have expressed concern that a similar drought would have grave consequences in a region so dependent on the Columbia. In 1992โ€“1993, a lesser drought affected farmers, hydroelectric power producers, shippers, and wildlife managers. Many farmers in central Washington build dams on their property for irrigation and to control frost on their crops. The Washington Department of Ecology, using new techniques involving aerial photographs, estimated there may be as many as a hundred such dams in the area, most of which are illegal. Six such dams have failed in recent years, causing hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage to crops and public roads. Fourteen farms in the area have gone through the permitting process to build such dams legally. The Columbia's heavy flow and large elevation drop over a short distance, 2.16 feet per mile (40.9 centimeters per kilometer), give it tremendous capacity for hydroelectricity generation. In comparison, the Mississippi drops less than 0.65 feet per mile (12.3 cm/km). The Columbia alone possesses one-third of the United States's hydroelectric potential. In 2012, the river and its tributaries accounted for 29 GW of hydroelectric generating capacity, contributing 44 percent of the total hydroelectric generation in the nation. The largest of the 150 hydroelectric projects, the Grand Coulee Dam and Chief Joseph Dam are also the largest in the United States. As of 2017, Grand Coulee is the fifth largest hydroelectric plant in the world. Inexpensive hydropower supported the location of a large aluminum industry in the region because its reduction from bauxite requires large amounts of electricity. Until 2000, the Northwestern United States produced up to 17 percent of the world's aluminum and 40 percent of the aluminum produced in the United States. The commoditization of power in the early 21st century, coupled with a drought that reduced the generation capacity of the river, damaged the industry and by 2001, Columbia River aluminum producers had idled 80 percent of its production capacity. By 2003, the entire United States produced only 15 percent of the world's aluminum and many smelters along the Columbia had gone dormant or out of business. Power remains relatively inexpensive along the Columbia, and since the mid-2000 several global enterprises have moved server farm operations into the area to avail themselves of cheap power. Downriver of Grand Coulee, each dam's reservoir is closely regulated by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and various Washington public utility districts to ensure flow, flood control, and power generation objectives are met. Increasingly, hydro-power operations are required to meet standards under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and other agreements to manage operations to minimize impacts on salmon and other fish, and some conservation and fishing groups support removing four dams on the lower Snake River, the largest tributary of the Columbia. In 1941, the BPA hired Oklahoma folksinger Woody Guthrie to write songs for a documentary film promoting the benefits of hydropower. In the month he spent traveling the region Guthrie wrote 26 songs, which have become an important part of the cultural history of the region. Ecology and environment The Columbia supports several species of anadromous fish that migrate between the Pacific Ocean and freshwater tributaries of the river. Sockeye, Coho and Chinook ("king") salmon, and steelhead, all of the genus Oncorhynchus, are ocean fish that migrate up the rivers at the end of their life cycles to spawn. White sturgeon, which take 15 to 25 years to mature, typically migrate between the ocean and the upstream habitat several times during their lives. Salmon populations declined dramatically after the establishment of canneries in 1867. In 1879 it was reported that 545,450 salmon, with an average weight of 22 pounds (10.0 kg) were caught (in a recent season) and mainly canned for export to England. A can weighing 1 pound (0.45 kg) could be sold for 8 or 9 pence. By 1908, there was widespread concern about the decline of salmon and sturgeon. In that year, the people of Oregon passed two laws under their newly instituted program of citizens' initiatives limiting fishing on the Columbia and other rivers. Then in 1948, another initiative banned the use of seine nets (devices already used by Native Americans, and refined by later settlers) altogether. Dams interrupt the migration of anadromous fish. Salmon and steelhead return to the streams in which they were born to spawn; where dams prevent their return, entire populations of salmon die. Some of the Columbia and Snake River dams employ fish ladders, which are effective to varying degrees at allowing these fish to travel upstream. Another problem exists for the juvenile salmon headed downstream to the ocean. Previously, this journey would have taken two to three weeks. With river currents slowed by the dams, and the Columbia converted from a wild river to a series of slackwater pools, the journey can take several months, which increases the mortality rate. In some cases, the Army Corps of Engineers transports juvenile fish downstream by truck or river barge. The Chief Joseph Dam and several dams on the Columbia's tributaries entirely block migration, and there are no migrating fish on the river above these dams. Sturgeons have different migration habits and can survive without ever visiting the ocean. In many upstream areas cut off from the ocean by dams, sturgeon simply live upstream of the dam. Not all fish have suffered from the modifications to the river; the northern pikeminnow (formerly known as the squawfish) thrives in the warmer, slower water created by the dams. Research in the mid-1980s found that juvenile salmon were suffering substantially from the predatory pikeminnow, and in 1990, in the interest of protecting salmon, a "bounty" program was established to reward anglers for catching pikeminnow. In 1994, the salmon catch was smaller than usual in the rivers of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, causing concern among commercial fishermen, government agencies, and tribal leaders. US government intervention, to which the states of Alaska, Idaho, and Oregon objected, included an 11-day closure of an Alaska fishery. In April 1994 the Pacific Fisheries Management Council unanimously approved the strictest regulations in 18 years, banning all commercial salmon fishing for that year from Cape Falcon north to the Canadaโ€“US border. In the winter of 1994, the return of coho salmon far exceeded expectations, which was attributed in part to the fishing ban. Also in 1994, United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt proposed the removal of several Pacific Northwest dams because of their impact on salmon spawning. The Northwest Power Planning Council approved a plan that provided more water for fish and less for electricity, irrigation, and transportation. Environmental advocates have called for the removal of certain dams in the Columbia system in the years since. Of the 227 major dams in the Columbia River drainage basin, the four Washington dams on the lower Snake River are often identified for removal, for example in an ongoing lawsuit concerning a Bush administration plan for salmon recovery. These dams and reservoirs limit the recovery of upriver salmon runs to Idaho's Salmon and Clearwater rivers. Historically, the Snake produced over 1.5 million spring and summer Chinook salmon, a number that has dwindled to several thousand in recent years. Idaho Power Company's Hells Canyon dams have no fish ladders (and do not pass juvenile salmon downstream), and thus allow no steelhead or salmon to migrate above Hells Canyon. In 2007, the destruction of the Marmot Dam on the Sandy River was the first dam removal in the system. Other Columbia Basin dams that have been removed include Condit Dam on Washington's White Salmon River, and the Milltown Dam on the Clark Fork in Montana. In southeastern Washington, a 50-mile (80 km) stretch of the river passes through the Hanford Site, established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project. The site served as a plutonium production complex, with nine nuclear reactors and related facilities along the banks of the river. From 1944 to 1971, pump systems drew cooling water from the river and, after treating this water for use by the reactors, returned it to the river. Before being released back into the river, the used water was held in retention basins for up to six hours. Longer-lived isotopes were not affected by this retention, and several terabecquerels entered the river every day. By 1957, the eight plutonium production reactors at Hanford dumped a daily average of 50,000 curies of radioactive material into the Columbia. These releases were kept secret by the federal government until the release of declassified documents in the late 1980s. Radiation was measured downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts. The nuclear reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War, and the Hanford site is the focus of one of the world's largest environmental cleanup, managed by the Department of Energy under the oversight of the Washington Department of Ecology and the Environmental Protection Agency. Nearby aquifers contain an estimated 270 billion US gallons (1 billion m3) of groundwater contaminated by high-level nuclear waste that has leaked out of Hanford's underground storage tanks. As of 2008[update], 1 million US gallons (3,785 m3) of highly radioactive waste is traveling through groundwater toward the Columbia River. This waste was expected to reach the river within 12 to 50 years if cleanup did not proceed on schedule. In addition to concerns about nuclear waste, numerous other pollutants are found in the river. These include chemical pesticides, bacteria, arsenic, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Studies have also found significant levels of toxins in fish and the waters they inhabit within the basin. Accumulation of toxins in fish threatens the survival of fish species, and human consumption of these fish can lead to health problems. Water quality is also an important factor in the survival of other wildlife and plants that grow in the Columbia River drainage basin. The states, indigenous tribes, and federal government are all engaged in efforts to restore and improve the water, land, and air quality of the Columbia River drainage basin and have committed to work together to accomplish critical ecosystem restoration efforts. Several cleanup efforts are underway, including Superfund projects at Portland Harbor, Hanford, and Lake Roosevelt. In early 2022, thousands of protestors demonstrated a demand for heightened cleanup efforts within the Hanford Nuclear Site. In June 2022, nearly 200 protestors attended the Hanford Journey Event, an educational tour which allowed those concerned about the Hanford Nuclear Site to learn about proposed cleanup efforts.The Hanford Journey Event was co-sponsored by the Yakama Nation. Davis Washines, a representative from the Yakama Nation Department of Natural Resources, alluded to "[the Hanford cleanup] has a lot of meaning to us, to our people. And not just for us, our personal safety, but to this ground, to the water, because they were here before we were". Congress responded in 2022 by increasing the budget for the Hanford clean-up efforts, after thousands of comments were sent to federal authorities to prevent high-level waste storage at Hanford. As of 2024, the Hanford Nuclear Site is expected to melt radioactive wastes combined with glass flakes starting between April and June 2025 at a rate of 21 metric tons per day. The melters being utilized have a lifespan of five years, which will require their replacement in 2030. As of 2023, the Hanford site cleanup project was sixteen years behind schedule. One of the harmful chemicals located in the Hanford site, strontium-90, reached over 2,000 times the standard concentration for drinking water in August 2022. Timber industry activity further contaminates river water, for example in the increased sediment runoff that results from clearcuts. The Northwest Forest Plan, a piece of federal legislation from 1994, mandated that timber companies consider the environmental impacts of their practices on rivers like the Columbia. On July 1, 2003, Christopher Swain became the first person to swim the Columbia River's entire length, to raise public awareness about the river's environmental health. Throughout 2019, a series of wildfires were ongoing in Oregon on indigenous land belonging to the Umpqua Tribe. The Umpqua lost possession of their former territory, which is now known as the Elliott State Forest, in 1853. Elliott State Forest has been the subject of many deforestation initiatives over past years. In December 2018, the Umpqua tribe settled in Oregon after purchasing land from the Bureau of Land Management. Michael Rondeau, a descendent of the Umpqua tribe, expressed his contradictory emotions on the acquisition, stating that he felt "sadness that [his] grandparents and great aunts and uncles and beyond that did not have a day of recognition". On July 14, 2019, in the Milepost 97 wildfires, 25% of the Umpqua's forest territory burned down. On March 7, 2022, Columbia Riverkeeper, a climate advocacy group, sued Weyerhaeuser, a timber and forest products company, for possible contamination of the Columbia River. Columbia Riverkeeper accused Weyerhaeuser of releasing harmful levels of runoff through their Longview Mill into the Columbia River. Furthermore, Columbia Riverkeeper stated that runoff could result in harmful bacteria growth. As of May 6, 2022, Weyerhaeuser reached a settlement with Columbia Riverkeeper. Weyerhaeuser was determined to contribute US$600,000 for river restoration and proposed potential fines of up to US$5,000 for each subsequent act of pollution between 2023 and 2025. Both natural and anthropogenic processes are involved in the cycling of nutrients in the Columbia River basin. Natural processes in the system include estuarine mixing of fresh and ocean waters, and climate variability patterns such as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and the El Nino Southern Oscillation (both climatic cycles that affect the amount of regional snowpack and river discharge). Natural sources of nutrients in the Columbia River include weathering, leaf litter, salmon carcasses, runoff from its tributaries, and ocean estuary exchange. Major anthropogenic impacts on nutrients in the basin are due to fertilizers from agriculture, sewage systems, logging, and the construction of dams. Nutrient dynamics vary in the river basin from the headwaters to the main river and dams, to finally reaching the Columbia River estuary and ocean. Upstream in the headwaters, salmon runs are the main source of nutrients. Dams along the river impact nutrient cycling by increasing residence time of nutrients, and reducing the transport of silicate to the estuary, which directly impacts diatoms, a type of phytoplankton. The dams are also a barrier to salmon migration and can increase the amount of methane locally produced. The Columbia River estuary exports high rates of nutrients into the Pacific, except for nitrogen, which is delivered into the estuary by ocean upwelling sources. Watershed Most of the Columbia's drainage basin (which, at 258,000 square miles or 670,000 square kilometres, is about the size of France) lies roughly between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Mountains on the west. In the United States and Canada the term watershed is often used to mean drainage basin. The term Columbia Basin is used to refer not only to the entire drainage basin but also to subsets of the river's watershed, such as the relatively flat and unforested area in eastern Washington bounded by the Cascades, the Rocky Mountains, and the Blue Mountains. Within the watershed are diverse landforms including mountains, arid plateaus, river valleys, rolling uplands, and deep gorges. Grand Teton National Park lies in the watershed, as well as parts of Yellowstone National Park, Glacier National Park, Mount Rainier National Park, and North Cascades National Park. Canadian National Parks in the watershed include Kootenay National Park, Yoho National Park, Glacier National Park, and Mount Revelstoke National Park. Hells Canyon, the deepest gorge in North America, and the Columbia Gorge are in the watershed. Vegetation varies widely, ranging from western hemlock and western redcedar in the moist regions to sagebrush in the arid regions. The watershed provides habitat for 609 known fish and wildlife species, including the bull trout, bald eagle, gray wolf, grizzly bear, and Canada lynx. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) divides the waters of the Columbia and its tributaries into three freshwater ecoregions: Columbia Glaciated, Columbia Unglaciated, and Upper Snake. The Columbia Glaciated ecoregion, about a third of the total watershed, lies in the north and was covered with ice sheets during the Pleistocene. The ecoregion includes the mainstem Columbia north of the Snake River and tributaries such as the Yakima, Okanagan, Pend Oreille, Clark Fork, and Kootenay rivers. The effects of glaciation include a number of large lakes and a relatively low diversity of freshwater fish. The Upper Snake ecoregion is defined as the Snake River watershed above Shoshone Falls, which totally blocks fish migration. This region has 14 species of fish, many of which are endemic. The Columbia Unglaciated ecoregion makes up the rest of the watershed. It includes the mainstem Columbia below the Snake River and tributaries such as the Salmon, John Day, Deschutes, and lower Snake rivers. Of the three ecoregions it is the richest in terms of freshwater species diversity. There are 35 species of fish, of which four are endemic. There are also high levels of mollusk endemism. In 2016, over eight million people lived within the Columbia's drainage basin. Of this total about 3.5 million people lived in Oregon, 2.1 million in Washington, 1.7 million in Idaho, half a million in British Columbia, and 0.4 million in Montana. Population in the watershed has been rising for many decades and is projected to rise to about 10 million by 2030. The highest population densities are found west of the Cascade Mountains along the I-5 corridor, especially in the Portland-Vancouver urban area. High densities are also found around Spokane, Washington, and Boise, Idaho. Although much of the watershed is rural and sparsely populated, areas with recreational and scenic values are growing rapidly. The central Oregon county of Deschutes is the fastest-growing in the state. Populations have also been growing just east of the Cascades in central Washington around the city of Yakima and the Tri-Cities area. Projections for the coming decades assume growth throughout the watershed. The Canadian part of the Okanagan subbasin is also growing rapidly. Climate varies greatly within the watershed. Elevation ranges from sea level at the river mouth to more than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in the mountains, and temperatures vary with elevation. The highest peak is Mount Rainier, at 14,411 feet (4,392 m). High elevations have cold winters and short cool summers; interior regions are subject to great temperature variability and severe droughts. Over some of the watershed, especially west of the Cascade Mountains, precipitation maximums occur in winter, when Pacific storms come ashore. Atmospheric conditions block the flow of moisture in summer, which is generally dry except for occasional thunderstorms in the interior. In some of the eastern parts of the watershed, especially shrub-steppe regions with Continental climate patterns, precipitation maximums occur in early summer. Annual precipitation varies from more than 100 inches (250 cm) a year in the Cascades to less than 8 inches (20 cm) in the interior. Much of the watershed gets less than 12 inches (30 cm) a year. Several major North American drainage basins and many minor ones border the Columbia River's drainage basin. To the east, in northern Wyoming and Montana, the Continental Divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Mississippi-Missouri watershed, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico. To the northeast, mostly along the southern border between British Columbia and Alberta, the Continental Divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Nelson-Lake Winnipeg-Saskatchewan watershed, which empties into Hudson Bay. The Mississippi and Nelson watersheds are separated by the Laurentian Divide, which meets the Continental Divide at Triple Divide Peak near the headwaters of the Columbia's Flathead River tributary. This point marks the meeting of three of North America's main drainage patterns, to the Pacific Ocean, to Hudson Bay, and to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico. Further north along the Continental Divide, a short portion of the combined Continental and Laurentian divides separate the Columbia watershed from the Mackenzie-Slave-Athabasca watershed, which empties into the Arctic Ocean. The Nelson and Mackenzie watersheds are separated by a divide between streams flowing to the Arctic Ocean and those of the Hudson Bay watershed. This divide meets the Continental Divide at Snow Dome (also known as Dome), near the northernmost bend of the Columbia River. To the southeast, in western Wyoming, another divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Coloradoโ€“Green watershed, which empties into the Gulf of California. The Columbia, Colorado, and Mississippi watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in the Wind River Range of Wyoming. To the south, in Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming, the Columbia watershed is divided from the Great Basin, whose several watersheds are endorheic, not emptying into any ocean but rather drying up or sinking into sumps. Great Basin watersheds that share a border with the Columbia watershed include Harney Basin, Humboldt River, and Great Salt Lake. The associated triple divide points are Commissary Ridge North, Wyoming, and Sproats Meadow Northwest, Oregon. To the north, mostly in British Columbia, the Columbia watershed borders the Fraser River watershed. To the west and southwest the Columbia watershed borders a number of smaller watersheds that drain to the Pacific Ocean, such as the Klamath River in Oregon and California and the Puget Sound Basin in Washington. The Columbia receives more than 60 significant tributaries. The four largest that empty directly into the Columbia (measured either by discharge or by size of watershed) are the Snake River (mostly in Idaho), the Willamette River (in northwest Oregon), the Kootenay River (mostly in British Columbia), and the Pend Oreille River (mostly in northern Washington and Idaho, also known as the lower part of the Clark Fork). Each of these four averages more than 20,000 cubic feet per second (570 m3/s) and drains an area of more than 20,000 square miles (52,000 km2). The Snake is by far the largest tributary. Its watershed of 108,000 square miles (280,000 km2) is larger than the state of Idaho. Its discharge is roughly a third of the Columbia's at the rivers' confluence but compared to the Columbia upstream of the confluence the Snake is longer (113%) and has a larger drainage basin (104%). The Pend Oreille River system (including its main tributaries, the Clark Fork and Flathead rivers) is also similar in size to the Columbia at their confluence. Compared to the Columbia River above the two rivers' confluence, the Pend Oreille-Clark-Flathead is nearly as long (about 86%), its basin about three-fourths as large (76%), and its discharge over a third (37%). See also Notes References External links
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#third_406033] | [TOKENS: 332]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื” ื‘ื›ื•ืชืจื•ืช? ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ื‘ืคืชื— ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ืช ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœ ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South] | [TOKENS: 2611]
Contents Red River of the South The Red River is a major river in the Southern United States. It was named for its reddish water color from passing through red-bed country in its watershed. It also is known as the Red River of the South to distinguish it from the Red River of the North, which flows between Minnesota and North Dakota into the Canadian province of Manitoba. Although once a tributary of the Mississippi River, the Red River now is a tributary of the Atchafalaya River, a distributary of the Mississippi that flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico. This confluence is connected to the Mississippi River by the Old River Control Structure. The south bank of the Red River formed part of the USโ€“Mexico border from the Adamsโ€“Onรญs Treaty (in force only in 1821), until the Texas Annexation and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Red River basin is the second-largest in the southern Great Plains. It rises in two branches in the Texas panhandle and flows eastward, serving as a border between the states of Texas and Oklahoma. It forms a short border between Texas and Arkansas before entering Arkansas. It forms much of the eastern border of Miller County, Arkansas, turning south near Fulton and flowing into Louisiana, where it feeds the Atchafalaya River. The total length of the river is 1,360 miles (2,190 km), with a mean flow of over 57,000 cubic feet per second (1,600 m3/s) at the mouth.[citation needed] Geography The Red River begins at the junction of Buck Creek and Prairie Dog Town Fork, in Harmon County, Oklahoma.[note 1] Specialists have debated whether the North Fork or the Prairie Dog Town Fork is the true stem. In 1852, Randolph B. Marcy's expedition had followed the Prairie Dog Town Fork. Because of a cartographic error, the land between the north and south forks was claimed by both the state of Texas and the United States federal government. Originally called Greer County, Texas, the US Supreme Court ruled that it belonged to the United States, which at the time oversaw the Oklahoma Territory. That territory was later incorporated into the state of Oklahoma, whose southern border follows the south fork. Today, the southern Prairie Dog Town Fork is considered the main fork, though the North Fork is as long and normally has a greater water flow. The southern fork, about 120 miles (190 km) long, is generally considered the main stem of the Red River. It is formed in Randall County, Texas, near the county seat of Canyon, by the confluence of Tierra Blanca Creek and intermittent Palo Duro Creek (not to be confused with another Palo Duro Creek 75 miles to the north, which drains into the North Canadian River). It turns and flows southeast through Palo Duro Canyon in Palo Duro Canyon State Park at an elevation of 3,440 feet (1,050 m), and past Newlin, Texas, to cross the Oklahoma state line. About 2 miles south of Elmer, Oklahoma, the Salt Fork of the Red River joins from the north. These combined waters receive the North Fork Red River from the north about 10 mi (16 km) west-southwest of Frederick, Oklahoma to form the Red River proper.[citation needed] The combined river follows a winding course east through one of the most arid parts of the Great Plains, receiving the Wichita River about 25 miles northeast of the city of Wichita Falls. Near Denison, the river exits the eastern end of Lake Texoma, a reservoir formed by the Denison Dam. (The lake is also fed by the Washita River from the north.) Beyond the dam it runs generally east towards Arkansas, receiving Oklahoma's Muddy Boggy Creek on the left bank before turning southward near Texarkana.[citation needed] Soon after, the waterway crosses south into Louisiana. The sister cities of Shreveport and Bossier City were developed on either bank of the river, as were the downriver cities of Alexandria and Pineville. After being joined from the north by the Black River (downstream name of the Ouachita River, its largest tributary) about 1.5 miles south of Acme, the river broadens into a complex network of marshlands west of the Mississippi River. Its waters eventually become a tributary of the Atchafalaya River and flow generally southward into the Gulf of Mexico. Tributaries include the Little Red River, Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River, Salt Fork Red River, North Fork Red River, Cross Bayou, Pease River, Washita River, Kiamichi River, Wichita River, Little Wichita River, Little River, Sulphur River, Bayou Brevelle, Loggy Bayou (through Lake Bistineau and Dorcheat Bayou), the Blue River, as well as the Ouachita River (also known as the Black River at that point) not far (at Acme, Louisiana) from the mouth. The Red River is salty through tributaries above Lake Texoma. The saltiness is caused by Permian salt deposits โ€“ mostly sodium chloride. Deposition eventually buried the deposits, but the salt continues to leach through natural seeps in tributaries above Lake Texoma, sending as much as 3,450 tons of salt per day flowing down the Red River. Watershed The Red River's watershed covers 65,590 square miles (169,900 km2) and is the southernmost major river system in the Great Plains. Its drainage basin is mostly in the states of Texas and Oklahoma, but also covers parts of New Mexico, Arkansas and Louisiana. Its basin is characterized by flat, fertile agricultural land, with only a few major cities. The drainage basin of the Red River is very arid and receives little precipitation. As a result, much of the river above the Texasโ€“Oklahoma border is intermittent, and the flow varies widely until the river is beyond its great bend south in Arkansas. Most of the agriculture in the basin is sustained by groundwater, which is recharged with rainfall and river flow. The lower course of the river flows through a series of marshes and swamps, which dramatically moderate its flow.[citation needed] The Red River is said to have once carried five times the sediment load of the Mississippi. History Native American cultures along the river were diverse, developing specialized adaptations to the many different environments. Starting near the headwaters, the Plains division of the Lipan Apache dominated the western Red River area until the 18th century, when they were displaced by invading Comanche from the north. The middle part of the Red River was dominated by the Wichita and Tonkawa. This area was prairie, where Native Americans constructed portable and temporary tepees for housing. They practiced limited farming and followed game in seasonal, nomadic hunting cycles. By the time of European contact, the eastern Piney Woods of the lower river courses were dominated by the numerous historic tribes of the Caddo Confederacy. They found plentiful game and fish, and also had good land for cultivating staple crops. In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Red River Expedition to explore parts of the new lands of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase by traveling up the Red River. Jefferson wrote in a letter to explorer William Dunbar that the river was "in truth, next to the Missouri, the most interesting water of the Mississippi". Having threaded the maze of bayous at the river's confluence and the "Great Raft" of lodged driftwood, the expedition was stopped by the Spanish near present-day New Boston, Texas. In 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, under orders to ascertain the source of the Red River, ascended the Arkansas River, made his way downstream on what turned out to be the Rio Grande, and was sent home by the Spanish authorities. A more successful exploration of the river's upper reaches to both its sources came with the 1852 expedition under Capt. Randolph Barnes Marcy, assisted by Brevet Capt. George B. McClellan. A decade later McClellan became an important general in the American Civil War. In April 1815, Captain Henry Miller Shreve was the first person to bring a steamboat, the Enterprise, up the Red River. Fulton and Livingston, who claimed the exclusive right to navigate Louisiana waters by steamboat, sued Shreve in the District Court of New Orleans. The judge ruled that the monopoly claimed by the plaintiffs was illegal. That decision, along with a similar outcome in Gibbons v. Ogden, freed navigation on every river, lake or harbor in the United States from interference by monopolies. When John Quincy Adams became Secretary of State in 1817, one of his highest priorities was to settle with Spain the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase. He negotiated with Luis de Onรญs, the Spanish Minister to the United States, and finally concluded the Adamsโ€“Onis Treaty, also known as the Treaty of 1819. The treaty defined the south bank of the river as the boundary between the United States and Spain, as of when it was surveyed and demarcated following 1819. That boundary continued to be recognized when Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, and ongoingly when Texas became independent from Mexico in 1835โ€“1836. It remained the official boundary until the United States Congress consented in October 2000 to the Red River Boundary Compact, which had been adopted in 1999 by the states of Oklahoma and Texas . This set the jurisdictional boundary between these states at the vegetation line on the south bank, leaving title of adjacent property owners at the south bank. (The Red River actively meanders, as shown by comparing current maps of the political boundaries with those defined by the river's course decades ago.) The Red River Campaign (Marchโ€“May 1864) was fought along the Red River Valley in Louisiana during the American Civil War. It was part of a failed attempt by the Union to occupy eastern Texas. Confederate commander Richard Taylor succeeded in repelling an army under Nathaniel Banks that was three times bigger than his own. In Louisiana, the area of present-day Natchitoches Parish was settled by French Creole and mixed-race Louisiana Creole people, starting before 1800. The Cane River National Heritage Area, with plantations and churches founded by Louisiana Creoles, marks this area of influence. Some of the sites are designated as destinations on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail, established from 2008 onwards. The area along the lower Red River of Grant Parish, Louisiana and neighboring parishes has a mixture of hill-country farms and cotton plantations. In the early 19th century, settlers found that much of the river's length in Louisiana was unnavigable because of a collection of fallen trees that formed a Great Raft over 160 miles (260 km) long. In 1839, Captain Henry Miller Shreve began clearing the log jam, but it was not completely cleared until the 1870s, when dynamite became available. The river was thereafter navigable, although north of Natchitoches it was restricted to small craft. Removal of the raft further connected the Red and Atchafalaya rivers, accelerating the development of the Atchafalaya River channel. The Red River Bridge War of 1931 was a boundary conflict between Oklahoma and Texas over an existing toll bridge and a new free bridge crossing the Red River. A joint project to build a free bridge between Durant, Oklahoma and Denison, Texas turned into a major dispute when the Governor of Texas blocked traffic from entering his state on the new bridge. The Red River Bridge Company of Texas owned the original toll bridge and had a dispute over its purchase deal. Oklahoma Governor William H. Murray sent the Oklahoma National Guard to reopen the bridge that July. Texas had to retreat when lawyers determined that Oklahoma had jurisdiction over both banks of the river. In June 2015, the Red River flooded parts of northeast Texas, southwest Arkansas, southeast Oklahoma and Louisiana, from Denison Dam, to just south of Alexandria, Louisiana. The river reached its highest level in over 70 years, cresting in most of the affected areas at around 6โ€“9 feet over the flood levels. At 4 PM on June 9, the river reached its maximum height of 37.14 feet. Recreation In 1943, Denison Dam was built on the Red River to form Lake Texoma, a large reservoir of 89,000 acres (360 km2), some 70 miles (110 km) north of Dallas. Other reservoirs on the river's tributaries serve as flood control.[citation needed] See also Notes References External links
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_River] | [TOKENS: 14450]
Contents Missouri River The Missouri River is a river in the Central and Mountain West regions of the United States. The nation's longest, it rises in the eastern Centennial Mountains of the Bitterroot Range of the Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana, then flows east and south for 2,341 mi (3,767 km) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river drains semi-arid watershed of more than 500,000 sq mi (1,300,000 km2), which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. Although a tributary of the Mississippi, the Missouri River is slightly longer and carries a comparable volume of water, though a fellow tributary (Ohio River) carries more water. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the world's fourth-longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, with most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous bison herds that roamed through the Great Plains. The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century, and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase. The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 19th century laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region and blazed trails. Pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats that entered service on the river. Conflict between settlers and Native Americans in the watershed led to some of the most longstanding violence of the American Indian Wars. During the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control, and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with hundreds more on tributaries. The Missouri River's reservoirs include the largest, second-largest, and fourth-largest artificial lakes in the United States by surface area: Lake Sakakawea, Lake Oahe, and Fort Peck Lake. Meanders have been cut off and the river channelized to improve navigation, reducing its length by almost 200 mi (320 km) from pre-development times. Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region, heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality. Course From the Rocky Mountains, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River: The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, and is joined by the Gallatin a mile (1.6 km) downstream. It then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri, a series of five substantial waterfalls. It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks, receiving the Marias River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the Musselshell River. Farther on, the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream, the Milk River joins from the north. Flowing eastward through the plains of eastern Montana, the Missouri receives the Poplar River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River, its greatest tributary by volume, joins from the southwest. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river.[a] The Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota, where the Heart River joins from the west. It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Grand, Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west. The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest. It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska and is joined by the James River from the north. At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north, after which the Missouri forms the Iowaโ€“Nebraska boundary. It flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary, the Platte River, from the west. Downstream, it begins to define the border between the states of Nebraska and Missouri, then flows between the states of Missouri and Kansas. The Missouri swings east at Kansas City, where the Kansas River enters from the west, and so on into north-central Missouri. To the east of Kansas City, the Missouri receives, on the left side, the Grand River. It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and Gasconade Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City. The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois. Watershed There is only one river with a personality, a sense of humor, and a woman's caprice; a river that goes traveling sidewise, that interferes in politics, rearranges geography, and dabbles in real estate; a river that plays hide and seek with you today and tomorrow follows you around like a pet dog with a dynamite cracker tied to his tail. That river is the Missouri. The Missouri River's drainage basin spans 529,350 square miles (1,371,000 km2), encompassing nearly one-sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America. Comparable to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec, the watershed covers most of the central Great Plains, stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed. Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence, the Missouri is twice as long[b] and drains an area three times as large.[c] The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis, and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts. In 1990, the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people. This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska, parts of the U.S. states of Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming, and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. The watershed's largest city is Denver, Colorado, with a population of more than six hundred thousand. Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005, making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin. Other major population centers โ€“ mostly in the watershed's southeastern portion โ€“ include Omaha, Nebraska, north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers; Kansas City, Missouri โ€“ Kansas City, Kansas, at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River; and the St. Louis metropolitan area, south of the Missouri River just below the latter's mouth, on the Mississippi. In contrast, the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated. However, many northwestern cities, such as Billings, Montana, are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin. With more than 170,000 square miles (440,000 km2) under the plow, the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one-fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States, providing more than a third of the country's wheat, flax, barley, and oats. However, only 11,000 square miles (28,000 km2) of farmland in the basin is irrigated. A further 281,000 square miles (730,000 km2) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock, mainly cattle. Forested areas of the watershed, mostly second-growth, total about 43,700 square miles (113,000 km2). Urban areas, on the other hand, comprise less than 13,000 square miles (34,000 km2) of land. Most built-up areas are along the main stem and a few major tributaries, including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers. Elevation in the watershed varies from just over 400 feet (120 m) at the Missouri's mouth to the 14,293-foot (4,357 m) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado. The river drops 8,626 feet (2,629 m) from Brower's Spring, the farthest source. Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief, the land rises about 10 feet per mile (1.9 m/km) from east to west. The elevation is less than 500 feet (150 m) at the eastern border of the watershed, but is over 3,000 feet (910 m) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies. The Missouri's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns, Overall, the watershed is defined by a continental climate with warm, wet summers and harsh, cold winters. Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches (200 to 250 mm) of precipitation each year. However, the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches (1,000 mm). The vast majority of precipitation occurs in summer in most of the lower and middle basin, although the upper basin is known for short-lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City, South Dakota. Winter temperatures in the northern and western portions of the basin typically drop to โˆ’20 ยฐF (โˆ’28.9 ยฐC) or lower every winter with extremes as low as โˆ’60 ยฐF (โˆ’51.1 ยฐC), while summer highs occasionally exceed 100 ยฐF (37.8 ยฐC) in all areas except the higher elevations of Montana, Wyoming and Colorado. Extreme maxima โ€” almost all prior to 1960 โ€” have exceeded 115 ยฐF (46.1 ยฐC) in all US states in the basin. As one of the continent's most significant river systems, the Missouri's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada. The Continental Divide, running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains, forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed. The Clark Fork and Snake River, both part of the Columbia River basin, drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana, Idaho and western Wyoming. The Columbia, Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming's Wind River Range. South of there, the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River, a tributary of the Colorado, then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado. Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean. However, a large endorheic drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming. This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed, even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide. To the north, the much lower Laurentian Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River, a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River, as well as the Souris, Sheyenne, and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North. All of these streams are part of Canada's Nelson River drainage basin, which empties into Hudson Bay. There are also several large endorheic basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers, tributaries of the upper Mississippi, drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin. Finally, on the south, the Ozark Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri, Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River, also tributaries of the Mississippi River. Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River, with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth. Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east, following the incline of the Great Plains; however, some eastern tributaries such as the James, Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south. The Missouri's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming, the Platte in Wyoming, Colorado, and Nebraska, and the Kansasโ€“Republican/Smoky Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri. Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50,000 square miles (130,000 km2) or has an average discharge greater than 5,000 cu ft/s (140 m3/s). The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge, even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area. In fact, the Yellowstone's flow is about 13,800 cu ft/s (390 m3/s) โ€“ accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte. On the other end of the scale is the tiny Roe River in Montana, which at 201 feet (61 m) long is one of the world's shortest rivers. The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri, along with their respective catchment areas and flows. Length is measured to the hydrologic source, regardless of naming convention. The main stem of the Kansas River, for example, is 148 miles (238 km) long. However, including the longest headwaters tributaries, the 453-mile (729 km) Republican River and the 156-mile (251 km) Arikaree River, brings the total length to 749 miles (1,205 km). Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River, whose longest tributary, the North Platte River, is more than twice as long as its mainstream. The Missouri's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem. Measured to the farthest source at Brower's Spring, the Jefferson River is 298 miles (480 km) long. Thus measured to its highest headwaters, the Missouri River stretches for 2,639 miles (4,247 km). When combined with the lower Mississippi, the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth-longest river system in the world, at 3,745 miles (6,027 km). By discharge, the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States, after the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Ohio, Columbia, Niagara, Yukon, Detroit, and St. Clair. The latter two, however, are sometimes considered part of a strait between Lake Huron and Lake Erie. Among rivers of North America as a whole, the Missouri is thirteenth largest, after the Mississippi, Mackenzie, St. Lawrence, Ohio, Columbia, Niagara, Yukon, Detroit, St. Clair, Fraser, Slave, and Koksoak. As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi-arid region, its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length. Before the construction of dams, the river flooded twice each year โ€“ once in the "April Rise" or "Spring Fresh", with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed, and in the "June Rise", caused by snowmelt and summer rainstorms in the Rocky Mountains. The latter was far more destructive, with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years. The Missouri's discharge is affected by over 17,000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre-feet (174 km3). By providing flood control, the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows. Evaporation from reservoirs significantly reduces the river's runoff, causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre-feet (3.7 km3) from mainstem reservoirs alone. The United States Geological Survey operates fifty-one stream gauges along the Missouri River. The river's average discharge at Bismarck, 1,314.5 miles (2,115.5 km) from the mouth, is 21,920 cu ft/s (621 m3/s). This is from a drainage area of 186,400 mi2 (483,000 km2), or 35% of the total river basin. At Kansas City, 366.1 miles (589.2 km) from the mouth, the river's average flow is 55,400 cu ft/s (1,570 m3/s). The river here drains about 484,100 mi2 (1,254,000 km2), representing about 91% of the entire basin. The lowermost gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann, Missouri โ€“ 97.9 miles (157.6 km) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri โ€“ where the average annual flow was 87,520 cu ft/s (2,478 m3/s) from 1897 to 2010. About 522,500 mi2 (1,353,000 km2), or 98.7% of the watershed, lies above Hermann. The highest annual mean was 181,800 cu ft/s (5,150 m3/s) in 1993, and the lowest was 41,690 cu ft/s (1,181 m3/s) in 2006. Extremes of the flow vary even further. The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750,000 cu ft/s (21,000 m3/s) on July 31, 1993, during a historic flood. The lowest, a mere 602 cu ft/s (17.0 m3/s) โ€“ caused by the formation of an ice dam โ€“ was measured on December 23, 1963. Geology The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide Orogeny, a mountain-building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago (the end of the Mesozoic through the early Cenozoic). This orogeny uplifted Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior Seaway, a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and deposited the sediments that now underlie much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River. This Laramide uplift caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains, the predecessor of the modern-day Mississippi watershed. The Laramide Orogeny is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology, as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries. The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains, flowing over or cutting into the Ogallala Group and older mid-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. The lowest major Cenozoic unit, the White River Formation, was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of claystone, sandstone, limestone, and conglomerate. Channel sandstones and finer-grained overbank deposits of the fluvial Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago. The Miocene-age Ogallala and the slightly younger Pliocene-age Broadwater Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group, and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt, and also constitute a major aquifer. Immediately before the Quaternary Ice Age, the Missouri River was likely split into three segments: an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay, and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope. As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age, a pre-Illinoian (or possibly the Illinoian) glaciation diverted the Missouri River southeastward toward its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope. In western Montana, the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear Paw Mountains. Sapphires are found in some spots along the river in western Montana. Advances of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries, causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as Glacial Lakes Great Falls, Musselshell and others. As the lakes rose, the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides, creating now-abandoned channels and coulees including the Shonkin Sag, 100 miles (160 km) long. When the glaciers retreated, the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the Bearpaws, and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel. The Missouri's nickname, the "Big Muddy", was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt โ€“ some of the largest of any North American river. In its pre-development state, the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons (159 to 290 million metric tons) per year. The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons (18 to 23 million metric tons) in the present day. Much of this sediment is derived from the river's floodplain, also called the meander belt; every time the river changed course, it would erode tons of soil and rocks from its banks. However, damming and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course. Reservoirs along the Missouri trap roughly 36.4 million short tons (33.0 million metric tons) of sediment each year. Despite this, the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico; the Mississippi River Delta, formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi, constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri. First people Archaeological evidence, especially in Missouri, suggests that human beings first inhabited the watershed of the Missouri River between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene. During the end of the last glacial period, large migration of humans were taking place, such as those via the Bering land bridge between the Americas and Eurasia. Over centuries, the Missouri River formed one of these main migration paths. Most migratory groups that passed through the area eventually settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley, but many, including the Mound builders, stayed along the Missouri, becoming the ancestors of the later Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains. Indigenous peoples of North America who have lived along the Missouri have historically had access to ample food, water, and shelter. Many migratory animals naturally inhabit the plains area. Before they were hunted by colonists and Native Americans, these animals, such as the buffalo, provided meat, clothing, and other everyday items; there were also great riparian areas in the river's floodplain that provided habitat for herbs and other staple foods. No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre-European contact period exist because they did not yet use writing. According to the writings of early colonists, some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the Otoe, Missouria, Omaha, Ponca, Dakota, Lakota, Arikara, Hidatsa, Mandan, Assiniboine, Gros Ventres and Blackfeet. In this pre-colonial and early-colonial era, the Missouri river was used as a path of trade and transport, and the river and its tributaries often formed territorial boundaries. Most of the Indigenous peoples in the region at that time had semi-nomadic cultures, with many tribes maintaining different summer and winter camps. However, the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south. A large cluster of walled Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara villages situated on bluffs and islands of the river was home to thousands, and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders. Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes, possibly from feral European-introduced populations, Natives' way of life changed dramatically. The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances, and thus facilitated hunting, communications, warfare, the Siouxoan genocide and expulsion of many tribes, and the abundance of trade. Once, tens of millions of American bison (commonly called buffalo), one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley, roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin. Most Native American nations in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source, and their hides and bones served to create other household items. In time, the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples' periodic controlled burnings of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth. The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt, an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide. However, after the arrival of Europeans in North America, both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population. Massive over-hunting for sport by colonists eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred. Foreign diseases brought by settlers, such as smallpox, raged across the land, decimating Native American populations. Left without their primary source of sustenance, many of the remaining indigenous people were forced onto resettlement areas and reservations, often at gunpoint. Early European explorers In May 1673, the French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and the French explorer Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers, aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean. In late June, Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European discoverers of the Missouri River, which according to their journals was in full flood. "I never saw anything more terrific," Jolliet wrote, "a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the Pekistanoui [Missouri] with such impetuosity that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger. The commotion was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself." They recorded Pekitanoui or Pekistanoui as the local name for the Missouri. However, the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth, nor did they linger in the area. In addition, they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed; the expedition turned back about 440 miles (710 km) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi. In 1682, France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River, which included the lower portion of the Missouri. However, the Missouri itself remained formally unexplored until ร‰tienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River. It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there; he described the blond-haired Mandans in his journals, so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present-day North Dakota. Later that year, Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To Ascend The Missouri River, the first known document to use the name "Missouri River"; many of the names he gave to tributaries, mostly from the native tribes that lived along them, are still in use today. The expedition's discoveries eventually found their way to cartographer Guillaume Delisle, who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri. In 1718, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his "outstanding service to France". Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706, when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty-one deaths. However, his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee โ€“ who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont โ€“ massacred the Spanish Villasur expedition near present-day Columbus, Nebraska, on the Missouri River, temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana. Bourgmont established Fort Orleans, the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River, near present-day Brunswick, Missouri, in 1723. The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist Comanche support against the Spanish, who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri. In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France. There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America. Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726. The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754. By 1763, France's army in North America had been defeated by a combined British-American force and was forced to sue for peace. In the Treaty of Paris, France ceded its Canadian possessions to the British, gaining Louisiana from the Spanish in return. Initially, the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license. However, this ended after news of incursions by trappers working for the Hudson's Bay Company in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D'Eglise in the early 1790s. In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of Discoverers and Explorers of the Missouri, popularly referred to as the "Missouri Company", and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri. In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean-Baptiste Truteau and Antoine Simon Lecuyer de la Jonchลกre did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota. Arguably the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans. The two set out along the Missouri, and established Fort Charles about 20 miles (32 km) south of present-day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795. At the Mandan villages in North Dakota, they forcefully expelled several British traders, and while talking to the populace they pinpointed the location of the Yellowstone River, which was called Roche Jaune ("Yellow Rock") by the French. Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific, they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River. In 1795, the young United States and Spain signed Pinckney's Treaty, which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans. Three years later, Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory. In 1801, Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States. Fearing that the cutoffs could occur again, President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $10 million. Instead, faced with a debt crisis, Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana, including the Missouri River, for $15 million โ€“ amounting to less than 3ยข per acre. The deal was signed in 1803, doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory. In 1803, Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean. By then, it had been discovered that the Columbia River system, which drains into the Pacific, had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River, and it was widely believed that a connection or short portage existed between the two. However, Spain balked at the takeover, citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French. Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri, although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty-three people in three boats. Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia, they found no trace of the Northwest Passage. The maps made by Lewis and Clark, especially those of the Pacific Northwest region, provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants. They also negotiated relations with numerous Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate, ecology and geology of the region. Many present-day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition. American frontier As early as the 18th century, fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter, the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade. They came from many different places โ€“ some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay, some from the Pacific Northwest (see also: Maritime fur trade), and some from the midwestern United States. Most did not stay in the area for long, as they failed to find significant resources. The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two-year expedition. Their journals described lands amply stocked with thousands of buffalo, beaver, and river otter; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast. In 1807, explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country. Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes, and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary, the Bighorn, in southern Montana. Although the business started small, it quickly grew into a thriving trade. Lisa's men started construction of Fort Raymond, which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn, in the fall of 1807. The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for bartering with the Native Americans for furs. This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade, which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises, namely Hudson's Bay. Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska. In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre Choteau, among others. In 1828, the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers. Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin. Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes. Trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company, St. Louis Missouri Fur Company, American Fur Company, Rocky Mountain Fur Company, North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia, Colorado, Arkansas, and Saskatchewan river systems. During this period, the trappers, also called mountain men, blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West. Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships, providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start. As the 1830s drew to a close, the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item. By this time, also, the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting. Furthermore, frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies. In some regions, the industry continued well into the 1840s, but in others such as the Platte River valley, declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise. The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850, with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada. Despite the demise of the once-prosperous trade, however, its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers, farmers, ranchers, adventurers, hopefuls, financially bereft, and entrepreneurs took their place. The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century, particularly downstream from Kansas City, where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri, an area known as the Boonslick. As first area settled by Europeans along the river it was largely populated by slave-owning southerners following the Boone's Lick Road. The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river, including the California, Mormon, Oregon, and Santa Fe trails. The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph, Missouri. Similarly, most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First transcontinental railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha. The Hannibal Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869, and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis. True to the then-ideal of Manifest Destiny, over 500,000 people set out from the river town of Independence, Missouri, to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s. These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year-long journey โ€“ economic crisis, and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush, for example. For most, the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha, Nebraska, where they would set out along the Platte River, which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastward through the Great Plains. An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the dugout canoes they used, let alone the large sidewheelers and sternwheelers that would later ply the Missouri in increasing numbers. One explorer remarked that the Platte was "too thick to drink, too thin to plow". Nevertheless, the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west. Covered wagons, popularly referred to as prairie schooners, provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s. During the 1860s, gold strikes in Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, and northern Utah attracted another wave of hopefuls to the region. Although some freight was hauled overland, most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers, as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming. It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana, over 80 percent were transported by boat, a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction. A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams, Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River, to near Denver. The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route, as it passed through land held by often-hostile Native Americans. Safer paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near Corinne, Utah, during the gold rush period, which led to the large-scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin. As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains, they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes. This resulted in frequent raids, massacres and armed conflicts, leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes, which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous. As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans, they were soon broken, leading to huge wars. Over 1,000 battles, big and small, were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations. Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas, Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud's War, in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army. The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory. In 1868, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed, which "guaranteed" the use of the Black Hills, Powder River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention. The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri; pro-slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark mayhem during Bleeding Kansas, leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri. Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of Boonville, which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river, discouraging the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy. However, the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long. The Great Sioux War of 1876โ€“77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming. These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort Laramie. When the settlers intruded onto the lands, they were attacked by Native Americans. U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners, and drive out the natives from the new settlements. During this bloody period, both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles, resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives. The war eventually ended in an American victory, and the Black Hills were opened to settlement. Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana. Dam-building era In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri, transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs. River development was stimulated by a variety of factors, first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin, and by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River. Small, privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s, but the large flood-control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s. Between 1890 and 1940, five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri, a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana. Black Eagle Dam, built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls, was the first dam of the Missouri. Replaced in 1926 with a more modern structure, the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls, diverting part of the Missouri's flow into the Black Eagle power plant. The largest of the five dams, Ryan Dam, was built in 1913. The dam lies directly above the 87-foot (27 m) Big Falls, the largest waterfall of the Missouri. In the same period, several private establishments โ€“ most notably the Montana Power Company โ€“ began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation. A small run-of-the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam built on the Missouri. This rock-filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside. The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907, but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies, causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig. At Great Falls, a section of the Black Eagle Dam was dynamited to save nearby factories from inundation. Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure, and stands to this day. Holter Dam, about 45 miles (72 km) downstream of Helena, was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River. When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company, its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains, a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as "the most remarkable clifts that we have yet seen ... the tow[er]ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us." In 1949, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area. By 1954, the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam, whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1+1โ„2 miles (2.4 km) upstream of the present-day dam. [ The Missouri's temperament was as ] "uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman's mind". The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century, most notably in 1844, 1881, and 1926โ€“1927. In 1940, as part of the Great Depression-era New Deal, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana. Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50,000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River. However, Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed, and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later. This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City, greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II. Flooding damages on the Mississippiโ€“Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944, opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale. The 1944 act authorized the Pickโ€“Sloan Missouri Basin Program (Pickโ€“Sloan Plan), which was a composite of two widely varying proposals. The Pick plan, with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power, called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri. The Sloan plan, which stressed the development of local irrigation, included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries. In the early stages of Pickโ€“Sloan development, tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at Riverdale, North Dakota, and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries. This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin, and eventually the USBR proposed a solution: to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at Riverdale โ€“ today's Garrison Dam, thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams. Because of this decision, the Yellowstone is now the longest free-flowing river in the contiguous United States. In the 1950s, construction commenced on the five mainstem dams โ€“ Garrison, Oahe, Big Bend, Fort Randall, and Gavins Point โ€“ proposed under the Pick-Sloan Plan. Along with Fort Peck, which was integrated as a unit of the Pick-Sloan Plan in the 1940s, these dams now form the Missouri River Mainstem System. The flooding of lands along the Missouri River heavily impacted Native American groups whose reservations included fertile bottomlands and floodplains, especially in the arid Dakotas where it was some of the only good farmland they had. These consequences were pronounced in North Dakota's Fort Berthold Indian Reservation, where 150,000 acres (61,000 ha) of land was taken by the construction of Garrison Dam. The Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara / Sanish tribes sued the federal government on the basis of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie which provided that reservation land could not be taken without the consent of both the tribes and Congress. After a lengthy legal battle the tribes were coerced in 1947 to accept a $5.1 million ($55 million today) settlement for the land, just $33 per acre. In 1949 this was increased to $12.6 million. The tribes were even denied the right to use the reservoir shore "for grazing, hunting, fishing, and other purposes". The six dams of the Mainstem System, chiefly Fort Peck, Garrison, and Oahe, are among the largest dams in the world by volume; their sprawling reservoirs also rank among the biggest of the nation. Holding up to 74.1 million acre-feet (91.4 km3) in total, the six reservoirs can store more than three years' worth of the river's flow as measured below Gavins Point, the lowermost dam. This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America. In addition to storing irrigation water, the system also includes an annual flood-control reservation of 16.3 million acre-feet (20.1 km3). Mainstem power plants generate about 9.3 billion KWh annually โ€“ equal to a constant output of almost 1,100 megawatts. Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries, namely the Bighorn, Platte, Kansas, and Osage Rivers, the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7,500 mi2 (19,000 km2) of land. The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River, ordered downstream. Many of the run-of-the-river power generation dams on the Missouri (marked in yellow) form very small impoundments which may or may not have been given names; those unnamed are left blank. All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel. Navigation [ Missouri River shipping ] "never achieved its expectations. Even under the very best of circumstances, it was never a huge industry". โ€” Richard Opper, former executive directorMissouri River Basin Association Boat travel on the Missouri began with the wood-framed canoes and bull boats that Native Americans used for thousands of years before the colonization of the Great Plains introduced larger craft to the river. The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence, which started running between St. Louis and Keytesville, Missouri, around 1819. By the 1830s, large mail and freight-carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis, and many traveled even farther upstream. A handful, such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone, could make it up the river as far as eastern Montana. During the early 19th century, at the height of the fur trade, steamboats and keelboats travelled nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth, carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas the trappers frequented. This resulted in the development of the Missouri River mackinaw, which specialized in carrying furs. Since these boats could only travel downriver, they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis. Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers, emigrants and miners; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha. There, most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and unnavigable Platte River, which pioneers described as "a mile wide and an inch deep" and "the most magnificent and useless of rivers". Steamboat navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full-time on the Missouri, with many more smaller vessels. Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri. Side-wheeler steamboats were preferred over the larger sternwheelers used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability. The industry's success, however, did not guarantee safety. In the early decades before man controlled the river's flow, its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment, which prevented a clear view of the bottom, wrecked some 300 vessels. Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River, the average ship's lifespan was only about four years. The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific Railroads marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri. Outcompeted by trains, the number of boats slowly dwindled, until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s. Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge, however, saw a revival in the early twentieth century. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes, and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially straightened channels. In 1912, the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet (1.8 meters) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth, a distance of 368 miles (592 km). This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river's flow into a straight, narrow channel and prevent sedimentation. In 1925, the USACE began a project to widen the river's navigation channel to 200 feet (61 m); two years later, they began dredging a deep-water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City. These modifications have reduced the river's length from some 2,540 miles (4,090 km) in the late 19th century to 2,341 miles (3,767 km) in the present day. Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick-Sloan Plan in the mid-twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation. The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year-round, and are capable of halting most of the river's annual freshets. However, high and low water cycles of the Missouri โ€“ notably the protracted early-21st-century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 โ€“ are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control. In 1945, the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project, which would permanently increase the river's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet (91 m) and a depth of nine feet (2.7 meters). During work that continues to this day, the 735-mile (1,183 km) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock dikes to direct the river's flow and scour out sediments, sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels, and dredging the riverbed. However, the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth. In 2006, the U.S. Coast Guard stated that commercial barge tows ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely silted. The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth. In 1929, the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons (13.6 million metric tons), providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel. However, shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected โ€“ shipments of commodities including produce, manufactured items, lumber, and oil averaged only 683,000 tons (616,000 t) per year from 1994 to 2006. By tonnage of transported material, Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic, while Kansas has 12 percent, Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent. Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles (800 km) of the river; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels. For navigation purposes, the Missouri River is divided into two main sections. The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam, the last hydroelectric dam of fifteen on the river, just upstream from Sioux City, Iowa. The Lower Missouri River is the 840 miles (1,350 km) of river below Gavins Point until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis. The Lower Missouri River has no hydroelectric dams or locks but it has a plethora of wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200-foot-wide (61 m), 12-foot-deep (3.7 m) channel. These wing dams have been put in place by and are maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and there are no plans to construct any locks to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River. Tonnage of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present. In the 1960s, the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons (11 Mt) per year by 2000, but instead the opposite has happened. The amount of goods plunged from 3.3 million short tons (3.0 Mt) in 1977 to just 1.3 million short tons (1.2 Mt) in 2000. One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products, especially wheat. Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential. In 2006, barges on the Missouri hauled only 200,000 short tons (180,000 t) of products which is equal to the daily freight traffic on the Mississippi. Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport โ€“ mainly railroads โ€“ are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri. The USACE's failure to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry. Efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River, because of the efficiency and cheapness of river transport to haul agricultural products, and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes. Solutions such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are under consideration. Drought conditions lifted in 2010, in which about 334,000 short tons (303,000 t) were barged on the Missouri, representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000. However, flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic โ€“ "wash[ing] away hopes for a bounce-back year". There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River, but there are plenty of wing dams that jettie out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate. In contrast, the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61.3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011, and its locks are closed in the winter. Ecology Historically, the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species. Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold, subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate, moist climate of Missouri. Today, the river's riparian zone consists primarily of cottonwoods, willows and sycamores, with several other types of trees such as maple and ash. Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance, as land next to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods. Because of its large sediment concentrations, the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates. However, the basin supports about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish, some of which are endangered such as the pallid sturgeon. The Missouri's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals, such as minks, river otters, beavers, muskrats, and raccoons. The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater ecoregions: the Upper Missouri, Lower Missouri and Central Prairie. The Upper Missouri, roughly encompassing the area within Montana, Wyoming, southern Alberta and Saskatchewan, and North Dakota, comprises mainly semiarid shrub-steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age glaciations. There are no known endemic species within the region. Except for the headwaters in the Rockies, there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed. The Middle Missouri ecoregion, extending through Colorado, southwestern Minnesota, northern Kansas, Nebraska, and parts of Wyoming and Iowa, has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands. Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri, which is also home to about twice as many animal species. Finally, the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri, encompassing all or parts of Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Arkansas. Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations, this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three. Thirteen species of crayfish are endemic to the lower Missouri. Since river commerce and industrial development began in the 1800s, human activity has severely polluted the Missouri and degraded its water quality. Most of the river's floodplain habitat is long gone, replaced by irrigated agricultural land. Development of the floodplain has led to increasing numbers of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation. Levees have been constructed along more than a third of the river to keep floodwater within the channel, but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas. Fertilizer runoff, which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients, is a major problem along the Missouri River, especially in Iowa and Missouri. This form of pollution also affects the upper Mississippi, Illinois and Ohio Rivers. Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi. Channelization of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower, deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna. Many dams and bank stabilization projects have been built to help convert 300,000 acres (1,200 km2) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land. Channel control has reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish, birds and amphibians. By the early 21st century, declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for federally endangered bird and fish species. The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century. Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE, it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees, dikes, and wing dams that constrict the river's flow, thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks. By 2001, there were 87,000 acres (350 km2) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration. Restoration projects have re-mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures, prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico. A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River, evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment. The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River, including the creation of a "sediment budget" โ€“ an accounting of sediment transport, erosion, and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River โ€“ would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species. Several sections of the Missouri River were added to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System from Fort Benton to Robinson Bridge, Gavins Point Dam to Ponca State Park and Fort Randall Dam to Lewis and Clark Lake. A total of 247 miles (398 km) of the river were designated including 64 miles (103 km) of wild river and 26 miles (42 km) of scenic river in Montana. 157 miles (253 km) of the river is listed as recreational under the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Tourism and recreation With over 1,500 mi2 (3,900 km2) of open water, the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin. Visitation has increased from 10 million visitor-hours in the mid-1960s to over 60 million visitor-hours in 1990. Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965, which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps, campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs. Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $85โ€“100 million to the regional economy each year. The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, some 3,700 miles (6,000 km) long, follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source, retracing the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Extending from Wood River, Illinois, in the east, to Astoria, Oregon, in the west, it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers. The trail, which spans through eleven U.S. states, is maintained by various federal and state government agencies; it passes through some 100 historic sites, notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site. Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or preservational use. The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point Dams that total 98 miles (158 km). These reaches exhibit islands, meanders, sandbars, underwater rocks, riffles, snags, and other once-common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling. About forty-five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river. Downstream from Great Falls, Montana, about 149 miles (240 km) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks. This part of the river, designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976, flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument, a 375,000-acre (1,520 km2) preserve comprising steep cliffs, deep gorges, arid plains, badlands, archaeological sites, and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself. The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life; recreational activities include boating, rafting, hiking and wildlife observation. In north-central Montana, some 1,100,000 acres (4,500 km2) along over 125 miles (201 km) of the Missouri River, centering on Fort Peck Lake, comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge. The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development, except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam. Although there are few designated trails, the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping. Many U.S. national parks, such as Glacier National Park, Rocky Mountain National Park, Yellowstone National Park and Badlands National Park are, at least partially, in the watershed. Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use โ€“ notably the Niobrara National Scenic River, which is a 76-mile (122 km) protected stretch of the Niobrara River, one of the Missouri's longest tributaries. The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks, which include Three Forks of the Missouri, Fort Benton, Montana, Big Hidatsa Village Site, Fort Atkinson, Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District. See also Notes References Works cited Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื”ืžื—ืื”_ื ื’ื“_ืžืžืฉืœืช_ื™ืฉืจืืœ_ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื_ื•ื—ืžืฉ] | [TOKENS: 20289]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ื•ื—ืžืฉ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ื•ื—ืžืฉ ืžื•ื›ืจืช ื’ื ื›ืžื—ืืช ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘-9 ื‘ืžืื™ 2020, ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”. ื”ืžื—ืื” ืขืกืงื” ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ื ื•ืฉืื™ื: ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื ื™ืฆืœื• ืืช ื”ืกื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ืœืžื—ืื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื, ื‘ื”ื ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืฉื” ื•ืžื—ืื” ืขืœ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ื ืฉื™ื, ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืžืชื•ื•ื” ื”ื’ื–, ืžื—ืื” ืขืœ ื”ืจื™ื’ืช ืกืœื•ืžื•ืŸ ื˜ืงื”, ืžื—ืื” ืขืœ ื”ืจื™ื’ืช ืื™ืื“ ืืœื—ืœืืง, ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื‘ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื•ืฉื•ืžืจื•ืŸ ื•ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืงื™ืคื•ื— ื”ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื”ื“ืจื•ื–ื™ื ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ื™ื ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ืช ื•ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ืชื ื“ื‘ื•ืชื™. ืžืกืคืจ ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื ื˜ืœื• ื—ืœืง ื‘ืžื—ืื”, ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ื ืชื ื•ืขืช "ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื", ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืœืื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ, ืชื ื•ืขืช "ืื™ืŸ ืžืฆื‘" ืฉืœ ืืžื™ืจ ื”ืฉื›ืœ ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื›"ืžื—ืืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื", ืชื ื•ืขืช "ืงืจื™ื™ื ืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ืจ" ืื• ื‘ืฉื "ื—ื•ื–ื” ื—ื“ืฉ" ืฉื”ื•ืงืžื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืฉื™ ื”ื“ืก ื•ืื—ืจื™ื, ื•ืชื ื•ืขืช "ืงื•ืžื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ" ืฉื™ื™ืฆื’ื” ืืช ืžื—ืืช ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื. ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ืช "ื–ื–ื™ื" ืฉืžืชื ื’ื“ืช ืœื›ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื‘ื™ืฆืขื” ืงืžืคื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืชืจืžื” ืœืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื‘ืจื›ื™ืฉืช ืฉื™ืœื•ื˜. ืžื•ืงื“ื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืชื” ื”ื™ื• ื›ื™ื›ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” ื•ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ืืš ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืจื•ื‘ ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืกืžื•ืš ืœื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” (ืžื™ืงื•ืžื” ื”ืžื“ื•ื™ืง ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉื“ืจื•ืช ื‘ืŸ ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ, ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ื’ื•ื‘ืœ ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ. ืžื˜ื” ื”ืžืื‘ืง ืžืฉืชืจืข ื‘ื™ืŸ ืคื™ื ืช ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืŸ ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ, ืขื“ ืœื›ื™ื›ืจ ืฆืจืคืช). ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืžืงื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืขืจื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžืขืฆืจื• ืฉืœ ืืžื™ืจ ื”ืฉื›ืœ, ื‘ืฆืžืชื™ื ื•ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 2020 ื”ื—ืœื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ื–ื“ื”ื•ืช ื’ื ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ, ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืคืจื™ื– ื•ืกืŸ ืคืจื ืกื™ืกืงื•. ื ื•ืกืฃ ืขืœ ื›ืš, ื”ื—ืœื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ื‘ืงืจื‘ืช ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืจ ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื ื™ื ืืžื™ืจ ืื•ื—ื ื” ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘ ื•ื’ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื‘ื™ืชื ืฉืœ ืฉืจื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืžืžืฉืœื” ื›ืžื• ืฉืจ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ืื‘ื™ ื ื™ืกื ืงื•ืจืŸ, ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื’ื‘ื™ ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™ ื•ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื—ืœื•ืคื™ ื•ืฉืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ, ื‘ื ื™ ื’ื ืฅ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœืžืงืจื™ ื”ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจืชื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฆื“ ืื ืฉื™ ื™ืžื™ืŸ ืฉืชืงืคื• ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 2020 ื”ื•ื˜ืœ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืขื•ื ืฉ ืžืืกืจ ื›ืœืคื™ ืื“ื ืฉืคื’ืข ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื ื’ื“ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื•. ืขืœ ืคื™ ืกืงืจ ืฉื ืขืจืš ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืœื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื”, ืื—ื“ ืžื›ืœ ืขืฉืจื” ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ื ืœืงื—ื• ื—ืœืง ื‘ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”. ืžืชื•ื›ื 46.5% ืžืžื—ื ื” ื”ืฉืžืืœ, 27.5% ืžื”ืžืจื›ื– ื•ื›ืจื‘ืข ืžื”ื (26%) ืžื’ื•ืฉ ื”ื™ืžื™ืŸ. ืคื™ืœื•ื— ื”ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืœืคื™ ื’ื™ืœ ืžืขืœื” ื›ื™ ื‘ื’ืœ ื”ืžื—ืื” ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ืขื“ ื’ื™ืœ 34, ื•ืžื‘ื•ื’ืจื™ื ืžืขืœ ื’ื™ืœ 55. 33% ืžื”ื ืฉืืœื™ื ื‘ืกืงืจ ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื ื”ืื—ืจืื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ืœืขื™ืžื•ืชื™ื ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช, ื•-31% ืกื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจืื™ืช. ื‘-13 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 2021 ืชืžื” ื”ืžื—ืื” ืขืงื‘ ื”ืงืžืช ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ื•ืฉืฉ ื•ืชื•ื ื›ื”ื•ื ืช ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื›ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืœืื—ืจ 12 ืฉื ื™ื ืจืฆื•ืคื•ืช ื‘ืชืคืงื™ื“. ืจืงืข ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืฉืœื•ืฉื™ื ื•ื—ืžืฉ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืžืฉืš ืœืžื—ืื•ืช ืฉื”ื—ืœื• ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ, ื‘ื”ืŸ ืžื—ื• ืขืœ ืžืชื•ื•ื” ื”ื’ื–, ืขืœ ืคืจืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ื™ื•ืขืฅ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ ืœืžืžืฉืœื”. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 2018 ื ืขืจื›ื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ืงืจืื• ืœื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ืœื”ืชืคื˜ืจ ื•ื”ื‘ื™ืขื• ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ื™ื•ืขืฅ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ ืœืžืžืฉืœื”. ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” ื•ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘. ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืืœื” ื ืขืจื›ื• ื‘ืงื‘ื™ืขื•ืช ืžื“ื™ ืฉื‘ื•ืข, ื•ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื• ื‘ืฉื ื™ื 2018 ื•-2019. ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 2019, ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื•ื’ืฉื• ื ื’ื“ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ื’ื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื—ื“, ืžืจืžื” ื•ื”ืคืจืช ืืžื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืชื™ืงื™ื 1000, 2000 ื•-4000, ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ื” ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ืืœืคื™ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื‘ืงืจื™ืื” ืœื”ืชืคื˜ืจื•ืชื•. ื ื•ืฉืื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ืฉืขืœื• ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื”ื ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืชืคื˜ืจื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ืขืงื‘ ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉื•ื ื ื’ื“ื•, ืขืงื‘ ื”ืฉื—ื™ืชื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื™ืช, ื”ืชืขืจืขืจื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ ื•ื”ื—ืœืฉื•ืช ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื›ื ืกืช, ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืื•ืคืŸ ื”ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืžื’ืคืช ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื”. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ืขืœืชื” ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ื•ืขื“ืช ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉืชื‘ื“ื•ืง ืืช ื—ืœืงื• ืฉืœ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœื” ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ืžื—ืื” ืฉืœ ืžื’ื–ืจื™ื ืฉื ืคื’ืขื• ืžื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™, ื‘ื”ื ืขืฆืžืื™ื, ืžื•ืจื™ื, ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ื™ื, ืžืกืขื“ื ื™ื ื•ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืกืคื•ืจื˜ ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื‘ืขื” ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฉื˜ืจืชื™ืช ืฉื ื ืงื˜ื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืชืคื˜ืจื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื•, ืขืงื‘ ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉื•ื ื ื’ื“ื•. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ืขืœืชื” ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ื•ืขื“ืช ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉืชื‘ื“ื•ืง ืืช ื—ืœืงื• ืฉืœ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช. ื‘ืžืื™ 2020 ื”ื•ืงื ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืžืื”ืœ ืžื—ืื” ื‘ื• ืจื•ื›ื–ื” ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืœืžื—ืื”. ื‘-13 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืžืงื•ื ืคืงื—ื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื™ืจื™ื™ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ืžืฉื˜ืจื”, ื•ืคื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืžืžืชื—ื ื”ืžืื”ืœ. ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื ืคืฆืขื• ื‘ืื•ืจื— ืงืœ ื‘ืขื™ืžื•ืชื™ื ืขื ื”ืคืงื—ื™ื, ื•ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืคื•ื ื” ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื•ืœื™ื. ืœืžื—ืจืช ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื•ืงื ื”ืžืื”ืœ, ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื•ืฆืข ืคื™ื ื•ื™ื•. ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื”ื•ื‘ืขื” ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืœืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื–ืจื— ื‘ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืฉื‘ื”ื ื ืงื˜ื” ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ื‘ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”, ื‘ื”ื ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืชื ื•ืขื” ื—ืžื•ืจื•ืช, ื”ืคืขืœืช ืืžืฆืขื™ ืžืขืงื‘ ืฉืœ ืฉื‘"ื› ืขืœ ืื–ืจื—ื™ื, ื•ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื•ืขืœ ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜. ืขื ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื•ืจื” ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ืขืœ ืกื’ื™ืจืช ื’ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื•ืื›ื™ืคืช ืกื’ืจ ื•ืืžืฆืขื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืœืžื™ื’ื•ืจ ื”ืžื’ืคื”. ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืืœื” ื”ืื˜ื• ืืช ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ืชื—ืœื•ืื”, ืื‘ืœ ื’ืจืžื• ืœืžืฉื‘ืจ ื›ืœื›ืœื™. ื‘ืชื•ืš ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืขืœื” ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืื‘ื˜ืœื” ืž-4% ืœ-25%. ื ื•ืกืฃ ืขืœ ื›ืš, ื ืžืชื—ื” ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ื”ื™ืขื“ืจ ื”ื”ื™ืขืจื›ื•ืช ืœื’ืœ ืฉื ื™ ื•ืขืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ืคื’ื•ื. ืืœื” ื ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ืœื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื”ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉืช ืฉืœ ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ืฉื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ืžืื™ 2020. ืขื“ ืœืืžืฆืข ื™ื•ืœื™ 2020 ื”ืชื—ืœื•ืื” ืขืœืชื” ืžืžืกืคืจ ื“ื• ืกืคืจืชื™ ืœื›-2,000 ื ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ื. ื‘-27 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 2020 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆื” ืงื˜ื ื” ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ื ืœื”ืคื’ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ืžื•ืœ ืจื—ื•ื‘ ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื—ืœื•ืคื™, ื‘ื ื™ ื’ื ืฅ, ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืขื™ืŸ. ื”ืžื—ืื•ืช ื”ืชืžืงื“ื• ื‘ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืงืžืช ื•ืขื“ืช ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืœืคืจืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช. ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ื ื”ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืขืžื“ื• ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ืžื•ืœ ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ื• ื’ืจ ื’ื ืฅ ื•ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืฉืœื˜ื™ื. ื–ืืช ืœืžืจื•ืช ืคืกื™ืงืช ื‘ื’"ืฅ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื”ืคื’ื™ืŸ ืœื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื’ื ืฅ, ืžืื—ืจ ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžืขื•ืŸ ืจืฉืžื™. ืœืื—ืจ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืข ืžืขืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื”, ื›ืชื‘ ื’ื ืฅ ื‘ื˜ื•ื•ื™ื˜ืจ: "ืœืขื•ืœื ืื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื–ื›ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืื“ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ืข ื“ืขืชื•" ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืฉืคื ื” ืœืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืฉืชืืคืฉืจ ืืช ื”ืžื—ืื” "ืชื•ืš ื”ืคืขืœืช ืฉื™ืงื•ืœ ื“ืขืช ืžืจื—ื™ื‘ ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืœ ืžืขืฆืจ ืื• ื”ืจื—ืงื”". ื”ืฆื™ื•ืฅ ื’ืจืจ ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื ื–ืขืžื•ืช ื•ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืขืจื‘ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืงื”ืœ ืจื‘, ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ื—ื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื™ื•ืจืื™ ืœื”ื‘ ื”ืจืฆื ื•, ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœื”ืคื’ื ื” ื•ื‘ื”ื•ืจืืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื• ืœื”ืคื’ื™ืŸ ืœื™ื“ ืงื ื™ื•ืŸ ืกืžื•ืš. ืœืคื™ ื ื™ืฆื‘ ืขืžื™ื—ื™ ืืฉื“, ื’ื ืฅ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืžืžืขืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืœื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืชื•, ืืš ืืžืจ ืฉืœื’ื ืฅ ืื™ืŸ ืกืžื›ื•ืช ื—ื•ืงื™ืช ืœื‘ืงืฉ ื–ืืช. ื›ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžื—ืื•ืช ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืขื™ืŸ ื“ื•ื•ื— ืฉื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ืขืœืชื” ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืœื ื™ื™ื“ืช, ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœืชื—ื ืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ื•ืจื™ื“ื” ืื•ืชื ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืžืจื•ื—ืง. ืขื•ืจืš ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื’ื•ื ืŸ ื‘ืŸ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืชืœื•ื ื” ืœืžื—"ืฉ ื‘ื˜ืขื ื” ืฉื ื•ื”ืœ ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ื’ื“ืจ ื—ื˜ื™ืคื”. ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ืžื—ืืช "ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื" ืฆืžื—ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืคืจืกื•ื ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืœื›ื ืกืช ื”-23 ืžื”ืชืืจื’ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืืฉืจ ืงืจืื• ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ืœืžืกืœื•ืœื”. ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื™ื–ื ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ืื•ืจื™ ืžืฉื’ื‘ ื‘ืคื•ืกื˜ ืฉืคืจืกื ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืคื™ื™ืกื‘ื•ืง ืฉืœื•, ื•ื–ืืช ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ ืชื—ืช ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช "ืžื—ืืช ื”ื“ื’ืœ ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ: ื›ื”ื ื™ื–ื ืœื ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจื ื•" - ืžื—ืื” ืฉืœ ื”ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ, ืฉืžื—ื• ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš, ืจืคื™ ืคืจืฅ, ืœืื™ืชืžืจ ื‘ืŸ ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ื•ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืขืจื›ื™ ื”ื›ื”ื ื™ื–ื, ื”ื’ื–ืขื ื•ืช ื•ื”ื”ื•ืžื•ืคื•ื‘ื™ื” ืœืชื•ืš ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘-19 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 2020, ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืœื›ื ืกืช ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื•ืฉืœื•ืฉ, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืคื™ื–ื™ืงืื™ืช ืฉืงืžื” ื‘ืจืกืœืจ ื•ืื—ื™ื” ื™ืจื“ืŸ ื•ืื™ื™ืœ ืฉื•ื•ืจืฆืžืŸ ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืขื•ื“ ืฉื ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื™ื–ืžื• ืฉื™ื™ืจืช ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื•ืช ืฉืขืœืชื” ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืขื ื“ื’ืœื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื“ื’ืœื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืžื—ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉื‘ืชืช ืžืฉื›ืŸ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื•ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืฉื ื•ืฆืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื’ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช. ืžื—ืื” ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ืจื™ื’ื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื•ืชื” ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืกืขื™ืฃ ื‘ืชืงื ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ืจื•ื, ืฉื”ืชื™ืจ ืงื™ื•ื ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืžืจื•ืช ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื˜ืœื• ืขืœ ื”ืชื›ื ืกื•ืช ืงื”ืœ ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืขืœ ืจืงืข ื”ืžื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ื•ืฆืขื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื›ืœื™ ืจื›ื‘, ื‘ืฉื™ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื ืกืขื• ืœื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืžืฉื›ืŸ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื›ืฉืขืœื™ื”ืŸ ื“ื’ืœื™ื ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื. ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ื—ืœื” ื‘ื”ืชืืจื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืจืฉืชื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื•ื•ืื˜ืกืืค, ืฉืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื™ื•ื–ืžื™ื ืžื˜ืจื•ืชื™ื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื•: ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืขืจื›ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ืžื•ืœ ืžืฉื›ืŸ ื”ื›ื ืกืช, ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืŸ ื•ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘. ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ ื‘ืขืคื•ืœื”, ื ื”ืจื™ื”, ืจืืฉ ืคื™ื ื”, ื”ื•ื“ ื”ืฉืจื•ืŸ, ืคืจื“ืก ื—ื ื”, ืงืจื™ื™ืช ื˜ื‘ืขื•ืŸ, ื›ืคืจ ืงืืกื, ื‘ืืจ ืฉื‘ืข ื•ืื™ืœืช. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ืงื™ื™ืžื• ืื ืฉื™ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืžืฉืžืจื•ืช ืžื—ืื” ืœื™ื“ ื‘ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื›ื ืกืช ื•ืฉืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ื‘ื”ื ื‘ื ื™ ื’ื ืฅ, ื™ื•ืœื™ ืื“ืœืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ, ื’ื“ืขื•ืŸ ืกืขืจ, ื’ืœืขื“ ืืจื“ืŸ, ืืกืฃ ื–ืžื™ืจ, ืจื ืฉืคืข, ืฆื‘ื™ ื”ืื•ื–ืจ ื•ื’ื‘ื™ ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™. ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ื, ืื ืฉื™ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื•ืจื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื™ื•ื‘ืœ ื“ื™ืกืงื™ืŸ, ืืœื™ืงื™ื ืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ, ื™ืคืขืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืŸ, ืœื•ืกื™ ืื”ืจื™ืฉ, ืขืžืจ ื‘ืจ-ืœื‘, ื ื™ืฆืŸ ืืœื•ืŸ, ืฉื—ืจ ืืจื’ืžืŸ, ืขืžื•ืก ื‘ืŸ-ืื‘ืจื”ื, ืขืžื™ืจื ืœื•ื™ืŸ, ืขื•ื–ื™ ืืจื“ ื•ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืžื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื™ืื™ืจ ืœืคื™ื“, ืžืฉื” ื™ืขืœื•ืŸ, ืื™ื™ืžืŸ ืขื•ื“ื”, ื™ืื™ืจ ื’ื•ืœืŸ, ื“ืŸ ืžืจื™ื“ื•ืจ, ืืœื™ ืื‘ื™ื“ืจ, ื›ืจืžื™ ื’ื™ืœื•ืŸ, ื–ืื‘ ื“ื’ื ื™, ืขื™ืกืื•ื•ื™ ืคืจื™ื’'. ื‘-1 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 2020, ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืคืจื™ืกืช ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืœ-280 ื’ืฉืจื™ื, ืฆืžืชื™ื ื•ืžื—ืœืคื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘-20 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 2020, ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื” ืคืจื™ืกืช ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ืช, ืœืžืขืœ 300 ื’ืฉืจื™ื, ืฆืžืชื™ื ื•ืžื—ืœืคื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื ื•ืกืคื” ืคืจื™ืกื” ืฉืœ ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ืฉื—ื•ืจื•ืช ืขื ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืžืชื™ื™ื—ืกื•ืช ืœื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ืงื™ืกืจื™ื”, ื›ืจื›ื•ืจ, ืจืžืช ื”ื›ื•ื‘ืฉ, ื’ืŸ ืฉืžื•ืืœ, ืžืขื’ืŸ ืžื™ื›ืืœ, ืืœื™ืงื™ื, ืžื—ืœืฃ ื—ื•ืจืฉื™ื, ืžื‘ื•ืื•ืช ื’ืœื‘ื•ืข ื•ืขื•ื“. ืžื™ื–ื ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ื’ื ื ืคืจืก ืœืžืกืคืจ ืฉืขื•ืช ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” ื‘-17 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ืจื—ื‘ื• ื™ืžื™ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื•ืช ื’ื ืœื™ืžื™ ื—ืžื™ืฉื™, ื‘ืขืจื™ื ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ื—ื™ืคื”, ื•ื‘ืืจ ืฉื‘ืข. ื‘-10 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 2020, ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื’ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™, ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื” ืคืจื™ืกืช ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ืช, ืœ-1219 ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืขืจื™ื, ื‘ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกื•ืช ืœื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื›ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืชืงื ื•ืช ืฉืืกืจื• ืขืœ ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช. ื”ืชื•ืคืขื” ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื•ื”ื’ื“ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ืžืฆื˜ืจืคื™ื ืœืžืขื’ืœ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช. ืขืœ ืคื™ ืกืคื™ืจื” ืฉืขืฉื• ืื ืฉื™ ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื, ื“ื•ื•ื— ืขืœ ื”ืฉืชืชืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ื›-230 ืืœืฃ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืฉื‘ืช ืื—ืจ ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืฆ"ืฉ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ื ืขืจื›ื” ื’ื ื”ืคื’ื ืช ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ืจื‘ืช ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘ ืฉื‘ื” ื ืจืฉืžื• ืฉื•ื‘ ืขื™ืžื•ืชื™ื ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืฉื ืฉืื• ื“ื’ืžื™ ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื•ื™ืก"ืž ืฉื ื™ืกื• ืœื—ืกื•ื ืื•ืชื. ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืœ ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืกื’ืจ ื ืขืจื›ื• ื’ื ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื•ืงื“ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ื‘ืคืจื™ืกื” ื“ื•ืžื”, ื’ื ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื’' ื•ื”', ืืš ืขื ื›ืžื•ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ื•ืงืžื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ืช 2020 ื—ื‘ืจืช ืœืชื•ืขืœืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ "ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ืข"ืž", ืืฉืจ ื ืจืฉืžื” ืืฆืœ ืขื•"ื“ ื’ืœืขื“ ืฉืจ, ื•ืžื—ื–ื•ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื”ืฉื ื” ืขืžื“ ืขืœ 2,283,000 ืฉืงืœื™ื ื•ื‘ืฉื ืช 2021 ืขืœ 1,185,000 ืฉืงืœื™ื . ืื™ื™ืœ ืฉื•ื•ืจืฆืžืŸ ื•ื’ื™ื ื“ื ื™ืืœื™ ืžื•ื ื• ื›ื“ื™ืจืงื˜ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขืžื•ืชื” ื•ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืื“ืจ ื›ืžื•ืจืฉื” ื—ืชื™ืžื”. ืขืžื•ืชืช "ื—ื•ื–ื” ื—ื“ืฉ" ื”ื•ืงืžื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ื™ื•ืขืฅ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ ืœืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ืคืชื— ืชืงื•ื•ื”. ืกื™ืžื ื™ ื”ื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขืžื•ืชื” ื”ื ืฉืœื˜ื™ื ื•ื—ื•ืœืฆื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ื ื›ืชื‘ "Crime Minister" ("ืงืจื™ื™ื ืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ืจ", ืžืฉื—ืง ืžื™ืœื™ื ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื”ืžืื—ื“ ืืช ืชื•ืืจ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืขื ื”ืžื™ืœื” "ืคืฉืข"). ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืœืื™ื›ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ืฉื•ืชืคื” ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื”, ื•ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื” ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžื” ื•ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื’ื‘ืจื”. ืชื ื•ืขืช "ืื™ืŸ ืžืฆื‘" ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืืžื™ืจ ื”ืฉื›ืœ, ืฉื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืคื’ื™ืŸ ืœื‘ื“ื• ื ื’ื“ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 2016, ื‘ืฉื "ืžื—ืืช ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื", ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืœืขื™ืจ ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื• ื™ื‘ื ื” ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื™ื. ื”ื™ื ื”ื“ืคื™ืกื” ืœืงืจืืช ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ึพ2020 ืฉืœื˜ื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื ื›ืชื‘ "ืื™ืŸ ืžืฆื‘ ืฉื ืืฉื ื‘ืคืœื™ืœื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœื”". ืชื ื•ืขืช "ืงื•ืžื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ" ืืฉืจ ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื” ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืŸ ืฆ'ืกื˜ื”, ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื” "ืงื•ืกื˜ื” ื‘ืœืืง" ื•ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ื•ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืช ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืกื˜ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืืฉืจ ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื™ื ืืช ื‘ื ื™ ื”ื“ื•ืจ ืฉื ืคื’ืขื• ื‘ืขื•ืฆืžื” ืจื‘ื” ืžื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื•ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื•ืชื™. "ืงื•ืžื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ" ืœืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ืงื™ืฆื•ืจ ืœืžื™ืœื” ืื—ืช - "ืงื•ืžื™", ืžืชืืคื™ื™ื ืช ื‘ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืฆืขื“ื•ืช ืžื—ืื” ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘ ื•ืกืžืœื” ื”ื•ื ื”ืฆื‘ืข ื”ื•ื•ืจื•ื“. ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื”ื™ื• ืฉื•ืชืคื™ื ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื™ื ืžื’ื–ืจื™ื ืฉื ืคื’ืขื• ืžื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™, ื‘ื”ื ื”ืชืื’ื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉื›ื™ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืžื•ืจื™ื, ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืชืื’ื“ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืขืฆืžืื™ื, ื›ืžื• ืขืžื•ืชืช "ืื ื™ ืฉื•ืœืžืŸ" ืื• "ื”ืชืื—ื“ื•ืช ื”ืขืฆืžืื™ื™ื", ื•ื›ืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืกืขื“ื ื™ื ื•ืื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ืžื™ ื”ืกืคื•ืจื˜ ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื ื•ืกืฃ ืขืœ ื›ืš, ื”ื—ืœ ืžื™ื•ืœื™ 2020 ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืกื•ืœื™ื“ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืงื ื“ื” ื•ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื”. ืืช ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื™ื–ืžื• ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื•ื™ื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ืฉืคืขืœื• ื‘ืžืฉื•ืชืฃ ืชื—ืช ืฉืชื™ ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช: Defend Israeli Democracy ื•-UnXeptable - Saving the Israeli Democracy . ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ืžื•ืœ ืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ืœืžืฉืœ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืคืจื™ื–, ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ) ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืกืŸ ืคืจื ืกื™ืกืงื• ื•ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง. ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 2020 ื”ืชืื’ื“ื” ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืจื•ืคืื™ื ื•ืžื“ืขื ื™ื ืชื—ืช ื”ืฉื 'ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ื—ืจื•ื ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ืœืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”' (ืžื—"ืฆ) ื•ื”ื—ืœื” ืœืคืจืกื ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื ื•ืงื‘ืช ื ื’ื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืช ื”ืกื’ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”. ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื” ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืชื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ืช ืฉืœื ื ื–ืงืงื” ืœืžื™ืžื•ืŸ, ื•ื”ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ืชื ื“ื‘ื•ืชื™. ื‘ืจื, ื‘ืชื•ืš ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ืœื”ืชื‘ืกืก ืขืœ ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื‘ืกืš ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืงืœื™ื, ืœื”ืขืจื›ืช ืคืจื•ืค' ืชืžืจ ื”ืจืžืŸ, ืžื”ืžื›ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ืœื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื”. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ืจืžื™ื ื”ืžืžืžื ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ื“ื• ื‘ืชืžื™ื›ืชื ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื ืžื ื™ื ื”ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ืจ ืงื•ื‘ื™ ืจื™ื›ื˜ืจ, ื•ื”ื™ื–ื ืื™ืœ ื•ื•ืœื“ืžืŸ. ื”ืงืจืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื‘ื“ื” ืคืจืกืžื” ืฉืชืจืžื” ืœืžืขืœื” ืž-770,000 $ (ืœืžืขืœื” ืž-2.7 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉ"ื—) ืœืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื "ืœืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืžื—ืื” ื•ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื–ื•ืง ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ืช ื•ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ". ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื, ื’ื•ื™ืกื• ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื›-25 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉ"ื— ืœืžื˜ื” ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื”ืžืืจื’ืŸ ืืช ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืงืคืœืŸ, ืขืžื•ืชืช "ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™ืช" ืฉื”ื•ืงืžื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื”ื•ื“ ื‘ืจืง ืชืจืžื” ืœืชื ื•ืขืช "ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื" ืงืจื•ื‘ ืœ-100 ืืœืฃ ืฉืงืœื™ื ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฆื™ื•ื“, ืฉื™ืจื•ืชื™ ื“ื•ื‘ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช, ื•ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื’ื™ื™ืกื” ืขื•ื“ ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื›ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉ"ื— ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื. ืœืงืจืืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืœื›ื ืกืช ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื•ืืจื‘ืข, ื”ื•ืงืžื” "ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”" ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืžื”ืžื—ืื”. ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 2021 ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืคื’ื ืช ืžื—ืื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขืฆืžืื™ื ื•ื”ืขืกืงื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื, ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ื ื ื’ื“ ื”ืชื ื”ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื“ื•ื•ื— ืขืœ ื”ืงืžืช ืžืคืœื’ืช "ืชื ื•ืคื”" ืฉืชื™ื™ืฆื’ ืื•ืชื, ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืขื ื—ื‘ืจ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืขืคืจ ืฉืœื—. ืฉืชื™ ื”ืจืฉื™ืžื•ืช ืคืจืฉื• ืœืคื ื™ ืžื•ืขื“ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืื‘ื™ืจ ืงืืจื” ืžืื ื™ ืฉื•ืœืžืŸ ืœืจืฉื™ืžื” ื™ืžื™ื ื”. ื”ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืฉืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืฉืชื™ ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื”. ืื‘ื™ืขื“ ื‘ืŸ ืกื“ื•ืŸ, ืžืžื™ื™ืกื“ื™ ื”ืขืžื•ืชื”, ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืœืชืœ"ื โ€“ ืชื ื•ืขื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืžืžืœื›ืชื™ืช. ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื‘ื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื‘-24 ื‘ืžืื™ 2020 ื”ืฉืชืชืคื” ืื•ืจื ื” ื‘ื ืื™ ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ืช "ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื" ื•ืืžืจื”: "ื‘ืืชื™ ืœื›ืืŸ ืœืงืจื•ื ืœืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืœื”ืชืคื˜ืจ! ื ืžืืก ืœื ื•, ื ืžืืก ืœื ื• ืžื”ืฉืงืจื™ื, ืžืื•ื–ืœืช ื”ื™ื“, ืžื”ื—ืœืžืื•ืช, ืžื”ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ื›ื•ืฉืœ ืžื”ืื˜ื™ืžื•ืช ื•ื”ื ื™ืชื•ืง ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื•ื”ืขื‘ื“ื™ื ื”ื ืจืฆืขื™ื ืฉืœื•." ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ื‘ื ืื™ ืื™ื•ืžื™ื ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื”. ื‘-23 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ืืจื’ื ื” ืชื ื•ืขืช "ื“ืจื›ื ื•" ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื ื’ื“ ืกื™ืคื•ื— ืฉืœ ื—ืœืงื™ื ืžื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื•ืฉื•ืžืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืฉืœื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื˜ืจืืžืค, ื›ืืฉืจ ื‘ืœื˜ื• ื ื™ืžื•ืงื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘-26 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ืงืจืื• ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืœื”ืงื™ื ื•ืขื“ืช ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉืชื‘ื“ื•ืง ืืช ื—ืœืงื• ืฉืœ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ืคืจืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช. ืœืคื™ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื”, ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื—ืกืžื• ืืช ื”ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ, ื•ืฉื‘ืขื” ืžื”ื ื ืขืฆืจื•, ื‘ื”ื ืืžื™ืจ ื”ืฉื›ืœ. ื”ืฉื›ืœ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื—ืชื•ื ืขืœ ืฆื• ื”ืจื—ืงื”, ื•ืฉื•ื—ืจืจ ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ืžืžื”. ื‘-29 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื‘ ืœื”ืคื’ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืœื”ืคื’ื ื” ื”ืฆื˜ืจืคื•, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ, ื“ืŸ ื—ืœื•ืฅ, ืกืชื™ื• ืฉืคื™ืจ ื•ืฆื•ืคื™ืช ื’ืจื ื˜. ื‘-27 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™, ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืžืขืฆืจื• ืฉืœ ืืžื™ืจ ื”ืฉื›ืœ ื•ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœืฉื—ืจืจื•, ื”ืชืืจื’ื ื• ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืžื•ืงื“ื™ ืžื—ืื” ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืขืœ ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ืฆืžืชื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืฉื”ืชืจื—ื‘ื• ืžืื– ืœืžืื•ืช ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืžืงื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื•ืฆืื™ ืฉื‘ืช. ื‘-11 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื ืขืจื›ื” ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืฉืœ ืขืฆืžืื™ื ืฉืžื—ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™, ื•ื‘ืžื”ืœื›ื” ื”ืชื‘ื˜ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืื™ ืืกืฃ ืืžื“ื•ืจืกืงื™ ื‘ื—ืจื™ืคื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื•: "ืื ื™ ื›ื•ืขืก. ื™ืฉ ื ืืฉื ื‘ืคืœื™ืœื™ื ืฉื—ื˜ืฃ ืืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืฉืœื ื•. ืžื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื‘ื ื•ื›ืœ ืฉื ื•ืชื ื™ื ืœื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืงืจื“ื™ื˜ - ื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืœื›ืช ืœื›ืœื ืื• ืœื‘ื™ืช ืžืฉื•ื’ืขื™ื." ื‘-23 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื ืขืจื›ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืจื‘ืช ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื‘ืžื”ืœื›ื” ื ืขืฆืจื• ืฉืžื•ื ื” ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื ืขืจื›ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื“ื•ืžื” ื‘ื” ื ืขืฆืจื• 55 ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื. ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื™ื•ื ื ืขืจื›ื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื’ื ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ืงื™ืกืจื™ื”. ื‘-26 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื ืขืจื›ื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช "ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื" ื‘-250 ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ืฆืžืชื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ื’ื ืื ืฉื™ื ืžื”ืœื™ื›ื•ื“. ื‘-28 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื ืขืจื›ื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ืช ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืจ ืืžื™ืจ ืื•ื—ื ื” ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ื” ืคืจืฆื” ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื›ื ื’ื“ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 2020 ื”ื—ืœื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืกื•ืœื™ื“ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•"ืœ: ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”, ืฆืจืคืช, ืงื ื“ื”, ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”, ืื•ืกื˜ืจืœื™ื” ื•ื”ื•ืœื ื“. ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื ืžื”ืขื“ื” ื”ื“ืจื•ื–ื™ืช ื”ืฆื˜ืจืคื• ืœื”ืคื’ื ืช ื”ืฉื‘ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘-1 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื‘ืžื—ืœืฃ ืืœื™ืงื™ื, ื‘ื™ื•ื ื‘ื• ื—ื’ื’ื• ืืช ื—ื’ ื”ืงื•ืจื‘ืŸ, ื‘ื”ื ื’ื ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืข'ื“ื™ืจ ื›ืžืืœ ืžืจื™ื—. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื ืขืจื›ื” ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื•ืฉื•ืžืจื•ืŸ. ื‘-1 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ืคื’ื™ื ื• ื›ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืขืฉืจ ืืœืฃ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืžื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ืงืฆื• ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืœืžื•ืงื“ื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ืžื—ืฉืฉ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื• ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœื‘ื™ืชื• ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื‘ืงื™ืกืจื™ื”, ื‘ืคืืจืง ืฆ'ืืจืœืก ืงืœื•ืจ ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ื•ื‘ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ืฆืžืชื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื‘ืœื˜ื• ื‘ืกื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ืชืงืฉื•ืจืชื™ ืžืกืคืจ ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื—ืื” ื‘ืขื™ืจื•ื, ื‘ื”ืฉืจืืช ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืคืžืŸ. ื‘-21 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ืœืงืจืืช ื”ืคื’ื ืช ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื™ื” ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืช ืžืื”ืœ ื”ืžื—ืื” ืฉืคืขืœ ื›-70 ื™ืžื™ื ืœื™ื“ ืžืขื•ืŸ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื–ื” ื ืคืฆืข ื•ื ืขืฆืจ ืจืืฉ ื”ืฉื‘"ื› ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ ื›ืจืžื™ ื’ื™ืœื•ืŸ. ื‘-23 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื˜ืขื•ื ื” ืœื™ื“ ืžืขื•ืŸ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ื” ืชื•ืขื“ื• ืžืงืจื™ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฉื ื™ ื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ื•ื ืขืฆืจื• ื›-30 ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ืคื ื™ื ื•ื”ื’ื ืช ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื“ื ื” ื‘ืชืคืงื•ื“ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื”. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ืคื’ื™ื ื• ื›-15 ืืœืฃ ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื‘ืงื™ืกืจื™ื” ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื”. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ืช ืžื•ืฆ"ืฉ ื‘-29 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื—ื•ืœืงื• ื›-40,000 ืฆืžื™ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืืจื’ื ื™ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื”, ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืžืขืžื™ื“ ื‘ืกืคืง ืจื‘ ืืช ืžืกืคืจื™ ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ื, ื›ืคื™ ืฉื“ื•ื•ื—ื• ื‘ืชืงืฉื•ืจืช. ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช ื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื” ืฉื•ื‘ ืฆืขื“ื”, ื‘ื”ืฉืชืชืคื•ืช ื›-3,000 ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื•ืžื™ืฆื’ ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ืฉื ื™ืฉื ืขืœ ื’ื‘ื™ ืืœื•ื ืงื” ืžืื•ืœืชืจืช, ืžื’ืฉืจ ื”ืžื™ืชืจื™ื, ื‘ื“ืจืš ืคืชืœืชืœื” ื•ืืจื•ื›ื” ืฉื ื’ื–ืจื” ืžื—ืกื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฉื˜ืจื”, ืขื“ ื”ื—ื‘ื™ืจื” ืœืื™ืจื•ืข ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืคืจื™ื–. ืœื”ืคื’ื ื” ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ืฉื, ื”ืฆื˜ืจืคื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื—ืกื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืจืกืœื‘ ืฉื”ืคื’ื™ื ื• ื‘ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœื”ืชื™ืจ ื ืกื™ืขื” ืœืื•ืžืŸ. ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ื›ื™ ืชืฆืžืฆื ืืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืกื’ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื˜ืœ ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 2020. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืคืจื™ื– ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘-20 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 2020 ื–ื•ื”ื” ื˜ื•ืคื– ืœื•ืง, ื™ื•ืขืฅ ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื•, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืืžื•ืจ ืœืฉื”ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ื“ื•ื“, ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ืžื‘ื™ื™ื ื•ืžืฆืœื ืกืฆื ื” ืฉืœ "ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”" ื›ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœ, ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื›ืคื™ืฉ ืืช ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืคื™ืฅ ืฉืžื•ืขื•ืช ื›ืื™ืœื• ื”ื "ืžืคื™ืฆื™ ืžื—ืœื•ืช". ืœื•ืง ื ืงื ืก ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข. ืื—ืจื™ ืื™ืฉื•ืจ ื”ืชืงื ื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช, ืขืœ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืชื‘ืฆืข ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืžื”ื‘ืชื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—ื™ื. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื›ืืœืฃ ืžื•ืงื“ื™ื ืœืคื™ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื™ื. ืžืืจื’ื ื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื˜ื•ืขื ื™ื ื›ื™ 130,000 ืื™ืฉ ื”ืคื’ื™ื ื• ื‘ืžืฆื˜ื‘ืจ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ. ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืข ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืžื˜ืขื ืืจื’ื•ืŸ "ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืขื›ืฉื™ื•" ืฉื”ื•ืงื ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืงื“ื ืืช ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ื—ืงื™ืจื” ื‘ืคืจืฉื” ื”ื™ื“ื•ืขื” ื›"ืคืจืฉืช ื”ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช" (ืชื™ืง 3000), ื™ืฆืื• ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื›ืœื™ ืจื›ื‘ ืžื”ืฆืคื•ืŸ, ืžื”ืžืจื›ื– ื•ืžื”ื“ืจื•ื ืœืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืฉื™ื™ืจื” ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ืช ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ืŸ ื”ื—ืœื” ืืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ื‘ืขืฆืจืช ืงืฆืจื” ื‘ื›ืคืจ ื‘ืœื•ื, ื‘ืฉืขื” 06:00 ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ. ื›ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ื“ื’ืžื™ ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ื‘ื”ื•ื‘ืœืช ืจื•ืขื™ ืคืœื’ ืžืžืืจื’ื ื™ ื”ืžื—ืื”, ื™ืฆืื• ืžืฉื ืœืขื‘ืจ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื—ื™ืœ ื”ื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ืคื”, ืชื•ืš ืฉื”ื ื—ื•ืœืคื™ื ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ืฆืžืชื™ื, ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ืžื—ืœืคื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื”ืžืชื™ื ื• ืœื”ื ืžืื•ืช ืžืขื•ื“ื“ื™ื. ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื™ืจื” ืœื™ื•ื• ื˜ืจืงื˜ื•ืจื•ื ื™ื ืžืขื•ืคืคื™ื ื‘ืงื˜ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืกืœื•ืœ, ื•ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื—ื‘ื•ืจืช ืื•ืคื ื•ืขื ื™ื ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœื” ืืช ื”ืฉื™ื™ืจื” ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืœ ื”ืžืกืœื•ืœ ืขื“ ื”ื’ืขืชื” ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืฉื™ื™ืจื•ืช ืขื‘ืจื• ื“ืจืš ืขืฆืจื•ืช ื‘ื”ืŸ ืžืื•ืช ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืžื•ืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื—ื™ืœ ื”ื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ืคื”, ื‘ืจื—ื‘ืช ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘ ื•ื‘ืงื™ืกืจื™ื”. ืžืขืœ ื”ืขืฆืจืช ื—ืœืฃ ืžื˜ืก ืฉืœ ืื•ืœื˜ืจื”ืœื™ื™ื˜ื™ื, ื•ื”ื–ืžืจืช ืื—ื™ื ื•ืขื ื ื™ื ื™ ืฉืจื” ืœืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉื ืฉืื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืืœื•ืฃ (ืžื™ืœ.) ืขืžื™ืจื ืœื•ื™ืŸ ื•ื”ืกื•ืคืจ ืžืื™ืจ ืฉืœื•. ืขื ืขืจื‘ ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืฉื™ื™ืจื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ืœืื–ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื•ื›ืŸ ื•ืชื•ื—ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืฉื˜ืจืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืืคืฉืจ ืืช ื›ื™ื ื•ืกืŸ ืฉืœ ื›-100 ืฆื•ืœืœื•ืช ื•ื”ืจื›ื‘ื™ื ื”ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืื• ื’ื•ืจืจื™ื ืื•ืชืŸ. ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื ืขืจื›ื” ืขืฆืจืช ืกื™ื›ื•ื ืฉื‘ื” ื ืืžื• ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ ืจื‘-ืืœื•ืฃ (ืžื™ืœ.) ื“ืŸ ื—ืœื•ืฅ, ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ื™ื•ืจื ื™ื•ื‘ืœ, ื•ืื ืฉื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื. ืžืฉื˜ืจืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื™ื•ื•ืชื” ืืช ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ืžืชื—ื™ืœืชื• ื•ืขื“ ืกื•ืคื•, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื ืžืืคืฉืจืช ืืช ืงื™ื•ื ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืœืื•ืจืš ืžืกืœื•ืœ ืฉืœ 266 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจื™ื. ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข, ื ืฉืœื— ืžื›ืชื‘ ืชื•ื“ื” ื•ื”ืขืจื›ื” ืœืžืฉื˜ืจื”, ืžืฉื™ ื—ื–ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื”ื™ื•ื–ื ื•ื”ืžืคื™ืง ื”ืขืงืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื‘ืช ื‘-17 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 2020, ื›ื‘ืจ ื ืจืฉืžื• ื•ื ืกืคืจื• 1275 ืžื•ืงื“ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ. ืขืœ ืคื™ ืกืคื™ืจืช ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื ืงื•ื“ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืŸ ื•ื‘ืงืจื‘ืช ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ, ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ื‘ื”ื ื›-260,000 ืื ืฉื™ื. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ืช ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื—ื•ืœืงื• 22,500 ืฆืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืจื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ื•ื•ื— ืขืœ ืžืขืœ 2,000 ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ืœืื—ืจ ื›ืฉื ื” ื”ื•ืฉื‘ื• ืœืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืงื ืกื•ืช ืœื ื—ื•ืงื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืกื’ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื–ืžืŸ. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืขื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 2020 ื”ืฉื•ื•ื” ืื—ื“ ืžืจืืฉื™ "CRIME MINISTER" ื‘ื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ืœื”ื™ื˜ืœืจ. ื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ื’ื•ื ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื ืฉื™ื ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืจืื•ื‘ืŸ ืจื™ื‘ืœื™ืŸ, ืฉืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื•ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื—ืœื•ืคื™ ื‘ื ื™ ื’ื ืฅ ื•ื™ื•"ืจ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื™ืจื™ื‘ ืœื•ื™ืŸ. ื‘-5 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 2020 ื ื”ืจื’ ื“ืจื•ืจ ืกื•ืคืจ, ืžืคื’ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ืกื‘ื™ื•ืŸ ืžืคื’ื™ืขืช ืจื›ื‘ ืฉืœื ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ื”. ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื™ื•ืœื™ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื•ืคืขืœื• ืžื›ืช"ื–ื™ื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื, ื•ืชื•ืขื“ื” ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฉื˜ืจืชื™ืช. ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘-14 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื•ื‘-16 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื• ืกื•ืขืจื•ืช, ื•ื ืขืฆืจื• ื‘ื”ืŸ ืขืฉืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื. ืœื˜ืขื ืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืžืื•ืช ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืคืจื• ืืช ื”ืกื“ืจ ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื”ืขื™ืจ, ื™ื™ื“ื• ืื‘ื ื™ื, ื‘ื™ืฆื™ื ื•ื—ืคืฆื™ื ืœืขื‘ืจ ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื”, ื•ื ื•ืกืฃ ืขืœ ื›ืš, ื’ืจืžื• ื ื–ืง ืจื‘ ื•ื•ื ื“ืœื™ื–ื ืœืจื›ื•ืฉ ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืขืกืง. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘-25 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ืฉืขืจ ื”ื ื’ื‘ ื ื“ืงืจ ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืืจื• ืื“ื ืžืงื™ื‘ื•ืฅ ื’ื‘ื™ื, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืื ืฉื™ื ืคื’ืขื” ื‘ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื•ืงืจืขื” ืืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ื™ื ืฉื ืฉืื•. ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืขืช ืชื•ืขื“ ื‘ืžื—ืœืฃ ืืœื•ืฃ ืฉื“ื” ื‘ืจืžืช ื’ืŸ ืจื›ื‘ ื—ื•ืœืฃ ื”ืžืจืกืก ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื’ื– ืคืœืคืœ. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘-26 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ืขืฆืจื” ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืฉื™ืฉื” ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืฉืชืงืคื• ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืฉื ืขืจื›ื” ื‘-28 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ืžื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืจ ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื ื™ื ืืžื™ืจ ืื•ื—ื ื” ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ื ืคืฆืขื• ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื—ื‘ื•ืจืช ื‘ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื, ืฉื—ืœืงื ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืจื‘ ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ืืœื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื—ืงื™ ื›ื“ื•ืจื’ืœ. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื˜ืขื ื•ืช ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืขืœ ืื™ ืกื™ื•ืข ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื•ืชื™ืขื•ื“ ืฉื”ื•ืคืฅ ื‘ืจืฉืชื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ืœืคื™ื• ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื ื ืžื ืขื• ืžืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชื•ืงืคื™ื, ื ืคืชื—ื” ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ื‘ืžื—"ืฉ. ื‘-30 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ืื™ื™ืžื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืžื™ืŸ "ืœื” ืคืžื™ืœื™ื”" ืขืœ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื›ืฉื”ื ืงื•ืจืื™ื "ืžื•ื•ืช ืœืฉืžืืœื ื™ื" ื•"ืžื•ื—ืžื“ ืžืช". ื‘ืžืื•ืช ืžืงืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ื‘ืฆืžืชื™ื ืขืœ ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ืชืงื™ืคื” ื›ืœืคื™ื”ื. ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืœื• ื‘-1 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 2020 ื‘ื•ืฆืข ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื“ืจื™ืกื” ืฉืœ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ื‘ื™ืœื• ืกื ื˜ืจ, ื‘-17 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 2020 ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื‘ืฆืข ืคื™ื’ื•ืข ื“ืจื™ืกื” ืฉืœ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื›ื‘ื™ืฉ 784, ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืกืคื™ืงื• ืœื–ื•ื– ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื ืคื’ืขื•. ื‘-20 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ ืขืฆืจื” ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื ื”ื’ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืฉื”ืชืงืจื‘ ืœืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ื ื—ืฉื“ ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื“ืจื™ืกื”. ื”ื—ืฉื•ื“ ืฉื•ื—ืจืจ ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื” ื‘ืžื•ืฆืื™ ืฉื‘ืช ื‘-23 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชื•ืขื“ื• ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืคืจื™ื– ื•ื—ืœืง ืฆืขื“ื• ืœื›ื™ื›ืจ ืžื’ืฉืจ ื”ืžื™ืชืจื™ื. ื›ืฉื”ืฆื•ืขื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ืกืžื•ื›ื™ื ืœื›ื™ื›ืจ ื—ืกืžื” ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืืช ื“ืจื›ื ื•ืžื ืขื” ืžื”ื ืœื—ื‘ื•ืจ ืœืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื›ื™ื›ืจ ืคืจื™ื–, ื”ื“ื”ื™ืจื” ืคืจืฉื™ื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืงื”ืœ ื•ืขืฆืจื” ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืืœื™ืžื•ืช. ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ืื•ืจื™ืืœ ืฆื•ืจ ื ืคืฆืข ื‘ืจืืฉื• ื•ืื•ืฉืคื–. ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื” ื›ื™ ื ืคืฆืขื• ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื• ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื“ื•ื•ื— ืžืงืจื™ ืชืงื™ืคื” ืฉืœ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื. ื“ื•ื•ื— ืฉื”ื™ื• ืขื™ืžื•ืชื™ื ืขื ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘. ื‘ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืขืจื•ืฅ 13 ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืกื’ืŸ ื ื™ืฆื‘ ื‘ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื›ื™ ืขืžื•ื“ ืงืจื™ื™ื ืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ืจ ื‘ืคื™ื™ืกื‘ื•ืง ืงืจื ืœื”ืฆื˜ื™ื™ื“ ื‘ื’ื– ืคืœืคืœ ื•ื‘ืฉื•ืงืจื™ื ื ื’ื“ ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ื” ืžื”ื˜ืขื ื”. ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ, ื ืชื’ืœื• ื”ืงืœื˜ื•ืช ื•ื”ื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคืขื™ืœื™ ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ืŸ ืื™ื™ืžื• ืœืคื’ื•ืข ืคื™ื–ื™ืช ื‘ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ื”ืžื—ืื” ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ. ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช, ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ืจื‘ืชื” ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ื˜ืงื˜ื™ืงืช ืงื˜ืœื™ื ื’ ื”ืฉื ื•ื™ื”-ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื›ื“ื™ ืœืกื’ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ืื•ืช ื•ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืชื—ื ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื”. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื ืขืจื›ื• ืขื™ืžื•ืชื™ื, ื—ืœืงื ืืœื™ืžื™ื, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืœืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื: ื”ื™ื• ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ืฉืื™ื™ืžื• ืขืœ ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื ืงื™ืœืœื• ืื•ืชื ื•ื”ืฉื•ื• ืื•ืชื ืœื ืืฆื™ื. ืจืืฉ ืžื“ื•ืจ ื—ืงื™ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืชื™ืืจ ืžืงืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ืžืฆื“ ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื”: "ื™ื•ืจืงื™ื ืขืœ ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื, ืชื•ืงืคื™ื ืื•ืชื, ื“ื•ื—ืคื™ื ืื•ืชื, ืžืงืœืœื™ื ืื•ืชื." ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื•, ืชื™ืืจ ืืช ืคืขื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื” ื›"ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ืฉืžืืœ ืื ืจื›ื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช", ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉื”ืŸ ื ื•ืฉืื•ืช ืื•ืคื™ ืืœื™ื, ืงื•ืจืื™ื ื‘ื”ืŸ ืœืจืฆื—, ื•ื”ืŸ ื–ื•ื›ื•ืช ืœืกื™ืงื•ืจ ื™ืชืจ. ื”ื•ื ืืฃ ืชื™ืืจ ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื›ืžืคื™ืฆื™ ืžื—ืœื•ืช. ื–ืืช ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื”ื”ืชืงื”ืœื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืžื’ืคื” ื”ืงื•ืจื•ื ื” ื•ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืขืฉื™ื™ืช ืฆืจื›ื™ื. ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืชืžืจ ื–ื ื“ื‘ืจื’ ืืžืจื” ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืžื—ืื” ืฉื”ืกื™ื‘ื” ืฉื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ืœื—ื ื‘ื ื’ื™ืฃ ื”ื”ืกืชื”. ืฉืจ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื•ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื—ืœื•ืคื™ ื‘ื ื™ ื’ื ืฅ ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืžื—ื•ื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงืฉื•ื‘ื” ืœืื ืฉื™ื. ื ืืžืจ ื’ื ืฉื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืžื—ืื” ื”ื™ื ื ืฉืžืช ืืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” ื•ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื”ื™ื ื›ืจืกื•ื ื™ืกื•ื“ ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื”. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื•ื”ืฉืจื™ื - ืœื ืœื”ืงืฆื™ืŸ ื•ืœื ืœืชืงื•ืฃ ืจืง ืœืฉื ื”ืชืงื™ืคื”. ื”ืฉืจ ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื ื™ื, ืืžื™ืจ ืื•ื—ื ื”, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืœืฆืžืฆื•ื ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช, ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉืžื ื›"ืœ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ืืžืจ ืฉื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืŸ "ืžื“ื’ืจื•ืช ืงื•ืจื•ื ื”". ื”ื•ื ื’ื ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ืžืคื ื™ ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”: "ืืœืžืœื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืœืื‘ื˜ื—ืช ืื™ืฉื™ื - ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืฉื” ืžืขืฉื”". ื™ืื™ืจ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ืคืจืกื ื‘ืจืฉืช ื˜ื•ื•ื™ื˜ืจ ื”ื•ื“ืขื” ื•ื‘ื” ืคืจื˜ื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ ืขืžื•ืชืช "ื—ื•ื–ื” ื—ื“ืฉ" ื•ืงืจื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื‘ืชื™ื”ื ื•ืœื”ื˜ืจื™ื“ื. ืื ืฉื™ ื”ืขืžื•ืชื” ื”ื’ื™ืฉื• ืชื‘ื™ืขื” ื ื’ื“ ื™ืื™ืจ ื ืชื ื™ื”ื•, ื•ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื™ื™ืืœืฅ ืœืžื—ื•ืง ืืช ื”ื”ื•ื“ืขื” ืฉืคืจืกื, ื•ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ื ื’ื“ื• ืฆื• ืœืžื ื™ืขืช ื”ื˜ืจื“ื” ืžืื™ื™ืžืช ืœืžืฉืš 6 ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื. ื‘ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื’ืœื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›ื™ื ื” ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื›"ื—ื™ื™ื–ืจื™ื" ื•ืืžืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืจืื” ืœืื‘ื™ื• ืงื˜ืขื™ื ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ืžืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื•ื›ื™ "ื–ื” ืžื‘ื“ืจ ืื•ืชื•". ืจืืฉ ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื—"ื› ื™ืื™ืจ ืœืคื™ื“ ืืžืจ ื‘ื ืื•ืžื• ื‘ื›ื ืกืช ื›ื™ ื”ืžืคื’ื™ื ื™ื ื”ื ื”ื‘ื•ืกื™ื ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื•ืื™ื ื ืžืจื•ืฆื™ื. ื‘ืกื’ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื ืชื ื™ื”ื• ื”ืชื ื’ื“ ืœื”ื’ื‘ืœืช ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื”ื”ืคื’ื ื”. ื‘ืกื’ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืชืžืš ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื“ื•ืง ื”ืกื’ืจ. ื”ื™ื•ืขืžืฉ ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืœ ืขื“ 2,000 ืื™ืฉ ื‘ื‘ืœืคื•ืจ ื’ื ื‘ืกื’ืจ ื”ืงื™ื™ื ืชื•ืš ืฉืžื™ืจื” ืขืœ ื”ื ื—ื™ื•ืช ื›ืžื• ืงืคืกื•ืœื•ืช ื•ืžืจื—ืง. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ื”ืžืชื•ื•ื” ื’ื•ื‘ืฉื• ืชืงื ื•ืช ืฉืžื’ื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืืช ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืœืื›ื•ืฃ ืืช ื›ืœืœื™ ื”ืจื™ื—ื•ืง ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ื”ืžืกื›ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืงื ืกื•ืช. ื”ื™ื“ื•ืง ื”ืกื’ืจ ืื™ืคืฉืจ ื”ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช: ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ืฉืœ ืขื“ 1,000 ืžื˜ืจ ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ื•ืœื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื”ื”ืชืงื”ืœื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืชืจืช (ื‘ืงืคืกื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ืขื“ 20 ืื™ืฉ). ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ื›ืŸ, ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ื—ื•ืง ื›ืš ืฉื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื™ื•ื’ื‘ืœื• ื ื“ื—ื” ื‘ืฉืœ ืขื™ื›ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืœื™ื›ื•ื“ ื•ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื”. ืื•ืฉืจ ืื—ืจื™ ื™ื•ื ื”ื›ื™ืคื•ืจื™ื. ื”ื’ื‘ืœืช ื”ืžืจื—ืง ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื” ื‘-12 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื›ืžื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื, ื ืคืกืง ืฉื”ืชืงื ื” ืฉืžื ืขื” ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืจื—ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืžื”ื‘ื™ืช ืื™ื ื” ื—ื•ืงื™ืช. ืจืื• ื’ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_River] | [TOKENS: 2536]
Contents Yukon River The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. From its source in British Columbia, it flows through Canada's territory of Yukon (itself named after the river). The lower half of the river continues westward through the U.S. state of Alaska. The river is 3,190 kilometres (1,980 mi) long and empties into the Bering Sea at the Yukonโ€“Kuskokwim Delta. The average flow is 6,400โ€“7,000 m3/s (230,000โ€“250,000 cu ft/s). The total drainage area is 854,700 km2 (330,000 mi2), of which 323,800 km2 (125,000 mi2) lies in Canada. The total area is more than 25% larger than Texas or Alberta. The longest river in Alaska and Yukon, it was one of the principal means of transportation during the 1896โ€“1903 Klondike Gold Rush. A portion of the river in Yukonโ€”"The Thirty Mile" section, from Lake Laberge to the Teslin Riverโ€”is a national heritage river and a unit of Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park. Paddle-wheel riverboats continued to ply the river until the 1950s, when the Klondike Highway was completed. After the purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867, the Alaska Commercial Company acquired the assets of the Russian-American Company and constructed several posts at various locations on the Yukon River. The Yukon River has a recent history of pollution from military installations, dumps, wastewater, and other sources.[failed verification][better source needed] However, the Environmental Protection Agency does not list the Yukon River among its impaired watersheds, and water-quality data from the U.S. Geological Survey shows relatively good levels of turbidity, metals, and dissolved oxygen. The Yukon and Mackenzie rivers have much higher suspended sediment concentrations than major Siberian Arctic rivers. The Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council, a cooperative effort of 70 First Nations and tribes in Alaska and Canada, has the goal of making the river and its tributaries safe to drink from again by supplementing and scrutinizing government data. Name The name Yukon, or ลณลณg han, is a contraction of the words in the Gwich'in phrase chลณลณ gฤ…ฤฏฤฏ han, which means white water river and refers to "the pale colour" of glacial runoff in the Yukon River. The contraction is ลฒลณg Han, if the /ลณลณ/ remains nasalized, or Yuk Han, if there is no vowel nasalization. In the 1840s, the various Dene nations had differing opinions as to the literal meaning of Yukon. In 1843, the Holikachuks had told the Russian-American Company that their name for the river was Yukkhana and that this name meant big river. However, Yukkhana does not literally correspond to a Holikachuk phrase that means big river. Then, two years later, the Gwich'ins told the Hudson's Bay Company that their name for the river was Yukon and that the name meant white water river. White water river in fact corresponds to Gwich'in words that can be shortened to form Yukon. Because the Holikachuks had been trading regularly with both the Gwichโ€™ins and the Yup'iks, the Holikachuks were in a position to borrow the Gwich'in contraction and to conflate its meaning with the meaning of Kuig-pak [River-big], which is the Yup'ik name for the same river. For that reason, the documentary evidence suggests that the Holikachuks had borrowed the contraction ลฒลณg Han [White Water River] from Gwich'in, and erroneously assumed that this contraction had the same literal meaning as the corresponding Yup'ik name Kuig-pak [River-big]. The Lewes River is the former name of the upper course of the Yukon, from Marsh Lake to the confluence of the Pelly River at Fort Selkirk. Course While geologists, geographers, hydrologists, and ecologists agree that the headwaters of the Yukon River are located within the northern reaches of the glaciated Coast Mountain range in British Columbia, its exact source remains the subject of some debate. According to the United States Geographic Survey, the generally accepted source of the Yukon River is the Llewellyn Glacier at the southern end of Atlin Lake in British Columbia. Others suggest that the source is Lake Lindeman at the northern end of the Chilkoot Trail. Either way, Atlin Lake flows into Tagish Lake (via the Atlin River), as eventually does Lake Lindeman after flowing into Bennett Lake. Tagish Lake then flows into Marsh Lake (via the Tagish River). The Yukon River proper starts at the northern end of Marsh Lake, just south of Whitehorse. Some argue that the source of the Yukon River should really be Teslin Lake and the Teslin River, which has a larger flow when it reaches the Yukon at Hootalinqua. The upper end of the Yukon River was originally known as the Lewes River until it was established that it actually was the Yukon. North of Whitehorse, the Yukon River widens into Lake Laberge, made famous by Robert W. Service's "The Cremation of Sam McGee". Other large lakes that are part of the Yukon River system include Kusawa Lake (into the Takhini River) and Kluane Lake (into the Kluane and then White River). The river passes through the communities of Whitehorse, Carmacks, (just before the Five Finger Rapids) and Dawson City in Yukon, and crossing Alaska into Eagle, Circle, Fort Yukon, Stevens Village, Rampart, Tanana, Ruby, Galena, Nulato, Grayling, Holy Cross, Russian Mission, Marshall, Pilot Station, St. Marys (which is accessible from the Yukon at Pitkas Point), and Mountain Village. After Mountain Village, the main Yukon channel frays into many channels, sprawling across the delta. There are a number of communities after the "head of passes," as the channel division is called locally: Nunum Iqua, Alakanuk, Emmonak, and Kotlik. Of those delta communities, Emmonak is the largest with roughly 760 people in the 2000 census. Emmonak's gravel airstrip is the regional hub for flights.[circular reference] Hazards Navigational obstacles on the Yukon River are the Five Finger Rapids and Rink Rapids downstream from Carmacks. Bridges Despite its length, there are only four vehicle-carrying bridges across the river, listed from upstream to downstream: A car ferry crosses the river at Dawson City in the summer; it is replaced by an ice bridge over the frozen river during the winter. Plans to build a permanent bridge were announced in March 2004, although they were subsequently put on hold because bids came in much higher than budgeted. There are also two pedestrian-only bridges in Whitehorse, as well as a dam across the river and a hydroelectric generating station. The construction of the dam flooded the White Horse Rapids, which gave the city its name, and created Schwatka Lake. Transportation is also performed along the river in summer by barge, enabling heavy goods, oil, and vehicles to be transported to communities along the Yukon, Tanana, Innoko, and Koyukuk rivers. This service is performed by Ruby Marine and reaches Tanana on the Yukon River and Nenana on the Tanana River. Ecology Some of the upper slopes of this watershed (e.g. Nulato Hills) are forested by Black Spruce. This locale near the Seward Peninsula represents the near westernmost limit of the Black Spruce, Picea mariana, one of the most widespread conifers in northern North America. The river flows into several parklands and refuges including: Discharge Yukon at Pilot Station (121 miles upstream of mouth) minimum, average and maximum discharge: for statistical calculation Fisheries The Yukon River is home to one of the longest salmon runs in the world. Each year Chinook, coho, and chum salmon return to their terminal streams in Alaska, the Yukon Territory, and British Columbia. As salmon do not eat during their spawning migration, Yukon River salmon must have great reserves of fat and energy to fuel their thousands-mile-long journey. The Chinook, which arrive at the mouth of the Yukon River in early June, have the longest journey โ€“ as many as 2,000 miles against the current, with an estimated 35โ€“50% bound for Canada. As a result, Chinook salmon are noted for their especially rich and fatty meat and are the priciest of all Pacific salmon species. The villages along the Yukon have historically relied on and continue to rely on salmon for their cultural, subsistence, and commercial needs. Salmon are traditionally dried, smoked, and frozen for both human and sled dog consumption. Common methods of fishing on the Yukon include set gillnets, drift nets, dip nets, and fish wheels. The preference of certain gear is largely dependent on the river's varied characteristics in different areas. Some parts of the river do not have eddies to make set-nets successful, whereas in other places the tributaries are small enough to make drifting impractical. Over the last 20 years salmon recruitment, the number of returning adults, has taken several shocks. The late 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s have been marked by radically reduced runs for various salmon species. In the summer of 2023, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service counted 58,500 Chinook salmon, the second lowest season on record. The United States Department of Commerce issued a Federal Disaster Declaration for the 2008 and 2009 Commercial Chinook Yukon River fisheries, calling for the complete closure of commercial fishing along with restrictions on subsistence fishing.[citation needed] The root cause of these poor returns remains debated, with questions about the effects of climate change on ocean food-supply & disease prevalence in returning adults, the methods of fishing used on the river, and the effects of the Bering Sea Pollock trawl fleet on food supply and salmon bycatch. In 2010, the Alaska Department of Fish & Game's Board of Fisheries issued the first-ever restriction for net mesh size on the Yukon, reducing it to 7.5 inches (190 mm). In 2021, the Alaska Department of Fish & Game's Division of Commercial Fisheries banned all fishing of Chinook and chum salmon, including for subsistence. Various organizations are involved to protect healthy salmon runs into the future. The Yukon River Drainage Fisheries Association was formed in 1990 by a consensus of fishers representing the entire drainage in response to recent disaster years. Its organizational goals include giving voice to the village fishers that have traditionally managed these resources, enabling communication between fishers and fishery managers, and helping to preserve the ecological integrity of salmon runs and local cultures' Traditional Ecological Knowledge In March 2001, the U.S. & Canadian governments passed the Yukon River Salmon Agreement to better manage an internationally shared resource and ensure that more Canadian-originated salmon return across the border. The agreement is implemented through the Yukon River Panel, an international body of 12 members, equal-parts American and Canadian, that advises managers of Yukon River fisheries concerning restoration, conservation, and coordinated management. Tribal organizations such as the Association of Village Council Presidents (AVCP), Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG), and Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC) work to sustain Yukon River salmon to promote healthy people, cultures, and communities. Tributaries The main river and tributaries are (sorted in order from the mouth heading upstream): tributary tributary (km) (km2) (m3/s)* (distributary) Teslin *Period: 1971โ€“2000 In media The Yukon River features as the setting for the 2015 National Geographic Channel series Yukon River Run. See also References External links
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AccuWeather_Network] | [TOKENS: 1911]
Contents AccuWeather Network The AccuWeather Network is an American cable and satellite television network launched, operated and owned by AccuWeather. The network broadcasts live and pre-recorded national and regional weather forecasts, analysis of ongoing weather events, and weather-related news. The network's studio and master control facilities are based at AccuWeather's headquarters in State College, Pennsylvania. History AccuWeather, which for many years had distributed and continues to distribute its forecast content to participating broadcast television stations around the United States, launched its first 24-hour television venture in 2007, with the launch of The Local AccuWeather Channel, a network distributed via the digital subchannels of various commercial (and in one case, non-commercial) stations, primarily featuring pre-recorded short-form local, regional, and national forecast segments. The Local AccuWeather Channel, which peaked in distribution in the early 2010s, remains available on a small and declining number of stations. On January 13, 2014, AccuWeather announced that it would launch a new national weather channel, tentatively named "AccuWeather Channel", in the third quarter of that year. The channel aimed to focus its programming on forecasts and other weather information, designed as an alternative to The Weather Channel, which, since its purchase by NBCUniversal, Bain Capital, and The Blackstone Group in 2008, shifted towards a mix of forecasts and reality series which had a tenuous or limited connection to weather. Plans to form a competing network began to be developed by AccuWeather in 2013; however, the company did not intend to publicly announce the launch until later the following year, with founder and president Dr. Joel N. Myers citing the decision to announce the launch earlier based on the limited "availability of quality forecasts on TV", and a then-ongoing carriage dispute between The Weather Channel and satellite provider DirecTV to make notice of the new service. Barry Lee Myers, then chief executive officer of AccuWeather, cited the company's decision to start the new channel as it had already offered "coverage in virtually every other medium" and, because of its existing digital presence, created a channel that would have the "look and feel of a digital device". AccuWeather Network was announced as a multi-platform service that would be streamed on the internet and mobile websites of AccuWeather and on its affiliate partners (which did not occur upon its initial launch), in addition to cable and satellite distribution. The channel's launch was eventually delayed until the channel was able to secure carriage on pay television providers. The network was launched on March 10, 2015, with Verizon Fios as the first provider to offer the new network; Verizon Fios began carrying AccuWeather Network on channels 119 (in standard definition) and 619 (in high definition) after the provider's carriage agreement with The Weather Channel (which was replaced by the AccuWeather Network in its respective channel slots) and its sister network Weatherscan (itself initially replaced on the provider by a widget featuring forecast content sourced from WeatherBug) expired without a renewal. Ironically, Verizon's decision to replace The Weather Channel with AccuWeather Network was despite its claim that the former's removal was a long-term business decision based on the increasing consumer availability of weather information on digital media (via the Internet and mobile devices), although the need for weather coverage without filler programming to pad periods when no significant weather was occurring was also cited. On July 11, 2018, AccuWeather Network, following a similar move of NY1 8 months earlier, launched three programming blocks on weekdays: "AccuWeather AM" with Bernie Rayno and Laura Velasquez from 6:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m.; "AccuWeather Early PM" with Geoff Cornish and Brittany Boyer from 3:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m., and "AccuWeather PM" with Paul Williams and Melissa Constanzer from 9:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. All of the programmes follow the all-live nature, thus allow for faster reaction when significant weather events break, following criticism of viewers that the network was too slow to switch to live wall-to-wall coverage during these events, due to its mostly pre-recorded format. Mid-morning and weekend hours remain unbranded and still maintain the live-and-recorded nature. On August 1, 2018, DirecTV replaced WeatherNation TV (which had been on the service since December 2013) with the AccuWeather Network, thus becoming the second provider to offer the latter network. The AccuWeather Network is carried on DirecTV channel 361 (in SD and HD). On December 8, 2020, Charter Spectrum announced it had entered an agreement with AccuWeather Network to launch the AccuWeather Network on Spectrum TV Select lineups nationwide in January 2021. The network will provide a national programming feed with regionalized local weather data for most Spectrum service areas. In January 2021, programming lineups were slightly revamped, now dividing broadcast day into four parts. Early airs from 5:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. ET, followed by All Day until 4:00 p.m. ET, Ahead until 9:00 p.m. ET and All Night for the rest of the night. On Saturdays and Sundays, Weekend airs throughout the entire day. Streaming service Philo and fuboTV also carry the AccuWeather Network. Programming AccuWeather Network provides national, regional, and local weather forecasts as well as specialty forecasts, meteorological analysis, severe weather information and weather-related feature segments. They are presented by on-camera personalities and meteorologists employed by AccuWeather to provide forecasts for the company's website and the now-defunct Local AccuWeather Channel broadcast service. AccuWeather Network also displays weather information on a L-shaped ticker placed at the lower and left-sides of the TV screen, which is visible at all times. The left top two-thirds of the ticker cycles between current weather conditions (including sky condition, actual and RealFeel (or apparent) temperatures, wind speed/direction and ultraviolet indexes), two-hour MinuteCasts and a loop of Doppler weather radar imagery over the course of one hour, while the bottom one-third of that area displays a rundown of upcoming forecast locations. The bottom of the ticker displays six-hour, two-day and five-day forecasts (showing the forecasted sky conditions and temperatures) for the city being referred to in the screen's left side. On the national feed, the bottom of the ticker displays MinuteCast & 24-hour forecasts for five major state capital cities in six individual regions (Southeast, Northwest, Southwest, North Central, South Central & Northeast), while the L-bar displays Doppler weather radar imagery in UTC timezone and current conditions for those cities. In May 2020, AccuWeather Network aired a Hurricane Town Hall to address the hurricane season and such essentials such as preparation and response during the COVID-19 pandemic, among other hurricane-related issues in โ€œAccuWeatherReady: 2020 Hurricane Season during COVID-19.โ€ It was the Network's first one-hour special. The Network followed up with a second Hurricane Town Hall in June 2021. Featured guests and experts viewers will hear from include AccuWeather's Lead Hurricane Forecaster Dan Kottlowski; Director of the National Hurricane Center Ken Graham; New Orleans Mayor LaToya Cantrell; Hurricane Katrina incident commander Col. Terry Ebbert; and Director of the New Orleans Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Management Collin Arnold. At launch, all Verizon FiOS customers were provided with the same feed that focused on the cities where FiOS provides service, which is mostly across the Northeastern U.S. Regional feeds of the network were launched for FiOS customers in the Northeast on September 10, 2015. One feed covers FiOS customers in the Washington metropolitan area. The other feed covers customers in the New York tri-state area, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. Local forecasts aired on AccuWeather Network (similar in format to The Weather Channel's "Local on the 8s") are generated by a computer unit installed at the provider's headend, which inserts data over the channel's national feed. The localized segments provide current weather observations, and high and low temperatures observed since 12:00 a.m. local time for a given city; MinuteCast forecasts, incremental forecasts (pioneered by AccuWeather, Inc.) for the next hour; at-a-glance forecasts for the current day and the day after; extended forecasts (which, in addition to the traditional seven-day outlooks, includes 10-, 15-, 25-, 30- and 45-day forecasts, longer-term forecasts also pioneered by AccuWeather); almanacs (showing temperature averages and extremes for the current date, and recorded precipitation for the past 24 hours, historical maximum precipitation for the date, and month-to-date and departure from average precipitation in the area); and computer models showing forecasted sky conditions and temperatures in the surrounding metropolitan area and region for the succeeding 24- to 36-hour period. Location and team The channel's headquarters and studios are at AccuWeather in State College, Pennsylvania. See also References External links
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-309] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A5:Johannes_Vermeer_-_Het_melkmeisje_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg] | [TOKENS: 503]
ืงื•ื‘ืฅ:Johannes Vermeer - Het melkmeisje - Google Art Project.jpg ืื ืœื“ืขืชื›ื ืจืื•ื™ ืฉืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืžืœืฅ ื’ื ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืงื™ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ, ื”ืจื’ื™ืฉื• ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ื™ื ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืื•ืชื•. ืื ื™ืฉ ื‘ืจืฉื•ืชื›ื ืชืžื•ื ื” ืขื ืื™ื›ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื” ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืคืจืกืžื” ืชื—ืช ืจื™ืฉื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื™ื•ืฆืจื™ื ืžืชืื™ื, ืื ื ื”ืขืœื• ืื•ืชื”, ืชื™ื™ื’ื• ืื•ืชื”, ื•ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ืื•ืชื” ืœื”ืžืœืฆื”. ืชืงืฆื™ืจ ืจื™ืฉื™ื•ืŸ This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1931. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื™ืช ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืœื—ื•ืฅ ืขืœ ืชืืจื™ืš/ืฉืขื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื›ืคื™ ืฉื ืจืื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ. ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ื“ืคื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื”: ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ืืชืจื™ ื”ื•ื•ื™ืงื™ ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื”: ืฆืคื• ื‘ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื–ื” ื‘ืžื™ื–ืžื™ ื•ื™ืงื™ืžื“ื™ื” ื ื•ืกืคื™ื.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893] | [TOKENS: 627]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื 1893 ืฉื ืช 1893 ื”ื™ื ื”ืฉื ื” ื”-93 ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19. ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืฉื ื” ืจื’ื™ืœื”, ืฉืื•ืจื›ื” 365 ื™ืžื™ื. 1 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1893 ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ืžืงื“ื™ื ืืช 1 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ ื‘-12 ื™ืžื™ื. ื›ืœ ื”ืชืืจื™ื›ื™ื ืฉืœื”ืœืŸ ื”ื ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™. ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ื ื ื•ืœื“ื• ื ืคื˜ืจื• ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ืœื”ืœืŸ ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ โ€“ ืขื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ืขื ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื. ื—ื’ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื: Nothing. ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ื ื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ืื– ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™, ืฉื ืช 1893 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื›"ื” ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช ื”'ืชืจื "ื’ (ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ื—ืœื” 12 ื™ืžื™ื ืžื•ืงื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื‘-ื™"ื’ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืช). ืื•ืจื›ื” ืฉืœ ืฉื ื” ื–ื• ืœืคื™ ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ 365 ื™ืžื™ื - ื‘ื“ื™ื•ืง ื›ืžื• ื”ืœื•ื— ื”ื’ืจื’ื•ืจื™ืื ื™ ื”ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ. ืœื”ืœืŸ ืœื•ื— ืฉื ื” ื™ื•ืœื™ืื ื™ - ืขื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ ืขื ื—ื’ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื: Nothing. ืจืื• ื’ื ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื 1888 โ€ข 1889 โ€ข 1890 โ€ข 1891 โ€ข 1892 โ€ข 1893 โ€ข 1894 โ€ข 1895 โ€ข 1896 โ€ข 1897 โ€ข 1898
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 584]
Contents List of World Heritage Sites in the United States The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. Cultural heritage consists of monuments (such as architectural works, monumental sculptures, or inscriptions), groups of buildings, and sites (including archaeological sites). Natural features (consisting of physical and biological formations), geological and physiographical formations (including habitats of threatened species of animals and plants), and natural sites which are important from the point of view of science, conservation, or natural beauty, are defined as natural heritage. The United States accepted the convention on December 7, 1973. There are 26 World Heritage Sites in the United States, with a further 17 on the tentative list. The first sites in the United States added to the list were Mesa Verde National Park and Yellowstone National Park, both at the second session of the World Heritage Committee, held in Washington, D.C., in 1978. The most recent site listed is the Historic Moravian Bethlehem District, as a part of the transnational site Moravian Church Settlements, shared with Denmark, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The 26 sites are located in 22 states and two territories. Arizona, California, Hawaii, Illinois, Montana, New Mexico, New York, and Pennsylvania each contain multiple sites (with the 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright listing spread across six states). There are also two transboundary sites that are shared with Canada. Of the 26 sites, 13 are cultural, 12 are natural, and one, Papahฤnaumokuฤkea, is mixed, listed for both cultural and natural properties. One site is currently listed as endangered: Everglades National Park was listed in 2010 due to deterioration of its aquatic ecosystems. The site had also been listed as endangered between 1993 and 2007. Yellowstone National Park was listed as endangered between 1995 and 2003 because of planned mining operations. The United States has served as a member of the World Heritage Committee five times, 1976โ€“1983, 1987โ€“1993, 1993โ€“1999, 1999โ€“2001, and 2005โ€“2009. World Heritage Sites UNESCO lists sites under ten criteria; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria. Criteria i through vi are cultural, and vii through x are natural. Tentative list In addition to sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, member states can maintain a list of tentative sites that they may consider for nomination. Nominations for the World Heritage List are only accepted if the site was previously listed on the tentative list. The United States lists 17 properties on its tentative list. See also Notes References External links
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit#cite_ref-dna_311-0] | [TOKENS: 12221]
Contents Reddit Reddit (/หˆrษ›dษชt/ โ“˜ RED-it, formerly stylized reddit) is an American proprietary social news aggregation and forum social media platform. Registered users (commonly referred to as "redditors") submit content to the site such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down ("upvoted" or "downvoted") by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called "subreddits". Submissions with more upvotes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough upvotes, ultimately on the site's front page. Reddit administrators moderate the communities. Moderation is also conducted by subreddit-specific moderators, who are unpaid volunteers. It is operated by Reddit, Inc., based in San Francisco. As of December 2025, Reddit is one of the most-visited websites in the world. According to data provided by Similarweb, 51.75% of the website traffic comes from the United States, followed by Canada at 7.01%, the United Kingdom at 6.97%, Australia at 3.97%, Germany at 3%, and the remaining 28.37% split among other countries. Reddit was founded by University of Virginia roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in June 2005, who were joined by Aaron Swartz that November. Condรฉ Nast Publications acquired the site in October 2006. In 2011, Reddit became an independent subsidiary of Condรฉ Nast's parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit debuted on the stock market on the morning of March 21, 2024, with the ticker symbol RDDT. The current market cap as of July 2024 is US$10 billion. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, particularly in the United States, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. It has received praise for many of its features, such as the ability to create several subreddits for niche communities. It has been criticized for the spread of misinformation and its voting system which can encourage online echo chambers. History The idea and initial development of Reddit originated with college roommates Steve Huffman and Alexis Ohanian in 2005, who attended a lecture by programmer-entrepreneur Paul Graham in Boston during their spring break from University of Virginia. After speaking with Huffman and Ohanian following the lecture, Graham invited the two to apply to his startup incubator Y Combinator. Their initial idea, My Mobile Menu, was unsuccessful, and was intended to allow users to order food by SMS text messaging. During a brainstorming session to pitch another startup, the idea was created for what Graham called the "front page of the Internet". For that idea, Huffman and Ohanian were accepted in Y Combinator's first class. Supported by the funding from Y Combinator, Huffman coded the site in Common Lisp and together with Ohanian launched Reddit in June 2005. Embarrassed by an empty-looking site, the founders created hundreds of fake users for their posts to make it look more populated. The team expanded to include Christopher Slowe in November 2005. Between November 2005 and January 2006, Reddit merged with Aaron Swartz's company Infogami, and Swartz became an equal owner of the resulting parent company, Not A Bug. Swartz then helped rewrite the software running Reddit using web.py, a web framework he developed. The passage from Aaron Swartz's blog post "Rewriting Reddit" reveals that the switch from Lisp to Python, specifically using the web.py framework developed by Swartz, was driven by a desire for simplicity, maintainability, and performance. Despite facing skepticism and critique from the Lisp community, the change was justified by the efficiency and clarity Python provided for the project. This initiative not only influenced the technical evolution of Reddit but also contributed to the broader web development community by inspiring other frameworks and remaining a significant part of Reddit's history. In 2011, Ohanian claimed that rather than Swartz being a co-founder, the correct description would be that Swartz's company was acquired by Reddit six months after the website was founded. Huffman and Ohanian sold Reddit to Condรฉ Nast Publications, owner of Wired, on October 31, 2006, for a reported $10 million to $20 million and the team moved to San Francisco. In November 2006, Swartz posted to his blog, complaining about the new corporate environment, criticizing its level of productivity. In January 2007, Swartz was fired for undisclosed reasons. Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit in 2009. Huffman went on to co-found Hipmunk with Adam Goldstein, and later recruited Ohanian and Slowe to the new company. After Huffman and Ohanian left Reddit, Erik Martin, who joined the company as a community manager in 2008 and later became general manager in 2011, played a role in Reddit's growth. VentureBeat noted that Martin was "responsible for keeping the site going" under Condรฉ Nast's ownership. Yishan Wong joined Reddit as CEO in 2012. Wong resigned from Reddit in 2014, citing disagreements about his proposal to move the company's offices from San Francisco to nearby Daly City, but also the "stressful and draining" nature of the position. Ohanian credited Wong with the company's newfound success as its user base grew from 35 million to 174 million. Wong oversaw the company as it raised $50 million in funding and spun off as an independent company. Also during this time, Reddit began accepting the digital currency Bitcoin for its Reddit Gold subscription service through a partnership with bitcoin payment processor Coinbase in February 2013. Ellen Pao replaced Wong as interim CEO in 2014 and resigned in 2015 amid a user revolt over the firing of a popular Reddit employee. During her tenure, Reddit initiated an anti-harassment policy, banned involuntary sexualization, and banned several forums that focused on bigoted content or harassment of individuals. After five years away from the company, Ohanian and Huffman returned to leadership roles: Ohanian became the full-time executive chairman in November 2014 following Wong's resignation, while Pao's departure on July 10, 2015, led to Huffman's return as the company's chief executive. After Huffman rejoined Reddit as CEO, he launched Reddit's iOS and Android apps, improved Reddit's mobile website, and created A/B testing infrastructure. The company launched a major redesign of its website in April 2018. Huffman said new users were turned off from Reddit because it had looked like a "dystopian Craigslist". Reddit also instituted several technological improvements, such as a new tool that allows users to hide posts, comments, and private messages from selected redditors in an attempt to curb online harassment, and new content guidelines. These new content guidelines were aimed at banning content inciting violence and quarantining offensive material. Slowe, the company's first employee, rejoined Reddit in 2017 as chief technology officer. Ohanian resigned as a member of the board on June 5, 2020 in response to the George Floyd protests and requested to be replaced "by a Black candidate". Michael Seibel, then-CEO of Y Combinator, was subsequently named to the board. On March 5, 2021, Reddit announced that it had appointed Drew Vollero, who had worked at Snapchat's parent company, Snap Inc., as its first chief financial officer (CFO) weeks after the site was thrust into the spotlight due to its role in the GameStop trading frenzy. Vollero's appointment spurred speculation of an initial public offering, a move that senior leaders have considered publicly. As of August 2021[update], Reddit was valued at more than $10 billion following a $410 million funding round. The company was looking to hire investment bankers and lawyers to assist in making an initial public offering. However, CEO Steve Huffman said the company had not decided on the timing for when to go public. In December 2021, Reddit revealed that it had confidentially filed for an initial public offering with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Reddit's initial public offering opened on March 20, 2024, at $34 per share and a $6.4 billion valuation. They went public the next day on the New York Stock Exchange at $47 per share and rose to $50.44 at market close on their first day of trading, reaching a market cap of $9.5 billion. The market cap as of July 2024 was $10 billion. Site overview Reddit is a website comprising user-generated contentโ€”including photos, videos, links, and text-based postsโ€”and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name "Reddit" is a play-on-words with the phrase "read it", i.e., "I read it on Reddit." According to Reddit, in 2019, there were approximately 430 million monthly users, who are known as "redditors". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as "subreddits", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities. As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes respectively, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn "karma" for their posts and comments, a status that reflects their standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit. Posts are sometimes automatically archived after six months, meaning they can no longer be commented or voted on. The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all originally did not filter topics, but as of 2021 it does not include not-safe-for-work content. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages. Additionally, some subreddits have a karma and account age requirement to discourage bots and spammers from posting. Front-page rankโ€”for both the general front page and for individual subredditsโ€”is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive ("upvoted") to negative ("downvoted") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count. Registering an account with Reddit is free and requires an email address. In addition to commenting and voting, registered users can also create their own subreddit on a topic of their choosing. In Reddit style, usernames begin with "u/". Noteworthy redditors include u/Poem_for_your_sprog, who responds to messages across Reddit in verse, u/Shitty_Watercolour who posts paintings in response to posts, and u/spez, the CEO of Reddit (Steve Huffman). Subreddits are overseen by moderators, Reddit users who earn the title by creating a subreddit or being promoted by a current moderator. Reddit users may also request to moderate a sub that has no moderators or very inactive ones in r/redditrequest. These requests are reviewed by the Reddit admins. Moderators are volunteers who manage their communities, set and enforce community-specific rules, remove posts and comments that violate these rules, and often work to keep discussions in their subreddit on topic. Admins, by contrast, are employees of Reddit. Early on, Reddit implemented shadow banning, purportedly to address spam accounts, while saying, "it's still the only tool we have to punish people who break the rules". In 2015, Reddit added an account suspension feature which they said would replace sitewide shadowbans, however, moderators are still able to shadowban users or their individual posts. Reddit releases transparency reports annually which have information like how many posts have been taken down by moderators and for what reason. It also details information about requests law enforcement agencies have made for information about users or to take down content. In 2020, Reddit removed 6% of posts made on the platform (approx. 233 million). More than 99% of removals were marked as spam; the remainder made up of a mix of other offensive content. Around 131 million posts were removed by the automated moderator (~56 %) and the rest were taken down manually. It is estimated that Reddit's moderators work 466 hours every day, which is $3.4 million in unpaid work each year. That roughly equates to 2.8% of the company's annual revenue. Subreddits (officially called communities) are user-created areas of interest where discussions on Reddit are organized. There are about 138,000 active subreddits (among a total of 1.2 million) as of July 2018[update]. Subreddit names begin with "r/"; for instance, "r/science" is a community devoted to discussing scientific publications, while "r/gaming" is a community devoted to discussing video games, and "r/worldnews" is for posting news articles from around the world. In a 2014 interview with Memeburn, Erik Martin, then the general manager of Reddit, remarked that their "approach is to give the community moderators or curators as much control as possible so that they can shape and cultivate the type of communities they want". Subreddits often use themed variants of Reddit's alien mascot, Snoo, in the visual styling of their communities. Today subreddits exist not only for interests and topics but also for organizations. The Wayanad Literature Festival has a subreddit where they host discussions based on the sessions they host and encourage people to post about literature, politics and media. Reddit Premium (formerly Reddit Gold) is a premium membership that allows users to view the site ad-free. Until 2023, subscribers could also use coins to award posts or comments they valued, generally due to humorous or high-quality content. Reddit Premium unlocks several features not accessible to regular users, such as comment highlighting, exclusive subreddits such as r/lounge, a personalized Snoo (known as a "snoovatar"), and a Reddit premium trophy that can be displayed on the user's profile. Reddit Gold was renamed to Reddit Premium in 2018. In addition to gold coins, users were able to gift silver and platinum coins to other users as rewards for quality content. On the site, redditors commemorate their "cake day" once a year, on the anniversary of the day their account was created. Cake day adds an icon of a small slice of cake next to the user's name for 24 hours. In August 2021, the company introduced a TikTok-like short-form video feature for iOS that lets users rapidly swipe through a feed of short video content. In December 2021, the company introduced a Spotify Wrapped-like feature called Reddit Recap that recaps various statistics from January 1 to November 30 about each individual user, such as how much time they spent on Reddit, which communities they joined, and the topics that they engaged with, and allows the user to view it. On July 7, 2022, Reddit announced "blockchain-backed Collectible Avatars", customizable avatars which are available on the subreddit r/CollectibleAvatars for purchase separate from Reddit Premium. The avatars were created by independent artists who post work on other subreddits, and who receive a portion of the profits. They use Reddit's Polygon blockchain-powered digital wallet the Vault. Richard Lawler of The Verge described them as "non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that are available for purchase in the Reddit Avatar Builder". In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018. Reddit Talk was announced in April 2021 as a competitor to Clubhouse. Reddit Talk lets subreddit moderators start audio meeting rooms that mimic Clubhouse in design. In 2022, Reddit Talk was updated to support recording audio rooms and work on the web version of Reddit. A desktop app is reportedly slated for a late February release. Reddit Chat replaced the Reddit private messaging system in June 2025. Reddit acquired MeaningCloud, a natural language processing company in June 2022. In February 2024, Reddit announced a partnership with Google in a deal worth about $60 million per year, to license its real-time user content to train Google's AI model. The partnership also lets Reddit get access to Google's "Vertex AI" service which would help improve search results on Reddit. It was announced that Reddit and OpenAI had reached a deal that will allow OpenAI access to the Reddit API to train its models, while Reddit will receive certain AI tools for moderators and users. In December 2024, Reddit announced Reddit Answers, an AI search tool that summarizes conversations in response to a question from the user. Reddit's search function has had many iterations; the one on the new site currently uses Lucidworks Fusion, while the search on old reddit uses Reddit's own in-house search In 2009, Reddit released their official mobile app, called iReddit. This app was sparsely updated, and was superseded by a new mobile website in 2010. For several years, most Redditors relied on third-party apps to access Reddit on mobile devices. In October 2014, Reddit acquired one of them, Alien Blue, which became the official iOS Reddit app. Reddit removed Alien Blue and released its official application, Reddit: The Official App, on Google Play and the iOS App Store in April 2016. The company released an app for Reddit's question-and-answer Ask Me Anything subreddit in 2014. The app allowed users to see active Ask Me Anythings, receive notifications, ask questions and vote. As of September 2025, all versions of the iReddit and Alien Blue apps still work on older versions of iOS; they were not affected by the API shutdown due to both of them being official Reddit apps. The 2010 mobile site, however, was shut down in 2024. The site has undergone several products and design changes since it originally launched in 2005. When it initially launched, there were no comments or subreddits. Comments were added in 2005 and interest-based groups (called 'subreddits') were introduced in 2008. Allowing users to create subreddits has led to much of the activity that redditors would recognize that helped define Reddit. These include subreddits "WTF", "funny", and "AskReddit". Reddit rolled out its multireddit feature, the site's biggest change to its front page in years, in 2013. With the multireddits, users see top stories from a collection of subreddits. In 2015, Reddit enabled embedding and as a result users could share Reddit content on other sites. In 2016, Reddit began hosting images using a new image uploading tool, a move that shifted away from the uploading service Imgur that had been the de facto service. Users still can upload images to Reddit using Imgur. Reddit's in-house video uploading service for desktop and mobile launched in 2017. Previously, users had to use third-party video uploading services, which Reddit acknowledged was time-consuming for users. Reddit released its "spoiler tags" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users. In late 2017, Reddit declared it wanted to be a mobile-first site, launching several changes to its apps for iOS and Android. The new features included user-to-user chat, a theater mode for viewing visual content, and mobile tools for the site's moderators. "Mod mode" lets moderators manage content and their subreddits on mobile devices. Reddit launched its redesigned website in 2018, with its first major visual update in a decade. Development for the new site took more than a year. It was the result of an initiative by Huffman upon returning to Reddit, who said the site's outdated look deterred new users. The new site features a hamburger menu to help users navigate the site, different views, and new fonts to better inform redditors if they are clicking on a Reddit post or an external link. The nominal goal was not only for Reddit to improve its appearance, but also to make it easier to accommodate a new generation of Reddit users. Additionally Reddit's growth had strained the site's back end; Huffman and Reddit Vice President of Engineering Nick Caldwell told The Wall Street Journal's COI Journal that Reddit needed to leverage artificial intelligence and other modern digital tools. Users can opt-out of the redesign by using the old.reddit.com domain. On May 15, 2024, the dedicated login flow was removed from the old domain, although site admins said they had "no plans" to remove the old domain entirely. In November 2023, Fast Company reported that Reddit began rolling out a comprehensive rebrand, including a new logo, typeface, brand colors, and an updated version of its mascot Snoo, as part of its preparation for a potential 2024 IPO and in response to its expanding user base and global reach. Reddit's logo consists of a time-traveling alien named Snoo and the company name stylized as "reddit". The alien has an oval head, pom-pom ears, and an antenna. Its colors are black, white, and orange-red. The mascot was created in 2005 while company co-founder Alexis Ohanian was an undergraduate at the University of Virginia. Ohanian drew a doodle of the creature while he was bored during a marketing class. Originally, Ohanian sought to name the mascot S'new, a play on "What's new?", to tie the mascot into Reddit's premise as the "front page of the Internet". Eventually, the name Snoo was chosen. In 2011, Ohanian outlined the logo's evolution with a graphic that showcased several early versions, including various spellings of the website name, such as "Reditt". Snoo is genderless, so the logo is moldable. Over the years, the Reddit logo has frequently changed for holidays and other special events. Many subreddits have a customized Snoo logo to represent the subreddit. Redditors can also submit their own logos, which sometimes appear on the site's front page, or create their own customized versions of Snoo for their communities (or "subreddits"). When Reddit revamped its website in April 2018, the company imposed several restrictions on how Snoo can be designed: Snoo's head "should always appear blank or neutral", Snoo's eyes are orange-red, and Snoo cannot have fingers. Snoo's purpose is to discover and explore humanity. Discontinued features Starting in 2023 with the discontinuation of the Reddit API's free tier, Reddit has been silently discontinuing legacy features and reducing the functionalities of the old site. All of these changes have been met with significant backlash by the Reddit community. Reddit's private messaging system, which had been present on the site ever since its launch in 2005, was discontinued in 2025 in favor of Reddit Chat. Reddit discontinued its free API tier for commercial applications in April 2023. This was met with significant backlash by the community, leaving the website in a state of disarray for months. In early 2023, Reddit silently discontinued its legacy mobile site, known as i.reddit, and reddit compact and previously accessible at i.reddit.com. This was despite a Reddit admin stating that iReddit was "here to stay". The original 2017 redesign of Reddit, also known as new.reddit and old new Reddit and previously accessible at new.reddit.com, was discontinued on December 11, 2024. No changes were made to the pre-2017 legacy desktop site, still accessible at old.reddit.com. In 2023, the Reddit coin and award system was discontinued in favor of a "golden upvote". This was deeply unpopular, and Reddit added awards back under a new implementation a few months later. However, these new awards are not accessible or viewable on the legacy desktop site. On June 4, 2025, Reddit announced that they would be removing custom emoji from comments. Login: Login functionality was removed from the old site sometime in 2024. You can still log in to the old site, but you must do it through the new site. Age trophies: Account age trophies past Year 15 are not visible on the old site. Private messaging: Sending a private message (like a modmail) now requires you to use the new site. FAQ, terms, and official Wiki pages: All official information pages were migrated from the legacy site's wiki to the new site sometime in 2020. Reddit notifications: Official Reddit notifications were moved from the legacy inbox to the Notifications section, which is only accessible on the new site. The Reddit Public Access Network, commonly known as RPAN, was a live streaming service run by Reddit. Viewers interacted with streams by upvoting or downvoting, chatting, and giving paid awards. During the off-air hours, 24/7 streaming was possible to the dedicated subreddits, but with limited slots and capabilities. On August 19, 2019, Reddit announced RPAN. It was said to be in testing, but they were experimenting with making it a permanent program, as well as a way to increase revenue for the platform. Later, a five-day testing period began. During the testing period, streaming was for a select group of users, allowing 30 minutes of streaming per person and 100 slots. On July 1, 2020, RPAN Studio was released, an application that allows users to broadcast live from desktop computers. RPAN Studio has been built on top of OBS, an open-source streaming and recording program. On January 28, 2021, Reddit permanently increased streaming times to three hours. RPAN was officially discontinued on November 15, 2022. Corporate affairs Reddit is a public company based in San Francisco. In 2023, it downsized from an office in the Mid-Market neighborhood to an office in the South of Market neighborhood. Reddit doubled its headcount in 2017; as of 2018[update], it employed approximately 350 people. In 2017, the company was valued at $1.8 billion during a $200 million round of new venture funding. The company was previously owned by Condรฉ Nast, but was spun off as an independent company. As of April 2018[update], Advance Publications, Condรฉ Nast's parent company, retained a majority stake in Reddit. Reddit's key management personnel includes co-founder and CEO Steve Huffman, Chief Technology Officer Chris Slowe, who was the company's original lead engineer, and Chief Operating Officer Jen Wong, a former president of digital and chief operating officer at Time Inc. Reddit does not disclose its revenue figures. The company generates revenue in part through advertising and premium memberships that remove ads from the site. As part of its company culture, Reddit operates on a no-negotiation policy for employee salaries. The company offers new mothers, fathers, and adoptive parents up to 16 weeks of parental leave. Advertising Reddit launched two different ways of advertising on the site in 2009. The company launched sponsored content and a self-serve ads platform that year. Reddit launched its Reddit Gold benefits program in July 2010, which offered new features to editors and created a new revenue stream for the business that did not rely on banner ads. On September 6, 2011, Reddit became operationally independent of Condรฉ Nast, operating as a separate subsidiary of its parent company, Advance Publications. Reddit's users tend to be more privacy-conscious than on other websites, often using tools like ad-blocking software and proxies, and they dislike "feeling manipulated by brands" but respond well to "content that begs for intelligent viewers and participants." Lauren Orsini writes in ReadWrite that "Reddit's huge community is the perfect hype machine for promoting a new movie, a product release, or a lagging political campaign" but there is a "very specific set of etiquette. Redditors don't want to advertise for you, they want to talk to you." Journalists have used the site as a basis for stories, though they are advised by the site's policies to respect that "reddit's communities belong to their members" and to seek proper attribution for people's contributions. Reddit announced that they would begin using VigLink to redirect affiliate links in June 2016. Since 2017, Reddit has partnered with companies to host sponsored AMAs and other interactive events, increased advertising offerings, and introduced efforts to work with content publishers. In 2018, Reddit hired Jen Wong as COO, responsible for the company's business strategy and growth, and introduced native mobile ads. Reddit opened a Chicago office to be closer to major companies and advertising agencies located in and around Chicago. In 2019, Reddit hired former Twitter ad director Shariq Rizvi as its vice president of ad products and engineering. Community and culture The website is known for its open nature and diverse user community that generate its content. Its demographics allows for wide-ranging subject areas, as well as the ability for smaller subreddits to serve more niche purposes. The user base of Reddit has given birth to other websites, including image sharing community and image host Imgur, which started in 2009 as a gift to Reddit's community. In its first five months, it jumped from a thousand hits per day to a million total page views. Data collected by Pew Research Center in 2013 found that Reddit users were much more likely to be from urban communities than rural ones. Women were greatly under-represented on the website. Reddit's userbase had a disproportionately high number of Hispanic users. With regards to education, high school dropouts were over-represented among Reddit users. Reddit has been noted for its role in political activism, with notable left-wing and anti-theist subcultures on the website. Statistics from Google Ad Planner suggest that 74% of Reddit users are male. In 2016, the Pew Research Center published research showing that 4% of U.S. adults use Reddit, of which 67% are men, while 78% of users get news from Reddit. Users tend to be significantly younger than average with less than 1% of users being 65 or over. Politically, 43% of Reddit users surveyed by Pew Research Center in 2016 identified as liberal, with 38% identifying as moderate and 19% as conservative. Reddit is known in part for its passionate user base, which has been described as "offbeat, quirky, and anti-establishment". Similar to the "Slashdot effect", the Reddit effect occurs when a smaller website crashes due to a high influx of traffic after being linked to on Reddit; this is also called the Reddit "hug of death". Users have used Reddit as a platform for their charitable and philanthropic efforts. Redditors raised more than $100,000 for charity in support of comedians Jon Stewart's and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear; more than $180,000 for Haiti earthquake relief efforts; and delivered food pantries' Amazon wish lists. In 2010, Christians, Muslims, and atheists held a friendly fundraising competition, where the groups raised more than $50,000. A similar donation drive in 2011 saw the atheism subreddit raise over $200,000 for charity. In February 2014, Reddit announced it would donate 10% of its annual ad revenue to non-profits voted upon by its users. As a result of the campaign, Reddit donated $82,765 each to each of the selected recipients. Reddit has been used for a wide variety of political engagement including the presidential campaigns of Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Bernie Sanders. It has also been used for self-organizing sociopolitical activism such as protests, communication with politicians and active communities. Reddit has become a popular place for worldwide political discussions. The March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit over the deletion of all references to climate change from the White House website, about which a user commented that "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". On April 22, 2017, more than 1 million scientists and supporters participated in more than 600 events in 66 countries across the globe. Reddit users have been engaged in the defense of Internet privacy, net neutrality and Internet anonymity. Reddit created an Internet blackout day and was joined by Wikipedia and other sites in 2012 in protest of the Stop Online Piracy and PROTECT IP acts. On January 18, Reddit participated in a 12-hour sitewide blackout to coincide with a congressional committee hearing on the measures. During that time, Reddit displayed a message on the legislation's effects on Reddit, in addition to resources on the proposed laws. In May 2012, Reddit joined the Internet Defense League, a group formed to organize future protests. The site and its users protested the Federal Communications Commission as it prepared to scrap net neutrality rules. In 2017, users upvoted "Battle for the Net" posts enough times that they filled up the entire front page. On another day, the front page was overtaken by posts showcasing campaign donations received by members of Congress from the telecommunications industry. Reddit CEO Steve Huffman has also advocated for net neutrality rules. In 2017, Huffman told The New York Times that without net neutrality protections, "you give internet service providers the ability to choose winners and losers". On Reddit, Huffman urged redditors to express support for net neutrality and contact their elected representatives in Washington, D.C. Huffman said that the repeal of net neutrality rules stifles competition. He said he and Reddit would continue to advocate for net neutrality. As a response to Glenn Beck's August 28, 2010, Restoring Honor rally, in September 2010 Reddit users started a movement to persuade satirist Stephen Colbert to have a counter-rally in Washington, D.C. The movement, which came to be called "Restoring Truthiness", was started by user mrsammercer, in a post where he described waking up from a dream in which Stephen Colbert was holding a satirical rally in D.C. Over $100,000 was raised for charity to gain the attention of Colbert. The campaign was mentioned on-air several times, and when the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear was held in Washington, D.C., on October 30, 2010, thousands of redditors made the journey. During a post-rally press conference, Reddit co-founder Ohanian asked, "What role did the Internet campaign play in convincing you to hold this rally?" Jon Stewart responded by saying that, though it was a very nice gesture, he and Colbert had already thought of the idea and the deposit for using the National Mall was already paid during the summer, so it acted mostly as a "validation of what we were thinking about attempting". In a message to the Reddit community, Colbert later added, "I have no doubt that your efforts to organize and the joy you clearly brought to your part of the story contributed greatly to the turnout and success." Reddit has been blocked in multiple countries due to Internet censorship performed by the governments of some countries. As of October 2023, Reddit is blocked in Indonesia, China, North Korea, Turkey, and partially blocked in Bangladesh. Reddit was blocked in Russia in 2015 and later unblocked. Since May 2014, Reddit has been blocked in Indonesia by the Ministry of Communication and Information Technology for hosting content containing nudity. In August 2015, the Federal Drug Control Service of Russia determined that Reddit was promoting conversations about psychedelic drugs. The Roskomnadzor banned the website, citing advice on how to grow magic mushrooms as the reason. The Russian government had asked Reddit before to remove drug-related posts to no response. The site was later unblocked. ISPs in India were found to be blocking traffic over Reddit for intermittent periods in some regions in 2019. In July 2025, Reddit began requiring age verification in order to access certain features, to comply with the UK's Online Safety Act 2023, using a service called Persona. Content covered includes sexually explicit material, encouragement of suicide and eating disorders, and expressions of hatred based on race, religion, or sexual orientation. Over the years, Reddit has done multiple pranks and events for April Fools' Day. Since 2013, they have often taken the form of massive social experiments. Noteworthy events include The Button in 2015, which included a global "button" that could only be clicked once per user. It attracted more than a million clicks. 2017's experiment r/place involved making a collaborative pixel art. Millions of users worked together in communities to place pixels one at a time to create a larger canvas. This experiment was very successful and repeated in 2022's April Fools experiment and in 2023. AMAs, or "Ask Me Anything" interviews, during an AMA on r/IAmA and other subreddits, users can ask questions to interviewees. Notable participants include former-United States President Barack Obama (while campaigning for the 2012 election), Bill Gates (multiple times), and Donald Trump (also while campaigning). AMAs have featured CEO Steve Huffman, as well as figures from entertainment industries around the world (including Priyanka Chopra and George Clooney), literature (Margaret Atwood), space (Buzz Aldrin), privacy (Edward Snowden), fictional characters (including Borat and Cookie Monster) and others, such as experts who answered questions about the transgender community. The Atlantic wrote that an AMA "imports the aspirational norms of honesty and authenticity from pseudonymous Internet forums into a public venue". RedditGifts was a program that offers gift exchanges throughout the year. The fan-made RedditGifts site was created in 2009 for a Secret Santa exchange among Reddit users, which has since become the world's largest and set a Guinness World record. In 2009, 4,500 redditors participated. For the 2010 holiday season, 92 countries were involved in the secret Santa program. There were 17,543 participants, and $662,907.60 was collectively spent on gift purchases and shipping costs. In 2014, about 200,000 users from 188 countries participated. Several celebrities have participated in the program, including Bill Gates, Alyssa Milano, and Snoop Dogg. Eventually, the secret Santa program expanded to various other occasions through RedditGifts, which Reddit acquired in 2011. As with most public online forums, Reddit is vulnerable to the use of disruptive or manipulative practices by its members, from sources such as troll farms, click farms and astroturfing. Another example is brigading, notable in the case of Reddit as it is often cited as the origin of the practice and use of the word in this context. Though all of these examples are in some form, against the rules of Reddit's content policy, at least in the case of brigading, they are not always malicious in intent. A notable example is the case of "Mr. Splashy Pants", when organized brigading of another website, by redditors, appears to have been tacitly encouraged by the Reddit administration. In the aftermath, the target of this vote brigading appeared to take it in good humor. Reddit communities occasionally coordinate Reddit-external projects such as skewing polls on other websites, like the 2007 incident when Greenpeace allowed web users to decide the name of a humpback whale it was tracking. Reddit users voted en masse to name the whale "Mister Splashy Pants", and Reddit administrators encouraged the prank by changing the site logo to a whale during the voting. In December of that year, Mister Splashy Pants was announced as the winner of the competition. Criticism and controversies In general, the website grants subreddit moderators discretion in deciding what content is and is not allowed on their subreddits, so long as site-wide rules are not being violated. This relative freedom has allowed for a wide diversity of subreddits to exist, and some of them have attracted controversy. Many of the default subreddits are highly moderated, with the "science" subreddit banning climate change denialism, and the "news" subreddit banning opinion pieces and columns. Reddit has changed its site-wide editorial policies several times, sometimes in reaction to controversies. Reddit has historically been a platform for objectionable but legal content, and in 2011, news media covered the way that jailbait was being shared on the site before the site changed their policies to explicitly ban "suggestive or sexual content featuring minors". Reddit also received controversy over hosting misogynistic content, including the doxing of erotic models and revenge porn. Following some controversial incidents of Internet vigilantism, Reddit introduced a strict rule against the online publication of non-public personally-identifying information (a common internet harassment tool colloquially known as doxxing) via the site. Those who break the rule are subject to a site-wide ban, which can result in the deletion of their user-generated content. Due to Reddit's decentralized moderation, user anonymity, and lack of fact-checking systems, the platform is highly prone to spreading misinformation and disinformation. It has been suggested that those who use Reddit should exercise caution in taking user-created unsourced content as fact. Concerns have been raised in particular about dangerous medical misinformation on the platform. A 2022 study of 300 comments and posts discussing urinary tract infections found that fewer than 1% cited a source for their content, and several contained harmful medical misinformation that may dissuade readers from seeking medical care or lead to dangerous self-medication, such as proposing fasting as a cure for UTIs. Reddit communities exhibit the echo chamber effect, in which repeated unsourced statements come to be accepted among the community as fact, leading to distorted worldviews among users. It has been suggested that since 2019, Russian state-sponsored troll accounts and bots have engaged in a broad campaign to take over subreddits, such as r/antiwar. After the Boston Marathon bombing in April 2013, Reddit faced criticism after users wrongly identified a number of people as suspects in the subreddit r/FindBostonBombers. Notable among misidentified bombing suspects was Sunil Tripathi, a student reported missing before the bombings took place. A body reported to be Sunil's was found in Providence River in Rhode Island on April 25, according to Rhode Island Health Department. The cause of death was not immediately known, but authorities said they did not suspect foul play. The family later confirmed Tripathi's death was a result of suicide. Reddit general manager Erik Martin later issued an apology for this behavior, criticizing the "online witch hunts and dangerous speculation" that took place on the website. The incident was later referenced in the season 5 episode of the CBS TV series The Good Wife titled "Whack-a-Mole", as well as The Newsroom. In August, private sexual photos from the celebrity photo hack were widely disseminated across the site. A dedicated subreddit, "TheFappening", was created for this purpose, and contained links to most if not all of the criminally obtained explicit images. Some images of McKayla Maroney and Liz Lee were identified by redditors and outside commentators as child pornography because the photos were taken when the women were underage. The subreddit was banned on September 6. The scandal led to wider criticisms concerning the website's administration from The Verge and The Daily Dot. After Ellen Pao became CEO in 2014, she was initially a target of criticism by users who objected to the deletion of content critical of herself and her husband. Later on June 10, 2015, Reddit shut down the 150,000-subscriber "fatpeoplehate" subreddit and four others citing issues related to harassment. This move was seen as very controversial; some commenters said that the bans went too far, while others said that the bans did not go far enough. One of the latter complaints concerned a subreddit that was "expressing support" for the perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting. Responding to the accusations of "skewed enforcement", Reddit reaffirmed their commitment to free expression and stated, "There are some subreddits with very little viewership that get highlighted repeatedly for their content, but those are a tiny fraction of the content on the site." On July 2, Reddit began experiencing a series of blackouts as moderators set popular subreddit communities to private, in an event dubbed "AMAgeddon", a portmanteau of AMA ("ask me anything") and Armageddon. This was done in protest of the recent firing of Victoria Taylor, an administrator who helped organize citizen-led interviews with famous people on the popular AMA subreddit. Organizers of the blackout also expressed resentment about the recent severance of the communication between Reddit and the moderators of subreddits. The blackout intensified on July 3 when former community manager David Croach gave an AMA about being fired. Before deleting his posts, he stated that Ellen Pao dismissed him with one year of health coverage when he had cancer and did not recover quickly enough. Following this, a Change.org petition to remove Pao as CEO of Reddit Inc. reached over 200,000 signatures. Pao posted a response on July 3 as well as an extended version of it on July 6 in which she apologized for bad communication and not delivering on promises. She also apologized on behalf of the other administrators and noted that problems already existed over the past several years. On July 10, Pao resigned as CEO and was replaced by former CEO and co-founder Steve Huffman. In August, Steve Huffman introduced a policy which led to the banning of several offensive and sexual communities. Included in the ban was lolicon, to which Huffman referred as "animated CP [child porn]". Some subreddits had also been "quarantined" due to having "highly-offensive or upsetting content" such as r/European, r/swedenyes, r/drawpeople, r/kiketown, r/blackfathers, r/greatapes, and r/whitesarecriminals. In April 2023, Reddit announced its intentions to charge large fees for its application programming interface (API), a feature of the site that has existed for free since 2008, causing an ongoing dispute. The move forced multiple third-party applications to shut down and threatened accessibility applications and moderation tools. On May 31, Apollo developer Christian Selig stated that Reddit's pricing would force him to cease development on the app. The resulting outcry from the Reddit community ultimately led to a planned protest from June 12 to 14 in which moderators for the site would make their communities private or restricted posting. Following the release of an internal memo from Reddit CEO Steve Huffman and defiance from Reddit, some moderators have continued their protest. Alternate forms of protest have emerged in the days following the initial blackout. Upon reopening, users of r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww voted to exclusively post about comedian John Oliver. Multiple subreddits labeled themselves as not safe for work (NSFW), affecting advertisements and resulting in administrators removing the entire moderation team of some subreddits. The protest has been compared to a strike. /r/place had its third launch on July 20, 2023; however, the launch was heavily protested by users and developers due to the event following the 2023 Reddit API controversy; Reddit CEO Steve Huffman's decision to make it prohibitively expensive for third-party app developers drew widespread condemnation. In February 2017, Reddit banned the alt-right subreddit r/altright for violating its terms of service, more specifically for attempting to share private information about the man who attacked alt-right figure Richard B. Spencer. The forum's users and moderators accused Reddit administrators of having political motivations for the ban. After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Reddit banned the subreddit r/DonaldTrump in response to repeated policy violations and alluding to the potential influence the community had on those who participated in or supported the storming. The move followed similar actions from social media platforms, Twitter, YouTube, TikTok and more. The ban was criticized by those who believed it furthered an agenda and censorship of conservative ideologies. The subreddit had over 52,000 members just before it was banned. In May 2016, CEO Steve Huffman said in an interview at the TNW Conference that, unlike Facebook, which "only knows what [its users are] willing to declare publicly", Reddit knows its users' "dark secrets" at the same time that the website's "values" page was updated regarding its "privacy" section. The video reached the top of the website's main feed. Shortly thereafter, announcements concerning new advertisement content drew criticism on the website. In September, a user named "mormondocuments" released thousands of administrative documents belonging to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an action driven by the ex-Mormon and atheist communities on Reddit. Previously, on April 22, the same user had announced his plans to do so. Church officials commented that the documents did not contain anything confidential. On November 23, Huffman admitted to having replaced his username with the names of r/The_Donald moderators in many insulting comments. He did so by changing insulting comments made towards him and made it appear as if the insult were directed at the moderators of r/The_Donald. On November 24, The Washington Post reported Reddit had banned the "Pizzagate" conspiracy board from their site, stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. After the forum was banned from Reddit, the words "we don't want witchhunts on our site" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit. On November 30, Huffman announced changes to the algorithm of Reddit's r/all page to block "stickied" posts from a number of subreddits, such as r/The_Donald. In the announcement, he also apologized for personally editing posts by users from r/The_Donald, and declared intentions to take actions against "hundreds of the most toxic users" of Reddit and "communities whose users continually cross the line". In March 2018, it was revealed that Huffman had hidden Russian troll activity from users. In February 2019, Chinese company Tencent invested $150 million into Reddit. This resulted in a large backlash from Reddit users, who were worried about potential censorship. Many posts featuring subjects censored in China, such as Tiananmen Square, Tank Man, and Winnie the Pooh, received popularity on Reddit. In late August 2021, more than 70 subreddits went private to protest against COVID-19 misinformation on Reddit, as well as Reddit's refusal to delete subreddits undermining the severity of the pandemic. A 2021 letter from the United States Senate to Reddit CEO Steve Huffman expressed concern about the spread of COVID-19 misinformation on the platform. In January 2025, over 100 Reddit communities banned users from posting links from the X social media site after Elon Musk, its CEO, made an arm gesture at a speech which critics claimed was a Nazi salute. The Verge reported that Musk had "privately pressur[ed]" the CEO of Reddit Steve Huffman to moderate content critical of him and the Trump administration, and that after their exchange, Reddit took action and temporarily banned r/WhitePeopleTwitter due to "policy violations". On March 5, 2025, Reddit announced that they will be issuing warnings to users who upvote "violent content", and "may consider" taking other actions against the users. The Verge reported two days later that Reddit's automatic moderation tool has been flagging the word "Luigi" as "potentially violent", including in comments or context unrelated to Luigi Mangione, the suspect in the killing of the UnitedHealthcare CEO. The moderator of r/popculture, a subreddit with over 125,000 members, stated that Reddit's AutoModerator system flagged a comment about Nintendo video game Luigi's Mansion because it included the word "Luigi", and instructed them to "check for violence"; other comments that mentioned "Luigi", even in non-violent context, were also flagged. On July 12, 2018, the creator and head moderator of the GamerGate subreddit, r/KotakuInAction, removed all of the moderators and set the forum to private, alleging it to have become "infested with racism and sexism". A Reddit employee restored the forum and its moderators an hour later. During the George Floyd protests in early June 2020, over 800 moderators signed an open letter demanding a policy banning hate speech, a shutdown of racist and sexist subreddits, and more employee support for moderation. Bloomberg News pointed out the company's slow reaction to r/watchpeopledie, a subreddit dedicated to videos of people dying in accidents and other situations, and the harassment that accompanied new unmoderated features like icons for purchase and public chats. On June 29, 2020, Reddit updated its content policy and introduced rules aimed at curbing the presence of communities they believed to be "promoting hate", and banned approximately 2,000 subreddits that were found to be in violation of the new guidelines on the same day. Larger subreddits affected by the bans included r/The_Donald, r/GenderCritical (the platform's largest and most active anti-transgender radical feminist subreddit), and r/ChapoTrapHouse (a far-left subreddit originally created by fans of the podcast Chapo Trap House). Some media outlets and political commentators also condemned the banning of the r/The_Donald and r/ChapoTrapHouse subreddits as a violation of the right to free political expression. A 2025 TIMES article listed Reddit "The Most Xenophobic Social Media Site" after the Anti-Defamation League denounced Reddit for allowing public communities to engage in racism, antisemitism, and routine hate speech without consequence. In February 2013, Betabeat published a post that recognized the influx of multinational corporations like Costco, Taco Bell, Subaru, and McDonald's posting branded content on Reddit that was made to appear as if it was original content from legitimate Reddit users. PAN Communications wrote that marketers want to "infiltrate the reddit community on behalf of their brand," but emphasized that "self-promotion is frowned upon" and Reddit's former director of communications noted that the site is "100 percent organic." She recommended that advertisers design promotions that "spark conversations and feedback." She recommended that businesses use AMAs to get attention for public figures but cautioned "It is important to approach AMAs carefully and be aware that this may not be a fit for every project or client." Nissan ran a successful branded content promotion offering users free gifts to publicize a new car, though the company was later ridiculed for suspected astroturfing when the CEO only answered puff piece questions on the site. Taylor described these situations as "high risk" noting: "We try hard to educate people that they have to treat questions that may seem irreverent or out of left field the same as they would questions about the specific project they are promoting." In March 2021, Reddit users discovered that Aimee Challenor, an English politician who had been suspended from two UK political parties, was hired as an administrator for the site. Her first suspension from the Green Party came for retaining her father as her campaign manager after his arrest on child sexual abuse charges. She was later suspended from the Liberal Democrats after tweets describing pedophilic fantasies were discovered on her partner's Twitter account. Reddit banned a moderator for posting a news article which mentioned Challenor, and some Reddit users alleged that Reddit were removing all mention of Challenor. Many subreddits, including r/Music, which had 27 million subscribers, and 46 other subreddits with over 1 million subscribers, went private in protest. On March 24, Reddit's CEO Steve Huffman said that Challenor had been inadequately vetted before being hired and that Reddit would review its relevant internal processes. Huffman attributed user suspensions to over-indexing on anti-harassment measures. Challenor was also removed from her role as a Reddit admin. The GameStop short squeeze was primarily organized on the subreddit r/wallstreetbets in January 2021. In October 2023, Reddit Moons (a site-specific cryptocurrency launched in May 2020) had seen a surge of value in 2023, at one point in mid-2023 rising past 50 cents per moon, but it crashed by more than 90% after it was announced on October 17 that the token would be "wound down" on November 8, allegedly due to scaling and regulatory issues; Reddit-centric coins DONUT and BRICK also crashed upon the news. In June 2023, The BlackCat hacker gang claimed responsibility for a February 2023 breach of Reddit's systems. On its data leak site, it claimed that it stole 80 GB of compressed data and demanded a $4.5 million ransom from Reddit. This attack did not involve data encryption like typical ransomware campaigns. In September 2024, the Federal Trade Commission released a report summarizing nine company responses (including from Reddit) to orders made by the agency pursuant to Section 6(b) of the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 to provide information about user and non-user data collection (including of children and teenagers) and data use by the companies that found that the companies' user and non-user data practices put individuals vulnerable to identity theft, stalking, unlawful discrimination, emotional distress and mental health issues, social stigma, and reputational harm. In 2025, researchers from the University of Zurich conducted a experiment on the debate subreddit r/changemyview. The researchers deployed AI-run Reddit accounts to pose as humans and actively push desired viewpoints in order to study how AI could influence opinions among human participants. The experiment was run without the consent or knowledge of the subreddit moderators for four months until one of the researchers informed them. Critics of the experiment argued it was unethical as it involved impersonation and involuntarily used Redditors as experiment participants. On December 2025, Reddit filed a lawsuit in an attempt to overturn Australia's social media ban for children, as Australia was one of Reddit's biggest markets, and the ban would prevent people under 16 from accessing the site. See also Notes References Further reading External links
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง_ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื] | [TOKENS: 2615]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื•ื ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง - ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืกืจื˜ื™ื, ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืžืชืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ืงื•ืจืกื™ื, ืกืžื™ื ืจื™ื ื•ืกื“ื ืื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข. ื•ื›ืŸ ืคื•ืขืœ ื‘ื• ืžืจื›ื– ืžื•ืœื˜ื™ืžื“ื™ื” ืœื—ืงืจ ื”ืฉื•ืื”. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื”ื•ืงื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1974 ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืœื™ื” ื•ืŸ-ืœื™ืจ, ื•ืฉื›ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืื’ืจื•ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1981 ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืœืžืฉื›ืŸ ื—ื“ืฉ ื‘ื“ืจืš ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื’ื™ื ื‘ืŸ ื”ื™ื ื•ื, ื‘ืžืงื‘ืฅ ืžื‘ื ื™ื ืฉืฉื•ืคืฆื• ื•ื—ื•ื“ืฉื• ื‘ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ ืฉื›ื•ื ืช ืฉืžืืขื” ื”ื ื˜ื•ืฉื”. ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืืจื‘ืขื” ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ืœื”ืงืจื ืช ืกืจื˜ื™ ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข, ื•ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ืชืื™ ืฆืคื™ื™ื” ืœืกืจื˜ื™ื ืžืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง. ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืžืฉืžืฉ ืœื”ืงืจื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกืจื˜ื™ื ืžืกื—ืจื™ื™ื, ืกืจื˜ื™ ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื•ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื–ืจื™ื, ื•ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ืกืจื˜ื™ื ืืฉืจ ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ืขืกืงื™ื™ื ื ืžื ืขื™ื ืžื”ืงืจื ืชื ืขืงื‘ ืฉื™ืงื•ืœื™ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื ื•ืื—ืจื™ื (ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืจื˜ื™ื "ื’'ื ื™ืŸ, ื’'ื ื™ืŸ" ื•"ืฉื™ื˜ืช ื”ืฉืงืฉื•ืงื”"), ื•ื›ืŸ ืžื•ืงืจื ื™ื ืกืจื˜ื™ื ืžืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง. ื‘-1984 ื™ื™ืกื“ื” ื•ืŸ-ืœื™ืจ ื‘ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืืช ืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™, ืฉื ืขืจืš ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื” ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื™ื•ืœื™, ื•ื”ืคืš ืœืื™ืจื•ืข ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ื™ื•ืงืจืชื™ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™. ื”ืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ืคื•ืชื— ืœืฆื•ืคื™ื ื—ืœื•ืŸ ืืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื•ืžืฆื™ื’ ืืช ืžื™ื˜ื‘ื•. . ื‘-1988 ื ืขืจื›ื” ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื”, ื‘ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืงืจืŸ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช "ื‘ืจื•ื— ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉ" ืื™ืจื•ืข ื‘ื• ืžื•ืงืจื ื™ื ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื”ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ื—ืชื™ืจื” ื”ื ืฆื—ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื“ื ืœื—ื•ืคืฉ ื•ืœืฆื“ืง. ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืคืš ื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ืœื—ืœืง ืžืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื•ืžื—ื•ืœืงื™ื ื‘ื• "ืคืจืกื™ ื‘ืจื•ื— ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉ ืœื–ื›ืจื• ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื•ืŸ-ืœื™ืจ" ื‘ืฉืชื™ ืงื˜ื’ื•ืจื™ื™ืช: "ืคืจืก ืงืืžื™ื ื’ืก ืœืกืจื˜ ืขืœื™ืœืชื™" ื•"ืคืจืก ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•ื‘ืกืงื™ ืœืกืจื˜ ืชื™ืขื•ื“ื™". ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื” ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ, ื‘ืกืžื™ื›ื•ืช ืœื—ื’ ื”ื—ื ื•ื›ื”, ื ืขืจืš ื‘ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื’ื ืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ืžืฆื•ืžืฆื ื‘ื”ื™ืงืคื• (ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™) . ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื™ื•ืœื™ 2006 ื”ื—ืœื• ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืฉื™ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื ืจื—ื‘ื™ื ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื–ืžื ื™ ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ื ื™ ื”ืื•ืžื”. ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื™ื•ืœื™ 2007, ืขื ืคืชื™ื—ืช ืคืกื˜ื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืงื•ืœื ื•ืข ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื—ื–ืจ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืœืžืฉื›ื ื• ื”ืงื‘ื•ืข, ื‘ื“ืจืš ื—ื‘ืจื•ืŸ. ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืฉื™ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืฉื ื™ ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ืฉื ื•ืกืคื• ืœืฉื ื™ื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ื™ื, ื•ื”ื ืžืฉืžืฉื™ื ืœื”ืงืจื ื” ืžืกื—ืจื™ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2008 ื”ืชืืจื’ื ื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื›ื•ื— ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืžืื‘ืง ืงืฆืจ ืฉื›ืœืœ ื”ืชื“ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ืช ื•ืคืกื™ืงื” ืชืงื“ื™ืžื™ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ื”, ื”ื™ื” ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืœืžืงื•ื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ื• ื—ืชื ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืกื›ื ืงื™ื‘ื•ืฆื™. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2012, ืžื•ื ืชื” ืืœื™ืกื™ื” ื•ื•ืกื˜ื•ืŸ, ืฉืขื‘ื“ื” ืงื•ื“ื ื‘ืžื›ื•ืŸ ืกืื ื“ื ืก (ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืœืœื ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ืจื•ื•ื— ืฉื”ื•ืงื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ืจื“ืคื•ืจื“) ืœืชืคืงื™ื“ ื”ืžื ื›"ืœ, ืืš ืขื–ื‘ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ื”. ื”ื™ื ื”ื•ื—ืœืคื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื ื•ืขื” ืจื’ื‘. ื‘-2022 ืžื•ื ื” ืœืชืคืงื™ื“ ืจื•ื ื™ ืžื”ื“ื‘-ืœื•ื™ืŸ. ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื‘ืฉื ืช 1981 ื ืคืชื— ื‘ืžืจืชืฃ ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ ื‘ื™ื•ื–ืžืชื” ืฉืœ ืœื™ื” ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืจ ืฉื ื™ื”ืœื” ืืช ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง. ื”ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื•ืงื ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ืืจื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืช ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืจ, ืฉืฉื›ืŸ ืงื•ื“ื ื‘ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ื—ื™ืคื”. ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 2014 ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื” ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืชื›ื•ืœืช ืกืคืจื™ื™ืช ื”ืกืจื˜ื™ื ื•ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช ืžื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืฉืฉื›ื ื” ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื•ื ืกื’ืจื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 2013 ื‘ืฉืœ ืงืฉื™ื™ื ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื. ื”ื—ื ื•ืช ืคืขืœื” ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง ืœืœื ื“ืžื™ ืฉื›ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ืžื•ืชื’ื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื›"ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ ื‘ืกื™ื ืžื˜ืง" ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื’ื•ื™ืกื• ื›ืกืคื™ื ืžื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ืืช ืชื›ื•ืœืชื” ืžืžื›ื™ืจืช ื—ื™ืกื•ืœ. ื”ื—ื ื•ืช ื”ื•ืคืขืœื” ื›ืงื•ืื•ืคืจื˜ื™ื‘ ืœืœื ื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืช ืจื•ื•ื—, ื•ื ืกื’ืจื” ืœืฆืžื™ืชื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 2020. ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ_ื–ืื‘_ื”ืจืฆืœ] | [TOKENS: 118114]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื–ืื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื–ืื‘ ืชืื•ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ (ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช: Theodor Herzl; ื‘ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช: Herzl Tivadar; ื™' ื‘ืื™ื™ืจ ื”'ืชืจ"ืš, 2 ื‘ืžืื™ 1860 โ€“ ื›' ื‘ืชืžื•ื– ื”'ืชืจืก"ื“, 3 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1904) ื”ื™ื” ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™, ืžืฉืคื˜ืŸ, ืกื•ืคืจ, ืžื—ื–ืื™ ื•ืคืขื™ืœ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™, ืฉื ื—ืฉื‘ ืœืื‘ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ื™ืกื“ ืืช ื”ื”ืกืชื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื•ืงื™ื“ื ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘ืฉืœ ืคื•ืขืœื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื”ื•ื ืžื›ื•ื ื” "ื—ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื•ื–ื›ืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืžืคื•ืจืฉ ื‘ื”ื›ืจื–ืช ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืžื•ื’ื“ืจ ื‘ื” ื›"ืื‘ื™ ื”ืจื•ื—ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช". ื—ืœืง ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ืคื•ืขืœื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื“ ืžื•ืชื• (ื‘ืงื™ืฅ 1904), ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ื”. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืžืกืขื•ืชื™ื• ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืช, ื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื‘ืฉื•ืจืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื•ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžื–ืจื—ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ื–ืžืชื• ื›ื•ื ืก ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1897, ื•ื”ืฆืœื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื•ื›ื™ื ื•ืกื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœืชืคืงื“ ื›ืชื ื•ืขื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช-ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ืžืžื•ืกื“ืช, ื”ืŸ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืชืคื•ืฆื•ืช ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื”ืกืชื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื”ื•ืงืžื• ื‘ื™ืžื™ื• ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก (ื›ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืคืจืœืžื ื˜ ืžืžืœื›ืชื™), ืงืง"ืœ (ื›ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืชืฉืชื™ืช ืœื—ื™ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ื‘ืงื ื” ืžื™ื“ื” ื ืจื—ื‘), ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื (ื›ืžื›ืฉื™ืจ ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ ื‘ืœืขื“ื™ื• ืื™ืŸ ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœืงื“ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื•ื–ืžื”). ื›ืœ ืืœื• ื”ื™ื• ืžืกื“ ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืงื•ืจื•ืช ื—ื™ื™ื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื•ืœื“ ื‘ืขื™ืจ ืคืฉื˜ (ื›ื™ื•ื ื—ืœืง ืžื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜), ื‘ื™ืจืช ืžืžืœื›ืช ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”, ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ืช. ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื• ื”ื™ื• ืžืขื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช. ืื‘ื™ื•, ื™ืขืงื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ ืœืžืฉืคื—ื” ืฉืžื•ืฆืื” ืžืฉืœื–ื™ื”, ื‘ื•ื”ืžื™ื” ื•ืžื•ืจืื‘ื™ื”. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-18 ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื“ืจื•ืžื” ื•ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื” ื‘ื‘ืœื’ืจื“ ื•ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ 20 ืฉื ื” ืขื‘ืจื” ืœื–ึถืžืœื™ืŸ. ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™ืช: ืœื™ืžื™ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื” ืฆืืฆื ืœืžื’ื•ืจืฉื™ ืกืคืจื“, ืคืจื˜ ืฉื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉืžืงื•ืจื• ื‘ืื’ื“ื” ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ืช, ื•ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืžืฆื™ื ื‘ืขืฆืžื•, ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” (ื’ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื ื›ืžื• ื”ื™ื™ื ืจื™ืš ืคื•ืŸ ื˜ืจื™ื™ืฆ'ืงื”) ืœืžืชื‘ื•ืœืœื™ื ื•ืžืชื•ืจื‘ืชื™ื, ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ืžื”ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™ื ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื ื—ืฉืœื™ื. ื‘ื–ืžืœื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืกื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืฉืžืขื•ืŸ ืœื™ื™ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ (1805โ€“1879) ืฉืžืฉ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ืฉืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ื‘ืขื™ืจ, ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉื›ื™ื”ืŸ ื‘ื” ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืฉืœืžื” ืืœืงืœืขื™, ืžืžื‘ืฉืจื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1856 ืขื‘ืจ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜. ืื™ืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืืจื ืกื˜ื™ื ื”, ื–'ืื ื˜ื” ื ืื ื˜ ืœื‘ื™ืช ื“ื™ืืžื ื˜ (1836, ืคืฉื˜ โ€“ 1911, ื•ื™ื ื”) ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืช ืœืžืฉืคื—ื” ืืฉื›ื ื–ื™ืช ืžืฉื›ื™ืœื” ื•ืžืขื•ืจื” ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื‘ืžืื” ื”-18 ื”ื™ื’ืจื” ืžืฉืคื—ืชื” ืœื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ืžืžื•ืจืื‘ื™ื” ื•ืกืœื•ื‘ืงื™ื”. ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื™ืฉืื• ื‘-1857. ื™ืขืงื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืคืชื— ื‘ื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜ ืขืกืง ืžืฉืœื•, ื•ืœืื—ืจ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื• ืขื ื–'ืื ื˜, ืฉื’ืฉื’ื• ืขืกืงื™ื• ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืจื—ื‘ ื’ื ืœืชื—ื•ื ื”ื‘ื ืงืื•ืช. ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืžืฉ ืคืจืง ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ืชืคืงื™ื“ ืžื ื”ืœ "ื‘ื ืง ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”", ื•ืขืกืง ื’ื ื‘ืžืกื—ืจ ื‘ืขืฆื™ ื™ืขืจื•ืช. ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืืžื™ื“ื”, ืขื“ ืœืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืฉืคืจืฅ ื‘ืฉื ืช 1873, ืื– ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ื”ื•ื ื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ, ืชื•ืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื ื™ื, ื”ืคืš ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืื“ื ืืžื™ื“. ื™ืขืงื‘ ื•ื–'ืื ื˜ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ื ืืžื ื•ืช ืœืžืกื•ืจืช ืื‘ื•ืช: ื”ื™ื• ืคื•ืงื“ื™ื ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜ ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื—ื’ ื•ืžื•ืขื“, ื”ื“ืœื™ืงื• ื ืจื•ืช ืฉื‘ืช ื•ืงื™ื“ืฉื• ืขืœ ื”ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉื‘ืช. ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื“ื™ื‘ืจื• ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื•ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช, ื•ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื’ื ื‘ืื•ืฆืจ ืžื™ืœื™ื ืขึดื‘ืจื™ ื•ื™ึดื™ื“ึดื™,[ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืžืงื•ืจ] ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ื”ื•ื’ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ื‘ื˜ืงืกื™ื ื”ื“ืชื™ื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1867 ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื›ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื—ื•ืงื”, ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ. ืืœื™ื• ื ืœื•ื•ืชื” ืืฆืœ ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื•ืช ื”ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช ื”ืฆื™ืคื™ื™ื” ื›ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืฉื—ื•ื ื›ื• ืขืœ ื‘ืจื›ื™ ื”ืฉืคื” ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื™ืชืงืฉืจื• ืืœ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ืืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื•ืœื“ ื•ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ื™ืœื“ื•ืชื•, ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ืžืฆื ืกืžื•ืš ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช, ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื“ื•ื”ืืŸ ื‘ื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜, ืฉื‘ื ื™ื™ืชื• ื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื” ื‘-1859. ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ืœื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื•ืœื˜ ืื—ืจ ื‘ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืช ื›ื™ื›ืจ ื•ื™ื’ืื“ื•. ื ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืŸ ืฉืฉ-ืฉื‘ืข ืœืžื“ ืœื ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ืคืกื ืชืจ ื•ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืืจื‘ืข ืฉืคื•ืช: ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช, ืื ื’ืœื™ืช, ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ื•ืขื‘ืจื™ืช. ื‘ื ืขื•ืจื™ื• ืคืจืฉ ืžืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ื”ืคืกื ืชืจ, ืื•ืชื ืจืื” ื›"ืขื™ื ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื", ื•ืฉืงืข ื‘ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช. ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœืžื“ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืกืคืจ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ื‘-1869 ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœื’ื™ืžื ืกื™ื” ืจื™ืืœื™ืช ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ืœืžื“ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื–ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืจื‘ืข ืฉื ื™ื, ื‘ืžื”ืœื›ืŸ ื—ืœื” ื™ืจื™ื“ื” ื‘ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื•. ืขื ื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืžื“ืข ืคื—ืช ื•ื”ืœืš ื•ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ื ืชืขื•ืจืจื” ื‘ื• ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื•ืžืื ื™ื™ื, ืœืฉื™ืจื” ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื•ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-30 ืฉื ื” ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ "ืจื•ื— ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช" ืฉืจืจื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื–ื” ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืื—ื“ ื”ืžื•ืจื™ื ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ื’ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ ืืœื™ืœื™ื, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื”ืคืกื™ืง ืืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื• ื‘ื•. ื‘-3 ื‘ืžืื™ 1873 ืขืจื›ื• ืœื• ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื ื˜ืงืก ืงื•ื ืคื™ืจืžืฆื™ื” ืœืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื‘ืจ ืžืฆื•ื•ื”. ืขื ื–ืืช, ืื™ืŸ ืจืื™ื•ืช ืœื›ืš ืฉืขืœื” ืœืชื•ืจื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1874 ื™ื™ืกื“ ืื’ื•ื“ื” ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ืช ืฉื ืงืจืื” "ื•ื™ืจ" ("ืื ื—ื ื•" ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช) ื•ื”ื™ื” ืœื ืฉื™ืื”ึผ. ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœื”ืขืฉื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจื™ื” ื•ืœืฉืคืจ ืืช ืกื’ื ื•ื ื. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ืœื ื”ืืจื™ื›ื” ื™ืžื™ื ื•ื”ืชืคืจืงื” ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1875, ื‘ืืžืฆืข ืฉื ืช ื”ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื, ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืื•ืชื• ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ืจื™ืืœื™. ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื”, ืขื‘ืจ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ื’ื™ืžื ืกื™ื” ื”ืึถื•ึทื ื’ึถืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ืคืฉื˜, ืฉืจื•ื‘ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื” ื”ื™ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื‘ื’ื™ืœ 15 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ืงืจื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื•ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžืฉื•ืจืจื™ื ื”ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ื™ื ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื™ื• ื”ื™ื™ื ืจื™ืš ื”ื™ื™ื ื” ื•ื ื™ืงื•ืœืื•ืก ืœื ืื•. ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื”ืฉืชืคืจื• ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื•ื‘ืฉื ืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ืชืœืžื™ื“ ืœืžื•ืคืช. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื• ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืœืืจื’ื•ืŸ ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื‘ืฉื "ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ืœื”ืฉื›ืœื” ืขืฆืžื™ืช" ("Deutscher Selbstbildungsverein"), ืฉืฉื ืœืขืฆืžื• ืœืžื˜ืจื” ืœืœืžื“ ื•ืœืคืชื— ืืช ื”ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ื”ืชืื”ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื ืขืจื” ื‘ืช 14 ื‘ืฉื ืžืื“ืœื™ืŸ. ืœื™ืžื™ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื–ื• ื”ืื”ื‘ื” "ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื•ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื”" ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื•. ืœื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ืขืœ ืžืื“ืœื™ืŸ ื•ื›ื›ืœ ื”ื ืจืื” ื”ื™ื ื ืคื˜ืจื” ื‘ื˜ืจื ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœื’ื™ืœ 20. ื”ืžืจืื” ืฉืœื” (ืฉื™ืขืจ ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื™ื ื™ ื•ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ื›ื—ื•ืœื•ืช) ื”ื•ืชื™ืจ ื—ื•ืชื ืขืœ ื›ืชื™ื‘ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืชื™ื• ืžื•ืคื™ืขื•ืช ื ืฉื™ื ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืžืจืื” ื“ื•ืžื” ืœื–ื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ืœื™ืŸ. ืœื™ืžื™ื, ื‘-1886, ื”ืชืื”ื‘ ื‘ืื—ื™ื™ื ื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ืžืื“ืœื™ืŸ, ืžื’ื“ื”, ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื– ื‘ืช 13, ื•ืืฃ ืฉืงืœ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื” ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ืŸ. ืœืงืจืืช ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ืžืจ, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ืœืขืงื•ืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื‘ื™ืจืช ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืชืช ืœื• ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื” ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช. ื‘-7 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1878 ื—ืœืชื” ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื”, ืื—ื•ืชื• ื‘ืช ื”-19, ื‘ื˜ื™ืคื•ืก ื•ื”ื™ื ื ืคื˜ืจื”. ืืžื• ืœื ืจืฆืชื” ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืžื™ื™ื“. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื•ืฆื ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื•ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื™ืฆืื” ืœื“ืจื›ื” ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืฉื‘ื•ืข ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1878 ื—ื–ืจ ืœื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืืช ื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื’ืจื•ืช. ืคืจื˜ ืœื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื•ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ื”ื“ืช, ื”ื•ื ืขื‘ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื‘ื—ื ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ืฉื™, ื‘ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื ืžื•ื›ื™ื. ื”ื•ื ื—ื–ืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ืžืื– ืœื ืฉื‘ ืœื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜, ืœืžืขื˜ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื•ื“ื“ื™ื. ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจื” ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื‘ื“ื™ืจื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ืข ื”ืฉื ื™, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืื–ื•ืจ ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ืืžื™ื“. ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจื• ื’ื ื”ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืœื•ื’ ื–ื™ื’ืžื•ื ื“ ืคืจื•ื™ื“ ื•ื”ืžืœื—ื™ืŸ ื’ื•ืกื˜ื‘ ืžืื”ืœืจ. ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1878 ื ืจืฉื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืช ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ืงืจื, ืžืœื‘ื“ ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื’ื ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช, ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ื•ืื ื’ืœื™ืช, ื•ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื’ื ื‘ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช, ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช ื•ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ืช. ื‘ื”ืชืื ืœื˜ืขื ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื•ื”ืžืงื•ื, ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื•ื˜ ืื—ืจ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ืจื™ื›ืจื“ ื•ื’ื ืจ. ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1880 ืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ืจืคื•ืื™ืช ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื•ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ื’ื™ื•ืก ืœืฆื‘ื, ืฉื‘ื” ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ื›ืฉื™ืจ. ืื•ืœื ื‘ื‘ื“ื™ืงื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื”, ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 1880, ืฉื•ื ืชื” ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ื•ื”ื•ื ื ืžืฆื "ื‘ืœืชื™ ื›ืฉื™ืจ ืœืฉื™ืจื•ืช-ืฉื“ื” ืฆื‘ืื™ ื‘ืฉืขื” ื–ื•", ืœืœื ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ืกื™ื‘ืช ื”ื“ื—ื™ื™ื”. ื‘ืกืชื™ื• 1880 ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืื’ื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื (ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช: Burschenschaft) "ืึทืœึฐื‘ึดึผื™ึทื”" (Albia), ื‘ืขืœืช ื”ืฆื‘ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™-ื’ืจืžื ื™, ืฉืกื™ืกืžืชื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื”, ื‘ืจื•ื— ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืฉื—ืจื•ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืขืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”: "ื›ื‘ื•ื“, ื—ื•ืคืฉ, ืžื•ืœื“ืช" ("Ehre, Freiheit, Vaterland"). ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืื—ื“ ืžืืจื‘ืขื” ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘"ืืœื‘ื™ื”". ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื• ื‘ื”ืชืื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ื™ื” "ื˜ืื ืงืจึถื“", ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ "ื ืกื™ืš ื”ื’ืœื™ืœ" ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื, ืžืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ืžืกืข ื”ืฆืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื—ื•ืจืฃ 1881โ€“1882 ืงืจื ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžืื” ืกืคืจื™ื, ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืกืคืจื• ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ ืฉืœ ืื•ื™ื’ืŸ ื“ื™ืจื™ื ื’, "ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื›ืฉืืœื” ื’ื–ืขื™ืช, ืืชื ื™ืช ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช". ืœื™ืžื™ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ืจืง ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืงืจื ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื–ื”, ื ืชืŸ ื“ืขืชื• ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘-5 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 1883 ืขืจื›ื” "ืืœื‘ื™ื”" ืื–ื›ืจื” ืœืจื™ื›ืจื“ ื•ื’ื ืจ, ืฉืžืช ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื”ืงื•ื“ื. ื”ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ื‘ืืกืคื” ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจืžืŸ ื‘ืื”ืจ, ืฉื–ื›ื” ืœืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ืจืžื•ืช ื›ืฉื“ื™ื‘ืจ ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืคืืŸ-ื’ืจืžื ื™ื•ืช ื”"ืืจื™ืช" ื•"ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื•ื’ื ืจื™ืช". ื‘-7 ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื—ื™ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื”, ื‘ื• ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืืช ืฆืขืจื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื”ืื–ื›ืจื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœ"ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช" ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ "ืžื™ ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžื•ื—ื” ื‘ืงื•ืœ ืจื ื ื’ื“ ืžืื•ืจืขื•ืช ื›ืืœื” ืฉื•ืชืฃ ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ืœื”ื". ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘, "ื‘ืจื•ืจ ืœืžื“ื™ ื›ื™ ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื™ ืžื•ื›ืชื ื‘ื›ืชื ืฉืœ 'ืฉืžื™ื•ืช'... ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื ืžื ืข ื›ื™ื•ื ืžืœื‘ืงืฉ ืœื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื›ื—ื‘ืจ ื‘ืื’ื•ื“ื”" ื•ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ืชืคื˜ืจื•ืชื• ืžืžื ื”. ืืœื ืฉื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื–ื•ืขืžื™ื ืกื™ืจื‘ื• ืœืืฉืจ ืืช ื”ืชืคื˜ืจื•ืชื• ื•ื‘-3 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื• ืœื• ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื“ื—ืชื•. ื”ืื–ื›ืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื” ื ืชืงืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื’ื–ืขื ื•ืช. ื‘ืžืื™ 1883 ืขื‘ืจื” ืžืฉืคื—ืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจื•ื‘ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ืืจื™ืกื˜ื•ืงืจื˜ื™. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื™ื•ืœื™ 1883 ื ื™ื’ืฉ ืœื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ื”ืžืžืฉืœืชื™ืช ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื, ืื•ืœื ืœื ื”ืฉื™ื’ ื‘ื” ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช, ืืš ื‘-1884 ื ื™ื’ืฉ ืœื‘ื—ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืกื™ื•ื ื•ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืžืื™ ื”ื•ื›ืชืจ ื‘ืชื•ืืจ "ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ ื™ื•ืจื™ืก" (ื“ื•ืงื˜ื•ืจ ืœืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื). ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1884 ื ืขืฉื” ืžืชืžื—ื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืžื—ื•ื–ื™ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ื”ื—ืœ ืœืฆืžื— ื–ืงืŸ. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื—ื•ืจืฃ 1884โ€“1885 ื”ืกืชื‘ืš ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืกื›ืกื•ื›ื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ืฉื‘ืกื•ืคื ื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ืืช ื™ืจื™ื‘ื™ื• โ€“ ืคืจืงืœื™ื˜, ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื•ืขื“ ื”ื‘ื•ืจืกื” ื•ืื“ื ืฉืชืคืก ืืช ื›ืกืื• ื‘ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ โ€“ ืœื“ื•-ืงืจื‘, ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื‘ืืงื“ื—ื™ื, ืื•ืœื ืฉืœื•ืฉืชื ืœื ื™ืฆืื• ืœืคื•ืขืœ. ืœืื—ืจ ืชืฉืขื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ ื”ืชืžื—ื•ืช, ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ืœื–ืœืฆื‘ื•ืจื’, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื‘ืงืจ ืืช ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ืฉื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1885 ืขื‘ืจื• ืœื”ื•ึนืœ ืฉื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ืขื™ืœื™ืช, ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืื‘ื™ื• ืฉืกื‘ืœ ืžืžื™ื—ื•ืฉ-ืื–ื ื™ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืฉืœื ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืคืจืงืœื™ื˜ื•ืช ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื‘ืขื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ื‘ื–ืœืฆื‘ื•ืจื’, ื›ืฉื ืกืชื™ื™ื ื”ืจื™ืคื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืื‘ื™ื•, ื”ืชืคื˜ืจ ืžืžืฉืจืชื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื™ืฆื ืœืžืกืข, ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”, ื‘ืœื’ื™ื” ื•ื”ื•ืœื ื“. ืจื’ืฉื•ืชื™ื• ื›ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ ื”ืงืฉื•ืจ ืœืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื”ืขืžื™ืงื•, ื•ื‘ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ื™ืชืจ ืขืœ ืื–ืจื—ื•ืชื• ื”ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช ื•ื ืขืฉื” ืื–ืจื— ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืกืง ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื• ืจืง ืฉื ื” ืื—ืช, ื•ืžืื– ื”ืชืžืกืจ ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื’ืžืจื™ ืœืขื™ืชื•ื ืื•ืช, ืœืชื™ืื˜ืจื•ืŸ ื•ืœืกืคืจื•ืช. ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืขื–ื‘ ืืช ืžืงืฆื•ืข ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ื‘ื’ืœืœ "ืชืงืจืช ื”ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช" ืฉืžื ืขื” ืงื™ื“ื•ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉืขืกืงื• ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืข. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1886 ื”ื›ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื™ื•ืœื™ื” (ื–'ื•ืœื™), ื‘ืชื• ืฉืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื ืฉืื•ืืจ, ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืŸ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ืจ, ื•ื”ืชืื”ื‘ ื‘ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ื ืกืข ืœื‘ื–ืœ, ืœืคืจื™ื– ื•ืœื ื•ืจืžื ื“ื™, ืฉื ื ืฉืืจ ืขื“ ืืžืฆืข ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜, ื•ื›ืชื‘ ืžืืžืจื™-ืžืกืข ืฉื”ื•ื“ืคืกื• ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื›ืื‘ื™ ืจืืฉ ื›ืจื•ื ื™ื™ื, ื ืกืข ื‘-26 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1887 ืœืื™ื˜ืœื™ื” ืœืžืฉืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉ, ื•ื‘ืขืช ืฉื”ื•ืชื• ื‘ื” ื›ืชื‘ ืกื“ืจืช ืคื™ืœื™ื˜ื•ื ื™ื, ื‘ืฉืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืœื” ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืขื“ ืื–. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื—ื–ืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื•ืื– ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ื“ื™ ืžืคื•ืจืกื ื‘ื—ื•ื’ื™ื ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ื™ื. ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ื ื”ื“ืคื™ืกื• ืืช ื”ื˜ื•ืจื™ื ืฉืœื•. ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื”ื™ื” ื”"ื ื•ึนื™ึถื” ืคึฐืจึทื™ึถื” ืคึฐึผืจึถืกึถื”" (Neue Freie Presse), ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™ ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืจืง ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 1887 ื ืคื’ืฉ ืฉื•ื‘ ืขื ื–'ื•ืœื™. ื‘ืกืชื™ื• ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ืคืจืกื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืคื™ืœื™ื˜ื•ื ื™ื ื™ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืกืคืจ ื‘ืฉื "ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืžื•ื•ื ื•ืก" (Neues von der Venus). ืขื ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืคืš ืœืื—ื“ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื‘ืคื™ืœื™ื˜ื•ื ื™ืกื˜ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื, ื”ื—ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ืกื•ืช ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืžื” ืžื—ื–ื•ืช ืคืจื™ ืขื˜ื•, ืงื•ืžื“ื™ื•ืช ืงืœื•ืช, ืื•ืœื ื‘ืžืฉืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื ื“ื—ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืคืขืžื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืชื™ืื˜ืจืื•ืช ืฉืคื ื” ืืœื™ื”ื ื•ื‘ืจืืฉื ื”ื‘ื•ืจื’ืชื™ืื˜ืจ (ื”ืชื™ืื˜ืจื•ืŸ ื”ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™) ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1888 ื”ื•ืขืœื” ืกื•ืฃึพืกื•ืฃ ืžื—ื–ื” ืคืจื™ึพืขื˜ื• ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืžื” โ€“ ื”ืงื•ืžื“ื™ื” "ื”ื•ื“ ืจื•ืžืžื•ืชื•". ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ื‘ื›ื•ืจื” ื‘ืชื™ืื˜ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ื‘ืคืจืื’ ื–ื›ืชื” ืœืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื•ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ื•ืขืœื” ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ื’ื ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ื‘ืื‘ื™ื‘ 1888 ืคืจืกื ืื•ืกืฃ ืžืกื•ืช, ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืงืฆืจื™ื ื•ืจืฉืžื™-ืžืกืข ื‘ืกืคืจ ื‘ืฉื "ืกืคืจ ื”ืกื›ืœื•ืช" (Buch der Narrheit). ื‘ืงื™ืฅ ื ืกืข ื“ืจืš ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ื‘ื” ืฉื”ื” ื›ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื™ืžื™ื. ืกื“ืจืช ื”ืžืืžืจื™ื ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืžืกืข ื”ืชืคืจืกืžื” ื’ื ื”ื™ื ื‘"ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”". ื‘ืืžืฆืข ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื—ื–ืจ ืœืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ื“ืจืš ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”. ื›ืฉื—ื ื” ื‘ืœื™ืœื” ื‘ืžื™ื™ื ืฅ, ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืžื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื”, ื”ื˜ื™ื— ื‘ื• ื‘ืจื™ื•ืŸ ืฆืขื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื’ื™ื“ื•ืฃ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ "ื”ืค ื”ืค!" ื•ื›ืœ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื ืคืจืฆื• ื‘ืฆื—ื•ืง ืจื. ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื—ื•ื•ื” ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื™ืฉื™. ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืคื ื” ืืœ ื”ื•ื’ื• ื•ื™ื˜ืžืŸ ื•ื›ืชื‘ ืื™ืชื• ืืช ื”ืงื•ืžื“ื™ื” "ืžืกื™ื’ื™ ื’ื‘ื•ืœ" (Wilddiebe), ืฉื”ืชืงื‘ืœื” ืœื‘ื•ืจื’ืชื™ืื˜ืจ ื•ื”ื•ืฆื’ื” ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ืžืœืื™ื, ื•ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื’ื ื‘ืชืจื™ืกืจ ืชื™ืื˜ืจืื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”. ื‘ืžืื™ 1889 ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ื•ืจื’ืชื™ืื˜ืจ ืืช ืžื—ื–ื”ื• "ื”ืคืœื™ื˜" (Der Flรผchtling). ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ื”ื•ืฆื’ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืชื—ืช ืฉืžื• ื”ืžืœื ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื•ื”ื”ืฆื’ื” ื–ื›ืชื” ื‘ืฉื‘ื—ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื. ื‘-25 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1889 ื ื™ืฉื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื–'ื•ืœื™. ื”ื˜ืงืก ื ืขืจืš ื‘ืขื™ื™ืจืช ื”ื ื•ืคืฉ ืจื™ื™ื›ื ืื• ื•ืืช ื˜ืงืก ื”ืงื™ื“ื•ืฉื™ืŸ ืขืจืš ื“"ืจ ืื“ื•ืœืฃ ื™ืœื™ื ืง, ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™-ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื‘ื™ืœื” ื”ื–ื•ื’ ื‘ื™ืจื— ื“ื‘ืฉ ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ืฅ ื•ืฆืจืคืช. ืขื“ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื•, ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื•ืจื™ื•. ืขืชื” ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื–ื•ื’ ืœื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ื“ื™ืจื” ื‘ืจื•ื‘ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”. ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื–'ื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื• ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื—ืจื•ืฅ ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืชื—ื™ืœืชื. ื‘ืžืจืฅ 1890 ื ื•ืœื“ื” ื‘ืชื• ื”ื‘ื›ื•ืจื”, ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื”. ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื”, ืขืœื” ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” ื‘ืคืจืื’ ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ืฉื›ืชื‘, "ืžื” ื™ืืžืจื• ื”ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช?" (Was Wird Man Sagen) โ€“ ืกืื˜ื™ืจื” ืื ื˜ื™-ืคืžื™ื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1890 ื”ื•ืฆื’ื• ืžื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื• ื‘ื›-17 ืชื™ืื˜ืจืื•ืช ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”, ืื•ืœื ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ื ื—ืœ ื”ืžื—ื–ื” "ืžื” ื™ืืžืจื• ื”ื‘ืจื™ื•ืช?" ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื—ืจื•ืฅ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื ื ืžืฆื ืืฃ ืชื™ืื˜ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื—ื–ื”. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1891 ื”ืชืื‘ื“ ื—ื‘ืจื•, ื”ื™ื™ื ืจื™ืš ืงืื ื (Kana). ื”ืชืื‘ื“ื•ืชื• ื–ืขื–ืขื” ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ืขืฆื‘ื•ืชื• ืžื—ื™ื™ ื”ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื”ืื•ืžืœืœื™ื ืฉื”ืขื™ืงื• ืขืœื™ื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื˜ื” ืœื“ื™ื›ืื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื–'ื•ืœื™ ื ื™ืกืชื” ืœื”ืชืื‘ื“. ื‘-10 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1891 ื ื•ืœื“ ื‘ื ื•, ื”ื ืก, ืฉืœื ื ื™ืžื•ืœ ืœืื—ืจ ืœื™ื“ืชื•. ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื”, ื ืคืจื“ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืืฉืชื•. ื”ื•ื ื ืกืข ืœืฆืจืคืช, ื•ื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœืจืฉืžื™ ื”ืžืกืข ืฉืœื• ืฉืคื•ืจืกืžื• ื‘"ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”", ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1891 ืœืฉืžืฉ ื›ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ืคืจื™ื–. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1892 ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ื–'ื•ืœื™ ื•ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœื‘ืงืจื• ื‘ืคืจื™ื–. ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืจืื” ืืช ื™ืœื“ื™ื• ืžื–ื” ืฉื‘ืขื” ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ืขื‘ืจื• ืืฉืชื• ื•ื™ืœื“ื™ื• ืœื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ืื™ืชื• ื‘ื“ื™ืจืชื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”, ื‘ืจื•ื‘ืข ืžื”ื•ื“ืจ ื‘ืคืจื™ื–, ื•ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืขื‘ืจื• ืœื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ืื™ืชื ื’ื ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื›ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”" ื‘ืคืจื™ื–, ืกื™ืงืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘-1892 ืžืฉืคื˜ ืชื‘ื™ืขื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ ืื“ื•ืืจ ื“ืจื™ืžื•ืŸ, ื•ืงืจื ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืช ืกืคืจื•, "ืฆืจืคืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช". ืœื™ืžื™ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื“ืจื™ืžื•ืŸ ืกื™ื™ืข ืœื• "ืœื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ื” ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช". ืฉืขืจื•ืจื™ื™ืช ืคื ืžื” ืฉืคืจืฆื” ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื”, ื”ื‘ื™ืื” ืื™ืชื” ื”ืชืคืจืฆื•ืช ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช. ื‘ืื—ืช ืžืืกืคื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื, ืฉืžืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฆืจื—ื•ืช "ืžื•ื•ืช ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื!". ื›ืชื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ืžืคืจื™ื– ื”ื™ื• ืžืื•ื“ ืžืื•ื–ื ื•ืช, ืื•ืœื ื‘ืื•ื–ื ื™ ืžื›ืจื™ื• ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ืข ื‘ื’ืœื•ื™ ืืช ื“ืขืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ืฆืจืคืช. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1893 ื”ื•ืคื™ืข ืฉืžื• ื‘ืจืฉื™ืžื” ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืฉืœ "ื–ืจื™ื ืขื•ื™ื ื™ื" ืฉื”ื•ื’ืฉื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ืœืฉืจ ื”ืคื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฆืจืคืช. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90 ืขื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืฉื‘ืจ ืคื ื™ืžื™ ื—ืจื™ืฃ. ืืžื•ื ืชื• ื‘ื›ืš ืฉืฉื ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืจื™ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื‘ืจ, ืฉื™ื—ืœื•ืฃ ื•ื™ืืคืฉืจ ื˜ืžื™ืขื” ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคืื™ืช, ื ื›ื–ื‘ื” ื›ืฉื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื”ืคื›ื” ืžืชื ื•ืขืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื ืœื›ื•ื— ื‘ืจ-ืงื™ื™ืžื, ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœื”ื™ื—ืœืฉื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืช. ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1893 ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™ืช ืœืžืœื—ืžื” ื‘ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช (ื ื•ืกื“ื” ื‘-1890), ื’ื•ืฃ ืฉืคืขืœ ื‘ืจื•ื— ืชืคื™ืฉืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช, ื•ื’ื™ื ื” ืื•ืชื ื›ื ืื™ื‘ื™ื ื•ืขื™ื•ื•ืจื™ื ืžืจืฆื•ืŸ ืœืžืฆื™ืื•ืช: ืฉื ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื ื ื‘ืขื” ืžื‘ื•ืจื•ืช ื•ื“ืขื•ืช ืงื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืกืชื, ืืœื ืžืžืชื—ื™ื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื ืžืžืฉื™ื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ื ื˜ื•ืขื™ื ืœื’ืžืจื™ ื‘ื”ื•ื•ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืกื—ืฃ ืœืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืจื“ื™ืงืœื™ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื ืข ื‘ื™ืŸ ืชื‘ื™ืขื•ืช ืžืŸ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ืฉื™ืœ ืืช ืžื” ืฉืจืื” ื›ืคื—ื“ื ื•ืชื ื•ืงืœืงื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™, ื•ืขื“ ืœื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ืœืงื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื; ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื‘ืกื™ืก ืืžื™ืชื™ ืœืื™ืชื ื•ืช ื ืคืฉื™ืช ื•ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืขืฆืžื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื—ื™ื•ื ื™ ื‘ื˜ืจื ื”ืฉื’ืช ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืžืŸ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ, ืœื ื”ืจืคื” ืžืžื ื•. ืœื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš (ื‘ื“ื–'ื™ืš) ืคื•ืŸ ืœื™ื™ื˜ื ื‘ืจื’ืจ (Leitenberger), ื ืฉื™ื ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ ืฉื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช, ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืคื˜ืจ ืžืื•ืชืŸ "ืชื›ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื™ืœื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื’ืœืœืŸ ืœื ืกื•ื‘ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื", ื•ืฉื™ืฉ ืจืง ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืื—ื“: ื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื•ืช ืžื•ื—ืœื˜ืช ืฉืชื•ืฉื’ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ืžืจืช ื”ื“ืช ื•ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื˜ืขืŸ ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ืืœื™ื•, ื›ื™ "ื™ืฉ ืœืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ืืกืคืงื˜ื™ื ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ื™ื" ื•ืฉื”ื™ื "ืชื—ื ืš ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื" ื•ืชืงื™ื "ื“ื•ืจ ืฉื™ืขืฉื” ืจื•ืฉื ืžืฆื•ื™ืŸ". ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, "ื™ืฉ ืœื˜ื‘ื•ืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช ืงื•ื“ื ืฉื”ื ืื—ืจืื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื™ื”ื, ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื‘ืขื“ ืื• ื ื’ื“, ื•ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื”ืžืจืช ื”ื“ืช ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืชืคืจืฉ ื›ื—ื•ืœืฉื” ืžืฆื“ื. ืžื•ื›ืจื—ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืขืœื ื‘ื”ืžื•ืŸ!". ืขื ื–ืืช, ื“ืื’ ืœื”ื‘ื”ื™ืจ ืฉืื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœื—ืจื•ืฅ "ืžืฉืคื˜ ื—ืžื•ืจ ืžื“ื™ ืขืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, "ื”ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื™ืฉ ืœืกืœื•ื—, ืฉื›ืŸ, ืกื•ืฃ ื›ืœ ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ื•ื ื—ื™ ืชืžื™ื“ ื‘ืฉื˜ื— ืื•ื™ื‘". ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ื”ื‘ื ืืœ ืœื™ื™ื˜ื ื‘ืจื’ืจ, ื”ืขืœื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืชื“ืื’ ืœื”ื˜ื‘ืœืชื ื”ืงื•ืœืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”, ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ืชื™ืงื— ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื” ืืช ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื‘ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช. ื–ื• ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื” ื”ื’ื” ื‘ื›ืš โ€“ ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘-1882 ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืฉื‘ื˜ื•ื•ื— ื”ืจื—ื•ืง, ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืชื ืฆืจื• ื•ื™ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื• ื›ืœื™ืœ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ ืชืขืจื•ื‘ืช "ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ืฉืœ ื“ืช-ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช" โ€“ ืืš ืขืชื” ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืงื“ื ื–ืืช ืืงื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช, ื•ืชื›ื ืŸ ืœื™ื–ื•ื ืจื™ืื™ื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื‘ื” ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ืื•ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื ื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ื–ื•ื”ืชื” ื›ืžืขืฉื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง, ืขื“ ื›ื“ื™ ื›ืš ืฉืืฃ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ืžื•ืฉื‘ืขื™ื ื‘ื”ื›ื—ื“ื” ืขืฆืžื™ืช ืžืจืฆื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื ืจืชืขื• ืžื›ืš (ืื ื›ื™ ื—ืœืงื ื“ื’ืœื• ื‘ื˜ื‘ื™ืœืช ื™ืœื“ื™ื ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ื”ื™ื ืงื•ืช, ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืืฃ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืงืœ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื ื• ื”ื ืก), ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฉื•ื•ืช ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ื’ื•ื•ืŸ ืื—ืจ ืœื’ืžืจื™. ื”ืžืจืช ื”ื“ืช ื ื•ืขื“ื” ื‘ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ืœื”ืชื‘ืฆืข ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ืช ื•ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™, ื‘ืืชืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืงืชื“ืจืœืช ืกื˜ืคื ื•ืก ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื›ืฉื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœื™ื ืื•ืชื” ืœื ื™ื•ื˜ื‘ืœื• โ€“ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืฆืžื• ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ืžืŸ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื” ื›ื™ ืืฃ ืฉื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ืื™ื ื ื• ืจื•ืื” ื‘ืฉืœื™ืœื” ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช, ื•ื”ื•ื ื ืขื“ืจ ื›ืœ ืกื ื˜ื™ืžื ื˜ ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ ืœื“ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ืืงื˜ ื›ื–ื” ื™ื”ื•ื•ื” ื—ื•ืกืจ ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืขืฆืžื™ ื•ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืจ ืืช ืœื‘ื• ืฉืœ ืื‘ื™ื•. ื‘-20 ื‘ืžืื™ 1893 ื ื•ืœื“ื” ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืชื•, ื˜ืจื•ื“ื”. ืœื™ื“ืชื” ื—ื™ื–ืงื” ืืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ืชื• ืœื—ืกื•ืš ืžื™ืœื“ื™ื• ืืช ื™ื™ืกื•ืจื™ื• ืฉืœื• ื›ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1893, ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื—ื•ืคืฉืช ืงื™ืฅ ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”, ืคื ื” ืขื ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ืœืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•, "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”". ื™ื•ื–ืžืชื• ื”ื—ืจื™ื“ื” ืืช ื”ืžื›ื•ืชื‘ื™ื ืขืžื ื“ืŸ ืื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื”, ืขื•ืจืš ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•, ืžื•ืจื™ืฅ ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜, ื•ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืคื•ืŸ ืœื™ื™ื˜ื ื‘ืจื’ืจ. ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื ื™ืขืจ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื—ื–ื•ื ื• ื›ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืœื•: "ื’ื–ืขืš ื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืื” ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœืš ื–ื›ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื ืœื›ืš ืงืฅ". ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ืžื•ื–ื›ืจืช ืจืง ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื‘ ืžืื•ื›ื–ื‘ ืœืคืจื™ื–, ืฉื ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืœื”ืžืจืช ื”ื“ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชืžื™ืžื”. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื›ืชื‘: "ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืื™ื ื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื•ืื™ื ื” ื“ืชื™ืช, ืืœื ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช". ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1893 ื ืชืงืฃ ื‘ืงื“ื—ืช. ื‘ึฐื™ืจื›ื™ื• ื”ืชืคืชื—ื• ื›ื™ื‘ื™ื, ื•ื”ื•ื ื ื–ืงืง ืœื ื™ืชื•ื—. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ื—ืœืžืชื• ื”ืžืžื•ืฉื›ืช ื›ืชื‘ ืืช "ื”ื”ืขืจื”" (Die Glosse), ืžื—ื–ื” ื‘ื—ืจื•ื–ื™ื ื”ืžืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื•ืœื•ื ื™ื” ื‘ืžืื” ื”-13 ื•ื“ืŸ ื‘ืงืฉื™ื™ ื”ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื, ืื•ืœื ื’ื ื”ื•ื ื ื“ื—ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ื•ืจื’ืชื™ืื˜ืจ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืงื™ืฅ 1894 ื—ื–ืจ ืœื—ื•ืคืฉื” ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”. ืžื“ื™ ื™ื•ื ื”ืชืคืจืกืžื• ื™ื“ื™ืขื•ืช ืขืœ ืชืงืจื™ื•ืช ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืจื›ื– ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ืœืขืžื™ืชื• ื”ืœื-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ, ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ืื ื—ื ื• ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื‘ืžืžื•ืŸ ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื“ื™ื—ื• ืื•ืชื ื• ืืœ ื”ืžืžื•ืŸ... ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื• ื ืฉื—ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืœื—ืฅ ื•ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขื•ืŸ ืชื™ืงื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืœื—ืฅ ืžืกื•ื’ ืื—ืจ... ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ื›ืŸ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ืขืฉื•ื™ื” ืœื”ื•ืขื™ืœ ืœืื•ืคื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ืžื•ืฉื’ ืจืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืžื”ืœื•ืžื•ืช ืงืฉื•ืช. ืกื’ื•ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ืงื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื“ืจื•ื•ื™ืŸ ืขืชื™ื“ื” ืœื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช. ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืกืชื’ืœื•. ื“ื•ืžื™ื ื”ื ืœื›ืœื‘ื™-ื”ื™ื, ืืฉืจ ืชืื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืข ื”ื˜ื™ืœื” ืื•ืชื ืœืชื•ืš ื”ืžื™ื... ื‘ืฉื•ื‘ื ืœื™ื‘ืฉื”, ื•ืื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื”ื™ืฉืืจ ืขืœื™ื” ื›ืžื” ื“ื•ืจื•ืช, ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ื”ืกื ืคื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœื”ื ื•ื™ื™ื”ืคื›ื• ืœืจื’ืœื™ื™ื". ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ืžืจื›ื‘ื” ืืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ื‘ื‘ืื“ืŸ, ืงืจืื• ืื—ืจื™ื• ืฉื ื™ ืคืจื—ื™-ืงืฆื•ื ื” "ื—ื–ื™ืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™"! (Saujud). ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1894 ืฉื‘ ืœืคืจื™ื–. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื™. ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืฉื ื” ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจื•ืชื• ื›ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื—ืฉื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ืื ืืžื ื "ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ื‘ืื—ื“ ื”ื™ืžื™ื (ื•ื™ืชืงื‘ืฆื• ื‘ืืจืฆื), ื”ืจื™ ืœืžื—ืจืชื• ื™ืชื‘ืจืจ ืœื”ื ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื ืขื•ื“ ืขื ืื—ื“. ืžืื•ืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื ืฉืชืจืฉื• ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืœืื•ืžื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ื ื‘ื“ืœื™ื ื–ื” ืžื–ื”. ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืชึพืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช". ื‘-1894 ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืžื—ื–ื”ื• "ื”ื’ื˜ื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉ", ื•ื‘ื• ืชื™ืืจ ืืช ื“ืžื•ืช ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื ืžืฆื ื‘ืžืชื— ื”ืืžื ืฆื™ืคื˜ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžื•ื‘ื”ืง - ื”ื•ื ืื“ื ืืžื ื•ืชื™ ื•ืขื“ื™ืŸ-ื ืคืฉ ื”ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ืขืฆืžื•, ืืš ืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื—ืžื•ืง ืžื”ื–ื™ื”ื•ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืกืคืกืจื™ื ืžืขื•ืจืจื™ ืฉืื˜-ื ืคืฉ. ื‘ืžืกืข ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉื• ืื—ืจ ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืคื ื™ืžื™ืช ื•ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืขืฆืžื™ ื”ื•ื ื ืงืจืข ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื‘ื ื™-ื”ืื“ื ืฉื•ื•ื™ื ื•ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืืคืœื™ื•ืช ืชืชื‘ื˜ืœื ื” ืขื ื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื”ืงื“ืžื”, ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ื”ื’ื•ื–ืจืช ืขืœื™ื• ื›ืœื™ืื” ื‘ื’ื˜ื• ื—ื‘ืจืชื™-ืžืขืžื“ื™ ื’ื ืœืื—ืจ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื”ื’ื˜ื• ื”ืžืžืฉื™. ืžื™ืœื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ื”ืŸ "ืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ื”ื—ื•ืฆื”! ื”ื—ื•ืฆื” ืžื”ื’ื˜ื•!". ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ืžืฉืงืฃ ืืช ื™ืื•ืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืืช ืื•ื‘ื“ืŸ ืืžื•ื ืชื• ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื—ื‘ืจื”, ื”ืŸ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื”ืจื™ืืœื™ ืฉืื•ืชื• ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืงืฉื•ืช, ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื” ื”ืžื•ืฉืจืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ื‘ื” ื”ื ื•ืฆืจื™ืช. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ืžื—ื–ื”, ื”ืคื ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ืœืคืขื•ืœ ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืš, ืคืจื•ืค' ื‘ืŸ-ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื“ื™ื ื•ืจ ืจืื” ื‘ืžื—ื–ื” ืืช "ื ืงื•ื“ืช-ื”ืžื•ืฆื ืœืชืคื™ืกืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช" ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ืžื•ื“ืขื•ืชื• ื•ืจื’ืฉื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ืžืฆื‘ื ื”ืขืžื™ืงื• ื›ืืฉืจ ืกื™ืงืจ ืืช ืžืฉืคื˜ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื›ืฉืœื™ื— "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”" ื‘ืคืจื™ื–. ื“ื™ื•ื•ื—ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ืคื•ืจืกื ื‘"ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”" ื‘-1 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1894, ืขืช ื ื—ืฉืคื” ื”ืคืจืฉื” ืœืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื”ืืžื™ืŸ ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื‘ื—ืคื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื•ืืฃ ื˜ืขืŸ ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื›ื™ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื‘ื™ืฆืข ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื™ื•ื—ืกื• ืœื•, ืื•ืœื ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš, ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ื•ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื‘ืฆืจืคืช ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืœื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื—ืœืง ื‘ืคืจืฉื™ื™ืช ื”ืจื™ื’ื•ืœ, ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืฉื•ื›ื ืข ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื›ื™ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื—ืฃ ืžืคืฉืข. ื”ื•ื ื ื›ื— ื‘ืื•ืœื ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื‘ืขืช ืžืชืŸ ืคืกืง ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื‘-22 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 1894, ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื›ืจื– ืฉื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ืืฉื ื•ื ื™ื“ื•ืŸ ืœืžืืกืจ ืขื•ืœื, ื•ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื™ื, ื‘-5 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1895, ื”ื™ื” ืื—ื“ ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืกืคืจ ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืจืฉื• ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก ืœื›ื™ื›ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉื‘ื” ื ืขืจืš ื˜ืงืก ื”ืฉืคืœืชื• ื”ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชืจืฉื ืžืขืžื™ื“ืชื• ื”ืื™ืชื ื”. ื”ื•ื ืฉืžืข ืืช ืฆืขืงื•ืช ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ "ื™ื•ื“ืืก! ื‘ื•ื’ื“!" ื‘ื˜ืงืก ื”ืกืจืช ื“ืจื’ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก, ืฉื”ื•ืจืฉืข ื‘ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื”, ื•ืืช ืชืฉื•ื‘ืชื• ื‘ืงื•ืœ: "ืื ื™ ืื•ืกืจ ืขืœื™ื›ื ืœื’ื“ืฃ ืื•ืชื™!". ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืชื“ืคืง ืขืœ ืฉืขืจื™ ื”ื‘ืจื–ืœ ืฆืขืง "ืžื•ื•ืช ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื!" ืื•ืœื ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ื”ื˜ืงืก, ืฉื•ึผื ืชื” ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ืœ"ืžื•ื•ืช ืœื‘ื•ื’ื“ื™ื!". ืขื•ืจื›ื™ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ, ืื“ื•ืืจื“ ื‘ืื›ืจ (ืื ') ื•ืžื•ืจื™ืฅ ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜, ืกื‘ืจื• ืฉืขื“ื™ืฃ ืฉืœื ืœืœื‘ื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืืช ืืฉ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ืฉื‘ืขืจื” ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื‘ืื•ืชื ื™ืžื™ื. ื”ื‘ื•ืœืฉืช ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช ื‘ื“ืงื” ืขืชื” ื‘ืงื‘ื™ืขื•ืช ืืช ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื‘-21 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 1895 ืฆื•ื™ื ื” ื‘ื“ื•"ื— ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ "ืื™ื‘ืชื• ืœืฆืจืคืช". ื™ืฉื ื” ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ื˜ืขื ื” ืฉืœืžืฉืคื˜ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ืฉืœืžื” ืื‘ื™ื ืจื™ ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื™ื• ืžื”ืฉื ื™ื 1895โ€“1897, ืžืชื—ื™ืœืช ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ื•ืขื“ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ โ€“ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืžืขืฆื‘ื•ืช, ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืืฆืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืžื•ื–ื›ืจ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ืจืง ืคืขืžื™ื™ื. ื•ืื•ืžื ื, ืจืง ื‘-1899 ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื›ื™ ืžืฉืคื˜ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ืขืฉื” ืื•ืชื• ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื™ื‘ืฅ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื›ืชื‘ื•ืช ืฉืคืจืกื ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก (ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื›ืœ ื”ื›ืชื‘ื•ืช ืฉืคืจืกื ื‘"ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”") ื‘ืกืคืจ "ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื‘ื•ืจื‘ื•ืŸ" (ืื• "ืคืืœื” ื‘ื•ืจื‘ื•ืŸ"). ืžืฉืคื˜ื• ื•ื”ืฉืคืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื ื˜ืขื• ืืฆืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืขืฆืžืื™ืช, ืืš ื”ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ื ืช ื”ืงืฉ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืขืชื” ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื•ื”ืชื—ื–ืงื•ืช ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื’ื ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื—ื™ื–ืงื” ืืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ืชื•. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1895 ื ืฉืžืขื• ื‘ืคืจืœืžื ื˜ ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืœื’ื™ืจื•ืฉ ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ื•ื”ื—ืจืžืช ืจื›ื•ืฉื. ื‘ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื” ื™ืฉื‘ื• 56 ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื. ื”ื ื”ืชื—ื–ืงื• ื’ื ื‘ืืกืคื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื‘ืฆืจืคืช ื•ื’ื ื‘ืจื™ื™ื›ืกื˜ืื’ ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืกืงื ื” ื›ื™ ืขืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืฆืืช ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืœืžืฆื•ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืžืชืื™ืžื” ื•ืœื ื”ืœ ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืขืœื™ื”. ื”ื”ื’ื™ืจื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืืœื™ื” ืชื™ืขืฉื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ืžืื•ืจื’ื ืช, ื’ืœื•ื™ื” ื•ื‘ืงื ื”-ืžื™ื“ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืชื•ืš ื”ืกื›ืžื” ืžืœืื” ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ื ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื”ื›ืœ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœืžื”ื’ืจื™ื ืขื ื”ื’ืขืชื, ื”ืฉื™ื›ื•ืŸ, ื”ืชืขืกื•ืงื” ื•ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ื™ืฆื™ืืชื ืชืžื•ืžืŸ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืœื•ื•ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืขื•ืœืžื™. ื›ืš ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉ ืืฆืœื• ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™-ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™, ืฉื”ื•ืฉืคืข ื’ื ืžืขืœื™ื™ืช ื”ืชื•ื“ืขื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ืขืžื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉื ืฉืœื˜ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื•. ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื, ืฆ'ื›ื™ื, ืกืœื•ื‘ืงื™ื ื•ืขืžื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉื• ืœื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืืช ื–ื”ื•ืชื ื”ืืชื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช ืจื‘ืช-ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉืœื™ื ืขืชื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ืฉื ื™ ืžืขื’ืœื™ื: ืžืขื‘ืจ ืžืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ืœืงื•ืกืžื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ื•ืžืงื•ืกืžื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืœืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ "ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืกืคืจ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื‘ืฉื ืช 1895 ื”ื—ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื• ืœืฉื›ื ืข ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืžืžื•ืกื“ืช ื‘ื”ื ื”ื’ืชื•. ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืžืื™ ืคื ื” ืœื ื“ื‘ืŸ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ืื—ื“ ืžืขืฉื™ืจื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจืฉ, ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืฉื™ืขื–ื•ืจ ืœืžืžืŸ ืืช ื™ืฆื™ืืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื›ื™ืŸ ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืŸ 22 ืขืžื•ื“ื™ื, ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•. ืื•ืœื ื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืžืชื•ื— ื•ืชื•ืงืคื ื™ ื•ืœืœื ื™ื“ื™ืขื” ืžืกืคืงืช ืขืœ ืคืขื•ืœื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ื™ืจืฉ. ื”ื•ื ืชืงืฃ ืืช ื ื™ืกื•ื™ื™ื• ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื”, ืฉื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื™ืง"ื ื™ืฉื‘ื• ืื– ื›-6,000 ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื "ืžื’ื“ืœ ืคื•ืฉื˜ื™ึพื™ื“". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื˜ืขืŸ ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ื’ื™ืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืฉ ืœื—ื•ืœืœ ื‘ืขื ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•: "ื™ืฉ ืœืขืฉื•ืชื• ืืžื™ืฅึพืœื‘, ื ื›ื•ืŸ ืœืžืœื—ืžื”, ื—ืจื•ืฅ ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื•ื‘ืขืœ ืžื™ื“ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช". ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ "ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคื ื™ื™ื” ืืœ ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ, ื‘ืกืžืœื™ื ื›ื‘ื™ืจื™ื... ืื•ืžื•ืช ืžื•ืฉืคืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื“ื’ืœื™ื, ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื, ืฉื™ืจื™ื". ื”ื™ืจืฉ ื˜ืขืŸ ืืžื ื ื›ื™ "ื”ื’ื™ืจื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“" ื•ื›ื™ "ื™ืฉ ื“ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืžื“ื•ืช ืœืžื›ื™ืจื”", ืื•ืœื ื›ื™ื ื” ืืช ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ "ื”ืžืฆืื•ืช ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช". ืคื’ื™ืฉืชื ื”ืกืชื™ื™ืžื” ืžื‘ืœื™ ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกืคื™ืง ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ื™ืจืฉ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืœื›ื™ื ื•ืก ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ืฉื™ื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘ืฉื•ื‘ื• ื”ื‘ื™ืชื” ืžื™ื”ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™, ืชื—ืช ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช "ืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ืฉื”ื•ืงื“ืฉ ื›ื•ืœื• ืœืฉืืœื” ื–ื• ื‘ืœื‘ื“, ืœืœื ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื•ืช ืœื—ื™ื™ื• ื”ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ื™ื ืื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื›ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™. ื”ื™ื•ืžืŸ ืžืชืืคื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ึพืœื‘ ืื ื•ืฉื™, ื”ื›ื•ืœืœ ืืช ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืชื™ื•, ืฉืื™ืคื•ืชื™ื• ื•ื”ืคืœื’ื•ืชึพื“ืžื™ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืœื ืฉืžืฅ ืžื‘ื•ื›ื”. ืœืื—ืจ ืคื’ื™ืฉืชื• ืขื ื”ื™ืจืฉ, ื›ืชื‘ ืœื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื• ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ื‘ื™ื“ื• ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื•ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืœื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื›ืกืฃ ืœืฉื ื™ืฆื™ืจืช "ืืžืฆืขื™ ืชืขื‘ื•ืจื”, ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ึพืžื–ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืžื•ื ื™ื" ื•ื›ืŸ "ื‘ื ื™ืŸ ืขืจื™ื ื•ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื•ืช", ืื•ืœื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ื“ืจื•ืฉื” "ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ืขืฆื•ืžื”... ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช, ืฉื™ืจื™ื... ื“ื’ืœ... ืืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ืขื ืฉืœื โ€“ ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ืขื ื”ืžืคื•ื–ืจ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื โ€“ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื”ืœ ืจืง ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืืฉืจ ืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ, ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืžืจื—ืคื™ื ื‘ืื•ื™ืจ". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื "ื”ื™ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื‘ืฆืข ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืœ ืชืขื‘ื•ืจื”, ืฉืื™ืŸ ืœื• ืชืงื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™" ื•ืฉืœืฆื•ืจืš ื›ืš ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœืขืจื•ืš ืžึดืœื•ื•ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืœืื•ืžื™ ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ื™ืจืฉ 50 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืืจืง. ื ื™ืžืช ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื”ื™ืจื”. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื”ืชื—ืจื˜ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ื”ืžืชื ืฉื ืœื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจืฉ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœืคื ื•ืช ืœืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื‘ื‘ืงืฉื” ืœืกื™ื™ืข ื‘ื”ืงืžืช "ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืื—ืจืื™ืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืขืœ ืงื ื™ื™ืช ืืจืฅ, ืชืืจื’ืŸ ืืช ื”ื”ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžื”ื’ืจื™ื, ื•ืชื”ื•ื•ื” ืžืขื™ืŸ ื’ืจืขื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉืœื” ื—ื“ืฉื”. ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืืžื•ืจื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ืœืžื˜ืจื” ื–ื• ืืช ื™ื•ืงืจืชื” ื•ืืช ืงืฉืจื™ื” ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื•ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืืช ื›ืกืคื”: ืชืžื•ืจืช ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ืคืจื ืงื™ื ืฉืชืชืจื•ื ืœืžืœื•ื•ื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™, ื™ื”ื™ื” ืื—ื“ ืžื‘ื ื™ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื™ืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืจืคื•ื‘ืœื™ืงื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895 ื—ื™ื‘ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืจื•ืš ื‘ืฉื "ื ืื•ื ืืœ ื”ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ื™ื", ืื•ืชื• ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืฉืžื™ืข ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ืก ืฉืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“. ื‘ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ื ื™ื‘ื ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื™ื•ื—ืจื ื‘ืžื•ืงื“ื ืื• ื‘ืžืื•ื—ืจ, ื•ื’ื ื”ื, ื›ืžื• ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื™ื’ื•ืจืฉื• ืžื›ืžื” ืืจืฆื•ืช: "ื•ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ืฉื ื ื‘ืงืฉ ืžืงืœื˜, ื™ื”ืจื’ื• ืื•ืชื ื•". ืœื˜ืขื ืชื• ื‘ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ, ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืื™ื ื” ืžืชืื™ืžื” ื›ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื” ืžื“ื™ ืœืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื™ืฉ ืœื‘ื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ืžืŸ ื”ืกืขืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืช. ืžืœื‘ื“ ื–ืืช, ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืชืจื’ืœื• ืœืืงืœื™ื ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื–ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื–ืจื—. ืืจืฅ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ืชื™ื‘ื—ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื•ืขื“ื” ืฉืœ ื’ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ื ื•ืื ืฉื™ ืžื“ืขื™ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”. ื”ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืื•ืคื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื•ืคื™ืจื˜ ืืช ืกื“ืจื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœ, ื”ืฆื‘ื, ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื”ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ืชืื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื”, ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉ"ื”ื“ืช ืžืื—ื“ืช ืื•ืชื ื•, ื”ืžื“ืข ืขื•ืฉื” ืื•ืชื ื• ื‘ื ื™ึพื—ื•ืจื™ืŸ"; ื•ื›ื™ ืฉืคืชื” ืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ืขื‘ืจื™ืช, ืฉื›ืŸ ื›ืžื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืกื•ื’ืœื™ื ืœืงื ื•ืช ื›ืจื˜ื™ืกึพืจื›ื‘ืช ื‘ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื–ื•? ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืฉืคื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ืช ืชื”ื™ื” ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื‘ืฉืœ ืงืจื‘ืชื” ืœื™ื™ื“ื™ืฉ (ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื—ื–ืจ ื‘ื• ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื•ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ืฉืคืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืชื”ื™ื” ืขื‘ืจื™ืช). ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืคื™ื›ืชื• ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืœืื•ืžื™, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืจืื” ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ืจืžื ื™: "ื”ื ื ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื’ืจืžื ื™ ืžื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”, ื•ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ืื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืœื ื’ืจืžื ื™". ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ืื•ื˜ื• ืคื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืกืžืจืง, ืงื ืฆืœืจ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ, ื‘ื• ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื• ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ืœืืœื‘ืจื˜ ืคื•ืŸ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ (ืื '), ืจืืฉ ื”ืขื ืฃ ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ืขืœ ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืœืฉืžืฉ ื›ืขื“ ืขืœ ื›ื•ื•ื ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช. ื’ื ื‘ื™ืกืžืจืง ื•ื’ื ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืœื ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื• ืœื•. ื‘ื™ืกืžืจืง ืืžืจ ืœืื—ื“ ืžืžื›ืจื™ื• ื›ื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื ืกื›ื ื” ื”ืŸ ืœื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ื”ืŸ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื‘ืืžืฆืข ื™ื•ืœื™ 1895 ืฉื•ื‘ ืคืจืฆื• ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืžื”ื•ืžื•ืช ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช. ื‘-27 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1895 ืขื–ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืคืจื™ื– ื•ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื• ื‘ืขื™ื™ืจืช ื”ืงื™ื˜ ืืื•ืกื–ึถื” ืฉื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ืขื™ืœื™ืช. ืงื™ืจื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืงืชืช ื”ืจื—ืฆื” ืฉืขืœ ื—ื•ืฃ ื”ืื’ื ื”ื™ื• ืžื›ื•ืกื™ื ื›ืชื•ื‘ื•ืช ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช, ืืš ืœืฆื™ื“ืŸ ื”ื™ื• ื’ื ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื ืขืจื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืขืชื™ืง ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ืœืคื ืงืกื•: "ืืœื•ื”ื™ื, ืฉืœื— ืืช ืžืฉื” ืืœื™ื ื• ื•ื™ืื—ื– ื‘ื™ื“ื ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื• ื•ื™ื—ื–ื™ืจื ืœืืจืฅึพื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”". ื‘-17 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืžื™ื ื›ืŸ, ืฉื ื ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื“"ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ืฅ ื’ื™ื“ึถืžืŸ, ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”, ื•ืขื ื”ื ื“ื‘ืŸ ื”ื‘ืจืœื™ื ืื™ ื”ื™ื™ื ืจื™ืš ืžืื™ืจ-ื›ื”ืŸ, ื•ืงืจื ื‘ืคื ื™ื”ื ืืช ื›ืชื‘ ื”ื™ื“ ืฉืœ "ื ืื•ื ืืœ ื”ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ื™ื". ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืฉืžืข ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืืžืจ ื’ื™ื“ืžืŸ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ: "ืืชื” ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœื™ ืืช ืžืฉื”!". ืฉื ื™ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื ื™ืขืฆื• ืœื• ืฉืœื "ืœื‘ื–ื‘ื–" ืืช ื”ื ืื•ื ืขืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“. ื’ื™ื“ืžืŸ ื™ืขืฅ ืœื• "ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืืœ ื”ืขื, ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืจื•ืžืŸ", ืฉืขืฉื•ื™ ืœื”ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ื’ื“ื•ืœื”. ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 1895, ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื™ืขื“ืจื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื, ื—ื–ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ืžืฉืจืชื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื›ืขื•ืจืš ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ ืฉืœ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”". ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื’ืขืชื•, ื–ื›ื• ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืช ืงืจืœ ืœื•ืื’ืจ ืœืจื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ืขื™ืจ, ื•ืœื•ืื’ืจ ืขืฆืžื• ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœืจืืฉื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ. ืœื•ืื’ืจ ื›ื‘ืจ ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืขื•ื“ ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ, ืืœื ืฉื’ื ืื– ื•ื’ื ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ืกื™ืจื‘ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืคืจื ืฅ ื™ื•ื–ืฃ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœ ื“ืขื•ืช ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ื•ืžื ื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช, ืœืืฉืจ ืืช ืžื™ื ื•ื™ื• ืœืจืืฉ ื”ืขื™ืจ. ืœืžืจื•ืช ื–ืืช, ื”ื™ื” ืœื•ืื’ืจ ื ืขืจืฅ ืขืœ ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื™ืฆื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืœ ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช, ืฉื ื ื•ื›ื— ืขื“ ื›ืžื” "ืขืžื•ืงื™ื ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ืœื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื”". ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืจื•ื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ื™ื ื”, ื”ืฆื˜ืขืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ืกื™ืจื•ื‘ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืœืืฉืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืกื‘ืจ ื›ื™ ื”ืฉืขื™ื™ืช ืœื•ืื’ืจ ืจืง ื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื”ืฉื ืื” ื•ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื™ืืœืฅ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืข ืœื”ืžื•ื ื™ื. ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ ืืžืจ ืœืจื•ื–ืŸ ื‘ืื“ึถื ื™, ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืงื™ืกืจื™, ื›ื™ ืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืœืงื™ืกืจ ืœืืฉืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”. ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ืœื•ืื’ืจ ื”ืขืœืชื” ืืฆืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ื—ืฉืฉ ืžืคื ื™ ืขืœื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ืชื•ืงืคื ื™ืช ื“ื•ื•ืงื ืขื ื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”. ื”ื•ื ืจืื” ื‘ื›ืš ืกื™ืžืŸ ืืคืฉืจื™ ืœื”ืชืขืจืขืจื•ืช ื™ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช, ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืขืจื•ื‘ื” ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื—ืช ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื‘ืชื•ืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืžื—ื–ืจืชื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืชื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ืฉื”ืชืขื ื™ื ื• ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืขืฆืช ืื‘ื™ื• ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื, ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช "ื”ื ืื•ื ืืœ ื”ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ื™ื" ืœืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™. ื”ื•ื ื“ืจืฉ ืžืฉื ื™ ืขื•ืจื›ื™ ื”"ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”", ื‘ืื›ืจ ื•ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜, ืœืคืจืกื ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ื‘ื’ื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื™ื•ื ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ, ื›ืืฉืจ ืขืœ ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉืขืจ ืชื•ืคื™ืข ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช "ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ืžืืช ื“"ืจ ืชื™ืื•ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœืฉืื•ืœ ืฉืืœื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืจื•ืช, ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืœืคืชื— ื•ื™ื›ื•ื— ืฉื™ืฆื•ืจ ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื. ืื•ืœื ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ ื—ืฉืฉ ืžืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช ื•ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื“ืจื™ืฉืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื•: "ืื ื™ ืื”ื™ื” ืคืจื ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื‘-11 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1895 ื™ืฆื ืœืคืจื™ื–. ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื™ื•ื ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ืชืจื—ืฉื• ืžืขืฉื™ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื™ื•ื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ืฉื•ื‘ ืกื™ืจื‘ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืœืืฉืจ ืืช ื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ืœื•ืื’ืจ ืœืจืืฉื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจื™ื™ื”. ื‘ืคืจื™ื– ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ืžืžื•ืฉื›ื•ืช ืขื ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ืฆืจืคืช, ืฆื“ื•ืง ื›ื”ืŸ. ื–ื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขืžื•, ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ืคืจื™ื– ื‘ืžืฉืš ืืจื‘ืข ืฉื ื™ื. ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืืช ืื”ื“ืชื• ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ืžืกืคืจ ืื™ื ื˜ืœืงื˜ื•ืืœื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฆืจืคืชื™ื. ื›ืืฉืจ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืชื• ื”ื™ื ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช, ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ืžื”? ื”ืื ืื™ืŸ ืืชื” ื•ืื ื™ ืžืฉืชื™ื™ื›ื™ื ืœืื•ืชื” ืื•ืžื”? ืžื“ื•ืข ื ื—ืจื“ืช ื›ืฉื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื•ืื’ืจ? ืžื“ื•ืข ืกื‘ืœืชื™ ืื ื™ ื›ืฉื”ื•ืืฉื ืงืคื™ื˜ืŸ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื‘ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื” ื‘ืžื•ืœื“ืช?". ื‘ืคืจื™ื– ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ื ืขื ืžืงืก ื ื•ืจื“ืื•, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืื– ื”ื•ื’ื” ื“ืขื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืžืคื•ืจืกื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ื ืกื—ืฃ ืžื™ื“ ืื—ืจ ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื™ืฆื ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืืฆืœ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื–ื ื’ื•ื•ื™ืœ, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืกื•ืคืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™-ืื ื’ืœื™ ื™ื“ื•ืข. ื–ื ื’ื•ื•ื™ืœ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืขื ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืชื•ืžืš ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืฉืงืคื” ื’ื–ืขื™ืช: "ื”ื ื ื• ื’ื–ืข, ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื ื ื• ืื•ืžื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ืœืง ืขืœ ื”ืฉืงืคื” ื–ื• ื•ื˜ืขืŸ: "ื”ื ื ื• ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช, ืื•ืžื” ืจื‘ืช ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ื™ื ืื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื. ืื‘ืœ ื’ื ื‘ื›ืš ื“ื™ ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืื™ืŸ ืื•ืžื” ื‘ืขืœืช ืื—ื™ื“ื•ืช ื’ื–ืขื™ืช". ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื–ื ื’ื•ื•ื™ืœ, ื”ื›ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืื™ืฉื™ื ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื ื‘ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ. ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ื”ื™ื” ืกืจ ืกืžื•ืืœ ืžื•ื ื˜ื’ื™ื•, ื‘ื ืงืื™ ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ื—ื‘ืจ ืคืจืœืžื ื˜, ืฉื ืขื ื” ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช, ืืš ื”ืชื ื” ืืช ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ื•ื”ื›ืกืคื™ืช ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืชืงื•ื ืืš ื•ืจืง ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงื ื•ืช ืื•ืชื” ืชืžื•ืจืช ืฉื ื™ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื˜ืจืœื™ื ื’. ื‘ื ืื•ืžื• ื‘ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื›ื‘ื™ื, ื”ืฉืžื™ืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™. ื”ื ืืกืคื™ื ืงืžื• ืขืœ ืจื’ืœื™ื”ื ื•ื”ืจื™ืขื• ืœื• ื•ืžื™ื“ ื‘ื—ืจื• ื‘ื• ืœื—ื‘ืจ-ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ. ืขื ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื”ื—ืœ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก. ื”ื•ื ื ื™ืกื— ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื•ื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช "ื”ื ืื•ื ืืœ ื”ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ื™ื" ืœืžืืžืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขื•ื‘ื“ืชื™ ื•ืคื—ื•ืช ืžืœื™ืฆื™, ื•ื”ืฉืชื“ืœ ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืžื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืจื•ืฉื ืฉืœ ืื’ื“ื” ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ืช ืื• ืจื•ืžืŸ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™. ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ื™ื ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื ืคื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90 ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ืฉืฉ ืฉื™ืฉื•ื• ืื•ืชื• ืœืชื™ืื•ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆืงื”, ืฉื”ื™ื” ืขื•ืจืš ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ืฉืœ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”" ื•ื›ืชื‘ ื‘-1890 ืืช ื”ืจื•ืžืŸ "ืืจืฅ ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉ" (Freiland) โ€“ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ืช ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ืžืฉื•ื•ื ื™ืช, ืฉื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ืช ืœืขื’ื” ืœื• ื•ืœืขืœื™ืœื•ืชื™ื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื‘ืจ ื›ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื“ื™ืœ ืžืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืชื•ืงื ื‘ืขื–ืจืช "ื›ื•ื— ื˜ื‘ืข" ื•ื”ื•ื "ืžืฆื•ืงืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื‘-24 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืจื‘ ื’ื™ื“ืžืŸ ืœื‘ืงืจื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืขืกื•ืง ื‘ื”ื“ืœืงืช ืขืฅ ื—ื’ ื”ืžื•ืœื“ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ืœื“ื™ื• ื•ื”ืจื‘ ืžื—ื” ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืžื ื”ื’ ื ื•ืฆืจื™ ื–ื” ืžืชืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื“ื ืฉืจื•ืื” ืขืฆืžื• ื›ื’ื•ืืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืš: "ืœื ืื ื™ื— ืฉื™ืœื—ืฆื• ืขืœื™. ืœื“ื™ื“ื™ ื™ืงืจืื• ืœื• ืื™ืœืŸึพื—ื ื•ื›ื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžื—ื™ื™ื‘ืช ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื™ ื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™. ื”ื•ื ืกื‘ืจ ืฉืจืง ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ืชื™ืคืชืจ ืžืฆื•ืงืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ืชื™ืขืœื ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช. ืืช ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ื”ื•ื ืคืจืกื ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1896, ื‘ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ื‘ืŸ 68 ืขืžื•ื“ื™ื, ื•ืงืจื ืœื• "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื: ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืœืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ ืฉืœ ืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ืœื ื ืžืฆื ืžื•ืฆื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ื‘ืขืœ ืžื•ื ื™ื˜ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืคืจืกื ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื•ืฆื™ืื• ืœืื•ืจ ืืฆืœ ืžืงืก ื‘ืจื™ื™ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ, ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžืชื‘ื•ืœืœ ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœื™ื” ืฉืœ ื—ื ื•ืช ืกืคืจื™ื ืงื˜ื ื” ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘-17 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1896 ืคื•ืจืกืžื” ื‘"ื’'ื•ืื™ืฉ ื›ืจื•ื ื™ืงืœ" ืฉืœ ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ืชืžืฆื™ืช ืงืฆืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจ. ืขื•ืจื›ื™ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”" ื ืชืงืคื• ื‘ื”ืœื” ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื–ื•ื”ื” ื‘"ื›ืจื•ื ื™ืงืœ" ื›ืขื•ืจืš ื”ืื—ืจืื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื–ืืช ืœื—ืฆื• ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืขื›ื‘ ืืช ื”ื“ืคืกืช ื”ืกืคืจ, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื”ืžืชื™ืŸ. ื”ืกืคืจ ื–ื›ื” ืœืคืจืกื•ื ืจื‘ ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื•ืฆืืชื•, ืื•ืœื ื’ื ื•ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืœืœืขื’ ื•ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืฉืœื™ืœื™ืช. ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ื”ืงื•ืจืื™ื ื”ืื•ื”ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืจื•ืกื™ื ืฉื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจื• ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”. ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ ื•ื™ื ื” ืชืงืคื• ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืืช ื”ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ืฉืœื•. ื”ืกื•ืคืจ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื˜ืคืŸ ืฆื•ื•ื™ื’ ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื™ "ืฉื•ื ืื“ื ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืœื ื”ื•ืฉื ืœืœืขื’ ื›ื”ืจืฆืœ". ืขื™ืชื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืžืจ ืขืœ ืฉืชื™ืงื”. ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ ื”ืคืจ ืืช ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ืชื• ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžืช ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคืจืกื ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ื”ืกืคืจ ื•ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืคืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืื•ืกืจืช ืœื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื• ื•ืืช ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ืขื•ืกืง ื‘ื˜ื•ืจื™ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ. ืœืื—ืจ ืคืจืกื•ื ื”ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก, ื”ืคืกื™ืง ืคืชืื•ื ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ื’ื™ื“ึถืžืŸ ืืช ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ื‘ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืชืงืคื” ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื“ืžื’ื•ื’ ื—ืกืจ ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื•ื›ืฉืงืจืŸ. ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื”ืŸ ืฉืœ ื›-500 ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ื”ื’ื™ืฉื• ืขืฆื•ืžื” ืœืงื™ืกืจ ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉื• ืœืืกื•ืจ ื‘ื—ื•ืง ืืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื›ืชื ื•ืขื” ืื ื˜ื™-ื“ืชื™ืช. ื”ื”ื ื”ื’ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ื—ืฉืฉื” ืžื›ืš ืฉื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื™ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื”, ื•ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžื–ื” ื—ืฆื™ ื™ื•ื‘ืœ ื”ืชืื—ื“ื• ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื ื•ื”ื ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื ื‘ื”ืฆื”ืจืช ื’ื™ื ื•ื™ ืžืฉื•ืชืคืช. ื”ืจื‘ ืืจื™ื” ืœื™ืคืฉื™ืฅ, ืจืืฉ ืœืฉื›ืช ื”ื™ืจืื™ื, ื›ืชื‘: "ื”ืžื’ื™ืืจื™ื ื‘ื ื™ ื“ืช ืžืฉื” ื—ืคืฆื™ื ืœืคืจื•ื— ื›ืืŸ, ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื; ืื™ืŸ ืœื”ื ื›ืœ ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื”". ืขื ื–ืืช, ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืชืžื›ื• ื‘ื”ืจืฆืœ ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ื”, ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืชืขืœื ืžื”ืŸ ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ื ื”ื•ืคืชืข ืœื’ืœื•ืช ื›ื™ ื™ืฉื ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื•ืชื™ืงื™ื, ืจื•ื‘ื ื™ื•ืฆืื™ ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ืฉื™ื™ืกื“ื• ื›ื‘ืจ ืžืขื™ืŸ ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ืจืง ืขืชื” ืงืจื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืืช ืกืคืจื• ืฉืœ ืคื™ื ืกืงืจ "ืื•ื˜ื•ืืžื ืฆื™ืคืฆื™ื”!", ื•ื”ื•ืคืชืข ืžื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ืœืกืคืจื•, ื”ืŸ ื‘ื ื™ืชื•ื— ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื•ื”ืŸ ื‘ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ืฆืข ืœื”. ืงืจื™ืืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื“ื”ื“ื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ืขื•ืจืจื” ื‘ื”ื ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช. ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฆืฃ ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ืชืžื™ื›ื” ืžืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื‘ืืกืคืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืคื™ื” ืฉื‘ื‘ื•ืœื’ืจื™ื”, ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ื• ืขืœื™ื• ื›ืžืฉื™ื—. "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื" ืชื•ืจื’ื ืœืžืกืคืจ ืฉืคื•ืช. ื‘ืืžืฆืข ืžืจืฅ 1896 ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื” ืืฆืœื• ืชื—ื•ืฉืช ื”ืคืขืžืช. ืจื•ืคืื• ืื‘ื—ืŸ ืืฆืœื• "ืžื—ืœืชึพืœื‘ ืžื—ืžืช ื”ืชืจื’ืฉื•ืช" ื•ื”ืžืœื™ืฅ ืขืœ ืžื ื•ื—ื” ืžืžื•ืฉื›ืช, ืื•ืœื ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื”ืงื“ื—ืชื ื™ืช. ืžืจื•ื‘ ื›ืชื™ื‘ื”, ื ืชืงืฃ ืขื•ื•ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื“ื• ื”ื™ืžื ื™ืช ื•ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื›ืชื•ื‘. ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœ ื‘ื™ืชื•. ื‘ืžืื™ ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืื•ืชื• ื“ื•ื“ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ, ืฉืžื”ืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื ืขืฉื” ืœืจืืฉ ืขื•ื–ืจื™ื•. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืžืื™ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืื•ืชื• ืžื ื—ื ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ. ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ื”ืžื’ืข ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ืชื ื•ืขืช "ื—ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ" ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื‘ืคื’ื™ืฉืชื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ ื”ื ืœื ืคืกืงื• ืœื”ืชื•ื•ื›ื—. ื›ืฉืขื–ื‘ ืืช ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ืขื™ืจ ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ืจืฆืœ "ืื™ื ื• ื™ื•ื“ืข ื•ืœืึพื›ืœื•ื ืขืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ืจืง ืžื›ืฉื•ืœื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช". ื”ืกืคืจ "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื" ื”ื™ื•ื•ื” ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื–ืจื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช, ืฉืชื•ืžื›ื™ื” ืกื‘ืจื•, ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื”ื›ืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื•ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ืช (ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ) ื‘ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืขืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืคื ื™ ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ โ€“ ื”ืกื“ืจ ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ืฉื™ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืืช ื–ื›ื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืืจืฅ, ื•ืจืง ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืฉื’ืช ืขืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ื—ื•ืงื™ื•ืช ื•ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช, ื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื”ื’ื™ืจื” (ืขืœื™ื™ื”). ื“ืขืชื• ื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืคื•ื›ื” ืžื“ืขืช "ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืฉื™ืช" ืฉืœ "ื—ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ" ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืช ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ, ืฉืคืขืœื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืขืœื™ื™ื” ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืงื‘ื™ืขืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ื•ืช. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืงื•ื ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ืื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1896 ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื‘ ืืœ ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจืฉ, ืืš ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ืžืื•ื—ืจ ืžื“ื™. ื”ื™ืจืฉ ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืื—ื•ื–ืชื• ื‘ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ืื‘ื“ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ืจืฉ, ืืš ืื ื™ ื‘ื ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•, ื•ื›ืฉืืกืชืœืง ืื ื™, ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ืื—ืจ. ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืงื•ึพืขืœื™ื™ื”". ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœืžืžืฉ ืืช ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ื”ื—ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ืช ื ืจื—ื‘ืช, ื”ืŸ ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื•ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื, ืฉืžื”ื ืงื™ื•ื•ื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื”ืฆื”ืจื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฆืจื™ื›ื” ืœื‘ื•ื ืœื™ื“ื™ ืžื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘"ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ" (ืžืกืžืš ื”ื›ืจื” ืจืฉืžื™). ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื” ืืช ื–ื™ืจืช ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ืžืคืขืœื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื–ืจื—ื” ื•ื‘ืžืจื›ื–ื” ื”ื•ืขืžื“ ื‘ืกื›ื ืช ืงื™ื•ื ืขื ืคืจื•ืฅ ื”ืคื•ืœืžื•ืกื™ื ื‘ืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื—ืก ืœืžืกื•ืจืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื™ืกื” ืœืžืฆื•ื ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืœืจื™ืื™ื•ืŸ ืืฆืœ ื”ืงื™ื™ื–ืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ื•ื™ืœื”ืœื ื”ืฉื ื™, ืฉืขืžื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ืชื›ื ืŸ ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืžื”ืงื™ื™ื–ืจ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ ืขื‘ื“ื•ืœ ื—ืžื™ื“ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืขื ืงืช ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืชืชืจื•ื ืกื›ื•ืžื™ ื›ืกืฃ ืœืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื›ืขื–ืจื” ื‘ื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ื•ืช ืขื ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ืœืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื•ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ืชื•ื—ื›ืจ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื‘-22 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1896 ื ืกืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืงืจืœืกืจื•ื”ื” ื•ืฉื”ื” ื‘ื” ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื. ืฉื, ื‘ืชื™ื•ื•ื›ื• ืฉืœ ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ื”ื›ืœืจ, ื›ื•ืžืจ ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ื“ื•ื›ืก ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื‘ืื“ืŸ, ื“ื•ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื”ืืจื›ื™ื“ื•ื›ืก ื‘ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ืช ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช. ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœืกืคืจ ื–ืืช ืœื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ืžืœื™ืฅ ืขืœื™ื• ื”ื“ื•ื›ืก ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืžืจืฅ 1896 ื”ื›ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืคื™ืœื™ืค ืžื™ื›ืืœ ื“ื” ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ (Newlinski), ืืฆื™ืœ ืคื•ืœื ื™ ื‘ืขืœ ืงืฉืจื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื•ืžืงื•ืจื‘ ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™, ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ื, ืชืžื•ืจืช ืชืฉืœื•ื, ืœื”ืชืœื•ื•ืช ืืœื™ื• ื‘ื ืกื™ืขืชื• ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ื‘-15 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ื™ืฆืื• ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืœื“ืจืš. ื‘ืชื—ื ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืกื•ืคื™ื”, ื ืขืจืš ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื˜ืงืก ืงื‘ืœืช ืคื ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื•ื ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื•ืœื’ืจื™ื, ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื’ืฉ ืœื• ื–ืจ ืคืจื—ื™ื ื•ื ื™ืฉืื• ื ืื•ืžื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื‘-17 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™, ื•ื‘ืœื—ืฆื• ืฉืœ ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™, ืฉื›ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืกื•ื•ื™ื˜ื” ื”ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ืช ื‘ืžืœื•ืŸ ืื™ืžืคืจื™ืืœ, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื‘ืœื™ื˜ ืืช ืžืขืžื“ื• ื›ื“ื•ื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ืื•ืžื” ืฉืžืื—ื•ืจื™ื• ื›ื•ื— ื›ืกืคื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื•ื—ื— ืขื ื”ื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ (ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”) ื—ืœื™ืœ ืจื™ืคืื˜ ืคื—ื” ื‘ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ืฉืขืจ ื”ื ืฉื’ื‘. ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฆืขืชื• ื•ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื›ื™ ืชืžื•ืจืช ื•ื™ืชื•ืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ืขืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืฉืœื ื’ื ืžืก ืฉื ืชื™. ื”ื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื“ื•ื•ื— ืขืœ ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ื”ืฆืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื•ืฆืืช ื“ื•ืคืŸ ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19. ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื ื”ื’ื• ืœื”ื—ืœื™ืฃ, ืœืงื ื•ืช, ืœืžื›ื•ืจ, ืœื—ื›ื•ืจ ื•ืœื”ื—ื›ื™ืจ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื. ืจืง 18 ืฉื ื™ื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ื—ื›ืจื” ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืžื™ื“ื™ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ื ืืช ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืขืชื” ืืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขืœ ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื”, ืœื ืจืง ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื•ื•ืชื™ืงื™ื ืจืฆื• ื‘ื”, ืืœื ื’ื ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื—ืฉื‘ ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื‘ืฆืข ืขืกืงื” ืขื ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื. ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ืขืฆืžื• ื ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื•ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืื™ืชื• ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ: "ืื™ืŸ ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืžื›ื•ืจ ืฉืขืœ ืื“ืžื”. ืœื ืฉืœื™ ื”ื™ื, ื›ื™ ืื ืฉืœ ืขืžื™... ืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื—ืกื›ื• ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ื ืฉืœื”ื. ืื ืžืžืœื›ืชื™ ืชื—ื•ืœืง, ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืงื‘ืœื• ืืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื—ื™ื ื". ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ืงื™ื™ื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืคื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืขื ื”ื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืจืืฉื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื•ืžืกืคืจ ืคื—ื•ืช. ืžื”ืžื˜ ื ื•ืจ ื‘ื™ื™, ืžื–ื›"ืœ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ, ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืื”ื“ื” ื ืœื”ื‘ืช ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื’ื ืื™ื–ื˜ ื‘ื™ื™, ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ื”ื™ื” ืื•ื”ื“ ื•ืขื•ื“ื“ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืžืืžืฆื™ื•. ืœื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ืืžืจ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ "ื‘ืชื•ืจ ื™ื“ื™ื“" ืœื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”, ืื•ืœื ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ืขืœื™ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืžืขื ื•: ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช "ืฉืชื ื”ื’ ื™ืชืจ ื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”, ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืืจืžื ื™ื" โ€“ ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ืฉืคื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ืืจืžื ื™ื ื”ื’ื•ืœื™ื ืฉื™ื—ื“ืœื• ืœื ื”ืœ ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ื ื’ื“ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš, ืืš ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืœื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื• ืœืจืื™ื•ืŸ. ื‘-26 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ื ื–ืฃ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ื•ืืžืจ ืœื• ื›ื™ "ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืื™ื ื” ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืœืžื›ื™ืจื”". ื”ื•ื ืฉืืœ ืืช ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ืžื“ื•ืข ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžื—ื•ื– ืื—ืจ, ื•ื–ื” ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื›ื™ "ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื™ื ืขืจืฉึพืœื™ื“ืชื". ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื˜ืขืŸ ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื”: "ืื‘ืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื™ื ื’ื ืขืจืฉ ืœื™ื“ืชืŸ ืฉืœ ื“ืชื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ืฉืฉ ืฉืื™ ืงื‘ืœืชื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืชื’ืจื•ื ืœืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœืื‘ื“ ืชื ื•ืคื”. ื”ื•ื ื ื–ืงืง ืœื”ื•ื›ื—ื” ืกืžืœื™ืช ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืฉืœ ืื”ื“ื” ืžืฆื“ื•, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ืฉื™ืฉื™ื’ ืœื• ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ ื’ื‘ื•ื”. ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื ืกื™ื™ืจ ื‘ืืจืžื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื›"ืื•ืจื— ืจืฉืžื™" ื•ืฉืžื•ื ื” ืฉื™ื™ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”ืฉื™ื˜ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื‘ื•ืกืคื•ืจื•ืก ื‘ืกื™ืจืช ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ืžื•ืจื” ื”ื“ืจืš ื”ื™ื” ืฉืœื™ืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืฉื”ืงืคื™ื“ ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคื ื™ื™ื” "ื”ื•ื“ ืžืขืœืชืš". ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืคื ื™ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™, ื”ื•ืขื ืง ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืื•ืช ืžืกื“ืจ ื”ืžื’'ื™ื“ื™ื” ืžื”ืžื“ืจื’ื” ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช, ืื•ืœื ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™, ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื’ื ืื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ืงืฉ, ื•ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœืงื‘ืœื• ืœืจืื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ื›ื‘ืจ ืื™ื ื” ื‘ื’ื“ืจ ืกื•ื“. ืขืœ ืืฃ ืฉืœื ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืกื‘ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื ืกื™ืขืชื• ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” "ื”ืฆืœื—ื” ืžื–ื”ื™ืจื”". ื’ื ื”ื—ืจื“ื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชื•ืงืคืช ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืขื•ืžื“ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ืจืžื™-ืžืขืœื” ื”ื—ืœื” ืœื”ืชืคื•ื’ื’. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื›ืชื‘: "ืจืžื™ึพื”ืžืขืœื” ื›ืœ ืžืขืœืชื ื‘ื™ืจืืชึพื”ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืจื•ื—ืฉื™ื ืœื”ื". ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ื—ื–ืจื” ืขืฆืจ ื‘ืกื•ืคื™ื”, ืฉื ืฉื•ื‘ ื ืขืจื›ื” ืœื• ืงื‘ืœืช ืคื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช. ื ืกื™ืขืชื• ื‘ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ืขื•ืจืจื” ื”ืชืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฆื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” ืœืคื ื™ ืืจื•ืŸ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ. ื‘-4 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื‘ื ืงืื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ืชืœื•ื•ืช ืืœื™ื• ืœืžืกืขื• ื”ื‘ื ืœื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”, ืื•ืœื ื ืชืงืœ ื‘ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืžืฆื“ ื”ืืฆื•ืœื” ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ืช-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘-12 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื”ื•ืคื™ืข ื‘ืคื ื™ ืงื”ืœ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื•ื™ื™ื˜ืฆ'ืืคืœ ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ. ืขืœ ืชื—ื•ืฉืชื• ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉื™ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืžื” ืืœ ืžื•ืœ ื”ืงื”ืœ ื”ืžืฉื•ืœื”ื‘, ื›ืชื‘: "ืจืื™ืชื™ ื•ื”ืื–ื ืชื™ ืœื”ื•ืœื“ืช ืื’ื“ืช ืื™ืฉื™ื•ืชื™". ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ืคื ื” ืืœื™ื• ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื“ื” ื”ืื–, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื™ื ื” ืื•ืชื• ืœ"ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื”ื›ื‘ื•ื“" ืฉืœื• ื‘ืขื™ืจ. ื‘-16 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื”ืคืœื™ื’ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฆืจืคืช, ืฉื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืืช ืคื ื™ื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื ืขื ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื‘ืฉืœื™ืœื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื’ื™ืฉื•ืฉื™ื• ื”ืงื•ื“ืžื™ื, ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ืคืขื ืœื”ืคืชืขืชื• ืœืจื™ืื™ื•ืŸ ืืฆืœ ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืื“ืžื•ื ื“ ื’'ื™ื™ืžืก ื“ื” ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“, ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืืžืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ืจื•ืื” ื‘ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืจืคืชืงืŸ ืžืกื•ื›ืŸ. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืื– ื›ืื™ืฉ ื”ืขืฉื™ืจ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฆืจืคืช. ื‘ืื•ืชื” ืฉื ื” ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื›-3,000 ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืื– ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื‘ื™ื™ืกื•ื“ ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ืจืื” ืžื˜ืจื” ื”ื•ืžื ื™ื˜ืจื™ืช ื•ืœื ืชื—ื™ื™ื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืคืกื•ืœ ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ืชื ื’ื“ ื‘ืชื•ืงืฃ ืœืคื•ืขืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืชื•ืš ื—ืฉืฉ ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืชืขื•ืจืจ ื”ืืฉืžื•ืช ื›ืœืคื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืžื•ื”ื• ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ื ืืžื ื•ืช ื›ืคื•ืœื”. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืœื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื•, ืืœื ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ ืฉืืœื™ื• ื–ื•ืžื ื• ืžื‘ืงืฉื™ ื”ืชืจื•ืžื•ืช. ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ื ืคืชื—ื” ื‘ื ื™ืžื” ืชื•ืงืคื ื™ืช ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ื” ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•, ืœื” ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืชื ืื™: ื‘ืžืงืจื” ืฉืœ ื”ืกื›ืžื” ืžืฆื“ ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื, ื™ื™ื“ืจืฉ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ืคื ื” ืืช ืžืงื•ืžื•. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื›ืœ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ื•ืืžืจ: "ืœื ื˜ื•ื‘ ืฉื”ืขื™ื ื™ื™ื ืชื”ื™ื ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืžืŸ ื”ืงื™ื‘ื”". ื‘ืกื•ืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฉื™ื—ื”, ืฉื ืžืฉื›ื” ืฉืขืชื™ื™ื, ืืžืจ ืœื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืื™ื•ื: "ืืชื” ื”ื™ื™ืช ื”ืžืคืชื— ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช. ืื ืืชื” ืžืกืจื‘, ื›ืœ ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื™ืชื™ ืขื“ ื›ื” ื™ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜... ืื ื ื”ืจื”ืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ, ืฉืžื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืืกื•ืŸ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื ืกื™ืจื•ื‘ืš ื™ืืœืฅ ืื•ืชื™ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ื—ืกืจืช ืžืขืฆื•ืจื™ื". ืœืžื—ืจืช ื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืขื ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“, ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื“ื”-ื”ืื– ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ: "ื™ืฉ ืœืืจื’ืŸ ืืช ื”ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœื ื• ืžื™ื“... ื›ืืžืฆืขื™ึพืชืขืžื•ืœื” ืื ื™ ืžืฆื™ืข ื“ื’ืœ ืขื ืฉื‘ืขื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ึพื–ื”ื‘". ื”ื•ื ืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืœืขืžื•ื“ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื‘ืคืจื™ื–, ื•ื ืื ื‘ืืกืคืช ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืคืจื•ื•ืจ ื’ื•ื‘ืœื™ืŸ. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื ื‘ืืกืคื” ื”ื™ื” ื’ื ื‘ืจื ืืจ ืœื–ืจ, ืื ืจื›ื™ืกื˜-ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ ืฉืคืขืœ ืœืžืขืŸ ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื•ืขืชื” ื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ื‘ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช ืœืชื ื•ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื™ืฆื ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื•ืขืฆืจ ื‘ืงืจืœืกื‘ืื“ ืœืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื‘ืคืืจืง ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ืขื ืคืจื“ื™ื ื ื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืžืœืš ื‘ื•ืœื’ืจื™ื”. ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืชื™ืช ืžืื•ื“ ื•ื”ืžืœืš ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืืช ืื”ื“ืชื• ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืคื ื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืืœ ื”ืฆืืจ ื”ืจื•ืกื™, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืื™ื ื• "ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ื”ืจื•ืกื™ื ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื" (ืคืจื“ื™ื ื ื“ ื”ื™ื” ืงืชื•ืœื™), ืืš ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœืคื ื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืœื ืกื™ืš ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ืœื“ื™ืžื™ืจ, ื“ื•ื“ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืืจ, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉ"ื›ืœ ื”ืื—ืจื™ื (ื‘ื—ืฆืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืืจ) ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืื™ืœื• ืื™ื ื ื‘ื ื™ึพืื“ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ืฆืจ ืชื•ืคืขื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช โ€“ ืชื ื•ืขื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ื‘-1 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1896 ื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ื“ื•ื“ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื›ื ืก "ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื›ืœืœื™" ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืขืœ ื“ื”-ื”ืื– ืœืงืฉื•ืจ ืงืฉืจื™ื ืขื ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื›ืจ ืžืฉืจื“ ื‘ืžืจื›ื– ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื• ืฆื•ื•ืช ืฉืขืกืง ื‘ืชื™ืื•ื ื”ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ืืช ื”ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ื”ื•ื ืžื™ืžืŸ ืžื›ื™ืกื•. ื‘ืฉืœ ื–ื”ื™ืจื•ืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ื”ื•ืจื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื“ื”-ื”ืื– ืœื™ื™ืกื“ ื‘ื” ืžื•ืขื“ื•ื ื™-ื ื•ืขืจ ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื•ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช-ื ืฉื™ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืฉื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ืœื‘ื“ื• ืืช ื”ื”ื›ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืœืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื•ื‘ื‘ืงืจื™ื ื”ื™ื” ื ื•ืกืข ืขืœ ืื•ืคื ื™ื• ื”ืขื™ืจื” ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืืคืจื™ืœ 1897 ื”ืคื™ืฅ ื—ื•ื–ืจ ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืžื–ืžื™ืŸ ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื•ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ืœื”ื™ืจืฉื ืœื”ืฉืชืชืคื•ืช ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก. ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื ืชื›ื ืกื” ืžื•ืขืฆืช ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื”ืจืคื•ืจืžื™ื™ื ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ืœื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื—ื™ืจื•ื ื•ืคืจืกืžื” ืžื—ืื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช: "ืฉืื™ืคืชื ืฉืœ ืืœื” ื”ืžื›ื•ื ื™ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ืœื›ื•ื ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืกื•ืชืจืช ืืช ืชื›ื ื™ื” ื”ืžืฉื™ื—ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช... ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืžื˜ื™ืœื” ืขืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืงื™ื ื‘ื” ืœืฉืจืช ื‘ืžืกื™ืจื•ืชึพื ืคืฉ ืืช ื”ืžื•ืœื“ืช ืฉืืœื™ื” ื”ื ืžืฉืชื™ื™ื›ื™ื". ื’ื ื‘ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง ื”ืชืงื‘ืœื” ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ื“ื•ืžื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชืงืฃ ืืช "ืจื‘ื ื™ ื”ืžื—ืื”": "ื”ืœืœื• ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืจื” ื‘ื˜ื•ื—ื” ื•ื—ื•ื‘ื˜ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื•ื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื˜ื•ื‘ืขื™ื ื”ืžื ืกื™ื ืœื”ื™ืื—ื– ื‘ื“ืคื ื•ืช... ื’ืจืžื ื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื›ื•ืชื‘ 'ื”ืžื•ืœื“ืช ืœื” ืื ื™ ืžืฉืชื™ื™ืš'. ื”ื™ื” ืื•ืžืจ 'ืžื•ืœื“ืชื™'... ืื™ืŸ ืื“ื ืฉื™ื™ืš ืœืžื•ืœื“ืชื•; ื”ืžื•ืœื“ืช ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื•. ื›ืืฉืจ ืžื•ืœื“ืชื›ื ืื™ื ื” ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื›ื, ืื•ื™ ื•ืื‘ื•ื™ ืœื›ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชืงืฃ ื’ื ืืช ื”ื˜ืขื ื” ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืœื™ื—ื•ืชื” ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ื ืช "ืื•ืจ ืœื’ื•ื™ื™ื". ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื–ื• "ืขื–ื•ืชึพืคื ื™ื", ืžืฉื•ื ืฉ"ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ ืœื ื™ืจืฆื” ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืžื™ืกื™ื•ื ืจื™ื". ื‘-17 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ืคืจืกื ืคืชืื•ื ื”ืจื‘ ื’ื™ื“ืžืŸ ื”ืชืงืคื” ืงืฉื” ืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืžื•ื—ืœื˜ ืœืขืžื“ืชื• ื”ืงื•ื“ืžืช, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื•ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ืกื•ืชืจื•ืช ื–ื• ืืช ื–ื•. ื‘ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ื”ืื ื˜ื™-ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืคืจืกื, "ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™ืช" (Nationaljudentum), ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื’ื™ื“ืžืŸ ืืช ื”ื“ื’ืฉ ืฉืฉืžื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืคืŸ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ืฉื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืขืœ ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ื”ืคืŸ ื”ื“ืชื™ ืฉื‘ื”. ื”ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก ื–ื›ื” ืœืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืžื ื•ืžืกืช ืืš ืชืงื™ืคื” ืžืฆื“ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืŸ ร–sterreichische wochenschrift. ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื ื’ื“ื•: ...ืžืจ ื“"ืจ ื’ื™ื“ืžืืŸ ื™ื•ืฆื ืืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ื” ื ื’ื“ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืžืงืจืื•ืช, ืืš ื—ื•ืฉื‘ ืื ื™, ื›ื™ ืœืžืฆืขืจ ื›ืืœื” ื•ื›ืืœื” ืืคืฉืจ ืœืžืฆื ื‘ืขื“ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ืื™ื ื ื™ ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžืœื•ืžื“ ื›ืœ ื›ืš, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ืื [...] ืื‘ืœ ื‘ืžื—ื‘ืจืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉื ื“ืคืกื” ื–ื” ืžืงืจื•ื‘, ื›ืชื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ื“ ื”ืกื•ื—ืจ ื”ืชื•ืจื ื™ ืื”ืจื•ืŸ ืžืจืงื•ืก ื‘ืคื•ื“ื’ื•ืจื–', ืื ื™ ืžื•ืฆื ืžืงื•ื ืื—ื“ ื”ืžืกื™ื™ืข ืœื ื•: "ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื ื•ืฆืจื” ืœืคื ื™ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ืžืฉื™ื ืฉื ื” ื‘ื—ื•ื’ื™ื ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืจื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื ืœืžื˜ืจื” ื’ืœื•ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื™ืกื•ื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื”ืกืคืจ "ืฉื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ" ื™ื›ื™ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžืื” ื”ืกื›ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื•". โ€“ ืื™ืš ื™ืฆื“ื™ืง ืžืจ ื“"ืจ ื’ื™ื“ืžืืŸ ืœืขื•ืžืช ืขื•ื‘ื“ื ื–ื• ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•...? [...] ื•ืื”ืจืŸ ืžืจืงื•ืก ื–ื” [...] ื›ื“ืื™ ื”ื•ื ืฉื ืกืžื•ืš ืขืœื™ื•. ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ื”ื ื”ื• "ื—ืกื™ื“", ื•ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื–ื” ืื™ืฉ ืฉืงื ื” ื—ื›ืžื” ื”ืจื‘ื” ื•ืกื•ืคืจ ื‘ืขืœ ื˜ืขื, ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืกืคืจ ื ืคืœื ืขืœ ื”ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”. ื‘ืžืฆื‘ื• ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ ื”ื•ื ืกื•ื—ืจ. ื”ื•ื "ืื™ื ื ื• ื—ื™ ืžืŸ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช" โ€“ ื›ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื™ื“ื™ื“ื ื• ืœื™ืื•ืŸ ืงืœื ืจ โ€“ "ืืœื ื‘ืขื“ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช". ื‘-12 ื‘ืžืื™ ื ื–ืฃ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื“ื”-ื”ืื– ืขืœ ืฉืขืฉื” ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ืœื“ืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืฆืžื• ื•ืœื ืœืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื•ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืฉืœื ืœื ื”ืœ ืคื•ืœื—ืŸ ืื™ืฉื™ื•ืช: ื ื™ืฉืžืจึพื ื ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืคื™ื›ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืœืชื ื•ืขื” ืื™ืฉื™ืช... ืื—ืจืช ื ืกืคืง ื‘ืžื• ื™ื“ื™ื ื• ื›ืœื™ึพื ืฉืง ืœื™ื“ื™ ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื ื•... ื—ืœื™ืœื” ืœืชื ื•ืขื” ืœื”ื™ืฉืขืŸ ืขืœ ืื™ืฉ ืื—ื“. ืืกื•ืจ ืฉื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื™ืžื•ืช ืื™ืชื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืžืกืงื ื” ืฉื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ื–ืงื•ืงื” ื‘ื”ื›ืจื— ืœื‘ื™ื˜ืื•ืŸ ืžืฉืœื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืคื™ืฅ ืืช ืชื•ืจืชื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืื™ 1897 ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื”ืงื™ื ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืŸ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™, ื•ื™ื™ืกื“ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืืช ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ "ื“ื™ ื•ืœื˜" ("ื”ืขื•ืœื"), ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืืš ื•ืจืง ืœื ื•ืฉื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืฉื™ืงืฃ ืืช ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉืขืจ ื”ื™ื” ืฆื”ื•ื‘, ื›ืฆื‘ืข ืื•ืช ื”ืงืœื•ืŸ ืฉืขื ื“ื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืขืœ ื‘ื’ื“ื™ื”ื ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื™ื™ื. ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื”ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืฉื”ืชืคืจืกื ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื™ื•ื ื™, ื”ื’ื“ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืžื”ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ: "ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ื”ื•ื ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ืื ื• ื ื•ื˜ืœื™ื ืžื™ืœื” ื–ื•, ืฉืจื•ืื™ื ื‘ื” ืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืฉืžืฆื”, ื•ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืขืฉื•ืชื” ืชื•ืืจึพื›ื‘ื•ื“". ืžื˜ืจืชื ื• "ืœื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ืช ื•ื ื—ืœื”". ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื–ื”, ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ื“ื™ ื•ืœื˜ ืฆืจื™ืš ืœืฉืžืฉ ืœืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžื’ืŸ ื•ื ืฉืง... ื ื’ื“ ืื•ื™ื‘ื™ื• โ€“ ื‘ืœื™ ื”ื‘ื“ืœ ื“ืช". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœืžืžืŸ ืืช ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืŸ ื‘ืขืฆืžื•, ื‘ืชื•ืกืคืช ืขื–ืจื” ืžืื‘ื™ื•. ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœ ื”ืžืืžืจื™ื ื ื›ืชื‘ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืฆืžื•, ืฉื˜ื™ืคืœ ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ื’ื ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ื ื”ื˜ื›ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืžื ื”ืœื™ื™ื. ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืคืš ืœื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื•ืชื•ืš ืฉื ื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืชืคื•ืฆืชื• ืœืขืฉืจืช ืืœืคื™ื ืขื•ืชืงื™ื. ื”ื•ื ืกื™ืžืŸ ืžืคื ื” ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื”ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ืžืขืจื‘ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื™ื” ืชื•ืงืคื ื™ ื•ืคื•ืœืžื•ืกื™ ื•ื“ืŸ ื‘ื’ื™ืœื•ื™ ืœื‘ ื‘ืฆืจื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืคืจืกื•ื ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืŸ ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืขื™ืžื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื•ืฆื™ืื™ื ืœืื•ืจ ืฉืœ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”", ืฉื“ืจืฉื• ืžืžื ื• ืœืกื’ื•ืจ ืื•ืชื•. ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ ื ื™ืกื” ืœืฉื›ื ืขื• ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžื–ื™ืง ืœืขืฆืžื• ื•ื’ื•ืจื ืœืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ื• ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืขืกืง "ืžื‘ื•ื›ื” ืขืฆื•ืžื”", ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืขืชื” ื”ื "ื ืจืื™ื ื›ื‘ื™ื˜ืื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™". ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ืขื‘ืจ ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ ืœืื™ื•ืžื™ื, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืขืชื” ืชื—ืช ืกื›ื ืช ืคื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื. ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืื—ื“ ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ื›ื•ื—ื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื•ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื–ื›ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ืคืขื•ืœื” ืžืฆื“ "ื—ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ", ื›ื™ื ืก ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืฉื ืช 1897 ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืขื•ืœืžื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชื›ื ืŸ ืœืงื™ื™ื ืืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื™ื ื›ืŸ, ืืš ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื• ืœื›ืš ื‘ื˜ืขื ื” ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืกื›ืŸ ืืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ื ื, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื™ื•ื˜ืœ ืกืคืง ื‘ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื”ื. ืจืืฉื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื’ื™ื™ืกื• ืืช ื”ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ื”ืจืคื•ืจืžื™ืช ื•ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ื’ื ื™ื—ื“ ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ืขื•ืจืจื• ืžืกืข ืžื—ืื” ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืืจืฅ. ืขืงื‘ ื›ืš ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœื‘ื–ืœ ืฉื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ืฅ. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ืฉื™ื ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื™ื—ืกื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ืช ืฉืœื ืขืกืงื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื‘-24 ื‘ืžืื™ 1897 ืืžืจ ืœื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืฃ ืฉืœื•, ืจืื•ื‘ืŸ ื‘ืจื™ื™ื ื™ืŸ, ืฉื›ื‘ืจ ืขืกืง ื‘ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื”ื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ืฉืœื•: "ืœื ืื•ืžืจ ื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืžื—ื–ื•ืชื™ ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืชื™ ื”ืกืคืจื•ืชื™ื•ืช. ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ื•ื ืฉื›ื—ื• ื›ืœืึพื”ื™ื•". ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืขื•ืจื›ื™ "ืžื™ ื•ืžื™ ื‘ืกืคืจื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช" ืœื”ืฉืžื™ื˜ ืžืขืชื” ื•ื”ืœืื” ืืช ื›ืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืชื™ื•, ืœืžืขื˜ ื”ืงื•ื ื˜ืจืก "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื" ื•ืงื•ื‘ืฅ ื”ื›ืชื‘ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœื• ืžืคืจื™ื–, "ืคึผืืœึถื” ื‘ึผื•ึผืจื‘ึผื•ึนืŸ". ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื—ื•ืคืฉืชื• ื‘ืื™ืฉืœ, ื™ื–ื ืชื—ืจื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืœื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืชืžืœื™ืœ ืœื”ืžื ื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืœืื•ืžื™. ื”ื•ื ื ืกืข ืœื‘ื–ืœ ืœืœื ืืฉืชื•, ืฉืกื™ืจื‘ื” ืœื”ืชืœื•ื•ืช ืืœื™ื• ืœืงื•ื ื’ืจืก. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื‘ื–ืœ ืืจื‘ืขื” ื™ืžื™ื ืœืคื ื™ ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื•ื”ืฉืชื›ืŸ ื‘ืžืœื•ืŸ ืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื”ืžืœื›ื™ื. ื”ื•ื ืขืจืš ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื™ื ืจืฉืžื™ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืจื™ื™ื” ื•ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”, ื•ื‘ืฉื‘ืช ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืขื ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช. ื”ื•ื ื ืงืจื ืœืขืœื•ืช ืœืชื•ืจื” ื•ืฉืขื” ืœืคื ื™ ื›ืŸ ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื‘ื ื•ืกื— ื”ื‘ืจื›ื”. ื‘ื˜ืงืก ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ืกื•ืขืจื•ืช ื•ื”ืชืงืฉื” ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ื ืื•ืžื•, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืกืขืจืช ื”ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ื’ื‘ืจื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืคืขื ืฉื”ื—ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ. ื”ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ื ืžืฉื›ื• ื›-15 ื“ืงื•ืช ื•ื‘ืื•ืœื ื ืฉืžืขื• ืงืจื™ืื•ืช "ื™ื—ื™ ื”ืžืœืš!". ื‘ื ืื•ืžื• ืืžืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ, "ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืื ื• ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืืช ืื‘ืŸึพื”ืคื™ื ื” ืœื‘ื™ืช ืืฉืจ ื‘ื‘ื•ื ื”ื™ื•ื ื™ืฉื›ื•ืŸ ื‘ื• ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™", ื•"ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ืชื ื• ืืœ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ื‘ืชื ื• ืœืืจืฅึพื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชืงืฃ ืืช ื”ืกืชื ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื˜ืขืŸ: "ืื ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืžื™ืฉื”ื• ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืชื’ื ื‘ ืœืืจืฅึพืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื, ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืœื™ืš ืฉื•ืœืœ ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ืื• ืืช ื–ื•ืœืชื•. ืื™ืŸ ืžืงื•ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ืฉื‘ื• ื™ืฉื’ื™ื—ื• ื‘ื‘ื•ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ืชืจ ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ืžื•ืœื“ืชื ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืคื” ืื—ื“ ืœื ืฉื™ื ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก. ื‘ื“ื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื•ืช, ืฉื™ืžืฉ ื™ื•ืฉื‘-ืจืืฉ. ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื™ื” ื›ื™ื ื•ืก ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช, ืฉื ื•ืขื“ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืชืฉืชื™ืช ืฉืชืจื›ื– ืืช ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืชื™ื• ื•ืชื”ื•ื•ื” ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœื”ืจื—ื‘ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœืขื‘ืจ ืชื ื•ืขื” ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ืžืื•ืจื’ื ืช. ื”ื•ื ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ื•ื•ืช ื’ื ืžื•ืกื“ ื”ื—ืงื™ืงื” ื•ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื‘ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืืจื’ื•ื ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืชื•, ื•ื‘ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉื’ืจืจ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื•, ื”ืฆื™ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืžืกื“ ืœื›ืœ ื”ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ื›ืš ืื™ืฉืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื‘ื–ืœ, ืฉืงืจืื” ืœื”ืงืžืช ื‘ื™ืช ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื”ืกื›ืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืœื, ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื–ืžืชื• ื”ื•ืงืžื” ื”ื”ืกืชื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื›ื’ื•ืฃ ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืขื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืขืœ ื›ื™ื ื•ืก ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ: ืื ืืžืฆื” ืืช ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื‘ื–ืœ ื‘ื“ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืื—ื“ โ€“ ืฉืื–ื”ืจ ืฉืœื ืœื”ื’ื•ืชื• ื‘ืจื‘ื™ื โ€“ ื”ืจื™ื”ื• ื–ื”: ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ ื™ื™ืกื“ืชื™ ืืช ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืื ืื•ืžืจ ื–ืืช ื‘ืงื•ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื, ื™ืขื ื” ืœื™ ืฆื—ื•ืง ื›ืœืœื™. ืื•ืœื™ ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื—ืžืฉ ืฉื ื™ื, ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉื ื”, ื™ื•ื“ื• ื‘ื›ืš ื›ื•ืœื. ื”ื•ื’ื” ื”ื“ืขื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืื—ื“ ื”ืขื ื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ืืš ื”ื™ื” "ื›ืื‘ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื—ืชื ื™ื". ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื ื’ื“ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืฉืื™ืŸ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ื—ื•ืžืจื™ ื‘ืœื™ ืฉืชืงื“ื ืœื• "ื”ืชื—ื“ืฉื•ืช ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช" ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืชื—ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืืช ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ืฉื”ื ื”ื™ื’ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ "ืชืฉื•ืขืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขืชื™ื“ื” ืœื‘ื•ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ 'ื ื‘ื™ืื™ื' ื•ืœื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ 'ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžืื˜ื™ื'". ืžืื– ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืชืžื™ื“ ืื—ื“ ื”ืขื ืœืชืงื•ืฃ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื•ื ืžื ืข ืžืœื”ืฉืชืชืฃ ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืกื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื. ื‘ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืœืขื’ ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”". ื”ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ ื”ืชืขืœื ืžื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ. ืขื•ืจื›ื™ื• ืœื ืœื—ืฆื• ืขืชื” ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืกื’ื™ืจืช "ื“ื™ ื•ืœื˜". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชืคืฉืจ ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื• ื‘ืฉื ื‘ื“ื•ื™, ื•ืขื•ืจื›ื™ื• ื”ืกืชืคืงื• ื‘ื›ืš. ืขืชื” ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉ ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื’ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ื”ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ. ื‘ืžืืžืจ ื‘"ื“ื™ ื•ืœื˜" ืคืจืกื ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืœื™ื™ืกื•ื“ "ื‘ื ืง ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ืืœื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™", ืฉื™ืžืžืŸ ืืช ื™ืฆื™ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ืืช ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืชื ื‘ืืจืฆื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ "ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืืกื•ืจ ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืชืœื•ื™ื” ื‘ื—ืกื“ื ืฉืœ ื ื“ื‘ื ื™ื", ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืฉื”ืžื•ื ื™ ื”ืขื ื™ืžืžื ื• ืื•ืชื”. ืœื˜ืขื ืชื• ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืืคืฉืจื™, ืžืฉื•ื ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื—ื“ ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืœื’ื™ื•ืก ื”ื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ ืขืœ ื“ื•ื“ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ, ืืœื ืฉืขืฉื™ืจื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื“ื—ื• ืืช ืคื ื™ื•ืชื™ื• ื•ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืคื™ื ื ืกื™ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœื”ื ืคื™ืง ืืช ื”ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื ืง ืœื-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืงื˜ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ืฉื“ ืฉื‘ื™ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ื•ื ื”ืขื•ืžื“ ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืกื™ืจื•ื‘ื™ื, ื•ื‘ื”ื•ื“ืขื” ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ืช ืื™ื™ื ืขืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืช ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื‘ื—ืจื ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ ืžื˜ืขื ื”ืžืขืžื“ ื”ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื–ืขืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื ืงืื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื”ื‘ื™ื ืื•ืชื• ืœืคืจืกื ื‘ื’ื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืฉืœ "ื“ื™ ื•ืœื˜" ืžืืžืจ-ื”ืฉืžืฆื” ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ ื‘ืฉื "Mauschel" ("ื™ื”ื•ื“ื•ืŸ"). ืกื’ื ื•ื ื• ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช. ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืชื•ืืจื• ื‘ื• ื›ื˜ื™ืคื•ืกื™ื ืžื ื•ื•ื ื™ื, ื”ืžืขื•ืจืจื™ื "ื‘ื—ื™ืœื”", "ืื ื•ื›ื™ื™ื", "ืžื–ื•ื”ืžื™ื" ื•"ื ื‘ื–ื™ื". ื”ืžืืžืจ ืขื•ืจืจ ืกืขืจืช ืžื—ืื•ืช. ื—ื’ ื”ืžื•ืœื“ ืฉืœ 1897 ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื”ื•ืฆื‘ ื‘ื• ืขืฅ ื—ื’ ื”ืžื•ืœื“ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืžืฉืคื—ืช ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช, ื”ื“ืœื™ืง ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ื ื•ื›ื™ื™ื” ื•ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื™ืœื“ื™ื• ืขืœ ืžืจื“ ื”ืžื›ื‘ื™ื ื•ืขืœ ื ืก ื—ื ื•ื›ื”. ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืขืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ืชื• ื–ื• ื•ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉืชืžืข ืžืžื ื” ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืื•ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืคื™ ื‘ืฉื "ื”ืžื ื•ืจื”", ืฉืคืจืกื ื‘"ื“ื™ ื•ืœื˜": "ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื•ืชื ื™ื™ืกื•ืจื™ื ืคื ื™ืžื™ื™ื ืขืžื•ืžื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœ ืžืงื•ืจื, ืืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืชื•. ื‘ื™ืžื™ื ื ืขื™ืžื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืื•ืœื™ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžื•ืฆื ืื•ืชื” ืœืขื•ืœื... ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืื”ื•ื‘ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ื›ืœ ืœื‘". ืืช ืื•ืจ ื ืจื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ืžื ื•ืจืช ื”ื—ื ื•ื›ื”, ื“ื™ืžื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื™ืงื™ืฆื” ืื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืื•ืžื”: "ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื ื“ืœืง ื ืจ ืื—ื“. ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื•ืจืจืช ื—ืฉื™ื›ื” ื•ืื•ืชื• ื ืจ ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื ืจืื” ื ื•ื’ื”. ื•ืื– ืžืฆื˜ืจืฃ ืขื•ื“ ื ืจ, ื•ืขื•ื“ ื ืจ... ื•ืื™ืŸ ืžืœืื›ื” ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื” ืื•ืฉืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืœืฉืžืฉ ืืช ื”ืื•ืจ". ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1898 ื”ื•ืขืœื” ื”ืžื—ื–ื” "ื”ื’ื˜ื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉ" ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืคื™ืง ืคืจื˜ื™ ื‘ืงืืจืœืชื™ืื˜ืจ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ืื›ืจ ื•ื‘ื ื“ื™ืงื˜ ื–ืขืžื• ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉื”ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืžืคื•ืจืกื ืฉืœื”ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืจื‘ ื‘"ืžื—ื–ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™". ื‘ืื›ืจ ื“ืจืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืืกื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืฆื’ืช ื”ืžื—ื–ื”, ืื•ืœื ื”ื•ื ืกื™ืจื‘, ื•ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืจื™ื‘ื” ื”ืงืฉื” ืื™ืจืข ืœื• ื”ืชืงืฃึพืœื‘ ืงืœ. ื”ืฆื ื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจืชื™ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”, ืฉื—ืฉืฉ ืžืžื”ื•ืžื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ืขืœ ืืœื• ืฉืื™ืจืขื• ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื‘ืขื™ืจ, ื“ืจืฉ ืœืงืฆืฅ ืงื˜ืขื™ื ืžื”ืžื—ื–ื”, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ืžืคื™ืง ืขืจืขืจื• ืขืœ ื”ื—ืœื˜ืชื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ืžื•ืฉืœ ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ืชื—ืชื™ืช, ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื”. ื”ื”ืฆื’ื” ืื›ื–ื‘ื” ื”ืŸ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ืŸ ืืช ื”ืฆื•ืคื™ื, ื•ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื ื ื•ืชืจื• ืื“ื™ืฉื™ื. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ืœื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ, ื•ื’ื ืฉื ื ืงื˜ืœ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื. ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื”ืžื—ื–ื” ื•ื”ืงืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืงืžืช ื”ื‘ื ืง ื’ืจืžื• ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืขืžื•ืง. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ืืช ื”ื ื”ื’ืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”, ืืš ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืกื™ืจื‘. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืžืŸ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืงืฉืจื™ื• ืขื ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™, ืืœื ืฉื”ืคืขื ื”ืชืฉืœื•ื ืœื ื™ืฆื ืจืง ืžื›ื™ืกื•, ืืœื ื’ื ืžื”ื›ื ืกื•ืช "ื”ืฉืงืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืขืœ ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™: "ื”ื•ื ืžืœืžื“ื ื™ ืžืื” ื•ืื—ื“ ื“ืงื“ื•ืงื™ ื ื•ื”ื’ ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™". ื”ื ื ื™ืกื—ื• ื™ื—ื“ ืื™ื’ืจืช ื—ื“ืฉื” ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ื‘ื” ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ืชึพื—ืกื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืฉืชืžื•ืจืชื” ื™ื›ืกื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืช ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช. ื”ืื™ื’ืจืช ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื” ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื ื•ืจื™ ื‘ื™ื™, ื”ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™, ืชืžื•ืจืช ืชืฉืœื•ื ืฉื•ื—ื“. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1898 ื ื•ืขื“ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ืœืฉืœื•ืฉ ืฉื™ื—ื•ืช ืขื ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื” ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ, ืื—ืžื“ ืชื•ืคื™ืง ื ืืฉื”, ืขืจื‘ ืžื™ื ื•ื™ื• ืœืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ (ื‘ื”ืžืฉืš ืžื•ื ื” ื’ื ืœื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ). ืชื•ืคื™ืง ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืจืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืฉื˜ื—ื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช, ืืš ืœื ืœืžืชืŸ ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ื” ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ืืœื™ืช. ืชืžื•ืจืช ืงื‘ืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื™ืฆื˜ืจื›ื• ืœืฉืœื ื”ื•ืŸ ืขืชืง. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืœืœ ืืช ื”ืคืชืจื•ืŸ, ื•ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื• "ื”ืืจืžื ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื", ื•ืฉืขื“ื™ืฃ ืœื”ืžืชื™ืŸ "ืฉืžืฆื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื” ื™ื”ื™ื” ื’ืจื•ืข ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ". ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš-ืงืืจืœ ืคื•ืŸ ืœื•ืงืื ื•ืก, ืจืืฉ ืœืฉื›ืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืืฆืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ืœื•ืงืื ื•ืก ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืžื›ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ื ื•ืฉื ืื•ืœื ื ื›ื‘ื“ื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช "ืื™ื ื ืœื”ื•ื˜ื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ" ืœื’ื‘ื™ื•. ืœื•ืงืื ื•ืก ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืื”ื“ื” ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื•ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืœืงื™ืกืจ ืขื•ืชืง ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจ "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื‘-22 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1898 ื›ื™ื ืก ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืœื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืฉื“ื ื” ื‘ื”ื›ื ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืจืฆื” ืœื›ื ืก ืขื•ื“ ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืจื•ืš ืขื•ื“ ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”, ื•ืœื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ื›ืš ืชื ื•ืคืชื”. ืœื™ืื•ืŸ ืงืœื ืจ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืื•ืชื• ืขืœ ืชืื•ื•ืช-ื”ืจืื•ื•ื” ืฉืœื•, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ: "ืชื ื•ืขื” ื–ื• ื›ืœึพื›ื•ืœื” ืฉืื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืžื•ืœื” โ€“ ืœื ื™ื•ืชืจ!". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื›ืš: "ื‘ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื”ืžื•ืœื” ื”ื™ื ื”ื›ื•ืœ! ื”ืžื•ืœื” ืžืชืžืฉื›ืช ื”ืจื™ื”ื™ ื›ืฉื”ื™ื ืœืขืฆืžื” ืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืจืื•ื™ื” ืœืฆื™ื•ืŸ. ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ื›ื•ืœื” ืื™ื ื” ืืœื ื”ืžื•ืœื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื—ืฅ ืขืœ ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื›ื›ืœ ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื• ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืืกื™ื”, ืคืจืกื™ื ื•ื‘ื•ื›ืจื™ื, ื™ื”ื™ื• ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ื‘ื, ืœืฉื ื™ืฆื™ืจืช "ืจื•ืฉื ืฆื™ื•ืจื™". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืจืื” ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ืขืœื™ื•ื ื” ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ื”ื“ื’ืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื ืชืœื” ืžืขืœ ืœืคืชื— ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื” ื“ื’ืœ ื›ื—ื•ืœ ืœื‘ืŸ ืžืขื•ื˜ืจ ื‘ืžื’ืŸ ื“ื•ื“, ืื•ืชื• ื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ, ืื•ืœื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืจื•ืฆื” ืžื‘ื—ื™ืจืชื• ื”ืžื”ื™ืจื”. ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ืžืงืก ื‘ื•ื“ื ื”ื™ื™ืžืจ ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืขื™ืกื•ืง ื”ืžื•ืงื“ื ื‘ื“ื’ืœื™ื ื•ื‘ืกืžืœื™ื, ื”ืฉื™ื‘: "ืžื™ ืฉืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ื ื”ื™ื’ ืื•ืžื”, ื–ืงื•ืง ืœื“ื’ืœื™ื ื•ืœื—ืฆื•ืฆืจื•ืช. ืื—ืจืช ืื™ึพืืคืฉืจ ืœืชืช ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ืœื”ืžื•ืŸ". ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื’ื™ื•ืกื ืฉืœ ื‘ื ืงืื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืขื–ืจืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1898 ืœื™ื™ืกื“ ืืช ื”ื‘ื ืง ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืขืฆืžื•. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื•ืžื“ื™ื” ืงืœื” ื‘ืฉื "ืื•ื ื–ืจ ืงื˜ื›ืŸ" ("ืงื˜ื›ืŸ ืฉืœื ื•"), ืฉืขืกืงื” ื‘ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ื ื ืฉืœ ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื‘ื•ืจื’ื ื™ื™ื ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืชื•. ื‘-28โ€“31 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1898 ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ, ืฉื ืคืชื— ืœืฆืœื™ืœื™ "ื˜ื ื”ื•ื™ื–ืจ" ืฉืœ ื•ื’ื ืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื‘ื ืื•ื ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืฉืœื• ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื”ื‘ื, ื•ืืžืจ ืฉื–ื• ื”ื•ื›ื—ื” ืœื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืื ื•ืฉื•ืช ื›ื•ืœื”. ื–ืžืŸ ืงืฆืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืกืจ ืžื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™, ื‘ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœื›ื‘ื•ื“ ืฉื—ืœืง ืœื• ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ืฉื ื•ืกื— ื‘ื ื™ืžื” ืื“ื™ื‘ื” ื•ืœื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื™ื•ืฆื ื“ื•ืคืŸ. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ื ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœื‘ืงืจ ืืช ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš, ื”ืืจื›ื™ื“ื•ื›ืก ืžื‘ืื“ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื”ื›ืœืจ ื™ืฉืจ ืžืŸ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœืžืขื•ืŸ ื”ืงื™ืฅ ืฉืœ ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ื‘ืื™ ืžืื™ื ืื•. ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ื‘ื™ืฉืจ ืœื• ืฉืžืžืฉืœืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ืคื•ืขืœืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ืฉืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ืฉืœืคื™ื” ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืจื•ืื” ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ "ื‘ืขื™ืŸ ื™ืคื”". ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื• ืฉื“ืŸ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืขื ืื—ื™ื™ื ื• ื”ืงื™ืกืจ, ื•ื–ื” ืฉื•ื›ื ืข ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืฉืคื•ืชื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ื”ื•ื ื™ืขืฅ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื™ืฆื•ืจ ืžื™ื“ ืงืฉืจ ืขื ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ื”ืจื•ื–ืŸ ืคื™ืœื™ืค ืคื•ืŸ ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’, ืฉื”ื•ื˜ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื•ืœื“ื•ื•ื— ืœืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ืืจื›ื™ื“ื•ื›ืก ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ื ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื—ืฉืื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ: ืžืกืขื• ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ื”ื‘ื ืœืืจืฅ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ ื”ื•ื ืžืกืข ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ื‘ืžืกื•ื•ื” ืฉืœ ืžืกืข ื“ืชื™, ื•ืžื˜ืจืชื• ื”ืืžื™ืชื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื‘ืžื–ืจื—. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžืกื™ืœืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ ืœื‘ื’ื“ืื“, ื•ืœืฉื ื›ืš ื™ื™ื•ื•ืขื“ ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืขื ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื• ืฉื™ืขืฅ ืœืงื™ืกืจ ืœื”ืžืœื™ืฅ ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืžืจ ืœืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืคืจื•ื˜ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜ (ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื—ืกื•ืช), ื•ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืขื“ื™ืฃ ืคืจื•ื˜ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜ ื’ืจืžื ื™. ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืฉื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืชื‘ืœื•ื ืืช ื–ืจื™ืžืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืœ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ื•ืช, ื•ืฉื”ืคืจื•ื˜ืงื˜ื•ืจื˜ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ื™ืกื™ื™ืข ืœื”ืชืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื‘ืžื–ืจื—. ื”ื•ื ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืฉ"ืกื•ืคืจื™ื ื’ืจืžื ื™ื โ€“ ืืžื ื ืžืžื•ืฆื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ โ€“ ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช", ื•ืฉืœืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืกื™ื ื”ื™ื ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื•ื–ื• ืจืื™ื” ืœื›ืš ืฉืฉื™ื‘ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืืจืฆื ืชื—ื“ื™ืจ ืœืžื–ืจื— ืืช ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืขื ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื™ื“ื™ื“ ืงืจื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื•ื‘ืขืœ ื”ืฉืคืขื” ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืžืœื•ื›ื”. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™, ืฉืฉื”ื” ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืœืจื’ืœ ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ืกื™ืกื™, ืงื™ืกืจื™ืช ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ืฉื ืจืฆื—ื”, ื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื‘ื˜ื™ืขื•ื ื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ื›ื“ืื™ื•ืช ืœื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ื•ืœืงื™ืกืจ ืฉืœื”, ื•ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื”ืคื ื” ืื•ืชื• ืœืฉื•ื—ื— ืžื™ื“ ืขื ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ, ื”ื ืกื™ืš ื‘ืจื ื”ืจื“ ืคื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘. ืœืžื—ืจืช ืฉื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘. ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืื™ืฉื™ ืืฆืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ, ืื•ืœื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืขื–ื‘ ืืช ื•ื™ื ื” ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืื™ืชื•. ืชื—ืช ื”ื ื”ื’ืช ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืงืžืช ื‘ื ืง ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื‘-21 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 1898 ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคืจื™ื– ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืคื’ื™ืฉื•ืช ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ ื”ื‘ื ืง (ื‘ื ืง "ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื" ื”ื•ืงื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื‘-1899). ืคืจืฉืช ื“ืจื™ื™ืคื•ืก ื”ืชืงืจื‘ื” ืœืฉื™ืื”, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืœืืฉืชื• ืฉื”ืžืฆื‘ ื‘ืคืจื™ื– "ืงืฉื” ืžื ืฉื•ื" ื•"ื‘ื›ืœ ืืฉืจ ืชืœืš ืื™ื ืš ืฉื•ืžืข ืืœื ืฆืจื™ื—ื•ืช ื ื’ื“ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืžื›ืชื‘ ืœืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ื•ื‘ื• ืคื ื™ื™ื” ืœืงื™ืกืจ. ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ื›ื‘ืจ ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉื‘ื•ืข ื‘ืฉื‘ื—ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•, ื•ืฉื›ื ืข ืื•ืชื• ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื”. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื ืขืฉื” ื ืœื”ื‘ ืžื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื•ื”ื˜ื™ืœ ืขืœ ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ืœื–ืžืŸ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืจืืฉ ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืจืฉืžื™ืช. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื›ืชื‘ ืœื“ื•ื“ื• ื”ืืจื›ื™ื“ื•ื›ืก, ื”ื•ื“ื” ืœื• ืขืœ ืฉื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ื• ืืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื•ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ืฉื™ืชืขืจื‘ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืฆืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ืืช ื”ื”ื–ืžื ื” ืœืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื›ืฉื”ื™ื” ื‘ื”ื•ืœื ื“. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื”ืคืœื™ื’ ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ืฉื ืœืงื” ื‘ื”ืชืงืฃ-ืœื‘. ื‘-6 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1898 ื ืกืข ืœื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ื‘ืื—ื•ื–ืชื• ื”ื›ืคืจื™ืช. ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• "ื‘ืื”ื“ื” ืจื‘ื”", ื•ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืฆืคื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืจืืฉ ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื•ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื™ืขื ื™ืง ืœื• ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืœืคื ื™ ื™ืฆื™ืืชื• ืœืืจืฅ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืขื ื”ืืจื›ื™ื“ื•ื›ืก ืžื‘ืื“ืŸ ื‘ืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ืงื™ืกืจื™ ื‘ืคื•ื˜ืกื“ืื. ืคืจื™ื“ืจื™ืš ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื• ืขืœ ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืžืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•, ื•ื”ืคื ื” ืื•ืชื• ืœืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘. ื‘ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ื—ื–ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืืจืžื•ืŸ ืœืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืขื ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘, ืฉื‘ื” ื ื›ื— ื’ื ื”ืงื ืฆืœืจ ื”ืงื™ืกืจื™ ื”ื ืกื™ืš ื”ื•ื”ื ืœื•ื”ื”, ืฉืฉืืœ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ืืชื” ื‘ืืžืช ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ื ื˜ืฉื• ืืช ื”ื‘ื•ืจืกื” ืฉืœื”ื ื•ื™ืœื›ื• ืื—ืจื™ืš ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ?". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ื” ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืงื ื• ืืช ื”ืงืจืงืข "ื‘ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ืฉื•ืง ืžื‘ืขืœื™ื” ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื™ื". ืœืฉืืœืช ื”ืงื ืฆืœืจ ืžื™ื”ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ืขืœื™ื, ืขื ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ื›ืœ ื”ืขืจื‘ ืจื‘ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื–ืจื—, ืขืจื‘ื™ื, ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื". ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžืกื•ื™ื ื ื—ืคื– ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘ ืœืขื–ื•ื‘, ื•ืืžืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ: "ืœื”ืชืจืื•ืช ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ื–ืจ ืžื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ืžื™ื”ืจ ืœื”ืจื›ื™ื‘ ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ืฉื›ืœืœื” ืืช ื“ื•ื“ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ, ื”ืคืจืงืœื™ื˜ ืžืงืก ื‘ื•ื“ื ื”ื™ื™ืžืจ, ื”ืจื•ืคื ืžืฉื” ืฉื ื™ืจืจ ื•ื”ืžื”ื ื“ืก ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื–ื™ื™ื“ื ืจ. ื‘-12 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1898 ื‘ืœื™ืœื”, ืขืœืชื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืขืœ ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ื›ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ืžื™ื”ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืื•ืœื ื”ืฉืจื™ื ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ื™ื”ื ื•ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืื•ืชื•. ืกื•ื›ื ื™ ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื™ื ืขืงื‘ื• ืื—ืจ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื‘ืฆืืชื ืžืžืœื•ืŸ "ื“ื” ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ" ื‘ื• ื”ืฉืชื›ื ื•, ื•ื’ื ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื”ื ื ืคืชื—ื• ื‘ื“ื•ืืจ. ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ื”ืื›ื™ืœื” ื”ืงืคื™ื“ื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœืฉื•ื—ื— ื‘ืฉืžื•ืช-ืฆื•ืคืŸ: "ื›ื”ืŸ" ื”ื™ื” ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื•"ื”ืื—ื™ื™ืŸ" ื”ื™ื” ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ 18 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืœืขื™ืจ. ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ื™ื• ื‘ืœื—ืฅ ืฉืœ ื–ืžืŸ. ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืœืจื™ืื™ื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื”ื™ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœืฆืืช ื›ื‘ืจ ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื˜ื™ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืžื›ืชื‘ ืœืฉืœื™ืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ, ื‘ื• ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืคืจื˜ื™ ืžื™ื“. ืื—ืจื™ ืืจื•ื—ืช ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื, ื”ื•ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฉืขื” 16:30. ื”ื•ื ื ืกืข ื‘ื›ืจื›ืจื” ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ ืœืื™ืœื“ื™ื– ืงื™ื•ืกืง (ืื '). ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื›ื ืก ืœื‘ื“ื• ืœืืจืžื•ืŸ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ืื•ืจื—. ืจืง ื‘ืฉืขื” 17:30 ื ืงืจื ืืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื‘ืงื•ืžื” ื”ืขืœื™ื•ื ื” ืคื’ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘, ืฉื”ืชืœื•ื•ื” ืืœื™ื• ืœื—ื“ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชืจืฉื ืžืื•ื“ ืžื—ื‘ื™ื‘ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ, ื•ื’ื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ืชืจืฉื ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืืช ื”ืชืคืขืœื•ืชื• ืž"ืžื•ื—ื• ื”ื—ืจื™ืฃ, ื”ื ื‘ื•ืŸ ืžืื™ืŸ ื›ืžื•ื”ื•, ืžืขื™ื ื™ื• ืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื”ื‘ืขื”, ื•ืžื”ืื™ื“ื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื•ืื•ืจื— ื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืืฆื™ืœื™ ืฉืœื•". ืชื•ืš ืฉืœื‘ื• ืคื•ืขื ื‘ื—ื•ื–ืงื”, ื”ืชื•ื•ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืขื™ืงืจื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช, ืื•ืœื ืœื ื”ืกืชื™ืจ ืืช ื ืงื•ื“ืช ื”ืžื•ืฆื ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช ืฉืœื•: "ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื‘ื ื™ ืขืžืš ื™ืฉื ื ื™ืกื•ื“ื•ืช, ืฉื˜ื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื” ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ื ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ... (ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืกื”) ื”ื ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื›ืžืœื•ื•ื™ื ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช ืงืฆื•ืฆื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื›ืคืจื™ืช. ืื™ืœื• ื™ืฆืื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืืœื” ืœืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืขื ืจื›ื•ืฉื, ืื•ืœื™ ื”ื™ื• ื ืขืฉื™ื ืžื•ืขื™ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ". ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘ ื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœื–ืืช ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื ื•ื”ื’ื™ื ื‘ื›ืคื™ื•ืช ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื›ืœืคื™ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืœื•ื›ื” ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ื ืžืฆื˜ืจืคื™ื ืืœ ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื›ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืชืจื—ื™ืง ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžื”ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ื•ืช, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื”ืงืžืช ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœืช ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ืœืคื™ ื“ื’ื ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ื•ื“ื• ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื ืขืฉื” ื ืœื”ื‘, ื•ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ืขื•ืช ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ื•ืช ืžืฆื“ ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘, ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ื›ื™ ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ืืช ื”ื—ืกื•ืช. ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื˜ื•ื— ืฉื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื™ื™ืขื ื” ืœื“ืจื™ืฉืชื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ื—ื‘ืจื” ื‘ืขืœืช ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื—ืกื•ืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช, ื•ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืžืจืืฉ ืืช ื ืื•ืžื• ื•ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืœื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘ ืœืื™ืฉื•ืจ ืžื•ืงื“ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื‘ืฆืืชื• ืฉื™ืžืกื•ืจ ืื•ืชื• ืœื™ื“ื™ื• ืœืคื ื™ ืฉื™ืขื–ื•ื‘ ืืช ืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ื•ืžื™ื“ ื›ืฉื—ื–ืจ ืœืžืœื•ืŸ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืฉืขื•ืช ื”ืขืจื‘ ื•ืœืคื ื•ืช ื‘ื•ืงืจ, ืชื•ืš ืฉื”ื•ื ืกื•ื‘ืœ ืžืžื™ื—ื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื•. ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืฉืœื— ืืœ ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘ ื ืื•ื ื—ืœืงื™ ื•ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืฉื™ืžืกื•ืจ ืœื™ื“ื™ื• ืืช ื—ืœืงื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืขืœื• ืขืœ ืื•ื ื™ื™ืช ื”ืงื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื”ืจื•ืกื™ืช "ื ื™ืงื•ืœืื™ ื”ืฉื ื™" ื•ื”ืคืœื™ื’ื• ืœืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจื™ื”. ื‘ื“ืจืš ืขืฆืจื” ื”ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ื‘ืคื™ืจืื•ืก ื•ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื‘ื™ืงืจื• ื‘ืืงืจื•ืคื•ืœื™ืก ื‘ืืชื•ื ื”. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืชืขืœืช ืกื•ืืฅ, ืฉื”ื˜ื‘ื™ืขื” ื‘ื”ืจืฆืœ ืจื•ืฉื ืจื‘ ื‘ื”ื™ื•ืชื” "ืจืฆื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ืื“ื ืื—ื“!". ื‘ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจื™ื” ื”ืฆื˜ื™ื™ื“ื• ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘ื—ืœื™ืคื•ืช ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืงื•ื‘ืขื™ ืฉืขื, ื•ืขืœื• ืขืœ ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ืงื˜ื ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉื”ืคืœื™ื’ื” ืœื™ืคื•, ื‘ื” ื ืืœืฆื• ืœื”ื™ื“ื—ืก ืœืชื ืฉื”ื—ื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื” ื›ื‘ื“ ืžืื•ื“. ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ 26 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื—ื•ืคื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืš ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืชื—ืžืง. ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘ ื”ืชื ื’ื“ ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื’ื ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ืžืืจืฉืืœ, ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืฉื”ื•ื ืขืœื•ืœ ืœื”ื›ืขื™ืก ืืช ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ื‘ื“ืจืš ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ื—ืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืœื”ืกืก ื‘ื™ื—ืก ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื•ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืฉื™ื ื” ืืช ืขืžื“ืชื•. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื’ื ื”ื–ื“ืขื–ืข ื›ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื™ื“ืข ื›ืœ ื–ืืช. ื‘-26 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื™ืจื“ื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ื ืžืœ ื™ืคื• ื‘ื—ื•ื ื›ื‘ื“. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื“ื— ืžื—ื•ื ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื•ืกื‘ืœ ืžืงืฉื™ื™ ื ืฉื™ืžื”. ื”ื•ื ื ืคืœ ืขืœ ื›ื‘ืฉ ื”ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ื•ื ืคืฆืข ื‘ืจื’ืœื•. ื”ื™ื“ื™ืขื” ืขืœ ืžืกืขื• ื”ืงื“ื™ืžื” ืืช ื‘ื•ืื•. ื›ืžื” ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื–ื™ื”ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื ืžืœ, ื•ื‘ืฉื•ืง ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ ื ืคื•ืฆื” ื”ืฉืžื•ืขื” ืฉื”ื’ื™ืข "ืžืœืš ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ืœืจื’ืœ ื‘ื•ืื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ื•ื–ืขืง ืžืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืžื ื“ืœ ืงืจืืžืจ, ืกื•ื›ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื”ื—ืฉืื™ืช ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ืช, ืฉืขืงื‘ ืื—ืจื™ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืฉืš ืฉื”ื•ืชื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื ืฉื ืขืžื• ืคืงื•ื“ื” ื—ืชื•ืžื” ืœืžืืกืจื•, ืฉื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ื”ื–ื“ืžื ื•ืช ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืฉื™ื—ืจื•ื’ ืžื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ. ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืชื—ื–ื• ืœืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ื ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืกืงืจ ืืช ืžืกืขื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ื ื”ืชืื›ืกื ื• ื‘ืคื ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฆื ื•ืข. ืžื“ื™ ืคืขื ื”ื™ื• ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืจื™ืขื™ื ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืžื”ื ืœื”ืชืคื–ืจ. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื ื–ื”ืจ ืฉืœื ืœืจื›ื•ื‘ ืขืœ ื—ืžื•ืจ ืื• ืกื•ืก ืœื‘ืŸ. ืฉืขื” ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื™ืจื“ื• ืœื—ื•ืฃ, ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ืœื”ืชื—ืžืง ืžืกื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื•ื™ืฆืื• ื‘ืžืจื›ื‘ื” ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื—ืงืœืื™ ืžืงื•ื” ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืฉื ืฉื•ื—ื— ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ื”ืžื ื”ืœ ื•ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื. ืžืฉื ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื• ืœืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืœืฆื™ื•ืŸ, ืฉื ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคืงื™ื“ ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื ื‘ื•ืš ื‘ืฉืœ ื—ืฉืฉื• ืžืชื’ื•ื‘ืช ืื“ื•ื ื•. ืฆืขื™ืจื™ ื”ืื™ื›ืจื™ื, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจ. ื‘ืขืจื‘ ืฉื•ื—ื— ืขื ืจื•ืคื ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื”, ื“"ืจ ืื”ืจืŸ ืžืื™ืจ ืžื–ื™"ื, ืฉืกื™ืคืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ื”ืื™ื›ืจื™ื ืกื•ื‘ืœื™ื ืžืงื“ื—ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืžืจ ืœื• ืฉื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ, ื™ื‘ื™ื "ื”ืžื•ื ื™ ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ืœื ืงื– ื•ืœื™ื™ื‘ืฉ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืฆื•ืช... ื ืขืกื™ืง ืขืจื‘ื™ื ื”ืžื—ื•ืกื ื™ื ืžืคื ื™ ื”ืงื“ื—ืช". ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืžืฉื™ื›ื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื“ืจื•ืžื” ื•ื‘ื™ืงืจื” ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช. ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉื‘ื™ืงืจื• ื‘ื”ืŸ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช, ื”ืจื™ืขื• ืœื”ื ื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื. ื”ื–ืงื ื™ื ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ืคื ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคืช ื•ืžืœื— ื•ื‘ื™ื™ืŸ, ื•ื”ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืฉืจื• ืฉื™ืจื™ื ืขื‘ืจื™ื™ื ื•ืงืจืื•: "ื”ื™ื“ื“ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื ืฉื™ื ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื!". ื‘"ื ื—ืœืช ืจืื•ื‘ืŸ" (ื”ื™ื•ื ื ืก ืฆื™ื•ื ื”) ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ืžื™ื™ืกื“ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืจืื•ื‘ืŸ ืœืจืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื•. ื”ื•ื ืฉืžืข ืขืœ ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื”, ื˜ืขื ื“ื‘ืฉ ื•ืœืงื— ืขืžื• ืืชืจื•ื’ื™ื ื•ืชืคื•ื–ื™ื. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื’ื ื‘ืฆืจื™ืคื” ืฉืœ ื’ื•ืœื“ื” ืžื™ืœื•ืกืœื‘ืกืงื™, ืžื™ื™ืกื“ืช ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื”, ื•ื”ืชืจืฉื ืžืžื ื” ืžืื•ื“. ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ืขืจื›ื• ืœื›ื‘ื•ื“ื• ื‘ื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” "ื”ื•ืคืขืช ืคื ื˜ื–ื™ื”" (ืื '), ื•ื”ืงื™ืคื• ืืช ืžืจื›ื‘ืชื• ื›ืฉื”ื ืจื›ื•ื‘ื™ื ืขืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื”ื. ืืœื™ื”ื• ื–ืื‘ ืœื•ื™ืŸ ืืคืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ืื™ืจื— ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื•, ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื”, ืฉื•ื—ื— ืขื ื”ืชืœืžื™ื“ื™ื ื•ื”ืงืฉื™ื‘ ืœืฉื™ืจืชื. ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ืกืขื“ ืฆื”ืจื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ืœื•ื™ืŸ-ืืคืฉื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื•ืฉื™ื‘ื— ืืช ืคืจื™ ืขืžืœื ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ื›ืจื™ื. ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืกืขื•ื“ื” ืฉืจื• ื”ื ืืกืคื™ื ืืช "ื”ืชืงื•ื•ื”". ื›ืฉืขื–ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืœื™ื•ื• ืืช ืžืจื›ื‘ืชื• ื‘ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช ื›ืœ ื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืฉื™ืจ "ื—ื•ืฉื• ืื—ื™ื ื—ื•ืฉื•". ื‘ืขืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžืชื™ื ื• ืœื• ื–ืงื ื™ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืœืฆื“ ื”ื“ืจืš ืขื ืกืคืจื™ ืชื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื”ื ื•ืื—ื“ื™ื ืืฃ ื ืฉืงื• ืœืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื ืขืœื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ืงืจืงืข. ื‘ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื ืฉื ื ืื•ื ืงืฆืจ ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ืœื ื›ื•ืœื ื”ื‘ื™ื ื• ืืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืคื•ืขืœื• ื”ื™ื• ื”ื•ื›ื—ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ืฉื”ื ื—ืœื•ืฆื™ื ืฉืœ ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื—ื–ืจื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœื™ืคื•. ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื—ืœืคื” ื‘ื“ืจื›ื” ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื›ืชืจื™ืกืจ ื›ืคืจื™ื ืขืจื‘ื™ื™ื (ื•ื–ืืช ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœืขื™ืจ ื™ืคื•), ื™ืฉ ืจืง ืื–ื›ื•ืจ ืื—ื“ ืœืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืžืกืขื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘-27 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1898 ืื—ืจ ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื, ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ืœื™ืคื•, ื•ื‘ืคืžืœื™ื™ืชื• ื’ื ื”ื›ื•ืžืจ ื”ื›ืœืจ, ืฉืขื‘ืจ ื‘ืžืจื›ื‘ื” ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื™ืคื• ื•ืงืจื ืœืขื‘ืจ ื”ืขื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื•ื”ืฉื‘ื™ื: "ื”ืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ื!". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืœื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœืฉืจ ื”ื—ืฆืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืขืœ ื‘ื•ืื•, ื•ืฉื”ื•ื ื™ืžืชื™ืŸ ืœื• ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ืฉืขืจื™ ืžืงื•ื” ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ืœื™ืœื” ืชืงืคื” ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื“ื—ืช ืงืฉื” ื•ื’ื ื”ืžื›ื” ื‘ืจื’ืœื• ื”ื›ืื™ื‘ื” ืœื• ืžืื•ื“. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื™ืฆื ื‘ืงื•ืฉื™ ืจื‘, ื‘ื—ื•ื ื”ื›ื‘ื“, ืœืžืงื•ื” ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื’ื ืคืงื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ืžืชื™ื ื• ืœืงื™ืกืจ ื‘ืฉืขืจ ื•ืžื ื”ืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืœื ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ื• ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื”ืื™ืจื•ืข ืœื ื™ื™ืจืื” ื›ื”ืคื’ื ื” ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ืžื” ืฉืขืœื•ืœ ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื‘ืฉื™ื™ืจืชื• ืจื›ื•ื‘ ืขืœ ืกื•ืก ืœื‘ืŸ. ื”ื•ื ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืจื—ื•ืง ื•ืขืฆืจ ืืช ืกื•ืกื• ื‘ื‘ืช ืื—ืช, ืžื” ืฉื’ืจื ืœืขืจื‘ื•ื‘ื™ื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืจื•ื›ื‘ื™ื, ื•ืื—ื“ ื”ื—ืฆืจื ื™ื ื ืคืœ ืžืกื•ืกื•. ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืฉืืœ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื” ืฉืœื•ืžื• ื•ืงื™ื™ื ืื™ืชื• ืฉื™ื—ื” ืงืœื” ืฉื ืžืฉื›ื” ืžืกืคืจ ื“ืงื•ืช, ืฉื‘ืกื™ื•ืžื” ืœื—ืฆื• ื™ื“ื™ื™ื, ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื—ื–ืจื” ืœื™ืคื•. ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžืชืขื“ืช ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื–ื•, ืฉื‘ื” ื ืจืื” ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ืกื•ืก ื•ืžืฉื•ื—ื— ืขื ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ื™ื ื‘ืขืฆื ืชืžื•ื ืช ืคื•ื˜ื•ืžื•ื ื˜ื–', ืฉื ื•ืฆืจื” ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืชืงืœื” ื‘ืฆื™ืœื•ื ื”ืชืžื•ื ื” ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ืช ืฉื”ื ืฆื™ื—ื” ืืช ื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื”. ืื—ืจ ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ืขืœืชื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœืจื›ื‘ืช ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื“ื— ืžื—ื•ื ื•ืฆืœืข ืขืœ ืจื’ืœื• ื”ื›ื•ืื‘ืช. ืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจ ื•ื“ื—ื•ืก ื•ื”ื—ื•ื ื‘ื• ื”ื™ื” ื›ื‘ื“ ืžืื•ื“. ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ืขืจื‘ ืฉื‘ืช ื•ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื”ืชืขื›ื‘ื” ืœืฆืืช. ื”ื ืกื™ืขื” ืืจื›ื” ื›ืžืขื˜ ืืจื‘ืข ืฉืขื•ืช ื•ื›ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื—ืฉื™ืš ื”ื™ื•ื. ื—ื•ืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœื” ื•ื”ื•ื ืจืฆื” ืœืฉื›ื•ืจ ื›ืจื›ืจื”, ืืš ื‘ืฉืœ ืงื“ื•ืฉืช ื”ืฉื‘ืช, ื”ืชืขืงืฉื• ื—ื‘ืจื™ื• ืœืœื›ืช ื‘ืจื’ืœ ื‘ืžืฉืš ื—ืฆื™ ืฉืขื” ืขื“ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืœื•ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื›ื ืก ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื ืขื–ืจ ื‘ืžืงืœ ื”ืœื™ื›ื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ื“ื• ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื ืชืžื›ืช ื‘ื–ืจื•ืขื• ืฉืœ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ. ื“ื•ื“ ืžืฉื” ืฉื•ื‘, ืฉืœื™ื•ื•ื” ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ืขื™ื“ ื›ื™ ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื• ืฉื ืกื™ืขืช ื—ื•ืœื” ืื™ื ื” ืžื—ืœืœืช ืฉื‘ืช, ืื•ืœื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื ืกื•ืข ื•ืืžืจ: "ื–ื• ืœื™ ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืขื™ืจ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ, ืื™ื ื™ ื—ืคืฅ ืœื ืกื•ืข". ืœื ื”ื•ื›ื ื” ืœืงืจืืชื• ืงื‘ืœืช ืคื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื•ืจื‘ื ื™ ื”ืขื™ืจ ืœื ื”ืกื›ื™ืžื• ื›ืœืœ ืœืคื•ื’ืฉื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชืืจื— ื‘ืžืœื•ืŸ ืงืืžื™ื ื™ืฅ, ืืš ืžื—ื•ืกืจ ืžืงื•ื, ื ืืœืฅ ืœืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœืžื—ืจืช ืœื‘ื™ืช ืฉื˜ืจืŸ. ืœืžื—ืจืช ืกื™ื™ื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื ืื•ืžื• ื•ืฉืœื— ืืช ื”ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืžืœื ืœืฉืจ ื”ื—ืฆืจ ื”ืงื™ืกืจื™. ื”ืชืจืฉืžื•ืชื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืช. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื›ืชื‘: "ื›ืืฉืจ ืื–ื›ืจืš ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืœื ื‘ืขื•ื ื’ ืื–ื›ืจืš. ืžืฉืงืข ืžืขื•ืคืฉ ืฉืœ ืืœืคื™ื™ื ืฉื ื•ืช ื—ื“ืœื•ืŸ ืื™ืฉื™ื, ืงื ืื•ืช ืืคืœื” ื•ื–ื•ื”ืžื” ืฉื•ืจืจ ื‘ืกื™ืžื˜ืื•ืชื™ืš ื”ืžืฆื—ื™ื ื•ืช... ืื ื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ื•ื ื•ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืชื”ื™ื” ืœื ื•... ืจืืฉื™ืช ื›ืœ ืืขืฉื” ื‘ื” ื ื™ืงื™ื•ืŸ ื™ืกื•ื“ื™". ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื‘ื™ืงืจื• ื‘ื›ื•ืชืœ ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื™ ืœื ื”ืชืขื•ืจืจ ื‘ื• "ื›ืœ ืจื’ืฉ ืขืžื•ืง" ืœืžืจืื”ื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ื™ืจ ื‘ื—ื•ืฆื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”. ื‘ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื•ืชื” ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” "ืขื™ืจ ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ืช ืงื˜ื ื”, ื—ืจื‘ื” ื‘ื—ืœืงื”, ืืฉืจ ืคื”-ื•ืฉื ืžืชื—ื™ืœื™ื ืœื‘ืฆื‘ืฅ ื‘ื” ื ื™ืฆื ื™ ืชื—ื™ื”; ืขื™ืจ ืืฉืจ ื”ื•ื“ ื”ืขื‘ืจ ืกื•ื›ืš ืขืœื™ื” ื•ืงื“ื•ืฉืชื” ื ื™ื‘ื˜ืช ืžื›ืœ ื—ืจืš, ืืš ื”ื”ื•ื•ื” ืฉืœื” ืขืฆื•ื‘, ื•ืขื–ื•ื‘ื” ื•ื—ื“ืœื•ืŸ ืžืžืœืื™ื ืื•ืชื•". ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื—ืฉ ื›ืื‘ ื•ืื›ื–ื‘ื” ื•ื’ื ืชืงื•ื•ื”, ื•ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืจืฉื: "ืืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ืขื ืงื“ืฉื™ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืกื•ื’ืจ ื›ืงื•ืคืกื”. ื›ืœ ืžืœืื›ื” ื•ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžื•ืฆื™ื ืžืชื•ื›ื”, ืจืง ื‘ืชื™ ืืœื”ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื—ืกื“ ื™ืฉืžืจื• ืžื‘ื™ืช ืœื—ื•ืžื” ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”, ื•ืขืœ ืฆืœืขื•ืช ื”ื’ื‘ืขื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ื’ ืจื—ื‘ ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘, ืืฉืจ ื™ื‘ืจื™ืงื• ื‘ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ื•, ืชืฉื›ื•ืŸ ืœื” ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื›ืœื™ืœ ืชืคืืจืช... ื™ื“ ืžื˜ืคื—ืช ืชื”ืคื•ืš ืืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืœืื‘ืŸ ื—ืŸ, ื›ืœ ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ ื™ืขืฆืจ ื‘ื—ื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช, ื›ืœ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ ื™ืฉืชืจืข ื”ืจื—ืง ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื”". ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ื• ืžื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ืœื ืจืฆื• ืœื”ื™ืจืื•ืช ื‘ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื—ืฉืฉื• ืžื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื. ืกื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืขืงื‘ ืื—ืจื™ื”ื ืœื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ื•ื”ื™ื• ืฉืžื•ืขื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืชื ืงืฉื•ืช ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ ืืฃ ื”ืชื ืคืœ ืขืœ ืขื•ื‘ืจ ืื•ืจื— ื‘ืฉื•ืง, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื—ืฉื“ ื‘ื• ืฉื”ื•ื ื–ื•ืžื ืœืจืฆื•ื— ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื ืงืจื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืืœ ืžื—ื ื” ื”ืื•ื”ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ ืฆืขื™ืจ ืฉืžื—ืง ืคืกืงืื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื ืื•ืžื•, ื‘ื”ืŸ ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ ืžืคืชื— ืฉืขืกืงื• ื‘ืชื—ื™ื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ื‘ื—ืกื•ืช ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืคืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื•ื“ืจืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืœื”ื’ื™ืฉ ื ื•ืกื— ืžืชื•ืงืŸ. ื”ืจื™ืื™ื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื ืงื‘ืข ืœื™ื•ื ื”ืžื—ืจืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืงืคื™ื“ ืžืื•ื“ ืขืœ ื”ืžืจืื” ืฉืœ ืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ื‘ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืฉืœ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ืžืฉืœื—ืชื•. ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื” ื ืกืขื• ื‘ืžืจื›ื‘ื” ืœื‘ื•ืฉื™ื ื‘ื—ืœื™ืคื•ืช ืขืจื‘ ืฉื—ื•ืจื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ื ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ืืœ ืžื—ื ื” ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืฉื”ื•ืงื ืžืฆืคื•ืŸ ืœื—ื•ืžืช ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื”. ืฉืœื™ืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื›ื ื™ืก ืื•ืชื ืœืื•ื”ืœ-ื˜ืจืงืœื™ืŸ, ื‘ื• ื”ืชืงื‘ืœื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื•ื•ื™ืœื”ืœื ื”ืฆื“ื™ืข. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงืจื ืืช ื ืื•ืžื• ื”ืžืชื•ืงืŸ: "ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืคื•ื ื” ืืœ ืงื™ืกืจ ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”... ื‘ืืจืฅ ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืืจืฅ ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื•. ืื™ืŸ ืื ื• ืงืฉื•ืจื™ื ืืœ ืื“ืžืชึพืงื•ื“ืฉ ื–ื• ื‘ืชืงืคื” ืฉืœ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืœื’ื™ื˜ื™ืžื™ืช ื›ืœืฉื”ื™. ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืื• ื•ื—ืœืคื• ืžืื– ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ื–ืืช ืืจืฆื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื... ืื•ืœื ื”ื—ืœื•ื ืขื•ื“ื ื• ื—ื™... ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื•ื ืžืจืคื ื•ืžื–ื•ืจ ื‘ืฉืขื•ืช ืžื›ืื•ื‘ ืจื‘ื•ืช ืœืขืžื ื•". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉื”ืืจืฅ "ืžืฉื•ื•ืขืช ืœืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื™ืงื•ืžืžื• ืืช ื”ืจื™ืกื•ืชื™ื”" ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื "ืžืฉื•ื•ืขื™ื ืœืืจืฅ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœืขื‘ื“ื”", ื•ืœืฉื ื›ืš ื”ื•ื ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืืช ืขื–ืจืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ืขื•ื“ ืืžืจ ื›ื™ "ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืชืกื™ื™ืข ื’ื ืœืจื•ื•ื—ืชื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”. ืžืจืฅ ืื ื•ืฉื™ ื•ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื ื—ื•ืžืจื™ื™ื ื™ื›ื ืกื• ืœืืจืฅ; ืงืœ ืœืฆืคื•ืช ืฉื™ืงื•ื ื ื”ื“ืจ ืฉืœ ืื–ื•ืจื™ื ืฉื•ืžืžื™ื; ื•ื›ืœ ืืœื” ื™ื‘ื™ืื• ื™ืชืจ ืื•ืฉืจ ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืœื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ืจื‘ื™ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ื ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—: "ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื• ืœื ื™ืคื’ืข ื‘ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืชื™ื• ืื• ืจื’ืฉื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื“ืชื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืฉื•ื ืื“ื". ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ื™ื‘ ื‘ืื”ื“ื” ืืš ื‘ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ื•ืช ื•ื ืžื ืข ืžืœื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืขืœ ืชืžื™ื›ืชื• ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ. ื‘ืžืงื•ื ื–ืืช ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื”ืฆื•ืจืš ื‘ืžื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ "ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืžื™ื ืœืืจืฅ, ื–ื” ื™ืขืœื” ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ื™ื", ื•ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ืขื ื” ื‘ื”ืชื—ื›ืžื•ืช: "ืื›ืŸ, ื›ืกืฃ ื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื‘ืฉืคืข". ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ืœืงื™ืกืจ ืฉื™, ืืœื‘ื•ื ืฆื™ืœื•ืžื™ื ืžื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื”ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื. ืื—ืจ ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ื™ืฆื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืžื•ืฆื, ืฉื ื”ืชืคืขืœ ืžืื•ื“ ืžืื•ืžืฅ ืœื‘ื• ื•ื ื—ื™ืฉื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื‘ืจื•ื–ื” ื•ื ื˜ืข ืืจื–. ืžืชื•ืš ื—ืฉืฉ ืœื—ื™ื™ื• ืžืคื ื™ ืชื’ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื ืขืœ ื‘ืงืฉืชื• ืœื—ืกื•ืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืขื–ื•ื‘ ืžื™ื“. ืœืคื ื™ ืขืœื•ืช ื”ืฉื—ืจ ืขื–ื‘ื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืžืฆื•ื ืžืงื•ื ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื™ื” ืœืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจื™ื”, ื•ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื ืืœืฆื” ืœื‘ืœื•ืช ืืช ื”ืœื™ืœื” ื‘ื™ืคื•. ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืขืœื” ืขืœ ืกืคื™ื ืช-ืžืฉื ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ืงื˜ื ื” ืฉืขืžื“ื” ืœื”ืคืœื™ื’ ื‘ืœื™ืœื” ืขื ืžื˜ืขืŸ ืชืคื•ื–ื™ื. ื”ื•ื ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœืจื“ืช ืžื”ืกื™ืคื•ืŸ ืขื“ ื”ืœื™ืœื”, ื•ื”ืชืขืงืฉ ืœื”ืคืœื™ื’ ื‘ืกืคื™ื ื” ื”ืจืขื•ืขื” ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจื™ื•. ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืžืชื™ื ื” ื‘ืžืฆืจื™ื ื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื ืœืกืคื™ื ืชื, ื‘ืžื”ืœื›ื ื”ืชืคืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืžืคืขืœื™ ื”ื”ืฉืงื™ื” ื‘ื“ืœืชื ืฉืœ ื”ื ื™ืœื•ืก ื•ืžืจื•ื‘ืขื™ ื”ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื‘ืงื”ื™ืจ. ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ืคืœื™ื’ื• ืขืœ ืื•ื ื™ื™ืช ืคืืจ ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ืช ืœื ืืคื•ืœื™, ืฉื ื ื—ืชื” ืขืœื™ื”ื ืื›ื–ื‘ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื”. ืžืžืฉืœืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ื” ืคืจืกืžื” ื”ื•ื“ืขื” ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืขืœ ืกื™ื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื‘ื” ื”ื•ืฆื’ ื”ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืฆืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื›ืื™ืจื•ืข ืœืœื ืฉื•ื ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื™ื“ืข ืื– ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื“ืขื” ื–ื• ื ื•ืกื—ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืœื•ื‘ ืขืฆืžื•, ื‘ืื™ืฉื•ืจ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ. ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื ื—ืœื” ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื—ืจื•ืฅ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืืฆืœ ื”ืฆืืจ ื”ืจื•ืกื™ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ืจื˜ื” ืคื•ืŸ ื–ื•ื˜ื ืจ, ืฉื—ื™ื‘ื‘ื” ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืื™ืฉื™ืช ื•ืื”ื“ื” ืืช ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื” ืืœื™ื• ื›ื™ื ืชื” ืื•ืชื• "ืžื•ืฉืœ-ืฆื™ื•ืŸ". ื”ื™ื ื”ืžืœื™ืฆื” ืขืœื™ื• ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืจื•ืกื™ืช, ืื•ืœื ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ืจื•ืกื™ ื”ืชื—ืžืง. ืžืกืคืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืคื ืชื” ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืจื•ืกื™ืช ืืœ ืžืžืฉืœืช ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื” ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื‘ื˜ืขื ื” ืฉื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื ื›ื™ืกื•ื™ ืœืชืขืžื•ืœื” ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช-ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ืช. ืื™ื’ืจืช ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ืช ื“ื•ืžื” ืฉื•ื’ืจื” ื’ื ืœืžืžืฉืœืช ื’ืจืžื ื™ื”, ืฉื”ื•ื“ื™ืขื” ืœืื—ืจ ื—ืงื™ืจื” ื›ื™ ื—ืฉื“ื•ืช ืืœื• ืื™ื ื ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื™ื. ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื ื™ืฆืœื• ืืช ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืืœ ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืจืขืจ ืขืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืชื•. ื—ืœืงื ื˜ืขื ื• ื›ื™ ื“ืจื•ืฉื” ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืžืขืฉื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืœื ืจืง ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ื” ืฉืื™ื ื” ื ื•ืฉืืช ืคืจื™; ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ืœืคื™ื• ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžืฉืชืฃ ืืช ื—ื‘ืจื™ื• ื‘ื”ื ื”ืœื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช; ื”ื™ื• ืฉื”ืืฉื™ืžื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ื—ื•ืกืจ ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช, ืฉืœื ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืช ื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืฉืกื™ืœืฃ ืืช ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืฉืžืข ืฉื ื•ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœึฐื”ึธื–ึตื ืืช ื”ื”ืืฉืžื•ืช ื”ืœืœื•, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืกื™ืจื‘ ืœืคืจืกื ืืช ืฉื™ื—ืชื• ืขื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื•ืืช ื”ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืช ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ืžืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ื•ื”ืืจื›ื™ื“ื•ื›ืก, ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ ืœื”ื ืœื—ืฉืื™ื•ืช ื’ืžื•ืจื”. ื”ื•ื ื ื™ืกื” ืœื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืขื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™, ืืš ื–ื” ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœืงื‘ืœื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื”ืคื ื•ืช ืืช ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ื• ื‘ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™. ื‘ืžืจืฅ 1899 ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืืช ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ื ื‘ืœื™ื ืกืงื™ ื”ื•ื–ืžืŸ ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘-2 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ, ืื•ืœื ื‘ืขืจื‘ ืฉืœืคื ื™ ื”ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืžืช ืžื”ืชืงืฃ ืœื‘ ืคืชืื•ืžื™. ื‘-1 ื‘ืžืจืฅ 1899 ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืฆื“ื•ืง ื›ื”ืŸ, ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ืคืจื™ื–, ืžื›ืชื‘ ืžื™ื•ืกืฃ ืืœ-ื—'ืืœื™ื“ื™, ืจืืฉ ืขื™ืจื™ื™ืช ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ, ืฉื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื›ื ืฆื™ื’ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื‘ืคืจืœืžื ื˜ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™. ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ืขืกืง ื‘ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ื—'ืืœื™ื“ื™ ืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืืช "ื”ื™ื•ืคื™ ื•ื”ืฆื“ืง" ืฉื‘ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ืืš ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ "ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืชื—ืฉื‘ ื‘ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช, ืœื›ื‘ื“ ืขื•ื‘ื“ื•ืช ืงื™ื™ืžื•ืช, ื•ืืช ื›ื•ื—ืŸ ื”ืื›ื–ืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช" โ€“ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื™ื•ืฉื‘ืช ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ืœื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœืงื ื•ืช ืืช ื”ืืจืฅ ื‘ื›ืกืฃ ื•ื›ื™ ืœื”ื’ืฉืžืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื“ืจื•ืฉื™ื "ืชื•ืชื—ื™ื". ื”ื•ื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžื›ื‘ื“ ืžืื•ื“ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืื“ื, ื›ืกื•ืคืจ "ื•ื›ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืคื˜ืจื™ื•ื˜ื™", ืื•ืœื ื–ื” "ืฉื’ืขื•ืŸ ื’ืžื•ืจ" ืžืฆื“ื• ืœื”ืขืœื•ืช ืขืœ ื“ืขืชื• ืฉื™ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืคื™ืœื• ืื ื™ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ื—'ืืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฆื™ืข ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื "ื™ืžืฆืื• ืœื”ื ืืจืฅ ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ" ื•ื”ืคืฆื™ืจ: "ื‘ืฉื ืืœื•ื”ื™ื, ื”ื ื™ื—ื• ืœืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื”". ื›ื”ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืกื‘ื•ืจ ืฉืžื•ื˜ื‘ ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ืฉื™ื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ืขื‘ื™ืจื• ืืœื™ื•. ื‘-19 ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ "ืื™ืŸ ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ื•ื— ืฆื‘ืื™" ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืื™ืŸ "ืฉื•ื ื˜ืขื ืœื—ืฉื•ืฉ ืžืคื ื™ ื”ื’ื™ืจืชื". ื”ื•ื ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื›ื•ื•ื ืชื• ืœื’ืจืฉ ืืช ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืœื-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” ื•ื–ื• ืจืง ืชืจื•ื™ื— ืžืขืœื™ื™ืช ืขืจืš ื”ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ืฉืชืชืจื—ืฉ ื‘ื‘ื•ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืขื ื–ืืช, ืืžืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืื ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ื ื™ืกืจื‘ื• ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื™ื—ืคืฉื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ื™ืžืฆืื• ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ ืœื”ื’ืจ ืืœื™ื•. ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1899 ื”ืชื›ื ืก ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ื‘ื• ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืœืฉื™ืื” ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ืขืœ ื”ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ื•ื˜ื” ื•ืชื•ืงืคื ื™ืช, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ืฉืชื™ืง ืืช ื”ืžื‘ืงืจื™ื. ื”ื•ื ืฉืžืจ ืขืœ ื”ื—ืฉืื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื’ืจืžื ื™ื, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืงื™ื•ื•ื” ืœื—ื“ืฉ ืขืžื ืืช ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ. ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื”ื•ื ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื›ืจืืฉ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื”, ื•ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื ื‘ืชืจื•ืขื•ืช ืจื•ืขืžื•ืช ื•ื‘ืงืจื™ืื•ืช "ืœืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื". ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ื™ื ืœื”ืฉื’ืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื ืจืื• ืœื• ืขืชื” ื ืžื•ื›ื™ื, ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ืžื•ื ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื™ื• ื–ืงื•ืงื™ื ืœืขื–ืจื” ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ืช, ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื—ืคืฉ ืืจืฅ ืื—ืจืช ืฉื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ื” ืžื”ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืฉืื ืœื ืชื•ืฉื’ ื”ืชืงื“ืžื•ืช ืขื ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื ืขื“ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™, ื™ืฉืคื™ืข ื•ืืฃ ื™ื›ืคื” ืขืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืืจืฅ ืื—ืจืช ื›ืœืฉื”ื™. ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื—ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ื”ืื™ ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ, ื‘ืฉืœ ืงืจื‘ืชื• ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื”ื™ื•ืชื• ื ืชื•ืŸ ืœืฉืœื™ื˜ืช ืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืงื•ื‘ืœืช ืขืœ ื—ื•ื’ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื”ื•ืŸ ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ืฆื ื•ื›ืš ื’ื ืจื•ื‘ ื”ื ื“ื•ื ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืืฉืชื•. ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืžืขื˜ ืจื•ื•ื—ื” ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ื—ื–ืจ ื–ืžื ื™ืช ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื• ื‘ืชื™ืื˜ืจื•ืŸ. ื”ื•ื ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืคืืจืกื” ื™ืฉื ื” ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื‘-1885 ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืฉื—ืงืŸ ื”ืงื•ืžื™ ื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืื™ ื”ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจ ื’'ื™ืจืืจื“ื™ (ืื '), ื•ื‘ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ 1899 ืขื‘ื“ ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื—ื–ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ื•ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ ืจื•ืžื ื™ื. ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื•ืช ืœื ื”ื™ื• ื˜ื•ื‘ื•ืช, ืื‘ืœ ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืงื•ืžื“ื™ื•ืช ื”ื•ืฆื’ื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ืื•ืœืžื•ืช ืžืœืื™ื ื•ื™ืฆืื• ืœืกื™ื‘ื•ื‘ื™ ื”ื•ืคืขื•ืช ืžืžื•ืฉื›ื™ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1899 ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื ื•ืจื™ ื‘ื™ื™, ื”ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ืฉืœ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™, ืฉืคื™ืจื˜ ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ืืช ืฉืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื ืฉื™ืฆื˜ืจืš ืœืฉืœื ืœื”ื ืžืงื“ืžื•ืช ืฉื•ื—ื“ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืกื™ื“ื•ืจ ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืืฆืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ืื™ ืœื›ืš, ื’ื“ืœื• ืžืื•ื“ ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ืฉื•ื—ื“, ื•ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืงื•ืคื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื›ื‘ืจ ืจื™ืงื”, ื ืืœืฅ ืœืงื—ืช ื”ืœื•ื•ืื” ืคืจื˜ื™ืช ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ื›ื ืกื•ืช ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืงืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ืืœื ืฉื‘ืžืฉืš ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืœื ื ืจืื• ืชื•ืฆืื•ืช. ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1900 ืงืฉืจ ื™ื—ืกื™ื ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืขื ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ, ืืจื ืกื˜ ืคื•ืŸ ืงืจื‘ืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ืขืฅ ืœื• ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ื ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ืืฃ ืกื™ื™ืข ืœื• ื‘ื ื™ืกื•ื— ื—ื•ืง ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™. ื‘-23 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ืชืืจื— ืืฆืœ ืžืฉื•ืจืจ ื”ื—ืฆืจ, ืืœืคืจื“ ืื•ืกื˜ื™ืŸ (ืื '), ืฉื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื—ืกื™ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื•ื”ืชื ื“ื‘ ืœื”ืžืœื™ืฅ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื”, ืจื•ื‘ืจื˜ ื’ืกืงื•ื™ืŸ ืกืกื™ืœ (ืœื•ืจื“ ืกื•ืœืกื‘ืจื™), ืืš ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื•ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœืงื‘ืœื•. ื‘-19 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ืœืงื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื”ืชืงืฃ ืกื—ืจื—ื•ืจืช ื•ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ื”ื›ืจืชื• ืœืžืกืคืจ ืจื’ืขื™ื. ื”ืจื•ืคื ืื‘ื—ืŸ "ืื ืžื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื—". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ ื ื•ืจื™ ื‘ื™ื™ ืขื•ืฉืง ืื•ืชื•, ืืš ืœื ื”ืขื– ืœื”ืคืกื™ืง ืืช ืžืงื“ืžื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ื—ื“ ืฉื–ืจืžื• ืืœื™ื•, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื—ืฉืฉ ืžืžืขืฉื”-ืชื’ืžื•ืœ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™. ืื™ ืœื›ืš, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœืคื ื•ืช ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ื“ืจืš ืื—ืจืช. ื‘-17 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ื ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื”ืื ืชืจื•ืคื•ืœื•ื’ ืืจืžื™ืŸ ื•ืžื‘ืจื™, ื™ื“ื™ื“ื• ื”ืื™ืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืฉื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื• ืขืžื• ืœืœื ืชืฉืœื•ื. ื‘-11 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ืœืงื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ื”ืชืงืฃ ืฉืœ ืื ืžื™ื™ืช-ื”ืžื•ื— ื•ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ื”ื›ืจืชื•. ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1900 ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™. ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืชื›ื ืก ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื’ื“ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืขื™ืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื”, ืืš ื ืชืงืฃ ื‘ืฆืžืจืžื•ืจื•ืช ืงืฉื•ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื•ื ื’ื‘ื•ื”. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื“ืจื™ืฉืชื•, ื ืžืฆื ืœื• ืจื•ืคื ืฉืœืžื“ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ืฉื”ื•ื ื’ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื–ื™ื•ืช ื•ื˜ื•ืคืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฉืชื™ ืื—ื™ื•ืช ืขื“ ื™ื•ื ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื‘-13 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜. ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื ืฉื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื ืื•ื ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื”, ื•ื‘ืžื”ืœื›ื• ืกืขื“ ืขื ืืจื™ืง ื‘ืืจื™ื ื’ื˜ื•ืŸ, ืžื–ื›ื™ืจื• ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื•ืขืฉื” ืžืืžืฅ ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•. ืœืื—ืจ ืคื ื™ื•ืช ื—ื•ื–ืจื•ืช ื•ื ืฉื ื•ืช ื‘ืžืฉืš ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืžืฆื“ ืืจืžื™ืŸ ื•ืžื‘ืจื™, ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคื’ื™ืฉื”. ื‘ืžืื™ 1901 ื ืกืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ ื•ืื•ืกืงืจ ืžืจืžื•ืจืง ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื™ืขื™ ืœื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ื ืงืจื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืืจืžื•ืŸ. ืœืื—ืจ ื˜ืงืก ื”"ืกึถืœึทืžืœื™ืง", ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ืื‘ืจื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื™, ืจืืฉ ื”ื˜ืงืก, ื›ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืžืขื ื™ืง ืœื• ืืช ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื”ืžื’'ื™ื“ื™ื” ืžื“ืจื’ื” ืฉื ื™ื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืื•ืชื•ืช-ื›ื‘ื•ื“, ืื‘ืœ ืื ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช ื™ืงื‘ืœ, ื”ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ืคืขื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืž"ื“ืจื’ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืœืคื—ื•ืช". ืื‘ืจื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื™ ื”ืœืš ืœื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืขืœ ื›ืš ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ื•ื›ืฉื—ื–ืจ, ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื• ืืช ื”ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ืžื“ืจื’ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื” โ€“ ื”ืขื™ื˜ื•ืจ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”. ื”ืฉื™ื—ื” ืขื ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื ืžืฉื›ื” ืœืžืขืœื” ืžืฉืขืชื™ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืžืข ืœืขืฆืช ื•ืžื‘ืจื™ ื•ื ืžื ืข ืžืœื‘ื˜ื ืืช ื”ืžื™ืœื™ื "ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ" ืื• "ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช". ื”ื•ื ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืืช ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ืขืœ ืื ื“ืจื•ืงืœืก ื•ื”ืืจื™ื” ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ืฉื›ืžื• ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ, ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื™ืฉ ืงื•ืฅ ื‘ื“ืžื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช, ืฉืื•ืชื• ื™ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื“ืจืฉ ืกื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื—ืœื˜ืช ื•ืคื™ืจื˜ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื•: ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืงื ื• ืืช ืื™ื’ืจื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื‘ื•ืจืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื•ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื™ื’ืžื•ืœ ืœื”ื ื‘ืžื—ื•ื•ื” ื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืชื™ืช, ื•ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ืชืคืชื— ืืช ืฉืขืจื™ื” ื‘ืคื ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืืจืฆื•ืช ืฉื‘ื”ืŸ ืจื•ื“ืคื™ื ืื•ืชื. ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืœืขื•ืžืช ื–ืืช, ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืžืฉืืœื•ืช ืื•ืชืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ: ืœื”ืžืœื™ืฅ ืขืœ ืžื•ืžื—ื” ืœืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ ื›ืกืคื™ื ื•ื ืคื˜ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ื”ื›ื ืกื•ืช ืžืฉื“ื•ืช ื”ื ืคื˜ ืฉื”ืชื’ืœื• ื–ื” ืขืชื” ื‘ื‘ื’ื“ืื“; ืœืขื–ื•ืจ ืœื• ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ื‘ื“ื—ื™ืคื•ืช 1.5 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืจื•ืช ืœื›ื™ืกื•ื™ ื’ืจืขื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื ื” ืฉืขื‘ืจื”; ื•ืกื™ื•ืข ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืงื•ื ืกื•ืœื™ื“ืฆื™ื” (ืื ') ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืžืœื•ื•ื” ื—ื“ืฉ ืœืฆื•ืจืš ืคืจืขื•ืŸ ื”ืžืœื•ื•ื” ื”ื™ืฉืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ื“ื•"ื— ืžืคื•ืจื˜ ืขืœ ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื›ืกืคื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื™ื™ืขืฅ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืฆืขื•ืชื™ื• ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืืช ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืฆื˜ืจื›ื• ืœืงื‘ืœ ืขืœ ืขืฆืžื ื ืชื™ื ื•ืช ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช, ื›ื•ืœืœ ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ื‘ืฆื‘ื, ืืš "ืœื ืชื•ืจืฉื” ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช, ืืœื...ื‘ืžืคื•ื–ืจ, ืœื ื‘ืžืจื•ื›ื–". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืžืชื ื’ื“ ืœืคื™ื–ื•ืจ, ืืš ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื”ืงื™ื "ื—ื‘ืจืช ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ื’ื“ื•ืœื”... ืฉื™ื•ืงืฆื” ืœื” ืฉื˜ื— ื‘ืœืชื™-ืžืขื•ื‘ื“ ืฉืขืœื™ื• ื™ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืœืžืฉืœ, ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ". ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ื‘ื™ืข ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื”ืฆืขื” ื•ื ืชืŸ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื”ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืจื‘ืขื” ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช, ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆืขื” ืžืคื•ืจื˜ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืกืข ืœืคืจื™ื– ื›ื“ื™ ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื“ื—ื” ืฉื•ื‘ ืืช ืคื ื™ื™ืชื•, ื•ื›ืš ื’ื ื—ื‘ืจืช ื™ืง"ื ืฉื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจืฉ ื”ื•ืจื™ืฉ ืœื” ืขืฉืจื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ืฉ"ื˜. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืืฃ ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ืŸ "ืคื™ื™ื ื ืฉืœ ื˜ื™ื™ืžืก" ืฉืื™ืŸ ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ื ื• ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ืžืคืขืœื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืงืœืข ืœ"ืžืขื’ืœ ืงืกืžื™ื": ื”ื™ื• ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื• ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ืœืชืจื•ื ื›ืกืฃ, ืืš ืจืง ืื ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ืฉื™ื’ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ. ืืœื ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ื–ืงื•ืง ืงื•ื“ื ื›ื•ืœ ืœื›ืกืฃ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ. ื‘-2 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1901 ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืขืœ ืงืฉื™ื™ื•, ืขืœ ื”ืชืžืจื•ืŸ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืชื™ ื”ืžืœื•ื›ื” ืฉืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ืืกื™ื”, ื•ืขืœ ืื•ื•ื™ืจืช ื—ื•ืกืจ ื”ืืžื•ืŸ ื›ืœืคื™ื•: ื›ืืฉืจ ืชืงื•ื ืคืขื ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื™ืจืื” ื”ื›ื•ืœ ื–ืขื™ืจ ื•ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ืžืขืฆืžื•. ืืš ืื•ืœื™ ื™ืžืฆื ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ ื™ืฉืจ, ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื”, ื›ืืฉืจ ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžื—ื•ืกืจ-ืืžืฆืขื™ื, ื•ื‘ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืฉืคืœื•ืช ื”ืขืžื•ืง ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื‘ื™ืžื™ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื–ื•ื”ืžื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ื”ืคืš ืกืžืจื˜ื•ื˜ ืœื“ื’ืœ ื•ืืกืคืกื•ืฃ ื™ืจื•ื“ ืœืขื, ื”ืžื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ื“ื’ืœ ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืงื•ืžื” ื–ืงื•ืคื”. ื‘-5 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1901, ื‘ืขืช ืฉื˜ื™ื™ืœ ื‘ื™ืขืจ ื‘ื•ืœื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ืคืจื™ื–, ืกื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืฉื‘ืฅ-ืœื‘ ื•ืื™ื‘ื“ ืืช ื”ื›ืจืชื• ืœืžืกืคืจ ืจื’ืขื™ื. ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื ืกืข ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื•ื’ื ืฉื ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ื”ื›ืกืฃ ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉ ืœืคืชื™ื—ืช ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืจืฆื™ื ื™ ืขื ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื. ื‘ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื—ืฉืื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื•ื˜ืœื” ืขืœื™ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ืฉื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื™ื” ืœื—ืฉื•ืฃ ืืช ืžื” ืฉื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื• ื•ื‘ื›ืš ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื ืœื”ืฉืงื™ืข. ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื•ืจื“ ื ืชื ืืœ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืื•ืจื— ืœื ืจืฆื•ื™ ื•ื”ืœื•ืจื“ ืœื ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœื• ืœืฉื™ื—ื”. ื›ืฉืจืื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืื™ื ื• ืžืฆืœื™ื— ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ื›ืกืคื™ื ืžื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื, ืคื ื” ืœื’ื•ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื. ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื‘ื”ื ื”ื™ื” ืกืจ ืกืกื™ืœ ืจื•ื“ืก, ืฉื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื‘ืฉืœื™ืœื”. ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืงื•ืคืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืจื™ืงื”, ืจื‘ื™ื ื—ืฉื‘ื• ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื—ื•ืœืฉ ืขืœ ืชืงืฆื™ื‘ื™ ืขื ืง, ื•ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฆืฃ ื‘ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช ืฆื“ืงื” ืจื‘ื•ืช. ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืžื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืคืœื•ื ืกืง, ืฉื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืกื™ื•ืข ืœืœื™ืžื•ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื• ื‘ืŸ ื”-16, ื“ื•ื“ ื’ืจื™ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืœื— ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื, ื‘ื”ื ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืžืืžืฆื™ื ืœื’ื™ื™ืก ื›ืกืฃ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”, ืืš ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื›ื™ ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืชื•ืงื ื—ื‘ืจืช-ืคื™ืชื•ื— ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ืœื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžืขื ื” ืœืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ื•ื—ืฉืฉ ืฉื”ื ืขื•ื›ื‘ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ืฉื™ ื—ืฆืจ ืžื•ืฉื—ืชื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ืื™ ืœื›ืš, ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœืœืžื•ื“ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ืช, ื›ื“ื™ ืฉื‘ืคืขื ื”ื‘ืื” ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขื ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ืœื“ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ืฉืœื— ืœื• ืžื‘ืจืง-ื‘ืจื›ื”, ื•ื”ืคืขื ื ืขื ื” ื‘ืชื•ื“ื”, ืืš ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื ื›ื‘ืจ ืœื ืฉืžืข ืžืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื“ื‘ืจ. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื• ื”ืจืขื•ืขื”, ื ืคืœ ืœื“ื™ื›ืื•ืŸ ืขืžื•ืง, ื•ื ืชืงืฃ ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืžื•ื•ืช. ื‘-8 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1901 ื›ืชื‘ ืœื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ: "ืฉื•ื‘ ื•ืฉื•ื‘ ืชื•ืงืคืช ืื•ืชื™ ื ื‘ื•ืืช-ืœื‘ ืฉื™ืžื™ ืกืคื•ืจื™ื". ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื• ื’ื ื”ืจื’ืฉืช ืกื™ืคื•ืง ืขืœ ืžื” ืฉืขืฉื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื•. ื‘-24 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1902 ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื•: "ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืฉึทื‘ึธึผืช ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™". ื‘ืฉื ืช 1901 ื ื›ื ืก ืœืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืžื‘ืฆืขื™ืช ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ "ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ืฉืžืฉืจื“ื• ื”ืจืืฉื™ ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ. ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ื™ื” ืงื˜ืŸ ื•ืžื‘ื•ืกืก ืขืœ ื›ืกืคื ื”ืžื•ืขื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื, ืืš ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœ ืœื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืžื›ืชื‘ื™-ืืฉืจืื™ ืฆื ื•ืขื™ื ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ื–ืงื•ืง ืœื”ื ืœืฉืœื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืขื ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ื. ื‘-26 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 1901 ื”ืชืงื™ื™ื ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ. ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ื•ื–ืงื” ื”ืคืขื ื‘ืกื™ืขื” ืงื•ืœื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืจื“ื™ืงืœื™ื™ื, ืจื•ื‘ื ื™ื•ืฆืื™ ืจื•ืกื™ื”, ืฉืœืžื“ื• ื‘ืื•ื ื™ื‘ืจืกื™ื˜ืื•ืช ื‘ืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ืฅ. ื—ืœืงื ื“ื’ืœ ื‘ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ื–ื ื•ื—ืœืงื ื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ "ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช" ืขืœ ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ื” ื•ื”ื˜ื™ืฃ ืœ"ืคืขื•ืœื” ืžืขืฉื™ืช" ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ื™ืŸ ืจืืฉื™ ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื‘"ืคืจืงืฆื™ื” ื”ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช" ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื” ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื™ืฆืžืŸ. ื—ื‘ืจื™ื” ืฉืืคื• ืœ"ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื–ืฆื™ื”" ืฉืœ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ื˜ืขื ื• ื›ื™ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื•ื”ื’ ื‘ื” ื‘"ืจื•ื“ื ื•ืช". ืื•ืœื ื‘ื”ืฆื‘ืขื•ืช ื ื—ืฉืคื” ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื›ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ืžื‘ื•ื˜ืœ. ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ืขืœืชื” ืฉืืœืช ื”"ืชืจื‘ื•ืช". ื”ืื•ืคื•ื–ื™ืฆื™ื” ื“ืจืฉื” ืืช ื”ืขืžืงืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ื”ื“ื’ืฉืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™ื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืœืคืขื•ืœ ืจืง ื›ืชื’ื•ื‘ื” ืœืžืฆื™ืื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช. ื‘ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ืœืฉื ื™ื ื”ืงื•ื“ืžื•ืช, ื’ื™ืœื” ื”ืคืขื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืื”ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื ื•ืฉื. ื‘-4 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1902 ื”ื•ื–ืžืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ื”ืคืขื ื ื™ื”ืœ ืืช ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ื‘ื’ืœื•ื™ ื›ืจืืฉ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ื”ื•ื ื”ืฆื™ืข ื‘ืจื™ืช ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ืช-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืชืžื•ืจืช ื”ืขื ืงืช ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ: ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืฉืœืžื• ืืช ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื” ื•ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ื™ื•ืจืฉื” ืœื”ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ื”ืชื ื”ืœ ืžื•ืœ ืื‘ืจื”ื™ื ื‘ื™ื™ ื•ืื™ื–ื˜ ื‘ื™ื™, ืฉื”ืœื›ื• ื”ืœื•ืš ื•ืฉื•ื‘: ื”ื’ื™ืฉื• ืืช ื”ืฆืขื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื—ื–ืจื• ืืœื™ื• ืขื ืชื’ื•ื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืืคืฉืจ ืœืคืœื™ื˜ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื”, ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉื™ืงื‘ืœื• ืืช ื”ื ืชื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช, ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืžืœื‘ื“ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ืœื›ืš, ื™ื’ื™ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆืขื” ืœื—ื™ืกื•ืœ ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื‘ืชื ืื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืœื” ืฉืžืฆื™ืขื™ื ืœื• ืื ืฉื™-ื›ืกืคื™ื ื‘ืฆืจืคืช. ืžืœื‘ื“ ื–ืืช, ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืขืœื™ื• ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืขืœ ืคื™ ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™, ืœืคืชื— ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืžื›ืจื•ืช ื”ืงื™ื™ืžื™ื ื•ื”ืขืชื™ื“ื™ื™ื ื‘ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื”: ื–ื”ื‘, ื›ืกืฃ, ืคื—ื ื•ื ืคื˜. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืขืงืจื•ื ื™ืช ืœื”ืฆืขื” ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช, ืืš ื“ื—ื” ืืช ื”ืชื ืื™ ื”ืื•ืกืจ ืืช ื”ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืขืžื“ ืขืœ ืกื™ืจื•ื‘ื• ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ื ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืฆื™ืข ืืช ืืจื ื ื”ืจื™ื™ื, ืกื•ืจื™ื” ื•ืื ื˜ื•ืœื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืจื‘ ื‘ืชื•ืงืฃ. ืื™ื–ื˜ ื”ืฆื™ืข ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื™ืฆื™ื’ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™-ืืฉืจืื™ ืฉื™ืขื™ื“ื• ืขืœ ื’ื™ื‘ื•ื™ ื›ืกืคื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš ื•ื”ื•ื›ื ื” ื˜ื™ื•ื˜ื” ืœื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ืžื›ืชื‘ื™-ืืฉืจืื™ ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื, ืขืœ ืกืš ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืคืจื ืง ื›ืœ ืื—ื“: ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžื›ืจื•ืช, ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืืœื ืฉื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื–ืžืŸ-ืžื” ืคื•ืจืกื ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื”ืกื“ืจ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ืขื ืจื•ึผื‘ื™ึถื”, ืื™ืœ-ื›ืกืคื™ื ื•ืฉืจ ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ ื‘ืžืžืฉืœืช ืฆืจืคืช. ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื•ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1902, ื”ืฉืœื™ื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืจื•ืžืŸ ื”ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ "ืืœื˜ื ื•ื™ืœื ื“" (ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช: "ืืจืฅ ืขืชื™ืงื”-ื—ื“ืฉื”"), ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืœืกื™ืจื•ื’ื™ืŸ ื‘ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช. ืขืœื™ืœืชื• ืžืชืจื—ืฉืช ื‘ืขืชื™ื“, ื‘ืฉื ืช 1923, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื•ื’ืฉืžื” ื‘ืžืœื•ืื”. ืขืœ ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉืขืจ ื”ื•ืคื™ืข ื”ืžื•ื˜ื• โ€ืื ืชืจืฆื• - ืื™ืŸ ื–ื• ืื’ื“ื”โ€. ื”ืจื•ืžืŸ ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื”ื•ื›ื™ื— ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืื™ื ื” ืจืง ื—ืœื•ื, ืืœื ื ื™ืชื ืช ืœื”ืฉื’ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื•: "ื”ืกื‘ืœื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ื”ื›ื•ืœ". ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19 ื ื›ืชื‘ื• ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช, ืื•ืœื "ืืœื˜ื ื•ื™ืœื ื“" ื”ื™ื ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ืŸ ืฉื ื›ืชื‘ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงืื™ ืคืขื™ืœ. ื‘ืจื•ืžืŸ ื™ืฉื ื ืจืžื–ื™ื ืื•ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืคื™ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ื•ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื• ืžื‘ื•ืกืกื™ื ืขืœ ืขื•ื–ืจื™ื• ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ืจื•ืžืŸ ืกื™ืžืœ ืžืคื ื” ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ ื‘ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ื ื™ื’ื•ื“ ื—ืจื™ืฃ ืœื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื• ื”ืงื•ื“ื, "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื”ื•ื ืฉื™ืงืฃ ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืชืคื™ืกืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืฉืžื™ื™ื—ื“ืช ืื•ืชื• ืœืขื•ืžืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ืช ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19. ื‘"ืืœื˜ื ื•ื™ืœื ื“" ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื‘ืจ ืื™ื ื• ืชื•ืžืš ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœืื•ืžื™ืช, ืืœื ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื”, ืฉื•ื ื” ืžื”ืžืกื’ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืงื•ื‘ืœื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ืืœื ืงื•ืกืžื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช. ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืขืœ ืฆื•ืจื•ืช ืงื•ืื•ืคืจื˜ื™ื‘ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืชืื’ื“ื•ืช ืžืจืฆื•ืŸ. ื”ื›ื•ื— ื”ืžื ื™ืข ืื•ืชื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืืžืฆืขื•ืช ืจืคื•ืจืžื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช: ื”ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ, ื•ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื•ืช, ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ื, ื”ื‘ื ืงื™ื ื•ื—ื ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื›ืœ-ื‘ื• ื‘ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืงื•ืื•ืคืจื˜ื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ื”ืฆืจื›ื ื™ื. ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื ื–ื”ืจื” ืฉืœื ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืขืœ ืฉื’ื™ืื•ืช ื”ืชื™ืขื•ืฉ ืฉื ืขืฉื• ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”: ืขืจื™ื” ืžืชื•ื›ื ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื˜ื‘ ื•ืžืฆื•ื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ืชืขื‘ื•ืจื” ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ืžืขื•ืœื”; ืžื ื”ืจื” ืžืงืฉืจืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื ื”ืชื™ื›ื•ืŸ ื•ื™ื ื”ืžืœื— ืœืฆื•ืจืš ื”ืคืงืช ื—ืฉืžืœ; ืžืคืขืœื™ ื”ืฉืงื™ื” ืžืคืจื™ื—ื™ื ืืช ื”ืžื“ื‘ืจ; ื™ื•ื ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื•ื ื‘ืŸ ืฉื‘ืข ืฉืขื•ืช, ื•ืœื ืฉื™ื ื™ืฉื ื” ื–ื›ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”. ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ื”ืจื•ืžืŸ ืฉื•ืืคื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฉื ืืช ื›ืœ ืืœื” ื’ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงื•ื ืื—ืจ ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคืชื•ืจ ืืช ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื”ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™, ืžื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ื–ื“ืงืง ืœืจื•ื“ื ื•ืช ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช. ื”ืขื™ืงืจื•ืŸ ื”ืžื ื—ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื” ื”ื•ื ืกื•ื‘ืœื ื•ืช, ื•ืกื™ืกืžืชื”: "ืื“ื, ืื—ื™ ืืชื”". ืœืคื™ื›ืš ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ืขื“ ืžืขื‘ืจ ืœื‘ื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ืœื“ืžืฉืง) ืื™ื ื” ืžืขื•ืจืจืช ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื‘ืงืจื‘ ืขืจื‘ื™ื™ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื”ื ืžืฆื˜ืจืคื™ื ื‘ื”ืชืœื”ื‘ื•ืช ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”. ื‘ืื—ืจื™ืช ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจ ื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ: ื—ืœื•ื ื•ืžืขืฉื” ืื™ื ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื›ืœ ื›ืš ื›ืคื™ ืฉื ื•ื˜ื™ื ืœื—ืฉื•ื‘, ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ืžืขืฉื™ ื‘ื ื™ ื”ืื“ื ื‘ื—ืœื•ื ื™ืกื•ื“ื ื•ื’ื ืื—ืจื™ืชื โ€“ ื—ืœื•ื ื”ื™ื... ื•ืื™ืœื• ืื ืœื ืชืจืฆื• ื”ืจื™ ื›ืœ ืืฉืจ ืกื™ืคืจืชื™ ืœื›ื ืื’ื“ื” ื”ื•ื, ื•ืื’ื“ื” ื™ื•ืกื™ืฃ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช. ื”ืกืคืจ ืขื•ืจืจ ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืจื‘ ื•ืชื•ืจื’ื ืœืฉืคื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช, ืื•ืœื ื”ื•ืชืงืฃ ืงืฉื•ืช ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื—ื“ ื”ืขื, ืขืœ ื”ืงื•ืกืžื•ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ื—ืกืจืช ื”ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ื ืฉื‘ื•, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืš ืฉืื™ืŸ ื‘ื• ืชื•ื›ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืจื•ื—ื ื™ ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื™. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1902 ื ืกืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืขื™ื“ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื•ืขื“ืช ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืฉื“ื ื” ื‘ื”ื’ื™ืจืชื ืฉืœ "ื–ืจื™ื ืขื ื™ื™ื", ื›ืœื•ืžืจ, ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืจื•ืกื™ื” ื•ืžืจื•ืžื ื™ื” ืฉื ืžืœื˜ื• ืžืŸ ื”ืจื“ื™ืคื•ืช ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื‘ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ื ื•ืฆืจื” ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืœื”ื’ื™ืจืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืืœื™ื”, ื•ืžื˜ืจืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ื’ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื›ื ื™ืกืชื ืœื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื—ืงื™ืงืช ืชืงื ื•ืช ืžื ื”ืœื™ื•ืช. ื”ืœื•ืจื“ ื ืชื ืืœ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“, ืฉื”ื™ื” ื”ื—ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ื‘ื•ื•ืขื“ื”, ื”ืชื ื’ื“ ื‘ืชื•ืงืฃ ืœื”ื–ืžื ืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืขื“, ืืš ืจื•ื‘ ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ื” ื—ืฉื‘ื• ืื—ืจืช ื•ื”ื–ืžื™ื ื• ืื•ืชื•. ืขืชื” ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ื‘ื•ื•ืขื“ื”, ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื“ืจื™ืš ืื•ืชื•. ืื•ืœื ืœืคื ื™ ืคื’ื™ืฉืชื, ื ืžืกืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืื‘ื™ื• ื ืคื˜ืจ ื•ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ ืžื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื ืงื‘ืจ ืื‘ื™ื• ื‘ืงื‘ืจ ืืจืขื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ืงื ื” ืื—ื•ื–ืช-ืงื‘ืจ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ืช, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื™ื” ืกื‘ื•ืจ ื›ื™ ืžืžื™ืœื ื™ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ื‘ืงืจื•ื‘ ืขืฆืžื•ืช ืื‘ื™ื• ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื™ื•ืœื™ ื—ื–ืจ ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื•ืœื”ืขื™ื“ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ื—ืงื™ืจื”. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืืžืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืžืฉื’ื” ื•ื›ื™ ื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืœืขื•ืœื ืœื ื™ืืคืฉืจื• ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ื“ืจื™ืš ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื” ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ื•ืžื” ืœื ืœื”ื’ื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ืขื“ื”, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื›ื™ ื™ื’ื™ื“ ืœื•ื•ืขื“ื” ืžื” ืฉื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ื•, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื ื’ื“ ื”ื ื“ื‘ื ื•ืช ืฉืœื•: "ื”ืฆื“ืงื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ืžื—ืจื™ืฉื” ืืช ื–ืขืงื•ืช ื”ืžืฆื•ืงื”". ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื™ืฉื‘ื• ืœืืจื•ื—ืช ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื, ื‘ื” ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ื’ื ืฉื ื™ ืื—ื™ื• ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื ืชื ืืœ, ืืœืคืจื“ ื•ืœื™ืื•ืคื•ืœื“, ืฉื™ื ื” ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืืช ื™ื—ืกื• ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ื—ืœ ืœื—ื‘ื‘ ืื•ืชื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื• ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื‘ืงืฉ ืžื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืชื—ืช ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ื’ื™ื‘ ืœื›ืš ื‘ื”ืฆืขื” ืžืœื™ืฆื™ืช ื•ืงื ื˜ืจื ื™ืช: "ืงื— ืืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”". ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื "ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ" ืจืง ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ืกื™ื ื™, "ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” ื”ืžืฆืจื™ืช" ื•ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืฉื™ืžื ืข ืืช ื”ืขื‘ืจืช ื”ื›ืกืฃ ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ืฉืืžื•ืจื•ืช ืœื”ืชื‘ืฆืข ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืจื•ึผื‘ื™ึถื” ืœื”ืกื“ืจืช ื—ื•ื‘-ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืžื ืข ื”ืœื•ื•ืื•ืช ืžืจื•ืžื ื™ื” ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ืช, ืื™ืŸ ื–ืืช ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื•, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžืกื™ืœื•ืช-ื‘ืจื–ืœ ื‘ืฉื˜ื— ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื”. ืืœื ืฉืื—ืจ ื”ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืคืชืื•ื ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ, ื›ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืžื‘ืงืฉ ืฉื™ื‘ื•ื ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืžื™ื“. ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื ืœื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื”ืกื›ื ืขื ืจื•ื‘ื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ืžื™ื”ืจ ื”ืคืขื ืœื ืกื•ืข ืœืงื•ืฉื˜ื ื•ื ืฉืืจ ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืขื•ื“ ืฉื‘ื•ืข ื™ืžื™ื. ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ื—ืงื™ืจื” ืžืฉื›ื” ืงื”ืœ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื”ืจื’ื™ืœ. ื”ื•ื ื”ืชื ื’ื“ ื‘ืขื“ื•ืชื• ืœื”ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื—ื•ืงื™ื•ืช ืžื›ืœ ืกื•ื’ ืฉื”ื•ื, ื•ืงืจื ืœืชืงื™ืคืช ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ื”: ื”ื›ืจื” ื‘ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื›ืื•ืžื” ื›ื›ืœ ื”ืื•ืžื•ืช, ื‘ืขืœื™ ื–ื›ื•ืช ืœื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ืช ื‘ื—ื‘ืœ ืืจืฅ ืžืกื•ื™ื. ืคืจืกื•ืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ื”ื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืื”ื“ื” ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื ืฉื‘ ืœืฉื™ื—ื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืขื ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื•ื”ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ืืช ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืœื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืกื™ื ื™, ื‘"ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” ื”ืžืฆืจื™ืช" ื•ื‘ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ. ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืžืžืŸ ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื™ืงืฃ ืฉืœ ืขื“ 25 ืืœืฃ ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘: "ืืขืฉื” ื–ืืช ืจืง ื‘ื”ื™ืงืฃ ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืื• ืœื ืืขืฉื” ื›ืœืœ". ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืœื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื”ืกื›ืžื”, ืื•ืœื ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื›ื™ ื™ืžืœื™ืฅ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืฉืจ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™, ื’'ื•ื–ืฃ ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ืžืกืจ ื”ืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื‘ืจืงื™ื, ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžื“ื™ ื™ื•ื, ืฉื“ืจืฉื• ืžืžื ื• ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฆื‘ ื‘ืคื ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื•ืœื“ื•ื•ื— ืœื• ืื ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื• ืœื”ืฆื™ืข ืชื ืื™ื ื ื•ื—ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืœื” ืฉื”ืฆื™ืข ืจื•ึผื‘ื™ึถื”. ื‘-23 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1902 ื™ืฆื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื”, ื‘ืคืขื ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ืช, ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ. ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื•ื ื”ื›ื‘ื“, ื”ืฉืชื›ืŸ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืžืœื•ืŸ ื‘ืื™ ืชืจืคื™ื” ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ืฉื™ืฉ, ืฉื ื›ืชื‘ ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืช ืžื›ืชื‘ ืื™ืฉื™, ื‘ื• ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ื”ืฆืขื” ื ืžื•ื›ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ื—ื–ืจ ื”ื—ื•ื‘ ืžื–ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ื. ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื” ืœื›ืš ื“ืจืฉ "ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืœื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืืจื ื ื”ืจื™ื™ื ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ื•ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ื’ื ืืช "ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ ื—ื™ืคื” ื•ืกื‘ื™ื‘ืชื” ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ". ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ืฉืœืžื• ืœืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื“ืžื™ ื—ื›ื™ืจื”. ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื™ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืœื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ืกืขื™ื“ ืคื—ื”. ืกืขื™ื“ ืฉืืœ ืื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืงื‘ืœื• ืขืœื™ื”ื ืืช ื”ื ืชื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ื•ื™ืฉืจืชื• ื‘ืฆื‘ื, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื‘ื—ื™ื•ื‘. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื™ื—ืชื• ืขื ื”ื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื”ืชื‘ืงืฉ ืžื˜ืขื ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืขืœื™ื” ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ื•ืืฃ ืœื“ืื•ื’ ืœืชืจื’ื•ืžื• ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืื™ืฉ ื ืืžืŸ. ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืจืฆื” ืœื‘ื“ื•ืง ืืช ื“ื™ื•ืง ื”ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืฉืœ ื”ืฉืจื™ื ืฉืœื•. ืœืื—ืจ ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ืžืฆื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฆืขื™ืจ, ืฉืชืจื’ื ืขื‘ื•ืจื•. ื”ืืจื›ืช ืžืฉืš ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื•ืฆืœื” ืœืกื—ื™ื˜ืช ื•ื™ืชื•ืจื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืžืฆื“ ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ื. ืœืžื—ืจืช ืฉื•ื‘ ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ื”ื•ื•ื–ื™ืจ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื•ื–ื” ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ื›ื™ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืžื•ื›ืŸ ืœื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืฆืขื•ืชื™ื•. ืืœื ืฉื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฉื‘ื•ืข ื—ืชืžื• ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื ืขืœ ื”ืขืกืงื” ืขื ืจื•ึผื‘ื™ึถื”. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืœืงื‘ืœ ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื›ืกืคื™ืช ืžืฉืžืขื•ืชื™ืช ืขื‘ื•ืจ "ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืจื‘, ืืš ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืชื™ื•. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื’ื–ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื ื’ื–ืจื• ืขืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืจื•ืžื ื™ื” ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื”ื›ืจื™ื— ืื•ืชื ืœื”ื’ืจ, ื—ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื“ื—ื™ืคื•ืช ื’ื•ื‘ืจืช ืœืžืฆื•ื ืชื—ืœื™ืฃ ื–ืžื ื™ ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืชืœื” ืชืงื•ื•ืชื™ื• ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ืœืงื— ื‘ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืกืžื•ื›ื•ืช ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืฉื”ื™ื• ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื™ื˜ืชื”: ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ ื•ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ืกื™ื ื™, ืฉื ื•ื“ืข ื‘ืฉื "ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” ื”ืžืฆืจื™ืช". ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื ื ื”ื’ ืจื•ื˜ืฉื™ืœื“ ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ืžืœืื™ ืกืคืงื•ืช ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช. ื‘-18 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื›ืชื‘ ืœื• ื›ื™ ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื›ื–ืืช ืชื”ื™ื” "ื’ื˜ื• ืžืœื ื“ืขื•ืช ืงื“ื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื’ื˜ื•", ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช "ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ื•ื‘ืœืชื™-ืกื•ื‘ืœื ื™ืช, ืืฉืจ ืชื—ืจื™ื ืœื-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื". ื‘-24 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื”ืจืฆืœ: ืื™ืŸ ืื ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœื›ื•ื ืŸ ืžื•ื›ืจื— ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืฆืจ-ืื•ืคืง, ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ ื•ืื™-ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™... ื”ื’ื–ืข ืฉืœื ื• ืžื•ื›ืฉืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืจื•ื‘ ื”ืขืžื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื™ื ืขืœื™ ืื“ืžื•ืช. ื•ื–ื•, ืœืืžื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ, ืกื™ื‘ืช ื”ืฉื ืื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”. ืขื“ ืขื›ืฉื™ื• ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืœื ื• ื‘ื™ื˜ื—ื•ืŸ ืขืฆืžื™. ื‘ื™ื•ื ืฉื‘ื• ื ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื”ืืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืขืฆืžื ื•, ื™ื‘ื•ื ื”ืงืฅ ืœืžืฆื•ืงืชื ื• ื”ืžื•ืกืจื™ืช. ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 1902 ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืขื ืฉืจ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช, ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืืช ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ ื•ืืช ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ืกื™ื ื™ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืฉืจ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช, ื”ื•ื ืžื•ืกืžืš ืœื“ื•ืŸ ืจืง ืขืœ ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืžื“ื‘ืจ ืกื™ื ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ. ื”ื•ื ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ ืžืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืงืคืจื™ืกื™ืŸ ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืกื‘ืจ ื›ื™ ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื ื•ื”ื™ื•ื•ื ื™ื ื™ืชื ื’ื“ื• ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ, ืื ื›ืŸ, ืืช ืืœ ืขืจื™ืฉ. ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉื™ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš ื’ื ืœื•ืจื“ ืงืจื•ืžืจ, ื”ืงื•ื ืกื•ืœ ื”ื›ืœืœื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื‘ืงื”ื™ืจ ื•ืœืžืขืฉื” ืฉืœื™ื˜ ืžืฆืจื™ื ืžื˜ืขืžื”. ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ื”ืกื“ื™ืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืขื ืœื•ืจื“ ืœื ื“ืกื“ืื•ืŸ, ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ, ื•ื‘-23 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื ื•ืขื“ ืื™ืชื• ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฉื™ื—ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ืข ืืช ื›ื™ื ื•ื ื” ืฉืœ "ื—ื‘ืจื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืœืžื–ืจื— ื”ืงืจื•ื‘", ืฉื™ื•ืขื ืง ืœื” ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ ืœืคืชื— ื“ืจื›ื™ื, ื ืžืœื™ื, ืžืกื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ, ืชืขืฉื™ื•ืช ื•ืžื›ืจื•ืช ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ืกื™ื ื™, ื•ืœื”ืงืฆื•ืช ื‘ื• ืื“ืžื” ืœืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ืชื—ื•ื ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื–ื”, ืื•ืชื• ื›ื™ื ื” "ื—ื‘ืœ-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื‘ืžืฆืจื™ื", ืืžื•ืจ ืœื”ืคื•ืš ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื–ืžืŸ ืœืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™, ื‘ื—ืกื•ืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื”. ื’ื ืœื ื“ืกื“ืื•ืŸ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ืขืœื™ื• ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืขืฅ ืงื•ื“ื ืขื ืงืจื•ืžืจ, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืœื— ืืช ืœื™ืื•ืคื•ืœื“ ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืžื™ื“ ืœืงื”ื™ืจ. ื‘ื™ื ืชื™ื™ื ื”ื’ื” ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืช ืœืคื™ืชื•ื— ื”ื—ื•ืฃ ื”ืฆื—ื™ื— ืฉืœ ืกื™ื ื™: ืžืคืขืœื™-ื“ื™ื’, ื ืžืœื™ื, ืžืกื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ืจื–ืœ ื•ืกื›ืจื™ื ืœืื™ืกื•ืฃ ื’ืฉืžื™ื. ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืฉื•ื—ื— ืขื ืงืจื•ืžืจ ื•ืขื ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ืžืฆืจื™, ื‘ื•ื˜ืจื•ืก ืจืืœื™ ืคื—ื”, ื•ืœื“ื‘ืจื™ื• ืฉื ื™ื”ื ื”ืฉืชื›ื ืขื•. ืงืจื•ืžืจ ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ, ืขื ื–ืืช, ืฉืขืงื‘ ื”ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื•ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ื” ืขืœ ืชื•ื•ืื™ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ืœื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ืกื™ื ื™ ื”ืžืฆืจื™-ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™, ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืžืฆืคื•ืŸ ื•ืžืžื–ืจื— ืœืืœ ืขืจื™ืฉ. ืžื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืงื™ ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ, ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœืฉื’ืจ ืœืฉื ื•ืขื“ืช ื—ืงื™ืจื”. ื‘-18 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ ื”ืฆื™ืข ืกื’ืŸ ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืชื•ืžืืก ืกื ื“ืจืกื•ืŸ (ืื ') ืœื”ืจืฆืœ, ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื™ืฉื’ืจื• ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœื—ืงื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื‘ื—ืฆื™ ื”ืื™ ืกื™ื ื™, ื•ืื ื”ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™, ื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื“ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ืงืžืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉื. ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ืฆื˜ืจื›ื• ืœื•ื•ืชืจ ืขืœ ื ืชื™ื ื•ืชื ื”ืžืงื•ืจื™ืช ื•ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืคื•ืคื™ื ืœืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฆืจื™ (ืœืžืขืฉื” ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™), ื•ืœืฉืœื ืœืžืžืฉืœืช ืžืฆืจื™ื ืชืฉืœื•ื ืฉื ืชื™ ืชืžื•ืจืช ืฉืžื™ืจืช ื”ืกื“ืจ. ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1903 ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ื•ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื ื•ืขื“ ืขื ืกื ื“ืจืกื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ. ื‘ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืกื•ื›ื ื”ืจื›ื‘ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื•ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืžืกืข ืฉืœื”. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœืžืฆืจื™ื, ื•ื‘-11 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ ื—ืฆืชื” ืืช ืชืขืœืช ืกื•ืืฅ ื‘ืงื ื˜ืจื” ื•ืคื ืชื” ืฆืคื•ื ื” ืœืืœ ืขืจื™ืฉ. ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื ืฉืืจ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืจ ืœื“ื•ืŸ ืขื ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืžืฆืจื™ืช ืขืœ ืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ืŸ. ื‘-16 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื ืฆื™ื’ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืจ ืžื ืกื” ืœื—ื‘ืœ ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืคืชืื•ื ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ืกื™ื›ื•ื™ ื›ืจื’ืข ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ, ื•ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœืงืจื•ืžืจ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื—ื“ืฉื”. ื‘-26 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžื‘ื•ื˜ืจื•ืก ืจืืœื™ ืžืกืžืš ื”ืžืชื™ืจ ืืช ื›ื™ื ื•ื ื” ืฉืœ "ืจืฉื•ืช ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™ืช" ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืœ ืขืจื™ืฉ. ื‘-16 ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ืกืžืš ืขืœื™ื• ืขื•ื“, ื•ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืœื™ืœื” ื™ืฆื ืœืžืฆืจื™ื. ื‘-25 ื‘ืžืจืฅ ื ืคื’ืฉ ื‘ืงื”ื™ืจ ืขื ืงืจื•ืžืจ, ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืข ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ื•ืช ืžืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื–ื›ื• ืœื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืžืžืฉืœ ืžื•ื ื™ืฆื™ืคืœื™. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืกืข ืžืฉื ืœืžืฉืจื“ ืจืืฉ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื•ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื‘ื•ื˜ืจื•ืก ืจืืœื™ ืฉืืช ื”ืžื™ื ืœืกื™ื ื™ ื™ื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ื™ืœื•ืก โ€“ ืจืง ืืช ืžื™ ื”ื ื”ืจ ื”ื–ื•ืจืžื™ื ืขืชื” ืœื™ื, ืฉื™ืื•ื—ืกื ื• ื‘ืžืื’ืจื™ื. ืจืืœื™ ื”ื‘ื™ืข ื”ืกื›ืžื” ืžืœืื” ืœื›ืœ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื•. ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืฉื‘ื” ืœืงื”ื™ืจ ืขื ืžืžืฆืื™ื ืžืขื•ื“ื“ื™ื, ืื•ืœื ืกื™ื›ืžื” ื›ื™ ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืœืœื "ื›ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื ืžืกืคื™ืงื•ืช". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืžื•ืžื—ื™ ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื ื•ืขื“ื• ืžืกืคืจ ืคืขืžื™ื ืขื ืงืจื•ืžืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ืžื™ ื”ื ื™ืœื•ืก ื‘ืฆื™ื ื•ืจ ืชื—ืช ืชืขืœืช ืกื•ืืฅ. ื”ืžื•ืžื—ื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืœื”ืฉืงื™ื” ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื™ืฉ ื“ื™ ืžื™ื ื‘ื ื™ืœื•ืก ืœืกืคืง ื’ื ืืช ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ืžืฆืจื™ื ื•ื’ื ืืช ืฆื•ืจื›ื™ ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืฉืชืงื•ื ื‘ืกื™ื ื™, ืื•ืœื ืงืจื•ืžืจ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืœืคื ื™ ื—ื–ืจืชื• ืœืžืฆืจื™ื ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืžืื™ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ืœื™ืื ื’ืืจืกื˜ื™ืŸ, ื”ืžื•ืžื—ื” ืฉืœื• ืœืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ ืขื‘ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื•ืช. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคืชื•ื— ื‘ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืขื ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืžืฆืจื™ืช ืขืœ ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ื ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืคื ื” ืœืคืจืงืœื™ื˜ ื‘ืœื’ื™ ืžืงื•ืžื™ ื•ื”ื•ืจื” ืœื• ืœื”ื›ื™ืŸ ื˜ื™ื•ื˜ืช ื”ืกื›ื ืœื—ื›ื™ืจืช ืกื™ื ื™ ืœ-99 ืฉื ื™ื. ื‘-4 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ืขื–ื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื ื•ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ืœื”ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ืืžืจ ืœื• ืฉื”ื•ื ืœื ืžืขื•ื“ื“ ืžืžืžืฆืื™ื• ืฉืœ ื“ื•"ื— ื”ืžืฉืœื—ืช, ื•ื”ืฆื™ืข ืชื—ืœื™ืฃ: "ื‘ืžืกืขื™ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ืจืื™ืชื™ ืืจืฅ ืื—ืจืช ืฉืชืชืื™ื ืœืš. ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”!". ืื•ืœื ื”ืจืฆืœ ื“ื—ื” ืืช ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ื•ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ื‘ืกื™ืก ื”ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœืื•ืžื™ ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื›ืจื—ื™ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืชื•ืš ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืื• ื‘ืงืจื‘ืชื”. ื‘ืžืื™ 1903 ื”ื˜ื™ืœ ื’ืืจืกื˜ื™ืŸ ื•ื˜ื• ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืกื™ื ื™, ืžืฉื•ื ืฉืœื“ืขืชื• ืื™ืŸ ื“ื™ ืžื™ื ื‘ื ื™ืœื•ืก. ืงืจื•ืžืจ ืกื‘ืจ, ื›ื™ ื‘ื›ืœ ืžืงืจื” ืžื—ื™ืจ ืฉืื™ื‘ืชื ืœืกื™ื ื™ ืžืชื—ืช ืœืชืขืœืช ืกื•ืืฅ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื™ืงืจ ืžื“ื™, ื•ื™ืชืจื” ืžื–ืืช, ื‘ื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืื‘ื•ืช ื™ืคืจื™ืข ืœืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ืื•ื ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืชืขืœืช ืกื•ืืฅ ื•ื›ืชื•ืฆืื” ืžื›ืš ื™ืฉื‘ืฉ ืืช ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืขื ื”ืžื–ืจื— ื”ืจื—ื•ืง. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ื›ื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืกื™ื ื™ ืžืชื”, ื•ืืฃ ืื™ื‘ื“ ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืžื™ืžื•ืฉื” ื”ืงืจื•ื‘ ืฉืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืœื™ืฆื™ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ืื‘ื™ื• ืžืงื‘ืจื• ื•ื˜ืžืŸ ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืื—ื•ื–ืช ืงื‘ืจ ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืจื›ืฉ. ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื˜ืงืก ืœื™ื“ ื”ืงื‘ืจ, ืœื—ืฉ ืœืžื–ื›ื™ืจื•: "ืขื•ื“ ืžืขื˜ ืืฉื›ื‘ ืคื” ื’ื ืื ื™". ื‘-19 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ 1903 ืคืจืฆื• ืคืจืขื•ืช ืงื™ืฉื™ื ื‘. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืžืข ืขืœ ื›ืš ื›ืฉืฉื”ื” ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืœืคื ื™ ืคื’ื™ืฉืชื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื” ืขื ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ. ื“ื—ื™ื™ืชื” ื”ืกื•ืคื™ืช ืฉืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืกื™ื ื™ ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืžืื™ ื’ืจืžื” ืœื• ืœื—ืคืฉ ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืื—ืจ ืœืžืฆื•ืงืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืจื•ืกื™ื”, ื•ืœืฉืงื•ืœ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ื”ืฆืขืช ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืคืจืขื•ืช ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืชื›ื ืŸ ืžื”ืœืš ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืขืจื•ืฆื™ื ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ: ืžืœื‘ื“ ื”ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื–ื™ื›ื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื“ื•ืžื™ื ื’ื ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ื• ืžืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืœื’ื™ื”, ื‘ืžื•ื–ืžื‘ื™ืง ืžืคื•ืจื˜ื•ื’ืœ ื•ื‘ื˜ืจื™ืคื•ืœื™ ืžืื™ื˜ืœื™ื”. ื”ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ืฉืฉ ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื•ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื, ืฉืชืฉืžืฉื ื” ื‘ืกื™ืกื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื ืœื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืฉืœื‘ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ื•ื ื”ื’ื“ื™ืจ ื–ืืช: "ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื‘ืžื”ื•ืคืš ื•ื‘ื–ืขื™ืจึพืื ืคื™ืŸ", ื›ืœื•ืžืจ: ื‘ืขื•ื“ ืฉื‘ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืงื•ืœื•ื ื™ืืœื™ื•ืช ืžื™ื™ืกื“ืช ืืจืฅ ื”ืื ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช โ€“ ืืฆืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ื•ืงืžื• ืงื•ื“ื ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื•ืจืง ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืชืงื•ื ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ืื ืฉืœื”ืŸ ื‘ืžื•ืœื“ืช. ื‘ืžืื™ 1903 ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืฆ'ืžื‘ืจืœื™ืŸ ืœืœื™ืื•ืคื•ืœื“ ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื›ื™ ืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ืžืกื›ื™ืžื” ืœื”ื—ื›ื™ืจ ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ืื–ื•ืจ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืื•ื“, ืœื ื‘ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืžืžืฉ, ืืœื ื‘ืขืžืง ื”ืžืคืจื™ื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉื‘ื˜ ืžืื• ืœืฉื‘ื˜ ืงื™ืงื•ื™ื• (ื›ื™ื•ื ื‘ืงื ื™ื”), ืฉื ื™ื•ื›ืœื• ืœื›ื•ื ืŸ "ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™" ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœืงืœื•ื˜ ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื. ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื•ื–ืžื ื” ื˜ื™ื•ื˜ืช ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืœืื•ื’ื ื“ื”, ืœืงืจืืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘. ืฉื ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ืช ื”ื™ื” "New Palestine" ("ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”"). ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืคื ื™ ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื•ื‘-13 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ื•ื”ืจื™ ื–ืืช ืชื›ืœื™ืชื” ืฉืœ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื•ืช, ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ื“ืจืš, ืืฉืจ ืืคื™ืœื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื” ืฉื ืจืื” ื›ืกื˜ื™ื™ื”, ืชื•ืœื™ืš ืืช ืขืžื ื• ืืœ ื”ืžื˜ืจื”. ื’ื ืžืฉื” ืจื‘ื ื• ื›ื–ื” ื”ื™ื” ื’ื•ืจืœื•". ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ, ื—ื™ื“ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ืžื’ืขื™ื• ืขื ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœื“ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืฆืขืชื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืืจื ื ื”ืจื™ื™ื, ื•ื‘-4 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ ื›ืชื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืœืžื–ื›ื™ืจื•, ืื™ื–ื˜ ื‘ื™ื™. ื‘ืื•ืชื• ื–ืžืŸ ื’ื ื”ื•ืฆืข ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉื˜ื— ืื“ืžื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืขืžืง ื™ื–ืจืขืืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื‘ืขืœ ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ืขืจื‘ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžืžืฉืคื—ืช ืกื•ืจืกื•ืง, ืื•ืœื ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ืฉืฉ ืœืงื ื•ืช ืื•ืชื• ืœืœื ืขืจื‘ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื›ืš, ื”ืฉื˜ื— ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืจื™ืง ืžืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื’ ืžื”ื”ืฉืœื›ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืงื ื™ื™ื” ื›ื–ื• ื•ืืžืจ: "ืื™ึพืืคืฉืจ ืœื ื• ืœื ืฉืœ ืืช ื”ืคืœืื—ื™ื ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื ื”ืœืœื•". ื‘-20 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1903, ื›ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™, ืฉืœื— ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื™ื“ื™ื“ื• ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ื’'ื•ื–ืฃ ืงืื•ื•ืŸ ืžื›ืชื‘ ืžืงื•ื“ื“ ืฉืขืกืง ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ ืืจื ื•ืœื“ ื•ื™ื™ื˜. ื•ื™ื™ื˜, ืฉื—ืฉืฉ ืžื”ื’ื™ืจืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืจื•ืกื™ื” ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ืคื ื” ืขื•ื“ ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19 ืœืฆืืจ ื”ืจื•ืกื™ ื•ื”ืฆื™ืข ืœื• ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ืข ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉื•ื•ื™ื™ื˜ ื™ืคื ื” ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืจื•ืกื™ื” ื•ื™ืฆื™ืข ืœื” ืœืืคืฉืจ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืžืจื•ืงื•. ืื•ืœื ื”ืฆืขื” ื–ื• ืœื ื™ืฆืื” ืืœ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืœืขืจื•ืฆื™ื ืืœื•, ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืคื ื•ืช ื’ื ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืœืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื”ื•ื ืจืฆื” ืฉืชืคืขื™ืœ ืœื—ืฅ ื“ื™ืคืœื•ืžื˜ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช, ืฉืชืจืฉื” ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ื›ืš ืชื•ื›ืœ ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืœื”ื™ืคื˜ืจ ืžื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœื”. ืคื ื™ื™ืชื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืœืฉืจ ื”ืคื ื™ื ื•ื™ืืฆ'ืกืœื‘ ืคืœื‘ื” ื•ืœื™ื•ืขืฅ ื”ืฆืืจ ืงื•ื ืกื˜ื ื˜ื™ืŸ ืคื•ื‘ื“ื•ื ื•ืกืฆื‘ ืœื ื ืขื ืชื”. ื‘ืงืฉืชื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืจื˜ื” ืคื•ืŸ ื–ื•ื˜ื ืจ ืžื”ืฆืืจ ืฉื™ื™ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืชืงืœื” ื‘ืกื™ืจื•ื‘. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืืช ืขื–ืจืชื” ืฉืœ ืืฆื™ืœื” ืคื•ืœื ื™ื™ื” ื”ืžืชื’ื•ืจืจืช ื‘ืกื ืงื˜ ืคื˜ืจื‘ื•ืจื’ ื•ืžื™ื•ื“ื“ืช ืขื ืคืœื‘ื”. ื”ืคืขื ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืคืœื‘ื” ืฉื™ืฉืžื— ืœืคื’ื•ืฉ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ื•ื ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœืืจื’ืŸ ื”ื’ื™ืจืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืจื•ืกื™ื”, "ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉืœื ื™ื—ื–ืจื•". ื‘-5 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื™ืฆื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื›ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื ืืœืฅ ืงื•ื“ื ืœื‘ืงืฉ ื”ื™ืชืจ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ืœื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื• ืžื”ืžื—ืœืงื” ืœื“ืชื•ืช "ื–ืจื•ืช" ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื”. ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื”ืกืชื™ืจ ืืช ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื ืกื™ืขื” ืžืจื•ื‘ ื—ื‘ืจื™ื•, ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืื•ืชื• ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื ื•ืช ืจื›ื‘ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช. ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉื”ืชืœื•ื•ื” ืืœื™ื• ื‘ืžืกืขื• ื”ื™ื” ื“"ืจ ื ื™ืกืŸ ื›ืฆื ืœืกื•ืŸ, ืžืจืืฉื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื‘-8 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ืืฆืœ ืคืœื‘ื” ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื ืฉื•ื—ื—ื• ื‘ืฆืจืคืชื™ืช. ืคืœื‘ื” ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ "ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ื‘ื ื”" ืขื ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื›ืš ืฉืคืœื‘ื” ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืžืื•ื“ ืœืžื ื•ืข ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ืคืจืขื•ืช ืงื™ืฉื™ื ื‘ ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืงืจื•ื‘. ืคืœื‘ื” ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื "ื’ื•ืฃ ื–ืจ" ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืฉื—ืœื” ืขืœื™ื”ื ืžื›ืกื” ื‘ื›ื ื™ืกื” ืœื”ืฉื›ืœื” ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื”, ืื—ืจืช "ืœื ื™ื™ืฉืืจื• ืžืฉืจื•ืช ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื ื•ืฆืจื™ื", ื•ืฉื”ื ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ืžื”ืžื”ืคื›ื ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืฉืื ื™ืงื‘ืœ ืืช ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื–ืจื™ืžืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืœ ื”ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื ืชื—ื“ืœ. ืคืœื‘ื” ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืชื•ืžืš ื ืœื”ื‘ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืฉืืœ ื‘ืžื” ื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœืขื–ื•ืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช ืžืžืžืฉืœืช ืจื•ืกื™ื”: ืฉืชืœื—ืฅ ืขืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืžืœื‘ื“ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื; ืฉืชืชืžื•ืš ื›ืกืคื™ืช ื‘ื”ื’ื™ืจืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ื›ืกืคื™ื ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ืžื”ืžืกื™ื ืฉืžืฉืœืžื™ื ื ืชื™ื ื™ ืจื•ืกื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื; ื•ืฉืชืจืฉื” ืืช ืืจื’ื•ื ืŸ ื•ืคืขื•ืœืชืŸ ืฉืœ ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื•ืช. ืคืœื‘ื” ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืžื™ื“ ืœืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืชื–ื›ื™ืจ ืœืงืจืืช ืคื’ื™ืฉืชื ื”ื‘ืื”. ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื–ื‘, ืืžืจ ืคืœื‘ื” ืœืžื›ืจื• ื›ื™ ืœื ื™ื“ืข "ืฉืžืฆื•ื™ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ื–ื•ื—ืœื™ื". ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืฆืœ ืฉืจ ื”ื›ืกืคื™ื, ื”ืจื•ื–ืŸ ืกืจื’ื™ื™ ื•ื™ื˜ื”, ืฉืคืชื— ื‘ื ืื•ื ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™: "ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืกืคืงื™ื ื“ื™ ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืœืื™ื‘ื”. ื™ืฉ ื‘ื”ื ืฉื—ืฆื ื•ืช ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ืช, ืื•ืœื ืจื•ื‘ื ืขื ื™ื™ื, ื•ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื ืขื ื™ื™ื ื”ื ืžืœื•ื›ืœื›ื™ื ื•ืขื•ืฉื™ื ืจื•ืฉื ื“ื•ื—ื”. ื”ื ื’ื ืขื•ืกืงื™ื ื‘ื›ืœ ืžื™ื ื™ ืขื™ืกื•ืงื™ื ืžื›ื•ืขืจื™ื, ื›ืจื•ืขื™-ื–ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ืžืœื•ื•ื™ื ื‘ืจื™ื‘ื™ืช. ื•ืžืฉื•ื ื›ืš ืงืฉื” ื›ืœ-ื›ืš ืœื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœื™ื”ื. ื•ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช, ื”ื ื ื™ ื™ื“ื™ื“ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ื•ื™ื˜ื” ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืืžืจ ืœืฆืืจ ื”ืžื ื•ื— ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจ ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™: "ืื™ืœื• ื”ื™ื” ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื˜ื‘ื™ืข ืฉื™ืฉื” ืื• ืฉื‘ืขื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ื™ื ื”ืฉื—ื•ืจ, ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืžืฆื“ื“ ื‘ื›ืš ื‘ื”ื—ืœื˜. ืื‘ืœ ืื ืื™-ืืคืฉืจ ื”ื“ื‘ืจ, ื™ืฉ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืœื”ื ืœื—ื™ื•ืช". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืœื™ืฆื™ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื•ื•ื™ื˜ื” ืฉื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืชื ืงื•ื˜ "ืฆืขื“ื™ื ืžืกื•ื™ืžื™ื ืฉืœ ืขื™ื“ื•ื“", ื•ื•ื™ื˜ื” ื”ืฉื™ื‘: "ืืš ื”ืจื™ ืžืขื•ื“ื“ื™ื ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืจื”, ืœืžืฉืœ ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืื—ื•ืจื™ื™ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ืกื•ื’ ื”ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ื”ื–ื” "ื™ื“ื•ืข ื•ืžื•ื›ืจ", ื•ืื™ืŸ ื–ื” ื”ืกื•ื’ ืฉืขืœื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžื“ื‘ืจ. ื”ื•ื ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ื‘ืงืฉื•ืช ืฉื”ืฆื™ื’ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืคืœื‘ื”, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ื’ื ื”ืกืจื” ืžื™ื™ื“ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืขืœ ืจื›ื™ืฉืช ืžื ื™ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื ืง ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื•ื™ื˜ื” ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœืขื–ื•ืจ. ื‘-13 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ืฉื•ื‘ ื ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืคืœื‘ื”, ืฉื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ื›ื™ ื”ืฆืืจ ืื™ืฉืจ ืืช ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื‘ืงืฉื•ืชื™ื•. ืคืœื‘ื” ืžืกืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ืฆืืจ ื ืคื’ืข ืžื”ื”ืชืงืคื•ืช ื ื’ื“ื• ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื–ืจื” ื•ืžืŸ ื”ื”ืืฉืžื•ืช ื‘ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืคืจืขื•ืช ืงื™ืฉื™ื ื‘, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืชื™ื™ื—ืก ื™ืคื” ืœื›ืœ ื ืชื™ื ื™ื•. ืคืœื‘ื” ื”ื•ื“ื” ื›ื™ ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื” "ืื™ื ื• ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ", ื•ืžืฉื•ื ื›ืš "ืจืฆื•ื™ ืœื ื• ืžืื•ื“ ื™ืกื•ื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืžืกื•ื’ืœืช ืœืงืœื•ื˜ ื›ืžื” ืžื™ืœื™ื•ื ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื... ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืœื ื• ืืช ืžื™ื˜ื‘ ื”ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื’ื ืฆื™ื”... ืื‘ืœ ื”ื™ื™ื ื• ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ื™ืคื˜ืจ ืžืžื—ื•ืกืจื™ ื”ื”ืฉื›ืœื” ื•ืžืžืขื•ื˜ื™ ื”ืืžืฆืขื™ื". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• ืœื”ืงืœ ืขืœ ื—ื™ื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื” ื•ืœื”ืจื—ื™ื‘ ืืช ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืžื’ื•ืจื™ื ืžื—ื•ืฅ ืœืชื—ื•ื ื”ืžื•ืฉื‘. ืคืœื‘ื” ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืœื• ืžื›ืชื‘ ืฉืื•ืฉืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฆืืจ ื•ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœืคืจืกืžื•, ื‘ื• ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื—ื” ืžืžืฉืœืช ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืืช ืชืžื™ื›ืชื” ื‘ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ื™ืขื•ื“ื“ื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืœืขืงื•ืจ ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืืš ืขื ื–ืืช, ืœื ืชื•ืจืฉื” ื‘ืžืžืœื›ื” ื”ืจื•ืกื™ืช ื”ืชืืจื’ื ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืื•ืžื™. ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ื ื™ืชื ื” ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืœืกื™ื™ืข ื›ืกืคื™ืช ืœืžื”ื’ืจื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื•ืœื”ืชืขืจื‘ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื—ืฅ ืฉื”ืฆืืจ ื™ืชืขืจื‘ ืื™ืฉื™ืช ืืฆืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ, ื•ืคืœื‘ื” ื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืš ืขื ื”ืฆืืจ, ืืš ืœื ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืืฆืœื• ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ื‘ื, ื‘ืจืžื–ื• ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืžืฆืคื” ืžืžื ื• ืœืจืกืŸ ืืช ื”ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ืขืœ ืžืžืฉืœืช ืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืžืจื•ืฆื” ืžืชื•ืฆืื•ืช ืžืกืขื• ืœืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ืกื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืื™ืกื•ืจ ืขืœ ื”ื”ืชืืจื’ื ื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ืื™ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื›ืกืคื™ื ืฉืœื”, ื•ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืงื‘ืœ ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืœื”ืชืขืจื‘ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื โ€“ ื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื” ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืžืกื•ื’ื” ืžืฆื“ ืžืขืฆืžื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื”. ื‘ืื•ืชื• ืขืจื‘ ื ืื ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืคื ื™ ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ืคืขื™ืœื™ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื. ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ื–ืขืžื• ืขืœ ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉืœื• ืขื ืคืœื‘ื” ื•ืœื ื”ืืžื™ื ื• ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื—ื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื—ืจืื™ ืขืœ ืคืจืขื•ืช ืงื™ืฉื™ื ื‘. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ื ืœืขืกื•ืง ืจืง ื‘ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื•ืœื ื‘ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืชื•ืš ืจื•ืกื™ื”, ื•ืœื”ื™ืžื ืข ืžืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช: ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื‘ืืจืฅ ืฉืœื ื•, ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืคืกื•ืœ ื‘ืžืคืœื’ื” ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช ืงื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช... ืื– ืืงื‘ืข ืืช ื™ื—ืกื™ ืฉืœื™ ื›ืœืคื™ื”... ืื•ืœื ืขื›ืฉื™ื•, ื‘ืžืฆื‘ื ื• ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™, ืžื•ืงื“ื ืžื“ื™ ืœืขืกื•ืง ื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื›ืืœื”. ื”ื ื˜ืคืœื™ื ืœืขื™ืงืจ. ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืชื•ื‘ืขืช ืžืขื•ืจื‘ื•ืช ื’ืžื•ืจื”, ืœื ื—ืœืงื™ืช. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื• ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืกื ืงื˜ ืคื˜ืจื‘ื•ืจื’, ื”ื–ื”ื™ืจื• ืื•ืชื• ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ืžืงื•ืžื™ื™ื ืžื”ืชื ืงืฉื•ืช ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ื•ื”ืคืฆื™ืจื• ื‘ื• ืฉืœื ืœื”ืชืขื›ื‘ ื‘ืฉื•ื ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ื—ื–ืจื” ืœืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”. ืื•ืœื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืจืฆื” ืœืจืื•ืช ื‘ืžื• ืขื™ื ื™ื• ืืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื•ื‘-16 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืœื•ื•ื™ืœื ื”. ื‘ืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช ื ืขืจื›ื” ืœื• ืงื‘ืœืช ืคื ื™ื ื ืœื”ื‘ืช ื•ืกื•ืขืจืช. ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืคื™ื–ืจื” ืืช ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื‘ืืœื•ืช, ืื•ืœื ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื—ื–ืจ ื•ื”ืกืชืขืจ ื‘ืงืจื™ืื•ืช "ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ืจืฆืœ!" ื•"ื™ื—ื™ ื”ืžืœืš!". ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ ืฉื”ืฆื˜ื•ืคืฃ ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช, ื ืกืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื•ืงืฃ ืฉื•ื˜ืจื™ื ื•ืกื•ื›ื ื™ ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ื‘ืœื‘ื•ืฉ ืื–ืจื—ื™. ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจื” ืจืฆืชื” ืœืžื ื•ืข ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืฆื™ื•ื•ืชื” ืขืœื™ื• ืฉืœื ืœืฆืืช ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืœื•ืŸ. ื›ืœ ื”ืืกื™ืคื•ืช ื”ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ื•ืช ืœื›ื‘ื•ื“ื• ื‘ื•ื˜ืœื•, ืืš ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ื–ืืช ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื‘ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืจื‘ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืœื• ืกืคืจ ืชื•ืจื” ืขืชื™ืง ื•ืืžืจ ืœื• ื‘ื”ืชืจื’ืฉื•ืช: "ืืชื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื‘ื ื™ ืขืžื ื•". ื›ืœ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื ืคืจืฆื• ื‘ื‘ื›ื™ ื•ื’ื ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชืจื’ืฉ ืžืื•ื“. ื‘ืฉืขื” 1:00 ื‘ืœื™ืœื”, ื™ืฆื ืžืŸ ื”ืžืœื•ืŸ ืœืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช. ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื ื”ืจื™ืขื• ืœื• ื‘ืกืžื˜ืื•ืช ื‘ื’ืฉื ื”ืฉื•ื˜ืฃ. ืงื•ื–ืืงื™ื ืขืœ ืกื•ืกื™ื ื”ืกืชืขืจื• ืขืœ ื”ื”ืžื•ืŸ ื”ืฆืคื•ืฃ ืœื™ื“ ืชื—ื ืช ื”ืจื›ื‘ืช. ื”ื ื”ืฆืœื™ืคื• ื‘ื• ื‘ืฉื•ื˜ื™ื”ื, ื”ื›ื• ืื•ืชื• ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื™ื”ื ื•ืจืžืกื• ืื•ืชื• ืขื ืกื•ืกื™ื”ื. ืฆืขืงื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื›ื™ื ื”ืชืขืจื‘ื‘ื• ื‘ืงืจื™ืื•ืช "ื™ื—ื™ ื”ืจืฆืœ!". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืžื–ื•ืขื–ืข ืงืจื: "ืžื“ื•ืข ืžื›ื™ื ืืช ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืืœื”? ืื™ื–ื• ืคืจืื•ืช!". ืœืคืจื ืกื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ืฉื”ืžืชื™ื ื• ืœื• ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆื™ืฃ, ืืžืจ ื“ื‘ืจื™ ืขื™ื“ื•ื“: "ืจื‘ื•ืชื™, ืืœ ืชืชื™ืืฉื•! ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ื™ืžื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ! ืœืฉื ื›ืš ืื ื—ื ื• ืคื•ืขืœื™ื!". ื’ื ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืฆื™ืคื• ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืžืกืขื• ื”ื™ื” ืกื•ื“ื™. ื‘ื–ืžืŸ ืฉืฉื”ื” ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื”, ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื‘ืจืง ืžืœื™ืื•ืคื•ืœื“ ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ, ืฉื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ื›ื™ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ืจืฉืžื™ืช ืœื›ื•ื ืŸ ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช. ื‘ื“ืจื›ื• ื—ื–ืจื” ื‘ืจื›ื‘ืช ืœื’ืจืžื ื™ื”, ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ืœืงืจืืช ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืฉื™ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“: ืžืกืขื• ืœืจื•ืกื™ื” ื”ื‘ื”ื™ืจ ืœื• ื›ื™ ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืื™ื ื” ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื–ื• ืขืช ืœื”ืฆื™ืœ ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ืืกื•ืจ ืœืื‘ื“ ื–ืžืŸ. ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืขื›ื‘ ื™ื•ื ืื—ื“ ื‘ืขื™ืจ ื”ื ื•ืคืฉ ื”ื”ืจืจื™ืช ืืœื˜ืื•ืกื–ื”, ืฉื ื‘ื™ืœื• ืืฉืชื• ื•ื™ืœื“ื™ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฅ, ื•ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ืœืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืช ืืžื•. ื‘-23 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1903, ื”ืชื›ื ืก ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™ ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ. ื”ืฆื™ืจื™ื ื–ื•ืขื–ืขื• ืœื ื•ื›ื— ื”ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ืฉื—ืœ ื‘ืžืจืื”ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืฉื ืจืื” ืขืชื” ืขื™ื™ืฃ, ื—ื•ืœื”, ืงืžื˜ื™ื ื‘ืคื ื™ื• ื•ืงื•ืžืชื• ืฉืคื•ืคื”. ืœืคื ื™ ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื›ื™ื ืก ืืช ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ืœื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืžื•ืงื“ืžืช, ืฉื‘ื” ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืœื—ื‘ืจื™ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืฉื ื™ื”ืœ ืขื ืžืžืฉืœืช ืจื•ืกื™ื”. ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืจื•ืกื™ื ื–ื•ืขื–ืขื• ืœืฉืžื•ืข ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื—ืฅ ืืช ื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื—ืจืื™ ืœืจืฆื— ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืงื™ืฉื™ื ื‘, ืคืœื‘ื”, ื•ื–ื•ืขื–ืขื• ืขื•ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื›ืฉื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืขืœ "ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”" ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื‘ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ืกื•ืขืจื•ืช ื•ื ืื ืืช ื ืื•ื ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื”. ื”ื•ื ืกืงืจ ื‘ื ืื•ืžื• ืืช ื”ืืกื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ื•ืืช ื”ื—ืžืจืช ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื•ืืžืจ: "ื ืฆื™ืœึพื ื ืืช ืืœื” ืฉืขื•ื“ ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื”ืฆื™ืœื". ื”ื•ื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืขืœ ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืขื ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ื ื•ืขืœ ื›ื™ืฉืœื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉื ื•ืžืชืŸ ืขื ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ืกื™ื ื™, ื•ื”ืขืœื” ืœืกื“ืจ ื”ื™ื•ื ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืืช ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ื” ื‘ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื™ื•ื“ืขืช ื›ื™ ืžื˜ืจืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืฉืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืชืฉืžืฉ "ืืชืจ ืืจืขื™ ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืื•ืžื™". ื”ื•ื ื“ืจืฉ ืžื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืœืงื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ื•ื ืขื ื” ื‘ืกืขืจืช ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช. ืืœื ืฉืชื”ื•ื ื ืคืขืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืกื™ืขื•ืช, ืฉืคืชื—ื• ื‘ื”ืชื™ื™ืขืฆื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ื ืื•ืžื™ื. ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื”ืกื•ืขืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืขื” ื”ืจื•ืกื™ืช ืชืงืฃ ื”ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื™ืฆืžืŸ ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื—ืจื™ืคื•ืช, ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ืขืชื™ื“ื” ืœื”ืฆื™ืข "ื”ืฆืขื” ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ". ื›ืžื” ืžืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืืฃ ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ื• ืขืœ ืฉื‘ื™ืชืช ืจืขื‘. ืขืœ ืืฃ ืฉื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืœื ืชืžืš ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”, ื”ื•ื ื”ื’ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืชืฉืžืฉ "ืžืงืœื˜ ืœื™ืœื”" ืœื ืจื“ืคื™ื. ื ื•ื›ื— ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื” ื•ื”ืื™ื•ื ื‘ืคื™ืœื•ื’, ื”ื•ืขืžื“ื” ืœื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ืจืง ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ืžืชื•ื ื” ืžืื•ื“ โ€“ ืฉื™ื’ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืžื•ืžื—ื™ื ืœืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืžื•ืฆืข ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืจืื” ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืฆืขื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช, ืžืคื ื™ ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื‘ื” ื”ื›ืจื” ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื•ืžื—ื•ื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืฆืžื” ื”ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช ืœืคืชืจื•ืŸ ื”ื‘ืขื™ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืœืขื•ืžืชื•, ืื™ืฉื™ื ื›ืžื• ืžื ื—ื ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ ื•ืื—ืจื™ื ืžืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืจื•ืกื™ื”, ื‘ื”ื ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื™ืฆืžืŸ, ื˜ืขื ื• ืฉื”ืชืžื™ื›ื” ื‘ื”ืฆืขื” ืœืฉืœื™ื—ืช ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื”ื—ืงืจ ื”ื™ื ื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ื ื’ื“ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืฉืจืง ื‘ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืงื•ื ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื›ืคืฉืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื•, ื”ื•ื—ืœื˜ ืฉื”ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ืœืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœื ื™ื”ื™ื” ืžื”ื›ืกืคื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืฆืจ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืื• ื”ืงืจืŸ ื”ืงื™ื™ืžืช ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืœืžืจื•ืช ื”ื•ื•ื™ื›ื•ื— ืื•ืฉืจื” ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ื‘ืกื•ืคื• ืฉืœ ื“ื‘ืจ ื‘ืจื•ื‘ ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ืคืจืฆื” ืกืขืจื” ื•ืชื•ืš ืื™ื•ื ื‘ืคืจื™ืฉื”, ืขื–ื‘ื• ื”ื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ืจื•ืกื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ืขื“ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ, "ืื•ืžืจื™ ื”ืœืื•", ืืช ืžืงื•ืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืžื” ื•ืคืจืฉื• ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ืชื™ื•ืช ืžื”ืื•ืœื ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื”ื. ืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ื‘ื›ื•. ื”ื ื”ืชื›ื ืกื• ืœื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืกื’ื•ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืœื ืื—ืจ, ืฉื ืžืฉื›ื” ืขื“ ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื‘ืœื™ืœื”, ืœืื—ืจ ื ืขื™ืœืช ื”ืžืœื™ืื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืžืข ืขืœ ื”ื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ื”ื”ืคื’ื ืชื™ืช ื•ื—ื–ืจ ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืœื•ืŸ ืืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก. ื”ื•ื ื“ืคืง ืขืœ ื”ื“ืœืช ื”ื ืขื•ืœื” ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก. ืื—ื“ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ื ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ืฆืขืง ืœืขื‘ืจื•: "ื‘ื•ื’ื“". ื ืขืจื›ื” ื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ื•ื”ื•ื—ืœื˜ ืœื”ื ื™ื— ืœื• ืœื”ื™ื›ื ืก. ื”ื•ื ื ื™ื’ืฉ ืœื“ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื ื•ืืžื™ื ื•ื ื™ืกื” ืœืฉื›ื ืข ืืช ื”ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื. ื”ื•ื ื ื™ืกื” ืœื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ืœื”ื ืืช ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื”ื›ืจื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื•ืฉื“ื—ื™ื™ืช ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื›ืœืื—ืจ ื™ื“ ืชืคื’ืข ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ื‘ืฉืขื” 2:00 ื‘ืœื™ืœื” ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื• ื”ืžืฉืชืชืคื™ื ืœื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœืžืงื•ืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื‘ืช ื”ื‘ื•ืงืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก. ื ืื•ื ื”ื ืขื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ื”ื ืื•ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืฉื ืฉื ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื›ืœืฉื”ื•. ื”ื•ื ื—ื–ืจ ื‘ื• ืขืœ ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ืช ื•ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืฉื•ื‘ ื›ื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ื”ื™ื ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืืจืขื™. ื”ื•ื ืกื™ื™ื ืืช ื ืื•ืžื• ื‘ืฉื‘ื•ืขื”. ื”ื•ื ื”ืจื™ื ืืช ื™ื“ ื™ืžื™ื ื• ื•ืงืจื ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช: โ€ืื ืืฉื›ื—ืš ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืชืฉื›ื— ื™ืžื™ื ื™โ€. ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืฉื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืœ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื• ื‘ืืœื˜ืื•ืกื–ื”. ืืฉืชื•, ื–'ื•ืœื™, ื—ืœืชื” ืงืฉื” ื‘ื“ืœืงืช ื”ืžืขื™ ื”ืขื™ื•ื•ืจ ืฉื”ื•ื—ืžืจื” ื‘ืฉืœ ื“ืœืงืช ืจื™ืื•ืช, ื•ื—ืœืง ืžื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžื—ื•ืกืจืช ื”ื›ืจื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืฆืžื• ืขื‘ืจ ื”ืชืงืฃ ืœื‘ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื•ืกื‘ืœ ืžืขื•ื•ื™ืชื•ืช ื‘ืจื’ืœื™ื•. ืืš ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื”ื•ื ืžื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืืฉืชื• ื”ื—ื•ืœื”, ื”ื—ืœ ืœืฉืœื•ื— ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ื ืœื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื. ื‘-5 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ ืฉืœื— ืœืคืœื‘ื” ื“ื™ืŸ ื•ื—ืฉื‘ื•ืŸ ืžืคื•ืจื˜ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื”ืžื•ื›ื™ื— ื›ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ืœื”ื’ืจ ืจืง ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืœื—ืฅ ืขืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ. ืืœื ืฉื‘ืื•ืชื• ื™ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืœืœื™ืื•ืคื•ืœื“ ื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื›ื™ ืขืœื™ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช "ืžืืžืฅ ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ (ืืš ืกื•ื“ื™) ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ืืช ื”ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืœืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช". ื‘-11 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ ืืฃ ื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ืื•ื™ืœื ื‘ื•ืจื’ ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืืช ืชืžื™ื›ืช ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™. ื‘-13 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ ื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืช ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™ื”, ืงืจื‘ืจ, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื• "ืืช ืชืžื™ื›ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ืฉืœ ืžื•ืœื“ืชื™". ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ื—ืžืงื ื™ื•ืช, ืœื ื”ืชื™ื™ืืฉ ื•ืฉืœื— ืืช ืงื•ืœื•ื ืœ ืืœื‘ืจื˜ ื’ื•ืœื“ืกืžื™ื“ ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขื ืžืœืš ืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ื•ืืช ื”ืคืจืงืœื™ื˜ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ืื™ื˜ืœืงื™ ืคืœื™ืฆ'ื” ืจืื•ื ื” ืœื“ื‘ืจ ืขื ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ. ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื—ื–ืจ ืœืžืฉืจืชื• ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ื‘-6 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ ื›ืชื‘ ืคืœื‘ื” ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ, ื”ืจื•ื–ืŸ ื•ืœื“ื™ืžื™ืจ ืœืืžืกื“ื•ืจืฃ (ืื '), ื™ื•ืจื” ืœืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื ืœื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืขื•ืช'ืžืื ื™ืช ืฉืžืžืฉืœืช ืจื•ืกื™ื” ืจื•ื—ืฉืช ื™ื—ืก ืื•ื”ื“ ืœืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช "ืœื™ื™ืฉื‘ ืืช ื‘ื ื™ ื“ืชื ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ", ื•ืฉื”ื™ืขื ื•ืช ื—ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืช ืžืฆื“ื” ืœื‘ืงืฉื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ืชื’ื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ืงืฉืจื™ ื”ื™ื“ื™ื“ื•ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืชื™ ื”ืื™ืžืคืจื™ื•ืช. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืฆืขืช ืคืœื‘ื”, ืคื ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืฉื’ืจื™ืจ ื”ืจื•ืกื™ ื‘ืงื•ืฉื˜ื, ืื•ืœื ื–ื” ืœื ืžื™ื”ืจ ืœื‘ืฆืข ืืช ื”ื”ื•ืจืื•ืช ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ. ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™, ื›ื™ื ืก ืžื ื—ื ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ ืžื•ืขืฆื” ื‘ื—ืจืงื•ื‘, ืฉื›ืœืœื”, ืžืœื‘ื“ื•, ืขื•ื“ ืฉืžื•ื ื” ืžืจืืฉื™ ื”ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ืœ"ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”". ื”ืžื•ืขืฆื” ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ื” ืœื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืื•ืœื˜ื™ืžื˜ื•ื: ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืื• ืคื™ืœื•ื’ ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ืฉืื™ืช ื•ื ืฉืœื—ื” ืžืฉืœื—ืช ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืœื”ืฆื™ื’ ืืช ื”ืื•ืœื˜ื™ืžื˜ื•ื ืœื”ืจืฆืœ. ืื•ืœื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืฉืžืข ืขืœ ื”ื”ื—ืœื˜ื”, ื•ืขื ืฉื•ืš ื”ืกืขืจื” ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ืฉืœื— ื‘-12 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ ืžื›ืชื‘ ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ ืืœ ืกืจ ืคืจืื ืกื™ืก ืžื•ื ื˜ื™ืคื™ื•ืจื™, ื‘ื• ื›ืชื‘ ื›ื™ ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ื ื‘ืืคืจื™ืงื” ื”ืžื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืฉื, ื”ืคื›ื” ืืช ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื” ืœ"ื‘ืœืชื™-ืžืขืฉื™ืช". ื‘-5 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1904 ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืฉื ื™ ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื ืžื—ืจืงื•ื‘. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœืงื‘ืœื, ืืš ื›ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืœื ื›ืžืฉืœื—ืช, ื•ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœืงื‘ืœ "ืื•ืœื˜ื™ืžื˜ื•ื". ื”ื•ื ื”ืืฉื™ื ืื•ืชื ื‘ื—ื•ืกืจ ื ืืžื ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื”, ื•ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื ื™ืฆืื• ืžื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ื ื–ื•ืคื™ื. ื‘-22 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ 1904 ื”ื’ื™ืข ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืจื•ืžื. ื”ื•ื ื ืคื’ืฉ ืขื ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื•ืชื™ืงืŸ, ื”ื—ืฉืžืŸ ื”ืฆืขื™ืจ ืžืจื™ ื“ืœ ื•ืืœ, ื•ืืžืจ ืœื• ื›ื™ ื‘ื ืœื‘ืงืฉ "ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื˜ื•ื‘ ืžืฆื“ ื”ื›ืก ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉ". ืื•ืœื ื”ื—ืฉืžืŸ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ "ื›ืœ ืขื•ื“ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžื›ื—ื™ืฉื™ื ืืช ืืœื•ื”ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื™ืฉื•", ืื™ืŸ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ืงืชื•ืœื™ืช ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื”ื: "ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ืฉื•ื‘ ืื“ื•ื ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื” ื‘ืœื™ ืœื”ืชื›ื—ืฉ ืœืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืชื™ื ื• ื”ื ืขืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ?". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ื›ื™ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• "ืืงืกื˜ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ืืœื™ื™ื", ืืš ื”ื—ืฉืžืŸ ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ืœื ื ื™ืชืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื” "ืœืงื™ื™ื ืžื•ื‘ืœืขื•ืช". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื• ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืกื›ืžืช ื”ืžืขืฆืžื•ืช ื•ื”ื’ื™ืฉ ืœื• ืืช ืžื›ืชื‘ื• ืฉืœ ืคืœื‘ื”. ื”ื—ืฉืžืŸ ืงืจื ืืช ื”ืžื›ืชื‘ ื•ืืžืจ ืฉื™ื‘ืงืฉ ืžื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื• ืจืื™ื•ืŸ. ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื‘ื•ืงืจ ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ืžืœืš ืื™ื˜ืœื™ื”, ื•ื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื• ืืžื ื•ืืœื” ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ืฉื–ืžืŸ ืžื” ืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ื•ื ืืžืจ ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ "ื”ืืจืฅ ื›ื‘ืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžืื“" ื•ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ "ื–ื•ื”ื™ ืจืง ืฉืืœื” ืฉืœ ื–ืžืŸ" ืขื“ ืฉืชืขื‘ื•ืจ ืœืจืฉื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ืืš ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื• ืœืคืขื•ืœ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื, ืžืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื ืžืฆื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ืกืžื›ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ. ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื™ื•ืžื™ื™ื, ื‘-25 ื‘ื™ื ื•ืืจ, ื ืคื’ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ืคื™ื•ืก ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™. ื”ื•ื ืœื ื›ืจืข ื‘ืจืš ื•ืœื ื ื™ืฉืง ืืช ื™ื“ื• ื”ืžื•ืฉื˜ืช. ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ืืžืจ ืœื•: "ืื™ืŸ ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ืฉืœื™ื ืขื ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ืœื ื ื•ื›ืœ ืœืžื ื•ืข ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืœืœื›ืช ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืื‘ืœ ืœื”ืกื›ื™ื ืœื›ืš ืœื ื ื•ื›ืœ. ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื ื”ื›ื™ืจื• ื‘ืื“ื•ื ื ื•, ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืื™ืŸ ืื ื• ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ื–ืจ ืขืœ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืžืขืžื“ ื”ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื™ื, ืืš ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ "ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ืœื ืชื—ื–ื•ืจ ืœื™ื“ื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื "ื›ืคืจื• ื‘ื™ืฉื• ื•ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื‘ืกื™ืจื•ื‘ื ืœื”ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ืืœื•ื”ื•ืชื•". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืžืจ ืœื• ื›ื™ "ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื ืชื•ื ื™ื ื‘ืžืฆื•ืงื” ืื™ื•ืžื”" ื•ืฉื”ื•ื ื–ืงื•ืง "ืœืืจืฅ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ื ืจื“ืคื™ื", ืืš ื”ืืคื™ืคื™ื•ืจ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ื›ื™ ืื™ืŸ ื”ื›ื ืกื™ื™ื” ื™ื›ื•ืœื” ืœืชืžื•ืš ื‘ื–ื” ื•ืืžืจ: "ืื ื—ื ื• ืžืชืคืœืœื™ื ืœืฉืœื•ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื”ืœื•ื•ืื™ ื•ื™ืื™ืจ ื”ืื•ืจ ื‘ืœื‘ื... ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ืœื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื ื›ื™ืŸ ืื ื• ื›ื ืกื™ื•ืช ื•ื›ืžืจื™ื ืœื”ื˜ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ื›ื•ืœื". ืขื ืฉื•ื‘ื• ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื”, ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžื‘ืจืง ืžื’ืจื™ื ื‘ืจื’, ืฉื‘ื• ื ืืžืจ ื›ื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืžืขื•ื ื™ื™ืŸ ืœื”ืขื ื™ืง ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืขืœ ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”, ืื•ืœื ืœื ื•ื›ื— ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ื”ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ื, ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื™ืข ืื–ื•ืจ ืื—ืจ, ืžืจื•ื—ืง ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื—ืœ ื‘ื”ื›ื ื•ืช ืœืฉื’ืจ ืœืฉื ืžืฉืœื—ืช. ื‘-11 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื›ื™ื ืก ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื™ื ืžืขืฉืจ ืืจืฆื•ืช ืœื™ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื•ื•ืขื“ ื”ืคื•ืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื‘ื ื™ืกื™ื•ืŸ ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืœืคื™ื™ืก ืืช ืžืชื ื’ื“ื™ื ื•ืœืžื ื•ืข ืคื™ืœื•ื’. ืื•ืกื™ืฉืงื™ืŸ ืชืงืฃ ืืช ืชื•ืžื›ื™ "ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”" ื•ืื™ื™ื ืœื ืชืง ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืื™ืชื, ืืš ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืกื•ืขืจ, ืฉื ืžืฉืš ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืžื™ื, ื”ืกืชื™ื™ื ื‘ื”ืชืคื™ื™ืกื•ืช. ื‘-30 ื‘ืืคืจื™ืœ ื ื•ืขื“ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขื ืฉืจ ื”ื—ื•ืฅ ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื™, ื”ืจื•ื–ืŸ ืื’ื ื•ืจ ืคื•ืŸ ื’ืœื•ื›ื•ื‘ืกืงื™ (ืื '), ืฉื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ืœื• ื›ื™ ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืงื™ืกืจื•ืช ื”ืื•ืกื˜ืจื•-ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ืช ืชืชืžื•ืš ื‘ืžืืžืฅ ืœืžืขืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ืชื ืื™ ืฉืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืชื ืงื•ื˜ ื™ื•ื–ืžื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืชื›ื•ื ืŸ ืœื ืกื•ืข ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื”, ืื•ืœื ืžื™ื—ื•ืฉื™ ื”ืœื‘ ืฉืœื• ื”ื—ืžื™ืจื•, ื•ื”ืจื•ืคืื™ื ืื‘ื—ื ื• ืคื’ื™ืขื” ื‘ืฉืจื™ืจ ื”ืœื‘. ื‘ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ืจื•ืคืื™ื• ื ืกืข ื‘-2 ื‘ืžืื™ ืœืจื™ืคื•ื™ ื‘ืคืจื ืฆื ื‘ืื“. ื‘-16 ื‘ืžืื™ ื ืคืกืง ื™ื•ืžื ื•. ื”ื•ื ืฉื‘ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืœืžืฉืš ืฉื‘ื•ืขื™ื™ื, ืืš ืžืฆื‘ื• ืœื ื”ืฉืชืคืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื‘ืœ ืžื‘ืจื™ืื•ืช ืจื•ืคืคืช. ื”ื•ื ืœื ื ืฉืžืข ืœืจื•ืคืื™ื•, ืฉื™ืขืฆื• ืœื• ืœื ื•ื—, ื•ื–ืืช ืืฃ ืฉืกื‘ืœ ืžืชืกืžื™ื ื™ ืžืœืจื™ื”, ืžื—ื•ืœืฉื”, ืžื›ืื‘ื™ ืจืืฉ, ืžืงืฉื™ื™ ื ืฉื™ืžื”, ืžื“ื•ืคืง ืœื ืกื“ื™ืจ, ืžื”ืชืขืœืคื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ืžืื™ื•ื•ืฉื” ื‘ืœื‘. ื‘ืขืฆืช ืจื•ืคืื™ื•, ื ื›ื ืก ื‘-3 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™, ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืืฉืชื•, ืœืกื ื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ื ื‘ืึถื“ืœืืš (Edlach) ืฉืขืœ ื”ื–ืžืจื™ื ื’. ื”ื•ื ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืฉื•ื‘ ืœืขื‘ื•ื“, ืื•ืœื ื‘-1 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื—ืœื” ื‘ื“ืœืงืช ืจื™ืื•ืช. ื”ื•ื ืงื“ื— ืžื—ื•ื, ื”ื›ืจืชื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืžืขื•ืจืคืœืช, ื’ื•ืคื• ืจืขื“ ื•ื”ื•ื ืคืœื˜ ื“ื ื‘ืฉื™ืขื•ืœื•. ื‘-2 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ ื‘ื™ืงืจ ืื•ืชื• ื”ื›ื•ืžืจ ื”ื›ืœืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžืžื ื•: "ื“ืจื•ืฉ ื‘ืฉืœื•ื ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืฉืžื™. ื ืชืชื™ ืืช ื“ื ืœื‘ื™ ืœืžืขืŸ ืขืžื™". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœืจืื•ืช ืืช ืืžื• ื•ื™ืœื“ื™ื• ื•ื”ื ื”ื•ื‘ืื• ืืœื™ื•. ื–'ื•ืœื™ ืœืงืชื” ื‘ื”ืชืžื•ื˜ื˜ื•ืช ืขืฆื‘ื™ื ื•ื”ื•ืฆืื” ืžื”ื—ื“ืจ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืข ืขืœ ื”ืกื˜ื•ื“ื ื˜ื™ื ืฉื”ืžืชื™ื ื• ืœื• ื‘ื’ืŸ ื‘ื—ื•ืฅ ื•ืืžืจ ืœืจื•ืคืื•: "ื”ื ืื ืฉื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ื ืคืœืื™ื, ื‘ื ื™ ืขืžื™. ืขื•ื“ ืชืจืื”, ื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ื•ื ื•ื”ื ื™ื™ื›ื ืกื• ืœืืจืฅ-ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”!". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘-3 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1904, ื›' ื‘ืชืžื•ื– ืชืจืก"ื“, ื‘ืฉืขื” 17:00, ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ืš ืฉืœ ื“ืœืงืช ืจื™ืื•ืช ืงืฉื” ืขืœ ืจืงืข ืžืฆื‘ ื‘ืจื™ืื•ืชื™ ื›ืœืœื™ ื™ืจื•ื“, ื›ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืŸ 44. ื”"ื ื•ื™ื” ืคืจื™ื™ื” ืคืจืกื”" ืคืจืกื ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ื• ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ืกืคื“ ืืจื•ืš ืฉืฉื™ื‘ื— ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืกื•ืคืจ ื•ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™, ืืš ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ืฉื ื™ ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ืงืฆืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช ื•ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืฆื™ื™ืจื” ืื•ืชื• ื›ืื—ื“ ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ืžืื” ื”-19. ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ืฆื•ื•ืื”, ื•ื‘ื” ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœื”ื™ืงื‘ืจ ื‘ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื” ืฆื ื•ืขื”; ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ, ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืฉืœื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื• ื ืื•ืžื™ื ืขืœ ืงื‘ืจื• ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื™ืชื•. ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืืชื• ื›ืชื‘: "ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืขืžื“ ื”ืขื ื™-ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืœื ื ืื•ืžื™ื ื•ืœื ืคืจื—ื™ื. ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื”ื™ืงื‘ืจ ื‘ืืจื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืžืชื›ืช, ื‘ืื—ื•ื–ืช ื”ืงื‘ืจ ืœื™ื“ ืื‘ื™, ืœืฉื›ื‘ ืฉื ืขื“ ืฉื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื™ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืืช ื’ื•ืคื™ ืœืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ". ืืจื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœื•ื•ื™ื ื” ื•ื”ื•ืฆื‘ ื‘ื—ื“ืจ ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื•. ืืœืคื™ ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืขื™ืจ ื‘ืจื›ื‘ื•ืช ืžืืจืฆื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืฉืฉืช ืืœืคื™ื ืื™ืฉ ื”ืฉืชืชืคื• ื‘ืœื•ื•ื™ื”, ืฉื ืžืฉื›ื” ืžืกืคืจ ืฉืขื•ืช. ื‘ื ื•, ื”ื ืก, ืืžืจ ืงื“ื™ืฉ, ื•ื“ื•ื“ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ ื ืฉื ื”ืกืคื“ ืงืฆืจ. ื”ื•ื ื ื˜ืžืŸ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืขืœืžื™ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื—ื•ื– ื”ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™ ื“ื•ื‘ืœื™ื ื’ (ืื ') ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืคื˜ืจ ืคื—ื•ืช ืž-10 ืฉื ื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืฉื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช. ืœืื—ืจ ืคื˜ื™ืจืชื•, ื”ืชื‘ืจืจ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื›ืœ ื›ืกืคื™ ื”ื ื“ื•ื ื™ื” ืฉืœ ืืฉืชื• ื™ื•ืœื™ื”, ื•ื›ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืฉืืจื” ืœืœื ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื ืื•ืชื™ื. ื‘ืชื• ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื– ื‘ืช 14, ื‘ื ื• ื”ื ืก ื‘ืŸ 13 ื•ื‘ืชื• ื˜ืจื•ื“ื” ื‘ืช 11. ืžื•ืกื“ื•ืช ื”ื”ืกืชื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ื•ื”ืืคื•ื˜ืจื•ืคื•ืกื™ื ืฉืžื™ื ื”, ื˜ื™ืคืœื• ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœืช ื”ืžืฉืคื—ื” ื•ื“ืื’ื• ืœื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื™ืœื“ื™ื•. ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืืชื• ืฆื™ื•ื•ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื™ื“ื™ื“ื™ื• ื“ื•ื“ ื•ื•ืœืคืกื•ืŸ, ืžื•ืจื™ืฅ ืจื™ืฆ'ืคืœื“ ื•ื™ื•ื”ืืŸ ืงืจืžื ืฆืงื™ ื™ืžื•ื ื• ื›ืืคื•ื˜ืจื•ืคื•ืกื™ื ืขืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื•, ื•ื›ืŸ ืฉื™ืœื“ื™ื• ื™ื™ืงื‘ืจื• ืœื™ื“ื• ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืื•ืœื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื”ืฆื•ื•ืื” ืงื•ื™ืžื” ื‘ืฉืœื‘ื™ื, ื•ื”ื•ืฉืœืžื” ืจืง ืœืื—ืจ ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘. ื”ืกื™ืงื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืคื˜ื™ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื–ืื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขื™ืชื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ืฆื˜ื™ื™ืจ ื›ืื™ืจื•ืข ืชืงืฉื•ืจืชื™ ื›ื‘ื™ืจ. ืขืฆื™ืžื•ืช ื”ืกื™ืงื•ืจ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืขื–ื”, ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ื ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื›ื•ืชืจื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืžื™ืชื•ืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื“ืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›'ื—ื•ื–ื” ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”' ื”ื—ืœ ืœื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉ ื•ืœื”ืชืขืฆื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชื•ืืจ ื›ืื“ื ื ืฉื’ื‘ ื•ื›ืืœื™ืœ, ื”ืขื™ืชื•ื ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ื—ื• ืืช ื™ื•ืคื™ื• ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™, ื”ืฆื™ื’ื• ืื•ืชื• ื›ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉื• ืืช ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ื”ื ื‘ื•ืื™. ืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืงื™ื‘ืœื• ืืช ื”ื™ื“ื™ืขื” ื‘ื›ืื‘ ืจื‘ ื•ื”ืชืื‘ืœื• ืงืฉื” ืขืœ ืžื•ืชื•. ื”ืื‘ืœื•ืช ื‘ื•ื˜ืื” ื‘ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ืžื’ื•ื•ื ื•ืช. ื”ืจื‘ ืงื•ืง, ื‘ื”ืกืคื™ื“ื• ืืช ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ืขืœ ืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ืŸ ื™ื•ืกืฃ, ื•ืืฃ ืฉืœื ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ืืช ืฉืžื• ื‘ืžืคื•ืจืฉ, ืกื‘ืจื• ืฉื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืืœื™ื• ืžืžืฉ. ืืœื™ืขื–ืจ ื‘ืŸ-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื›ื” ืืช ืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ื›ื” ืฆืขื™ืจ, ื•ื”ืืฉื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ื•ืื—ืจื™ื ืขืœ ื›ื™: ืœื ื™ืฆืื ื• ื›ืœื ื•... ื‘ืžื—ืื•ืช ื—ื–ืงื•ืช, ืขื–ื•ืช, ืœืžืขืŸ ื™ืจืื” ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื ื• ื›ื™ ืื™ื ื• ืœื‘ื“ื•, ื›ื™ ืœื ื›ืœื ื• ื‘ื’ื“ื ื• ื‘ื•... ื›ื™ ืื ื• ื›ืœื ื• ืขืžื“ื™ื ื›ืงื™ืจ ื‘ืจื–ืœ ืœื”ืœื—ื ืืชื• ืืช ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื”ืงืฉื”! ื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืŸ-ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ ื”ื ืขืจ ื›ืชื‘ ืœื—ื‘ืจื•: ืœื ื™ืงื•ื ืขื•ื“ ืื™ืฉ ื ืคืœื ื›ื–ื” ื”ืžืื—ื“ ื‘ืงืจื‘ื• ืืช ื’ื‘ื•ืจืช ื”ืžื›ื‘ื™ ืขื ืžื–ื™ืžื•ืช ื“ื•ื“, ืื•ืžืฅ ืœื‘ ืจื‘ื™ ืขืงื™ื‘ื ื•ืขื ื•ื•ืช ื”ืœืœ, ืืช ื™ืคื™ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื•ืื”ื‘ืช ืืฉ ืฉืœ ืจื‘ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ื”ืœื•ื™ ื”ืชืฉื•ืงื” ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื”, ืฉื”ืืฆื™ืœ ืขืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืขืœ ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื”ืืœื™ื, ืชื”ืžื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ื ื• ืขื“ ื›ืœื•ืชื ื• ืืช ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื”, ืฉืœื” ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ ื”ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืืช ื—ื™ื™ื• ื”ื ื™ืฉืื™ื. ื”ืกืคื“ื™ื ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืฉืžืขื• ื’ื ืžืฆื“ ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื. ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื—ื™ืืœ ื™ืขืงื‘ ื•ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ ื”ืกืคื™ื“ ืื•ืชื•: ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื™ื” ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื—ืœื•ืฆื” ืฉืœ ืชืงื•ืคืชึพืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช. 'ื•ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ื”ื•ื ื•ื‘ืื• ื”ืื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ืžืืจืฅ ืืฉื•ืจ ื•ื”ื ื“ื—ื™ื ืžืืจืฅ ืžืฆืจื™ื' - ื”ื ื” ืขื•ื“ ืžืขื˜ ื•ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืฉืขื” ืฉื™ืฉื•ื‘ื• ื›ืœ ื”ื ื“ื—ื™ื. ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื ื™ืชืืกืคื• ืžืกื‘ื™ื‘ ืœื“ื’ืœ ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื. ื›ืŸ, ืขื•ื“ ืžืขื˜ ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ื›ื•ืœื. ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉื‘ื”ื ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ื! [...] ื–ื›ืจื•ื ื• ื—ื™ ืœืขื•ืœืžื™ ืขื“ ื‘ื ืฉืžืช ื”ืื•ืžื”, ืžื•ื›ืชืจ ื‘ืชื•ื“ื” ื•ืฆืขืจ, ื•ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืชืงื•ื” ื•ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ื‘ื• ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื–ื”. ืชื•ื“ื” ืœืื™ืฉ ืฉื—ื–ื•ื ื• ื•ืžืขืฉื™ื• ื”ืฆื™ืœื• ืืช ื”ืขื ื‘ื“ื•ืจ ืฉืœ ืฉืžื“ ื•ื˜ืžื™ืขื”. ืชืงืŸ ืชืงื•ื” ืœื ื•ืืฉื™ื ื•ืขื“ื•ื“ ืœื ื—ืฉืœื™ื, ื•ืฆืขืจ - ืขืœ ื—ื–ื•ืŸ ืฉืœื ื ืชืงื™ื™ื ื‘ืžืœื•ืื• ื•ื‘ื˜ื”ืจืชื•. ื‘ืจื•ืกื™ืช ืคื•ืจืกื ืžืืžืจ ื”ืกืคื“ ืฉื”ื•ืคืฅ ืื—ืจื™ ืฉืชื•ืจื’ื ืœืคื•ืœื ื™ืช ื‘ื™ื“ื™ ืื’ื•ื“ื•ืช ื”ื’ื™ืžื ืื–ื™ืกื˜ื™ื. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ ื ื›ืชื‘ื• ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื”ื‘ืื™ื: ื–ื›ื•ืชื• ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ืฉืื™ื ื” ืžื•ื˜ืœืช ื‘ืกืคืง, ืฉื”ื•ื ื”ื•ืฆื™ื ืืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ืžื”ื ืงื•ื“ื” ื”ืžืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืคืœืฉื˜ื™ื ื™ื–ื ื”ืขืœื•ื‘, ื”ื‘ื ื•ื™ ืขืœ ืฆื“ืงื” (ื—ื™ื‘ืช ืฆื™ื•ืŸ) ื•ื”ืขืœื” ืื•ืชื” ืœื‘ืžื” ื”ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ื”ืจื—ื‘ื”. ื”ื”ืขืจืฆื” ืฉืœื” ื–ื›ื” ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ืชื’ื‘ืจื” ืœืื—ืจ ืคื˜ื™ืจืชื•. ื”ื”ืขืจืฆื” ืฉืœื” ื–ื›ื” ื”ืฉืคื™ืขื” ืขืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆืขื™ืจื™ื, ื•ื”ื›ืฉื™ืจื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืืช ืชื•ื“ืขืชื ืฉืœ ื—ืœื•ืฆื™ ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื•ื”ืขืœื™ื™ื” ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™ืช. ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1949, ืขืœ ืคื™ ื‘ืงืฉืชื• ื‘ืฆื•ื•ืืชื•, ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ืขืฆืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ื•ืื—ื•ืชื• ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ืขืœืžื™ืŸ ื‘ื•ื•ื™ื ื” ืœื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ืขืœ ืคื™ ื—ื•ืง ืฉื”ืชืงื‘ืœ ื‘ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ื˜"ื• ื‘ืื‘ ืชืฉ"ื˜, 10 ื‘ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1949. ืืจื•ื ื• ื•ืืจื•ื ื•ืช ืงืจื•ื‘ื™ื• ื ื™ืฉืื• ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช ื•ื™ื ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื ืฉื™ ืžืฉืœื—ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœื™ืช ื•ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช "ื–ื™ื™ื˜ื ืฉื˜ื˜ืŸ" ("Seitenstetten") ื•ืื—ืจ ื›ืš ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื• ืืœ ืฉื“ื” ื”ืชืขื•ืคื” ื•ื”ื•ื˜ืกื• ืœื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืžื˜ื•ืก ืืœ ืขืœ, ืฉื ืงืจื ืžืื– "ื”ืจืฆืœ". ืงื‘ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืงื‘ืข ื‘ื”ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื”ืงืจื•ื™ ืขืœ ืฉืžื•. ื”ื”ืœื•ื•ื™ื” ื”ืžืžืœื›ืชื™ืช ื ื•ื”ืœื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ืช. ื‘ื˜ืงืก ื”ืงื‘ื•ืจื” ื ื›ื—ื• ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ื ืžื›ืœ ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืขืคืจ ืžื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื”ื ืœื”ื ื™ื— ื‘ืงื‘ืจื•. ื”ืžืฆื‘ื” ืขืœ ืงื‘ืจื• ื”ื•ืงืžื” ื‘ืฉื ืช ืชืฉ"ืš, 1960. ืฉื ื” ืœืื—ืจ ืงื‘ื•ืจืชื• ื”ืžื—ื•ื“ืฉืช ื‘ื”ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืขืจืš ื”ื’ื“ื "ืข ื˜ืงืก ื”ื“ืœืงืช ืžืฉื•ืื•ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ืงื‘ืจ ื‘ืขืจื‘ ื™ื•ื ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช. ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืจืืฉ ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื’ื™ืข ืืฃ ื”ื•ื ืœื˜ืงืก ื–ื”. ื˜ืงืก ื”ื“ืœืงืช ื”ืžืฉื•ืื•ืช ื”ืคืš ืžืื– ืœืžืกื•ืจืช, ื•ื”ื•ื ืžืฆื™ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ ืฉื ื” ืืช ืกื™ื•ื ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ื™ื•ื ื”ื–ื™ื›ืจื•ืŸ ืœื—ืœืœื™ ืžืขืจื›ื•ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ืคืชื™ื—ืช ืื™ืจื•ืขื™ ื™ื•ื ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื™ืฉื ื‘ืฉื ืช 1889 ืœื™ื•ืœื™ื” (ื–'ื•ืœื™) ืœื‘ื™ืช ื ืฉืื•ืืจ, ื•ื ื•ืœื“ื• ืœื”ื ืฉืœื•ืฉื” ื™ืœื“ื™ื: ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื” (ืขืœ ืฉื ืื—ื•ืชื•), ื”ื ืก ื•ื˜ืจื•ื“ื”. ื”ื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื ื›ืฉืœื•, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื˜ื” ืœื“ื™ื›ืื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื™ื•ืœื™ื” ืืฃ ื ื™ืกืชื” ืœื”ืชืื‘ื“. ื‘-19 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 2006, ืœืื—ืจ ื˜ืงืก ืจืฉืžื™, ื”ื•ืฆืื• ืขืฆืžื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ื ืก ื•ืคืื•ืœื™ื ื” ืžื‘ื™ืช ื”ืขืœืžื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื‘ื•ืจื“ื•, ื•ื ืงื‘ืจื• ืœืžื—ืจืช ื‘ื”ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืกืžื•ืš ืœืงื‘ืจ ืื‘ื™ื”ื, ื‘ื—ืœืงืช ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืจืืฉ ื”ื”ืกืชื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช, ืฉื ื›ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื• ืงื‘ื•ืจื™ื ื”ื•ืจื™ื• ื•ืื—ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื‘ื™ืŸ ืงื‘ืจื™ื”ื ื”ื•ืงืžื” ืžืฆื‘ื” ืœื–ื›ืจื” ืฉืœ ื‘ืชื• ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื˜ืจื•ื“ื”, ืฉื ืกืคืชื” ื‘ืฉื•ืื”. ื‘-5 ื‘ื“ืฆืžื‘ืจ 2007 ื”ื•ื‘ื ืžื”ืขื™ืจ ื•ื•ืฉื™ื ื’ื˜ื•ืŸ ืœืงื‘ื•ืจื” ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื—ืœืงื” ื’ื ื ื›ื“ื• ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืกื˜ืคืŸ ืชื™ืื•ื“ื•ืจ ื ื•ืจืžืŸ. ืžืฉื ืชื• ื•ื™ืฆื™ืจืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื”ืจืฆืœื™ืื ื™ืช ืขืกืงื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ื—ื–ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ืžืขืฉื™ื ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ื™ื. ืืœื” ื ืชืคืกื• ื›ื ื•ืฉืื™ ื”ืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ื”ื“ืจื•ืฉื™ื ืœื”ืฆืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืžื”ืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช, ื•ืžื”ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ื”ืงืฉื” ื”ืฆืคื•ื™ื” ืœื• ื‘ื”ื™ืฉืืจื• ื‘ื’ื•ืœื”. ืชืคื™ืกืชื• ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืฉืขื ื” ืขืœ ื”ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื™ื, ืืš ืžืฉื ืชื• ื•ืชื•ื›ื ื™ื•ืชื™ื• ื”ืชืืคื™ื™ื ื• ื‘ืจืฆื™ื•ื ืœื™ื–ื, ื‘ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื•ืืฃ ื‘ืžื”ืคื›ื ื•ืช (ืื '). ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื‘ืจ ืฉืชืฉื•ืขืชื ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืชืœื•ื™ื” ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ื”ืงื™ื‘ื•ืฆื™, ื‘ื ื—ื™ืฉื•ืชื ืœื”ืฉื™ื’ ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช, ื•ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœืชื ืœืžืžืฉ ืื•ืชื” ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื’ื ืื ื‘ืกื‘ืœ ืจื‘ ื•ื’ื ืื ื™ืœื•ื• ื‘ืชื—ื•ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื™ืื•ืฉ ื•ืžืจื™. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ื•ื ืจืื” ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ืชื›ื ื•ืŸ ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืžืกื•ื“ืจืช ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื”, ื•ืชืžืš ื‘ืงื•ืื•ืคืจืฆื™ื” ื•ื‘ืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ. ื›ืš ืœืžืฉืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ืกืคืจื• "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื": ืื™ืŸ ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืื“ื ื—ื–ืง ื•ืขืฉื™ืจ, ืฉื™ื•ื›ืœ ืœื”ืกื™ืข ืขื ืžืืจืฅ ืœืืจืฅ. ืจืง ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื™ื—ื•ืœืœ ื–ืืช, ืื›ืŸ ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ-ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื›ื•ื— ื›ื–ื”. ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืœ ืœื™ืœ-ื’ืœื•ืชื ื”ืืจื•ืš ืœื ื—ื“ืœื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืœื—ืœื•ื ืืช ื—ืœื•ื ืžืœื›ื•ืชื. "ืœืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื!" ืงืจืื ื• ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช. ืขืชื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื” ื”ืฉืขื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืช, ื›ื™ ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื ื• ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืืช ื”ื—ืœื•ื ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื™ืจ ื›ืฆื”ืจื™ื™ื... ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื™ืœื›ื• ื”ื ื•ืืฉื™ื, ืื—ืจื™ื”ื ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื, ืื—ืจื™-ื›ืŸ ื”ืืžื™ื“ื™ื, ื•ืœืื—ืจื•ื ื” ื”ืขืฉื™ืจื™ื. ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืคืขื•ืœื” ืฉื™ื˜ืชื™ืช ื•ืžื“ื•ืจื’ืช ืฉื•ืจื˜ื˜ื” ื‘ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ื™ืฆื™ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžื”ื’ื•ืœื” ืืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ; ืชื ื•ืขืช ื”ื”ื’ื™ืจื” ืœืืจืฅ ืชื”ื™ื” ืจืฆื•ื ื™ืช ื•ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ืช, ืœืื—ืจ ืฉืชื•ื‘ืจืจ ืœื‘ืื™ื ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ื™ืฆื™ืื” ืžื”ื’ื•ืœื” ื•ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื ื™ื™ืช ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื—ื“ืฉื” ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืชื‘ืกืกื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ื’ื ืขืœ ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ืฆืข ื•ื‘ื™ืงื•ืฉ, ื•ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆื•ืŸ ื•ื”ื™ื•ื–ืžื” ืฉืœ ื™ื—ื™ื“ื™ื ื•ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืœืฉืคืจ ืืช ืชื ืื™ ื”ืžื—ื™ื” ื•ื”ืจื•ื•ื—ื” ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ืช ื•ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ืฉืœื”ื. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช, ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื—ืœื•ืฆื™ื ื—ืกืจื™ ื”ื•ืŸ ื•ื™ื‘ื ื• ืชืฉืชื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ, ื•ืื– ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื•ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ื™ืชื’ื‘ืจื•; ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ืจื‘ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื, ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื•ืŸ ื–ืขื™ืจ ืื• ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื”ืžื•ืจื’ืœื™ื ืœืชื ืื™ื ื ื•ื—ื™ื, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื™ื“ืื’ื• ืœื”ืกื“ื™ืจ ืชื ืื™ื ื›ืืœื” ื‘ืืจืฅ ื‘ืžืจื—ื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ ื•ื”ืคืจื˜ื™. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื—ื“ื•ืจื” ื‘ืžื ื™ืขื™ื ืžื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ื‘ืงืจื™ืื” ืœื—ืœื•ืฆื™ื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืงืจื‘ื”, ื›ืชื ืื™ ืœืžื™ืžื•ืฉ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื‘ืฉืื™ืคื” ืœืฆื“ืง ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ืœืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื–ืจื—ื™ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื”ืขืชื™ื“ื™ืช, ื•ื‘ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœืคืฉื˜ื•ืช ื•ืœื™ืขื™ืœื•ืช: ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื›ื•ืœื” ื‘ืฆื•ืจืชื” ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ืช ื”ื™ื ืคืฉื•ื˜ื” ืขื“ ืžืื“, ื•ืขืœื™ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืŸ, ืœืžืขืŸ ืชื”ื™ื” ืžื•ื‘ื ืช ืœื›ืœ ืื“ื. ื™ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื‘ื—ืœืงืช-ืืจืฅ ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ืื“ืžื”, ืืฉืจ ืชืกืคื™ืง ืœืฆืจื›ื™ื” ื”ื™ืฉืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืื•ืžืชื ื•, ื•ืืช ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืืจ ื ืขืฉื” ื‘ืขืฆืžื ื• [...] ืื™ืŸ ืื ื• ืจืฉืื™ื ืœืฆื™ื™ืจ ืœื ื• ืืช ื™ืฆื™ืืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืคืชืข ืคืชืื•ื. ืœืื˜ ืœืื˜ ื™ืฆืื• ื•ื‘ืžืฉืš ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืฉื ื™ื. ื‘ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื™ืœื›ื• ื”ืขื ื™ื™ื ืฉื‘ืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื ื™ืฉื›ื™ืจื• ืืช ื”ืื“ืžื” ืœื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘. ืœืคื™ ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ืžืชื•ื›ื ื ืช ืžืจืืฉ ื™ืกืœืœื• ืฉื ื›ื‘ื™ืฉื™ื, ื™ื‘ื ื• ื’ืฉืจื™ื ื•ืžืกื™ืœื•ืช-ื‘ืจื–ืœ, ื™ืงื™ืžื• ืขืžื•ื“ื™ ื˜ืœื’ืจืฃ, ื™ื˜ื• ื ื”ืจื•ืช ื•ื™ื‘ื ื• ื‘ื™ื“ื™ื”ื ืืช ืžืฉื›ื ื•ืชื™ื”ื. ืขื‘ื•ื“ืชื ืชื’ื“ื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืžืฉื-ื•ื”ืžืชืŸ. ื”ืžืฉื-ื•ื”ืžืชืŸ ื™ืคืชื— ืืช ื”ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื, ื•ื”ืฉื•ื•ืงื™ื ื™ืชืžื›ื• ืžืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื™ื ื—ื“ืฉื™ื, ื›ื™ ื›ืœ ืื™ืฉ ื™ื‘ื•ื ืžืจืฆื•ื ื•, ืขืœ ื—ืฉื‘ื•ื ื• ื•ืขืœ ืื—ืจื™ื•ืชื•. ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ืืฉืจ ื ืฉืงื™ืข ื‘ืื“ืžื”, ืชืขืœื” ืืช ืžื—ื™ืจ ื”ืงืจืงืขื•ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ื›ื™ืจื• ืขื“ ืžื”ืจื”, ื›ื™ ื ืคืชื— ืฉื“ื” ื—ื“ืฉ ื•ืงื™ื™ื ืœืจื•ื—-ืงื‘ื•ืœืชื, ืืฉืจ ืขื“ ืขืชื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื ื•ืื” ื•ื‘ื–ื•ื™ื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ื”ืขืžื™ื. ื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืŸ-ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ, ืฉื”ื’ืฉื™ื ืืช ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืจืืฉ ืžืžืฉืœืชื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ืืžืจ: "ื’ื“ื•ืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื ื‘ื›ืš ืฉื”ืคืš ืืช ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื”ืžืคื•ื–ืจ ื•ื”ืžืคื•ืจืจ, ืœืขื ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™, ืœืจืืฉื•ื ื” ืื—ืจื™ ืืœืคื™ื™ื ืฉื ื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืืžื™ืŸ ื‘ืฆื•ืจืš "ืœืžืฆื•ื ืคืฉืจื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืคื ื™ื-ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ ื“ืช ื•ืœืื•ื" ืžื•ืœ ื”ื–ืจืžื™ื ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื ื‘ืžื˜ืจื” ืœืืคืฉืจ ืฉื™ืชื•ืคื™ ืคืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื”ื’ืฉืžืช ืžื˜ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช, ื•ื›ืš, ืืฃ ืฉืงื•ื“ื ืœื›ืŸ ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืœืงื“ื ื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื•ืช, ื›ืžื ื”ื™ื’ ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืชืืžืฅ ืœืงืจื‘ ืืช ื”ื–ืจืžื™ื ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื™ื ืœืžืคืขืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™. ื‘ืจื•ื— ื–ื• ื’ื™ื™ืก ื”ืจืฆืœ ืจื‘ื ื™ื ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื ืฉื™ืฉืชืชืคื• ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื•ืืฃ ื›ื™ื‘ื“ ืื—ื“ ืžื”ื ืœืฉืืช ื‘ืจื›ืช ืฉื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื•. ื‘ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื "ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืืœ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืืœ ืืจืฅ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ื•ื‘ืžื”ืœื›ื• ื”ืฉืชืชืฃ, ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ื™ื“ื™ื“ื• ืžืงืก ื ื•ืจื“ืื•, ื‘ืชืคื™ืœื•ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ. ืžืกืคืจ ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ืœืื—ืจ ืžื›ืŸ ืคืจืกื ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื”ืžืืžืจ "ื”ืžื ื•ืจื”" ื‘ื• ื”ืขืœื” ืขืœ ื ืก ืืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื™ืชื•ืฃ ื”ืคืขื•ืœื” ืขื ืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ื ื•ืกืคื•ืช ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช, ื‘ื”ืŸ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืžื–ืจื— ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ืช ื‘ืจื•ื‘ื”. ื‘-3 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895 ื”ืกื‘ื™ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืžื›ืชื‘ ืืœ ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืจืฉ ื‘ืคืจื™ื– ืืช ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื“ื’ืœ, ื›ืกืžืœ ื”ืžืื—ื“ ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื: ืขืฉื•ื™ ืืชื” ืœืฉืื•ืœ ื‘ืœื’ืœื•ื’: 'ื“ื’ืœ? ืžื” ื–ื”? ืžื•ื˜ ืขืฅ ื•ืขืœื™ื• ืคื™ืกืชึพื‘ื“?' ืœื, ืื“ื•ื ื™, ื“ื’ืœ ื”ื•ื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื–ื”. ื‘ื“ื’ืœ ืžื•ืœื™ื›ื™ื ื‘ื ื™ึพืื“ื... ืœืžืขืŸ ื“ื’ืœ, ื‘ื ื™ ืื“ื ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ืžืชื™ื. ืขืœึพืคื™ ื”ืืžืช ื”ืจื™ ื–ื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ื™ื—ื™ื“ ืœืฉืžื• ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ื”ื ืœืžื•ืช ื‘ื”ืžื•ื ื™ื, ืื ืžื—ื ื›ื™ื ืื•ืชื ืœื–ืืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื’ื” ืžืกืคืจ ื’ืจืกืื•ืช ืœื“ื’ืœ โ€“ ื”ืŸ ื“ื’ืœ ืœื‘ืŸ ืขื ืฉื‘ืขื” ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื–ื”ื•ื‘ื™ื, ื›ื ื’ื“ ืฉื‘ืข ืฉืขื•ืช ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“ โ€“ ืžื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืชื™ื”ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื‘ืžืฉื ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ. ื”ืฆืขื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืžืฉืœื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ ืฉืœ ืžื’ืŸ ื“ื•ื“ ืฉื‘ื›ืœ ืื—ื“ ืžืคื™ื ื•ืชื™ื• ืžืชื ื•ืกืก ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ืงื˜ืŸ ื•ื›ื•ื›ื‘ ื ื•ืกืฃ ื‘ืจืืฉื•. ื“ื™ืžื•ื™ ืฉื‘ืขืช ื”ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ื ื ืœืงื— ืืœ ืกืžืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘-ื™ืคื•, ืกืžืœ ื”ืจืฆืœื™ื” ื•ืกืžืœ ื—ื‘ืจืช "ืฆื™ื", ื•ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื™ ื”ื–ื”ื‘ ืžืชื ื•ืกืกื™ื ืขืœ ืืจื•ื‘ื•ืช ืื•ื ื™ื•ืชื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื‘ืจื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื›ื™ืจ ื•ื”ื•ืฉืคืข ืžืžื›ืœื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืžืฉื ื•ืช ื”ื•ื’ื™ื ืืฉืจ ืขืกืงื• ื‘ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืื“ื ื‘ืขืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”, ื•ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ื• ื ืฉืžืขื™ื ืงื•ืœื•ืช ืžื–ืจืžื™ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื” ื‘ื ื™ ื–ืžื ื•, ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื, ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ื–ื, ื•ืขืงืจื•ื ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช, ื›ืชืคื™ืกืช ืขื•ืœื ืžื•ืฆืงื” ื”ืžื•ื ื—ืœืช ืœื—ื•ืงืช ื”ืžืฉื˜ืจ ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช. ื”ื›ืœืœื™ื ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื•ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉื ื•ืกื—ื• ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ื•, ื›ืžืฉืจื˜ื˜ ืืช ื“ืžื•ืชื” ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื”ื: ื‘ืกืคืจื• "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ืฉืจื˜ื˜ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืคืจื“ื” ืžื•ื—ืœื˜ืช ื‘ื™ืŸ ื“ืช ื•ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ืœืœื ื›ืคื™ื™ื” ื“ืชื™ืช ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ืขืชื™ื“ื™ืช: ื›ืœ ืื™ืฉ ื™ื—ื™ื” ืฉื ื‘ืืžื•ื ืชื•, ื’ื ื—ื•ืงืจื™ื ื•, ื™ืงื™ืจื™ ื”ืจื•ื— ืืฉืจ ืœื ื™ืกื•ืคืจ ืžืงืจื‘ื ื•, ื”ืžืื™ืจื™ื ื ืชื™ื‘ื•ืช, ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืœื‘ืงืจื™ื, ื‘ืจื•ื— ื‘ื™ื ืชื. ื‘ืืžื•ื ืชื ื™ื—ื™ื•. ื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื” ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื“ืช: ื”ืจืฉื•ืช ื‘ื™ื“ ื›ืœ ืื™ืฉ ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ื‘ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื• ื•ื‘ืืžื•ื ืช ืœื‘ื•, ื›ืฉื ืฉื”ืœืื•ืžื™ื•ืช ืœื ืชื—ืฉื‘ ืœืื™ืฉ ืœื—ื˜ืื”. ื•ืื ื™ื‘ื•ืื• ื‘ื ื™ ื“ืชื•ืช ืื—ืจื•ืช, ืื• ื‘ื ื™ ืœืื•ืžื™ื ืื—ืจื™ื, ืœืฉื‘ืช ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื•, ื ื›ื‘ื“ื ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื•ืžืฉืคื˜ ืื—ื“ ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœื”ื ื•ืœืื–ืจื—ื™ ื”ืืจืฅ. ืกืžื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื ืฉื™ ื”ื“ืช ืชื•ื’ื‘ืœื ื” ื•ื’ื ื”ืฆื‘ื ื™ื”ื™ื” ื ื‘ื“ืœ ืžื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื”. ื”ืื ื ืชืŸ ืืช ื›ื”ื ื™ ื“ืชื ื• ืœืžืฉื•ืœ ื‘ื ื•? ืœื! ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืืžื ื ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืžืื—ื“ ืื•ืชื ื•; ืื•ืœื ื—ืคืฉื™ื ืื ื—ื ื• ื‘ื›ื— ื”ื—ื›ืžื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื“ืขื™ื. ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื ืคืจ ื›ืœ ืชื—ื‘ื•ืœื•ืช ื›ื•ื”ื ื™ื ื• ืืฉืจ ื™ืืžืจื• ืœืžืฉื•ืœ ืขืœื™ื ื•, ื›ื™ ื ื“ืข ืœื›ืœื ืื•ืชื ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ืžืงื“ืฉื™ ืืœ, ื›ืืฉืจ ื ื“ืข ืœืืฆื•ืจ ื’ื ื—ื™ืœ ืฆื‘ืื ื• ื‘ื‘ืชื™ ื”ื—ื™ืœื•ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื’ื“ืœ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ืžืกื•ืจืชื™. ืกื‘ื•, ืฉืžืขื•ืŸ ื”ืจืฆืœ (ื ื•ืœื“ ื‘-1805), ื”ื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื“ืชื™ ืื“ื•ืง ืฉื”ืชื›ื‘ื“ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืงื‘ื•ืข ืœืชืงื•ืข ื‘ืฉื•ืคืจ ื‘ืจืืฉ ื”ืฉื ื”, ื•ืœื•ืžืจ ืืช ืชืคื™ืœืช "ื›ืœ ื ื“ืจื™" ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืงื”ืœ ื‘ื–ืžืœื™ืŸ. ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืžื—ืกื™ื“ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืืœืงืœืขื™ ืžืžื‘ืฉืจื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื”ืฉืคื™ืข ืจื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื™ืจื•. ื™ืขืงื‘, ืื‘ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื–ืื‘, ืงื™ื‘ืœ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืœื“ื•ืชื•, ื•ื”ื™ื” ืžืขื•ืจื” ื‘ื—ื™ื™ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืขื™ืจ ืžื•ืœื“ืชื• ื–ืžืœื™ืŸ. ื‘ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืœื ื™ืฉื•ืื™ื• ื”ืชืคืœืœ ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ื•ื ื‘ื˜ืœื™ืช ื•ื‘ืชืคื™ืœื™ืŸ, ื•ื‘ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืขื‘ืจ ืœื”ืชื’ื•ืจืจ ื‘ื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜, ื”ืชืคืœืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื’ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ื”ื ืฉืžืจื• ืขืœ ื˜ืงืกื™ ื”ืฉื‘ืช ื•ื”ื—ื’ื™ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื, ื•ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื”ืงืคื™ื“ื• ืœืขืจื•ืš ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ืช ืืช ืœื™ืœ ื”ืกื“ืจ ื‘ืคืกื—. ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ืื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ื ื ื”ื’ื• ื›ืคื™ ื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ืžืจืืฉื•ื ื™ ื”ืžื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืขืช "ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื’ื•ื™ ืื—ื“" (ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช) ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื ื˜ื•ื ืง (1813 โ€“ 1892) ืžืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื—ื•ื‘ื‘ื™ ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ื•ื”ื™ื” ืžื‘ื ื™ ื‘ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื™ืขืงื‘. ื”ื•ื ืœืงื— ืืช ื‘ื ื•, ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื–ืื‘, ืžื“ื™ ืคืขื ืœื–ืžืœื™ืŸ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื‘ืงืจ ืืช ืกื‘ื• ืฉืžืขื•ืŸ. ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉืงื™ื‘ืœ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืคื•ืจืžืœื™ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช-ืกืคืจ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื”, ื”ื™ื” ื™ื—ืกื• ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™ืžื™ืŸ ื–ืื‘ ืœื“ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื• ืฉืœื™ืœื™. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื™ืœื“ื•ืชื• ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื•ืช ื”ื™ื” ื”ื•ืœืš ืžื“ื™ ืคืขื ืœื‘ื™ืช ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ืœื™ืœ ืฉื‘ืช, ืื•ืœื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื–ื” ืžื ื”ื’ ืงื‘ื•ืข ื•ื”ื•ื ื—ื“ืœ ืžื›ืš ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ ื›ืฉื‘ื’ืจ. ื‘ื’ื™ืœ 8 ื”ื›ื ื™ืกื• ืื‘ื™ื• ื›"ื—ื‘ืจ" ื‘"ื—ื‘ืจื” ืงื“ื™ืฉื" ืฉืœ ืงื”ื™ืœืช ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜, ืฉืขืกืงื” ื‘ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ืช ืงื”ื™ืœืชื™ืช. ื‘-1904 ื ืžื—ืง ืฉืžื• ืžืกืคืจื™ ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื” ืขืงื‘ ืื™-ืคืขื™ืœื•ืช ื•ืื™-ืชืฉืœื•ื ื“ืžื™ ื—ื‘ืจ. ืขื ื–ืืช ื”ื•ื ื”ืฆื˜ื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื”ื“ืช ื•ื”ื™ื” ื˜ื•ื‘ ื‘ืžืงืฆื•ืขื•ืช ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื™ืกื•ื“ื™ (ืขืœ ืคื™ ืชืขื•ื“ืช ื”ืกื™ื•ื ืžื™ื•ื 3 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1869). ื›ืžื• ื›ืŸ ื—ื’ื’ ื‘ืจ-ืžืฆื•ื•ื”, ืขืœื” ืœืชื•ืจื”, ืงืจื ืืช ื”ื”ืคื˜ืจื” ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ื›ืŸ ื ืฉื ื“ืจืฉื” ื‘ื˜ืงืก ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ ื‘ื‘ื™ืชื•. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ืกื™ืคืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืฉื”ื™ื• ืœื• ื‘ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื• ืœื”ืžื™ืจ ืืช ื“ืชื•: ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœื” ื”ื›ืื™ื‘ื” ืœื™ ืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืžืจื•ืช. ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืœื™ ืขืชื™ื ืฉื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ืฉืžื— ืœื—ืžื•ืง ืžืžื ื”, ืืœ ืขื‘ืจ ื”ื ืฆืจื•ืช... ื•ืื•ืœื ืืœื” ื”ื™ื• ืžืฉืืœื•ืช ืœื‘ ืœื ืžื’ื•ื‘ืฉื•ืช ืฉืœ ื—ื•ืœืฉืช ื ืขื•ืจื™ื... ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื—ืฉื‘ืชื™ ื‘ืจืฆื™ื ื•ืช ืœื”ื™ื˜ื‘ืœ ืœื ืฆืจื•ืช. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1893 ื”ื•ื ื”ื’ื” ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื‘ื“ื‘ืจ ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•ืช ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ื›ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืื ื˜ื™ืฉืžื™ื•ืช, ืืš ื”ื•ื ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื ื™ื’ืฉ ืœื‘ื™ืฆื•ืขื” ื”ืžืขืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช, ื•ื”ื™ื ืžื•ื–ื›ืจืช ืจืง ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื•. ืชื—ื™ืœืช ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืฉื™ื‘ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืชื•, ื ื–ืงืคืช ืœื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ืžื—ื–ื”ื• "ื”ื’ื˜ื• ื”ื—ื“ืฉ" (21 ื‘ืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ โ€“ 8 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1894) ืฉืขื•ืจืจ ื‘ื• ื”ืชืขื ื™ื™ื ื•ืช ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื™ืช ืขืžื•, ืื•ืคื™ื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื•ืฉืžื™ืจืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื•. ื‘ืื‘ื™ื‘ 1895 ื”ืชื—ื™ืœ ืœื›ืชื•ื‘ ืืช ื™ื•ืžื ื•, ื•ื‘ื• ื”ืชื›ื•ื•ืŸ ืœืชืขื“ ืืช ืคืขื•ืœื•ืชื™ื• ืœืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื”ืฆืขื“ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœื ืงื•ื˜ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืขืžื• ื”ื•ื ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจ ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช: ื”ืชื—ื–ืง ื‘ื™ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ, ืฉืขืœื™ ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจ-ืžื” ื‘ืขื“ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื. ื”ืœื›ืชื™ ื‘ืคืขื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” [ื‘ืชืงื•ืคืช ื‘ื’ืจื•ืชื•] ืืœ ื”ื™ื›ืœ ื”ืชืคื™ืœื” ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื•ื™ืงื˜ืืจ, ื•ื”ืชืคื™ืœื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ืช ื•ืžืขื•ืจืจืช ื ืคืฉ. ืงื•ื•ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจื•ื ื™ ืืช ื™ืœื“ื•ืชื™ ื•ืืช ื”ื”ื™ื›ืœ ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ื˜ื‘ืง ื‘ื‘ื•ื“ืคืฉื˜. ื”ืกืชื›ืœืชื™ ื‘ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืืฉืจ ืคื” โ€“ ื•ืžืฆืืชื™ ืืช ื”ื“ืžื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืžืฉืคื—ืชื™ ืืฉืจ ื‘ืคื ื™ื”ื. ื‘-9 ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895, ืฉื‘ื•ืขื•ืช ืื—ื“ื™ื ืื—ืจื™ ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื›ืชื™ื‘ืช ื™ื•ืžื ื•, ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘: โ€ืื™ืŸ ืื•ืžืชื ื• ืื•ืžื” ืืœื ื‘ืืžื•ื ืชื”.โ€ ื”ืกื‘ืจ ืขืœ ื›ืš ื”ื•ื ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืื—ืจื™ ืžืกืคืจ ื™ืžื™ื (ื‘-15 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895): โ€ืื ื• ืžื›ื™ืจื™ื ืืช ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœื ื• ื›ืžืขื˜ ืืš ื•ืจืง ื‘ืืžื•ื ืช ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื•... ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ืžืื—ื“ืช ืื•ืชื ื•โ€, ื•ื”ื–ื›ื™ืจ ื–ืืช ืžืกืคืจ ืคืขืžื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื•. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœื ื ื”ืคืš ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืื“ื•ืง ื‘ืžืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ืžืขืฉื™ื•ืช ืืš ื”ื•ื ื’ื™ืœื” ืืช ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ื”, ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืชื” ื•ื™ืชืจื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ืจืฉืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ื•ื”ืงืคื™ื“ ืœื›ื‘ื“ ื•ืœื ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ื—ื•ืงื™ื” ื‘ืคื•ืžื‘ื™. ื”ื•ื ื”ืชืขืงืฉ ืœื”ื–ืžื™ืŸ ืจื‘ ืฉื™ื‘ืจืš ืืช ื‘ืื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื•ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ืจื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ื–ืœ, ื”ืจื‘ ืืฉืจ ื›ื”ืŸ. ื™ื•ื ืœืคื ื™ ืคืชื™ื—ืช ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืœืš ืœื‘ื™ืช ื”ื›ื ืกืช ื‘ืจื’ืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ืช ื•ืขืœื” ืœืชื•ืจื”. ืื—ืจื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื•: ื•ื›ืืฉืจ ืขืœื™ืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืžื” [ืฉืœ ืกืคืจ ื”ืชื•ืจื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื›ื ืกืช], ื”ื™ื™ืชื™ ื ืจื’ืฉ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ื›ืœ ื™ืžื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก. ื”ืžืœื™ื ื”ืžืขื˜ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืจื›ื” ื”ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื—ื ืงื• ืืช ื’ืจื•ื ื™ ืžื”ืชืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžืืฉืจ ื ืื•ื ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื” [ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ] ื•ื ืื•ื ื”ื ืขื™ืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื ื™ื”ื•ืœ ื”ื“ื™ื•ื ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข ื‘ื ืื•ื ื”ืคืชื™ื—ื” ืฉืœื• ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ: "ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืืœ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช, ืขื•ื“ ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ื” ืืœ ืืจืฅ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื". ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก, ื”ื•ื ืคื ื” ืœื™ื•ื“ืขื™ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืœืœืžื“ื• ืืช ืขื™ืงืจื™ ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื•ื”ืœื›ื•ืชื™ื”. ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ ื”ื ืขื™ืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฉืœื™ืฉื™, ืขืจื‘ ืฉื‘ืช, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื–ื™ืจื– ืืช ื”ืชื ื”ืœื•ืช ื”ื“ื™ื•ืŸ ื•ื”ื•ื“ื™ืข: "ื›ื“ื™ ืœื ืœืงืจื‘ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื“ื™ ืืช ืฉืขืช-ื ืขื™ืœืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืืœ ื”ื–ืžืŸ, ืฉื”ื•ื ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ืงื“ืฉ ืœืžื ื•ื—ื”. ื–ืืช ื”ื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ื“ืื™ ืจืื™ื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืœื›ืš, ืื ื›ื™ ืื•ืœื™ ืจืื™ื” ืœื ืžื•ืฆืœื—ืช, ื›ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื•ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืžื™ื™ืฆื’ื™ื ืื•ืชื” ืื™ืŸ ื‘ืœื‘ื ืฉื•ื ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ื”ืขืœื•ืœื” ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืื™ื–ื” ืฆื•ืจื” ืฉื”ื™ื ื‘ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื”ื“ืชื™ื™ื", ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ืกื•ืขืจื•ืช ื•ืžื—ื™ืื•ืช ื›ืคื™ื™ื ืžื”ืงื”ืœ. ืฉืœื•ื ื‘ืŸ ื—ื•ืจื™ืŸ, ืฆื™ืจ ืื—ืจ ืœืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ืขื™ื“ ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืžืขืฉืŸ ืžื•ืฉื‘ืข ื•ื ืžื ืข ืžืœื”ื“ืœื™ืง ืกื™ื’ืจื™ื” ื‘ื™ื•ื ื”ืฉื‘ืช ื›ื“ื™ ืฉืœื ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืจื’ืฉื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ืจื™ื ื”ืื•ืจืชื•ื“ื•ืงืกื™ื. ื‘ืฉื ืช 1898, ื”ืจืฆืœ ืงื‘ืข ืคื’ื™ืฉื” ืขื ื”ืงื™ืกืจ ื”ื’ืจืžื ื™ ืžืชื•ืš ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœื”ื ื™ืข ืื•ืชื• ืœื”ืคืขื™ืœ ืืช ื”ืฉืคืขืชื• ืขืœ ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ ืœื”ื‘ื™ื ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช-ืขืœื™ื” (ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ) ื”ืžื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื"ื™. ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืคื’ื™ืฉื”, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืœื• ืžื›ืชื‘ ื•ืžืกื™ื™ืžื• ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื: "ืกื•ื“ ืืœื•ื” ืขืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืฉืขื•ืช ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืช ืืœื•. ืื ื”ื•ื ืœื, ืœื ื ื™ืจื". ื‘ืฉื ืช 1902, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืจื•ืžืŸ ืขืœ ืืจืฅ ื“ืžื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช, ื•ืฉืžื•: ืืœื˜ื ื•ื™ืœื ื“ (ืชืจื’ื•ื: ืืจืฅ ืขืชื™ืงื”-ื—ื“ืฉื”). ื‘ืขืžื•ื“ ื”ืฉืขืจ ื”ื•ืคื™ืขื” ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช: "ืื ืชืจืฆื• โ€“ ืื™ืŸ ื–ื• ืื’ื“ื”". ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ, ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืฆื™ื’ ืฉืืœื”: "ืœืขื™ื ื™ื ื• ื›ืืŸ ืฆื•ืจื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉืœ ื—ื™ื™ ื—ื‘ืจื” ืžืฉื•ืชืคื™ื, ืžืชื•ืงื ืช ืœืืฉืจื ืฉืœ ื‘ื ื™-ืื“ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื›ืœ ืืฉืจ ื”ื™ื” ืœืคื ื™ื. ืžื™ ืคืขืœ ื•ืขืฉื” ื–ืืช ?", ื•ืžื‘ื™ื ืชืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ืžืื ืฉื™ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื, ืืš ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื” ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื”, ืฉื—ื•ืชืžืช ื’ื ืืช ื”ืจื•ืžืŸ ื›ื•ืœื•, ื”ื™ื: "ื•ืื™ืœื• ืจื‘ื™ ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื”ื–ืงืŸ ืงื ืžืžืงื•ืžื• ื•ืืžืจ ื—ื’ื™ื’ื™ืช: "ื”ืืœื•ื”ื™ื!". ื”ืจืฆืœ ืžืขื•ืœื ืœื ื ื™ืกื” ืœื”ืกืชื™ืจ ืืช ืžื•ืฆืื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื™ื•, ื‘ืžืืžืจื™ื• ื•ื‘ื ืื•ืžื™ื• ื”ื•ื ืžื–ื›ื™ืจ ื‘ื˜ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ืžืœืื” ืžื•ืฉื’ื™ื ืžืกื•ืจืชื™ื™ื ("ื’ืื•ืœื”", "ื’ืœื•ืช", "ืžืืจื‘ืข ื›ื ืคื•ืช ื”ืืจืฅ", "ื™ืฆื™ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื", "ืขื’ืœ ื”ื–ื”ื‘", "ืขืจื‘ ืจืืฉ ื”ืฉื ื”", "ืฉื•ืคืจ", "ื˜ืœื™ืช", "ืชืคื™ืœื™ืŸ"), ื•ื›ืŸ ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช: "ืจืง ื‘ื“ืช ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ืขื•ื“ ื ื›ื™ืจ ื›ื™ ื‘ื ื™ื ืื ื• ืœืขื ืื—ื“... ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืžืื—ื“ื ื•", "ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ืœื ื”ื™ื” ืžืงื™ื™ื ืืช ืขืžื ื• ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘ ื›ืœ ื›ืš, ืœื•ืœื ื ื•ืขื“ ืœื ื• ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ื›ืœืฉื”ื• ื‘ืชื•ืœื“ื•ืช ื”ืื ื•ืฉื•ืช", "ื‘ืืžืจื™ ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ืื™ืŸ ื‘ืจืฆื•ื ื™ ืœื”ืขืœื™ื‘ ืืช ื”ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ื™ื ื‘ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื”ื [= ื—ื™ืœื•ื ื™ื™ื]", "ื’ื™ืœื™ืชื™ ืื’ื‘ ืืช ื”ืฉืงืคืชื™ ืขืœ ื”ืืœื•ื”ื•ืช. ืจื•ืฆื” ืื ื™ ืœื—ื ืš ืืช ื™ืœื“ื™ ืขืœ ื”ืืœื•ื”ื™ื ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™, ื›ื‘ื™ื›ื•ืœ. ืืœื”ื™ื, ื–ื•ื”ื™ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœื™ ืžื™ืœื” ืขืชื™ืงื”, ื™ืคื” ื•ื—ื‘ื™ื‘ื”, ืฉืื ื™ ืจื•ืฆื” ืœืฉืžื•ืจ ืขืœื™ื”". ื”ืจื‘ ืžืฉื” ืื‘ื™ื’ื“ื•ืจ ืขืžื™ืืœ, ืจื‘ื” ืฉืœ ืชืœ ืื‘ื™ื‘, ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ "ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืชืžื™ื“ ื™ื“ืขื” ืœืงืจื‘ ืืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”, ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืœืชืช ืœื”ื ืžืงื•ื ื‘ืจืืฉ...ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขืฆืžื• ื”ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื‘ืขืœ ืชืฉื•ื‘ื”". ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืชื’ื‘ืฉื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™, ื’ื‘ืจื” ืฉื ืืชื• ื›ืœืคื™ ื”ืžืชื‘ื•ืœืœื™ื ื•ืืคื™ืœื• ืืœื• ืžื‘ื ื™ ืžืฉืคื—ืชื•. ื”ื•ื ืจืื” ื‘ื“ืจื›ื ื›ื˜ืžื™ืขื” ื‘ืืจืฆื•ืชื™ื”ื, ื‘ื’ื™ื“ื” ื‘ื“ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื•ื’ื ื‘ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ืžื›ืฉื•ืœ ืœื”ืงืžืชื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ื•ื ืชื™ืขื‘ ืื•ืชื, ื”ืชืจื—ืง ืžื”ื ื•ื“ื™ื‘ืจ ื‘ืขื•ื™ื ื•ืช ื’ืœื•ื™ื” ื›ืœืคื™ื”ื: "ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ืžื•ื’ื™ ื”ืœื‘ ืฉื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื• ื•ื”ืชื ืฆืจื•, ื™ื™ืฉืืจื• ื›ืืŸ [ื•ืœื ื™ืขืœื• ืœืืจืฅ]", "ืื™ืชื ื• ื™ืœื›ื• ืจืง ืืœื” ืฉืื™ื ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœ ื‘ืžืงื•ืžื•ืช ืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ื”ื โ€“ ื›ืœืœ ื–ื” ื ืงื•ื˜ ื‘ื™ื“ื ื•". ืขืœ ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืฉื”ืชื ืฆืจ, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื•: "ื•ื”ืฉื’ื—ืชื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืžืขืœื™ื ืื™ื–ื” ืจื’ืฉ ื‘ื•ืฉื”, ื›ืžื“ื•ืžื”, ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ื•ืฉ ืขืœ ืฉื”ืžื™ืจ ืืช ื“ืชื•, ื‘ืจืื•ืชื• ื•ื‘ืฉื•ืžืขื• ื›ืžื” ืžื—ื–ื™ืงื™ื ืื ื• ื‘ื™ื”ื“ื•ืชื ื•". ื ื—ื•ื ืกื•ืงื•ืœื•ื‘ ืกื™ื›ื ืืช ื”ืชืจืฉืžื•ืชื• ืžื”ืกืคืจ ืืœื˜ื ื•ื™ืœื ื“ ืฉื›ืชื‘ ื”ืจืฆืœ: "ื”ืฉืจื˜ื•ื˜ ื”ื›ื™ ืื•ืคื™ื™ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ืฉืœื™ืœืช ื”ื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื•ืช". ื”ืจื‘ ื™ืฆื—ืง ื™ืขืงื‘ ืจื™ื™ื ืก ืชื™ืืจ ืืช ื”ืชื ื•ืขื” ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ื›ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉ"ื™ืฆืื” ืœื”ื™ืœื—ื ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืจื” ื‘ืฉืื™ืคืช ื”ื”ืชื‘ื•ืœืœื•ืช ื•ื”ื”ืชื‘ื˜ืœื•ืช". ื”ื”ืกืชื“ืจื•ืช ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ืช ืœื ื”ืกื›ื™ืžื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืฉื”ืชื ืฆืจื• ืื• ื”ืžื™ืจื• ืืช ื“ืชื ืžื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ืœื“ืช ืื—ืจืช ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ื›"ื—ื‘ืจื™ื" ื‘ื”. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื˜ื‘ืข ืืช ื”ืžื•ื ื— "ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช" ื‘ื›ื•ืชืจืช ืกืคืจื• Der Judenstaat (ืžื™ืœื•ืœื™ืช: "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื"), ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ืฉืชื•ืจื’ื (ืžื’ืจืžื ื™ืช) ื•ืฉืœื˜ ื‘ื”ื, ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื ื— ื–ื” ื‘ืขืงื‘ื™ื•ืช ืžืœืื” ืœืื•ืจืš ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื ื™ื. ืžื™ื›ืืœ ื‘ืจืงื•ื‘ื™ืฅ ืชืจื’ื ืืช ื”ืกืคืจ ืœืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฉื "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื", ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ื’ืจืžื ื™ืช. ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ ืฉื”ืฉื ื ื™ืชืŸ ืขืœ ื“ืขืช ื”ืžืชืจื’ื ืขืฆืžื• ืžื‘ืœื™ ื™ื“ื™ืขืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ (ืฉื”ื›ื™ืจ ืจืง ืžื™ืœื™ื ืกืคืจื•ืช ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช), ืื• ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ื ืชืŸ ืœืžืชืจื’ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ื›ื•ืชืจืช ื”ื ืฉืžืขืช ื™ืคื” ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ืขื ืื•ืจื— ื—ื™ื™ื ื—ื•ืคืฉื™, ืœืœื ืืฃ ื›ืคื™ื™ื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ ืืžื•ื ื•ืช ื“ืชื•ืช ื•ื“ืขื•ืช, ื•ืžืขืžื“ ืฉื•ื•ื” ืœื—ื™ืœื•ื ื™ื ื•ืœื“ืชื™ื™ื: "ืฉืื™ืŸ ืื ื• ืžื™ื™ืกื“ื™ื ืชื™ืื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” [=ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ ื”ื“ืช], ืืœื ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืื–ืจื—ื™ืช ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช ื•ืกื•ื‘ืœื ื™ืช". ืžืื™ื“ืš, ื‘ื”ืฆืขืช ื”ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ ืฉื”ื’ื™ืฉ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืžืžืฉืœืช ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื ื™ื” ื‘-13 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1903, ื”ื•ื ืงื‘ืข ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืชื“ืื’ ืœืฉืžื™ืจืชื• ื•ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ื—ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™, ื•ืชื”ื™ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืื•ืคื™ื™ื”. ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœื ื ื•ืขื“ื” ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื (ืžื” ืฉืžื›ื•ื ื” ื”ื™ื•ื "ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื›ืœ ืื–ืจื—ื™ื”") ืืœื ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืฉืชืื•ืคื™ื™ืŸ ื‘ื™ื™ืขื•ื“ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืžื”ื•ืชื•, ืฉื”ืจื™ "ืื ื—ื ื• ืžื–ื”ื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื ื• ื›ืื•ืžื” ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื“ืช" ื•ืœื ืขืœ ืคื™ ืจืง ืฉืคืชื” ืื• ืืจืฆื”. ื‘ืงื˜ืข ืขืœ ื”ืชื™ืื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื” ื‘ืกืคืจื• ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ืฉื•ื•ื” ืืช ื”ืจื‘ื ื•ืช ืœืงืฆื•ื ื” ื”ืฆื‘ืื™ืช, ื•ื˜ื•ืขืŸ ืฉืœืฉืชื™ื”ืŸ ื™ื”ื™ื• ืชืคืงื™ื“ื™ื ืžื›ื•ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ืืš ืชืžื ืข ืžื”ืŸ ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื›ืคื•ืช ืืช ืกืžื›ื•ืชืŸ ื‘ืชื—ื•ื ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ ื•ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ืขืœ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ืœื“ืช ื”ืžืžื•ืกื“ืช ื™ืชื ื• ืžืงื•ื ืฉืœ ื›ื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” "ืฉื”ืจื™ ื”ืืžื•ื ื” ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ืœื‘ื“ื” ื”ื™ื ืฉืœื™ื›ื“ื” ืื•ืชื ื• ื™ื—ื“". ื™ืชืžื ื• ื“ืžื•ื™ื•ืช ืจื‘ื ื™ื•ืช ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื•ืช ืœืจื‘ื ื™ ืขืจื™ื ืื• ืžื—ื•ื–ื•ืช, ื•ื”ืงื”ื™ืœื•ืช ื”ื“ืชื™ื•ืช ื™ืคืขืœื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™. ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื "ืขื™ืจ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ" (ื›ืœืฉื•ื ื•) ืชื™ื‘ื ื” ื•ืชืฉื•ื‘ ืœืชืคืืจืชื” ื•ืชืฉืžืฉ ื›ืžืจื›ื– ื“ืชื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™. ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืงื“ืฉ ื™ื™ื‘ื ื” ืžื—ื“ืฉ "ื›ืžื–ื›ืจืช ืžืื™ืจื” ืœืืžื•ื ืช ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื•". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื›ืจื™ื– ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ: "ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืื ื™ ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื—ืชื›ื ืฉืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืื™ื ื” ืžืชื›ื•ื•ื ืช ืœืฉื•ื ื“ื‘ืจ ืฉื™ืฉ ื‘ื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœืคื’ื•ืข ื‘ืืžื•ื ืชื• ื”ื“ืชื™ืช ืฉืœ ื›ืœ ื›ื™ื•ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ื ื‘ืชื•ืš ื”ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช", ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืชืฉื•ืื•ืช ืกื•ืขืจื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ืš. ืชื’ื•ื‘ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ืขืœ ืžืืžืจื• ืฉืœ ืžืงืก ื ื•ืจื“ืื• ืฉื›ืชื‘ ืฉ"ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืื™ืŸ ืœื” ื“ื‘ืจ ืขื ื”ื“ืช" ื•ืฉื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืฉื•ืื‘ืช ืืช ื”ืฉืจืืชื” "ืžืฆื•ืง ื”ืขื™ืชื™ื" ื•ืœื ืžื”ืชื•ืจื” ื•ืžื”ืžืฉื ื”, ื”ื•ื ื”ื’ื™ื‘ ื‘ื›ืชื‘ ื™ื“ื• ืขืœ ื”ืžืืžืจ ืฉืื™ืŸ ืงื•ืฉื™ ืœืคืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžื”ืœื›ื™ื ื”ืคืจืงื˜ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ื—ืก ื”ืขืงืจื•ื ื™ ืœื“ืช, ื•ืื™ืŸ ืœื”ืจืคื•ืช ื•ืœื”ืจื—ื™ืง ืืช ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ืืฃ ืขืœ ืคื™ ืฉื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœื ืชื”ื™ื” ืชื—ืช ืฉืœื˜ื•ื ื ืฉืœ ื”ืจื‘ื ื™ื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• (13 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895) ื”ืชืœื‘ื˜ ืœื’ื‘ื™ ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ื”ืืจืฅ ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ืช ืœื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช, ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืื• ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื”, ื•ื›ืŸ ื›ืชื‘ ืขืœ ื›ืš ื‘-14 ื‘ืคื‘ืจื•ืืจ 1986 ื‘ืกืคืจื• ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืชื—ืช ื”ื›ื•ืชืจืช "ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” ืื• ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื”?". ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ืื™ื ื ื” ืžืงืจื™ืช, ื•ื ื‘ืขื” ืžืชื•ื›ื ื™ืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ืจื•ืŸ ืžื•ืจื™ืก ื“ื” ื”ื™ืจืฉ ืžืฉื ืช 1891, ื‘ื”ืงืžืช ืžืคืขืœ ื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื•ืชื™ ื—ืงืœืื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ืคืœื™ื˜ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืจื•ืกื™ื” ื”ืฆืืจื™ืช. ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื–ื• ื”ืชื—ื™ืœื” ืืช ืคืขื•ืœืชื” ื›ื‘ืจ ื‘ืฉื˜ื—, ื•ืขืชื™ื“ื” ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื›ืคืจื•ื‘ื™ื ืฆื™ื”, ื•ืœื”ื•ื•ืช ืžืขื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช. ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ืขื“ื™ืคื” ืขืœ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ื’ืœืœ ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื” ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืœื—ืงืœืื•ืช, ื”ืืงืœื™ื ื”ืžืžื•ืฆื’, ื•ื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื ืจื—ื•ืงื” ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื” "ื•ืžืกื™ื‘ื•ื›ื™ื” ื”ืžืœื—ืžืชื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื". ืžืื™ื“ืš, ื‘ืกืคืจื• ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื’ื ืžื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืฉ"ืคืœืฉืชื™ื ื” ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืœื“ืชื ื• ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ืœื ืชื™ืฉื›ื—, ื”ืฉื ื”ื–ื” ืœื‘ื“ื• ื™ื”ื™ื” ืœืขืžื ื• ืงืจื™ืืช-ืžืืกืฃ ืชื•ืงืคืช ื‘ืื“ื™ืจ", ื•"ืœื ื—ื“ืœื• ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœื—ืœื•ื ื—ืœื•ื-ืžืœื›ื•ืช ื–ื” 'ืœืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื!', ื”ื•ื ืคืกื•ืงื ื• ื”ื™ืฉืŸ. ืขืชื” ืฉื•ืžื” ืœื”ืจืื•ืช ื›ื™ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ื”ื—ืœื•ื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืœืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ื”ื™ืจ-ื™ื•ื". ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืืจืฆื•ืช ืชื™ื ืชืŸ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื”ืžื™ื•ืขื“ ("ื”ืื’ื•ื“ื”") ืฉืชื ื”ืœ ืืช ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื‘ื ืื•ืžื• ื‘ืคื ื™ ืžื•ืขื“ื•ืŸ ื”ืคื•ืขืœื™ื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื‘-13 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1896, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ื–ืจ ื‘ื• ืžื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื‘ืืจื’ื ื˜ื™ื ื” ื›ื™ ื ืชื‘ืจืจ ืžื™ื•ื ืœื™ื•ื, ื›ื™ ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืœื‘ื“, ื”ื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ื ื”ื ื›ืกืฃ. ื•ืœื›ืŸ ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืืœื™ื” ืœืคื ื•ืช ื›ื•ืœื ื•... ื›ืŸ ื—ื™ื™ื‘ื™ื ืื ื—ื ื• ืœื”ื•ืกื™ืฃ ื•ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ื‘ืืžื•ื ืชื ื•, ื›ืฉื ืฉื”ื•ืกืคื ื• ืœื•ืžืจ ื‘ืฉืคืชื•ืชื™ื ื•: "ืœืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื". ื”ื•ืกืคื ื• ืœื•ืžืจ ื–ืืช ืฉื ื” ืื—ืจ ืฉื ื”, ืžืชื•ืš ื”ื›ืจื” ื›ื™ ื‘ืžื•ืงื“ื ืื• ื‘ืžืื•ื—ืจ ื™ื”ื™ื” ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ืœืขื•ื‘ื“ื” ืžื•ื’ืžืจืช... ื•ืื ื ืฉืคื™ืข ืœื” ื‘ืื•ืจื— ืžื“ืขื™ ืืช ืชื ืื™ ื”ืคื•ืจื™ื•ืช, ื”ื™ื ืชืฉื•ื‘ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืืจืฅ ื–ื‘ืช ื—ืœื‘ ื•ื“ื‘ืฉ. ื•ื›ืŸ ื’ื ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ (ื‘ืกื•ืฃ ืื•ื’ื•ืกื˜ 1897) ื”ื•ื ื”ื›ืจื™ื–: "ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืžื‘ืงืฉืช ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ื”ืขื ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื‘ื™ืช ืžื•ื›ืจ ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ืช ื•ืžื•ื‘ื˜ื— ื—ื•ืงื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ", ื•ื›ืœ ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฅ ืื—ืจืช ื™ืจื“ื” ืžื”ืคืจืง. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืฃ ืžื’ื“ื™ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื•ื ื— ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช: "ื”ืฉืื™ืคื” ืœื”ืงื™ื ื‘ื™ืช-ืžื•ืœื“ืช ืžื•ื‘ื˜ื— ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ื›ืœืœ ื‘ืฉื‘ื™ืœ ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื‘ืืจืฅ ืžื™ืฉืจืืœ (ื”ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ื‘ื–ืœืื™ืช ืžืฉื ืช 1897). ื”ืžืฉืืœื” ืœืฉื™ื‘ื” ืืœ ื”ืžื•ืœื“ืช ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœืžืขืฉื” ืžื™ื•ื ื—ื•ืจื‘ืŸ ืžืœื›ื•ืชื™ื ื•, ืจื“ื•ืžื” ื‘ืžืขืžืงื™ ื ืคืฉื• ืฉืœ ื”ืขื. ืืช ื”ืงืจื™ืื” ืจื•ื•ื™ืช ื”ื›ื™ืกื•ืคื™ื: "ืœืฉื ื” ื”ื‘ืื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื!" ืžืกืจ ื“ื•ืจ ืœื“ื•ืจ". ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื”ืื™ืฉื™, ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ืจื‘ื” ืœื”ืฉืชืžืฉ ื‘ืžื™ืœื™ื ื•ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื ืžื”ืžืกื•ืจืช ื”ืžืงืจืื™ืช, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: "ื‘ืืจืฅ ื”ืงื“ื•ืฉื”", "ืืจืฅ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”", "ื™ืฆื™ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื", "ืืจืฅ ื”ื‘ืจื›ื”". ื‘ื›ืชื‘ื™ื•, ื ืื•ืžื™ื• ื•ืคืจืกื•ืžื™ื• ื”ื•ื ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ ืืช ื”ืชื—ื•ืฉื” ื”ืขืžื•ืงื” ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ: "ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื”ื™ื ืžื•ืœื“ืชื ื• ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ืช ื”ื‘ืœืชื™-ื ืฉื›ื—ืช. ื”ืฉื ื”ื–ื” ื‘ืœื‘ื“ ื™ื”ื™ ืœืขืžื ื• ืงื•ืœ-ืงืจื™ืื” ืžื–ืขื™ืง, ืื“ื™ืจ ื•ืžืจื’ืฉ". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื ื™ืกื” ืœืงื‘ืœ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช-ืขืœื™ื” (ืฆ'ืืจื˜ืจ) ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ืืš ื”ืกื•ืœื˜ืืŸ ื”ื˜ื•ืจืงื™ ืกื™ืจื‘ ืœื›ืš. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืขื•ืช ืงื™ืฉื™ื ื•ื‘ ื•ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื”ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืฆื™ืขื• ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ื‘ืœ ืืจืฅ ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ืืคืจื™ืงื” โ€“ ืื•ื’ื ื“ื”, ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ ืชื—ืช ืคื™ืงื•ื— ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ ื‘ืจื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืชืฉืžืฉ ื›"ืžืงื•ื ืžืงืœื˜". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื‘ื™ื ืืช ื”ืฆืขื” ื–ื• ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืฉื™ืฉื™, ืืš ื”ื“ื’ื™ืฉ: ื›ื™ ืœื ื™ื™ืชื›ืŸ, ื›ืžื•ื‘ืŸ, ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ืœืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืฉื•ื ืžื˜ืจื” ืกื•ืคื™ืช ืื—ืจืช ืžืœื‘ื“ ืืจืฅ-ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื•ืื ื›ื™, ื™ื”ื™ื” ื’ื•ืจืœื” ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืฆืขื” ืžื” ืฉื™ื”ื™ื”. ื”ืฉืงืคื•ืชื™ื ื• ืขืœ ืืจืฅ ืื‘ื•ืชื™ื ื• ืื™ื ืŸ ื ื™ืชื ื•ืช ืœืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื•ืœื ืชืฉืชื ื™ื ื” ืœืขื•ืœื. ื”ืจืฆืœ ืกื™ืคืจ ืœื‘ื™ื•ื’ืจืฃ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœื•, ืจืื•ื‘ืŸ ื‘ืจื™ื™ื ื™ืŸ, ืขืœ ื—ืœื•ื ืฉื—ืœื ื‘ื’ื™ืœ 12 ื‘ืขืจื‘ ืคืกื—: ืžืœืš ื”ืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ื, ื•ื”ื•ื ื–ืงืŸ ืžืœื ื”ื•ื“ ื•ืชืคืืจืช, ื•ื™ืงื—ื ื™ ืขืœ ื–ืจื•ืขื•ืชื™ื• ื•ื™ื“ืื” ืื™ืชื™ ืขืœ ื›ื ืคื™ ื”ืจื•ื—. ืขืœ ืื—ื“ ื”ืขื ื ื™ื ื”ืžืœืื™ื ื–ื•ื”ืจ ืคื’ืฉื ื• ื‘ืชืžื•ื ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžืฉื” ืจื‘ื ื•... ื•ืžืฉื™ื— ืงืจื ืœืžืฉื”: ืืœ ื”ื™ืœื“ ื”ื–ื” ื”ืชืคืœืœืชื™! ื•ืœื™ ืืžืจ: ืœืš ื•ื‘ึทืฉึตืจ ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื, ื›ื™ ืขื•ื“ ืžืขื˜ ื•ื‘ื•ื ืื‘ื•ื ื•ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช ื•ื ืคืœืื•ืช ืืขืฉื” ืœืขืžื™ ื•ืœื›ืœ ื”ืขื•ืœื! ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื™ืฆื™ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื ืงืกื ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ื’ื™ืœ ืฆืขื™ืจ, ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืจื™ืืœื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื”ืคืจื˜ื™ ื‘ืขืช ื’ื™ื‘ื•ืฉ ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื: "ืื ื™ ืžืชื—ื™ืœ ืžื—ื“ืฉ ืืช ืžืกื•ืจืช ืขืžื ื• ืฉื ืคืกืงื” ื‘ืืžืฆืข, ืื ื™ ืžื‘ื™ืื• ืœืืจืฅ ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”" (10 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895). "ื”ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉืŸ ื•ื”ืคืฉื•ื˜ ื”ื–ื” ื”ื•ื ื™ืฆื™ืืช ืžืฆืจื™ื" (13 ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 1895). ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ืฉื”ืžื—ืฉื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ืžืฆื™ืืช ืคืชืจื•ืŸ ืœืฉืืœืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื”ื˜ืจื™ื“ื•ื”ื• ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืื•ื‘ืกืกื™ื‘ื™, ื•ืœื ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื• ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ืขืœื™ื”ืŸ, ื•ื›ื™ื ื” ืžืฆื‘ ื–ื” ื›"ื”ืฉืจืืช ืฉื›ื™ื ื”". ืื ื™ื˜ื” ืฉืคื™ืจื ืžืชืืจืช ืืช ืชื•ืคืขืช ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืžืฆื‘ ืฉืœ "ื”ืชื’ืœื•ืช", ื•ืื™ืœื• ืื—ืจื™ื ื”ืฉืชืžืฉื• ื‘ื›ื™ื ื•ื™ื™ื: "ื’ืื•ื ื•ืช ื ื‘ื•ืื™ืช" (ืื ืจื™ ื‘ืจื’ืกื•ืŸ) ืื• "ืจื•ื— ื”ืืœื•ื”ื™ื" (ื ื—ื•ื ืกื•ืงื•ืœื•ื‘). ื”ืจื‘ ืืœื™ื”ื• ืขืงื™ื‘ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื•ื‘ื™ืฅ' ืคืชื— ืืช ืกืคืจื• ื”ืชื•ืจื ื™ 'ืฆื™ื•ืŸ ื‘ืžืฉืคื˜' ื‘ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื”ื“ ื”ืขืฆื•ื ืฉืขืฉื” ื”ืกืคืจ ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื: "ื‘ืฆืืช ืœืื•ืจ ืžื—ื‘ืจืชื• ืฉืœ ื”ื“"ืจ ื”ืจืฆื™ืœ, ื”ื ืงื•ื‘ื” ื‘ืฉื 'ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื', ื ื–ื“ืขื–ืขื” ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืžืงืฆื” ื”ืขื•ืœื ืขื“ ืงืฆื”ื•. ื‘ื›ืœ ืขื‘ืจ ื•ืคื ื”, ื›ืงื˜ืŸ ื›ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื›ืขื ื™ ื›ืขืฉื™ืจ, ื›ืขื‘ื“ ื›ืื“ื•ื ื™ื•, ืžืŸ ืจืืฉื™ ืขืžื ื• ืขื“ ื”ื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ืื—ืจ ื”ืชื ื•ืจ ื•ื”ื›ื™ืจื™ื, ื”ื’ื• ื‘ื” ื•ื™ืชื•ื•ื›ื—ื• ื•ื™ืชืคืœืคืœื• ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ืขืœ ืื•ื“ื•ืชื™ื”... ื‘ืงืฆืจื”, ื”ืžื—ื‘ืจืช ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืฉื™ื—ืชื ื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ื". ืžื™ื“ ืขื ื”ื•ืคืขืช ื”ืกืคืจ ื”ื•ื ืชื•ืจื’ื ืœื›ืžื” ืฉืคื•ืช, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฆืœื™ื— ืœืจื›ื– ื‘ืชื•ืš ื›ืฉื ื” 196 ืฆื™ืจื™ื ื ืฆื™ื’ื™ ืฉืฉ-ืขืฉืจื” ืืจืฆื•ืช, ื•ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžื›ืชื‘ื™ ื‘ืจื›ื” ื•ื”ืขืจืฆื” ืœ"ืžืฉื™ื— ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ ื”ื—ื“ืฉ". ืขื“ ื”ืจื’ืข ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืœื ื”ื™ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ืื™ืœื• ืืจืฆื•ืช ื™ืฉืชืชืคื• ื‘ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื•ื›ืžื” ืฆื™ืจื™ื ื™ื‘ื•ืื•. ื”ื•ืคืขืชื• ื”ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืกื™ื ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื™ื ืขืฉื• ืจื•ืฉื ืจื‘, ื•ื“ืžื•ืชื• ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืžืฉืืช ื ืคืฉื ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื ื™ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื ืจื“ืคื™ื, ืฉื›ื™ื ื•ื”ื• ื•ืจืื•ื”ื• ื›ืžืœืš ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื•ื›ืžืฉื™ื— ืฉื™ืงื‘ืฆื ืืœ ืืจืฅ ื”ืงื•ื“ืฉ. ื“ื•ื“ ื‘ืŸ-ื’ื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื•ื›ืจ ื‘ื™ืœื“ื•ืชื• ืฉืžื•ืขื” ืจื—ื•ืงื” ืฉื”ื’ื™ืขื” ืืœื™ื”ื: "ื›ื™ ื‘ื ื”ืžืฉื™ื—, ื•ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ืื™ืฉ ื™ืคื” ืชื•ืืจ, ืขื™ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืงื“ื•ืช, ื–ืงื ื• ืฉื—ื•ืจ ื•ืคื ื™ื• ืื•ืžืจื•ืช ื›ื‘ื•ื“... ืฉืžื•: ืชื™ืื•ื“ื•ืจ ื”ืจืฆืœ, 'ื•ื”ื•ื ื™ื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืืช ืขื ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืœืืจืฅ ื”ืื‘ื•ืช'". ื›ืฉื”ืจืฆืœ ืคืจืก ืืช ื—ื–ื•ื ื• ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื•ื™ื ื”, ื”ืจื‘ ืžืฉื” ื’ื™ื“ืžืŸ, ื”ื•ื ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืžืžื ื• ืžืขื ื”: "ืืชื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื™ ื›ืžื• ืžืฉื”". ื”ืจื‘ ื”ืจืืฉื™ ืฉืœ ื‘ื•ืœื’ืจื™ื” ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื• ื›ืžืฉื™ื—. ื‘ืขืฉืจื•ืช ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืืžื ื•ืช, ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื, ื‘ืชืžื•ื ื•ืช, ื‘ื’ืœื•ื™ื•ืช, ื‘ืกืคืจื™ ืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื•ื‘ืกืจื˜ื™ื, ื”ื•ืฆื’ื” ื“ืžื•ืชื• ื›ืžืงื‘ื™ืœื” ืœื“ืžื•ืชื• ืฉืœ ืžืฉื” ืจื‘ื ื•. ืจื‘ื™ื ื ื™ืกื• ืœื ืฉืง ืืช ื™ื“ื• ื›ืื“ื ืงื“ื•ืฉ. ืžืœื•ื•ื”ื• ื‘ืžืกืขื• ืœืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ, ื“"ืจ ืžืงืก ื‘ื•ื“ื ื”ื™ื™ืžืจ, ืžืชืืจ ืืช ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจื• ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื›ืฉืœ ื ื‘ื™ื, ื•ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื–ืงื ื™ื ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ื“ืจืช ืคื ื™ื ืžืฉืชื—ื•ื•ื™ื ืœื• ืืจืฆื”. ื‘ืžื•ืฉื‘ื” ืจื—ื•ื‘ื•ืช, ื ื™ื’ืฉื• ืืœื™ื• ืฉื ื™ ืžื ื”ื™ื’ื™ื ืขื ืคืžืœื™ื™ืชื ืžืจืžืœื” ื•ื›ืจืขื• ืœืคื ื™ื• ื‘ืจืš, ื‘ืจื›ื•ื”ื•, ื ืคืœื• ืขืœ ืคื ื™ื”ื, ื ืฉืงื• ืืช ืขืงื‘ื•ืชื™ื• ื‘ื—ื•ืœื•ืช ื”ืจื—ื•ื‘, ื•ืืžืจื•: "ื›ื›ื” ื™ื™ืขืฉื” ืœืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ืŸ ื™ื•ืกืฃ". ื‘ืžืกืขื•ืชื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื‘ืขื•ืœื, ื‘ืžื–ืจื— ื•ื‘ืžืขืจื‘, ื”ื•ื ื ืชืงืœ ื‘ืงืจื™ืื•ืช: 'ื™ื—ื™ ื”ืžืœืš!'. ื›ืš ื’ื ื‘ื•ื•ื™ืœื ื”, ื‘ืœื•ื ื“ื•ืŸ ื•ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ. ื”ืจื‘ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื” ืœื™ื™ื‘ ืคื™ืฉืžืŸ ืžื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ื—ืฉื™ื‘ื• ื›"ื‘ืจ-ื›ื•ื›ื‘ื ื”ืฉื ื™". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื—ืฉืฉ ืžื”ื˜ืจื“ื•ืช-ื™ืชืจ ื‘ืฉืœ ืชื“ืžื™ืชื• ื”ืžืฉื™ื—ื™ืช, ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ื ืžื ืข ืœืจื›ื•ื‘ ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืขืœ ืืชื•ืŸ ืฆื—ื•ืจื” ืื• ืขืœ ืกื•ืก ืœื‘ืŸ. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ื‘ื™ื•ืžื ื• ื‘-3 ื‘ืกืคื˜ืžื‘ืจ 1897: "ื‘ื‘ื–ืœ ื™ืกื“ืชื™ ืืช ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื... ืœื›ืœ ื”ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืขื•ื“ ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉื ื”, ื™ื›ื™ืจื• ื‘ื” ื”ื›ื•ืœ", ื•ืืžื ื ื›ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืฉื ื” ื”ืชืงื‘ืœื” ื‘ืื•"ื ื”ื”ื›ืจื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ืช ื‘ืืจืฅ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ืฉื ื” ืœืคื ื™ ืคื˜ื™ืจืชื•, ืฉืืœ ืื•ืชื• ื”ืกื•ืคืจ ื”ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ ืžื–ื™ ืืจื ื” ืœื’ื‘ื™ ืขืชื™ื“ื ืฉืœ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”, ื•ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉื™ื‘ ืœื• ืฉืขืœ ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ื™ื’ื™ืข ืืกื•ืŸ "ื•ื‘ืฆื•ืจื” ื‘ืจื•ื˜ืœื™ืช", ื•ื›ื›ืœ ืฉื”ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ื™ืฉืชืงืขื• ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื”, ื›ืš ืฆื•ืจืช ื”ืืกื•ืŸ ืชื”ื™ื” ืคืจืื™ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ. ื™ื”ื“ื•ืช ื”ื•ื ื’ืจื™ื” ื”ื•ืฉืžื“ื” ื‘ืฉื•ืื” ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื—ืกืจืช ืชืงื“ื™ื ื•ื‘ืชื•ื›ื ื™ืช ื”ืฉืžื“ื” ืื›ื–ืจื™ืช ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืจื‘ื ื™ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื“ืชื™ืช ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืกื• ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืืœ ืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ืŸ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื•ื›ืฉืœื™ื— ื”'. ื”ืจื‘ ืงื•ืง ื”ืชื™ื™ื—ืก ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืœืื—ืจ ืžื•ืชื• ื›ืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ืŸ ื™ื•ืกืฃ, ื•ื‘ื”ืกืคื“ื• ืœื”ืจืฆืœ ืืžืจ: "ื•ื”ื ื” ื‘ืชื•ืจ ืขื™ืงื‘ื ื“ืžืฉื™ื— ื‘ืŸ ื™ื•ืกืฃ ื ืชื’ืœื” ื—ื–ื™ื•ืŸ ื”ืฆื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื™ืช ื‘ื“ื•ืจื ื•, ืžืฆื“ ื”ืฉืคืขืชื• ืขืœ ื”ื—ืคืฅ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉืœ ืชื—ื™ื™ืช ื”ืื•ืžื” ื‘ืžื•ื‘ืŸ ื”ื›ืœืœื™", ื•ื‘ื ื• ื”ืจืฆื™"ื” ื”ืงืคื™ื“ ืฉืชื”ื™ื” ื‘ื—ื“ืจื• ืชืžื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื•ื”ืฆื˜ืขืจ ืžืื•ื“ ื›ืฉื ืคืœื”, ื•ืืžืจ: "ื”ืจืฆืœ, ื–ื” ื”ืชื™ื ื•ืง ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ (ืœื ืกืชื ืชื™ื ื•ืง ืฉื ืฉื‘ื”, ืืœื ื’ื“ื•ืœ) ืฉืฉื‘ ืืœื™ื ื• ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื’ื•ื™ื™ื, ืžืœื ื”ื•ื“ ื—ืœื•ืžื•ืช ื•ืขื•ื– ื’ืขื’ื•ืขื™ื ื”ืื“ื™ืจื™ื. ื–ื• ื”ืื™ืฉื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ื˜ื‘ืขืช ื”ืฆื•ืจื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช, ืฆื•ืจืช ืขื ืขืœ ืฉืื™ืคื•ืชื™ื•". ืชืœืžื™ื“ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆื™"ื”, ื”ืจื‘ ืื•ืจื™ ืฉืจืงื™, ืืžืจ ื‘ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืขืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ื™ "ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ืฉืœื™ื ืืช ื”ืžืคืขืœ ืฉืœ ืžืฉื” ืจื‘ื ื•. ืžืฉื” ื”ื™ื” ื”ื’ื•ืืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ื”ื’ื•ืืœ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ... ื”ื•ื ื”ื™ื” ืฉืœื™ื— ืฉืœ ื”ื”ืฉื’ื—ื”". ื”ืจืฆืœ ื”ื™ื” ืกื•ืคืจ ื•ืžื—ื–ืื™ ื•ื—ืœืง ืžืžื—ื–ื•ืชื™ื• ื–ื›ื• ืœื”ืฆืœื—ื” ื‘ื™ืžืชื™ืช. ื”ืจืฆืœ ื›ืชื‘ ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืงืฆืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื, ืืฉืจ ื—ื•ืœืงื• ืœืืจื‘ืข ื—ื˜ื™ื‘ื•ืช: ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื™ื, ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื•ืช ื”ื–ืžืŸ, ืขืœ ื™ืœื“ื™ื, ืื’ื“ื•ืช. ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจื™ื ื‘ื“ืง ื”ืจืฆืœ ืืช ื ืกื™ื‘ื•ืช ืชืงื•ืคืชื•, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืืจ, ื‘ืขื–ืจืช ืชื™ืื•ืจ ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื—ืœื•ืคื™ืช ืœื–ื• ืฉื”ืชืจื—ืฉื” ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ, ื•ื”ืฆื™ืข ื–ื•ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืกืชื›ืœื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื” ืื• ื—ืœื™ืคื™ืช: ืจืื• ืื•ืจ ื‘ืขื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช ืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ืฉื•ื ื•ืช. ืื—ืช ืžื”ืŸ ื‘ืขืฉืจื” ื›ืจื›ื™ื ืจืืชื” ืื•ืจ ืœืื—ืจ ืขื‘ื•ื“ืช ืชืจื’ื•ื ืžืžื•ืฉื›ืช, ื’ื ื”ื™ื ื‘ืžืกืคืจ ืžื”ื“ื•ืจื•ืช, ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ื›ืžื” ื”ื•ืฆืื•ืช ืœืื•ืจ. ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ื™ื• ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืขื•ื“ ื‘ื—ื™ื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืจืฆืœ ื•ืœืื—ืจ ืคื˜ื™ืจืชื• ื”ื•ื˜ื‘ืข ื“ื™ื•ืงื ื• ื‘ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ ืืžื ื•ืช ืจื‘ื™ื, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื‘ืฆื™ื•ืจ, ื‘ืคื™ืกื•ืœ, ื‘ืฆื•ืจืคื•ืช, ื•ื“ื‘ืจื™ ื“ืคื•ืก ื™ื™ืฆื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื™ื™ืฉื•ื‘ ืื• ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื’ืœื•ื™ื•ืช ื•ื‘ื•ืœื™ื. ื’ืœืจื™ื” ืจืื• ื’ื ืœืงืจื™ืื” ื ื•ืกืคืช ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Now] | [TOKENS: 2761]
Contents Local Now Local Now (stylized as "local now") is an American over-the-top internet television service owned by The Weather Group, LLC, a subsidiary of Allen Media Group. A spinoff of The Weather Channel, Local Now primarily provides a cyclic playlist of weather, news, sports, entertainment and lifestyle segments, incorporating localized content through feeds geared to a user-specified area. Originally developed as a hybrid TV Everywhere service intended for subscribers of virtual multichannel video programming distributors (vMVPD), after it was acquired by Entertainment Studios in 2018, Local Now converted to a free-to-access model and has since expanded into a hybrid advertiser-supported streaming service, adding advertising video on demand (AVOD) content through digital linear channels and a selection of VOD programming supplied by Entertainment Studios, and various news providers and independent content distributors. Local Now's programming is streamed live on the network's website; through apps for Amazon Fire TV, Android, iOS, and Roku devices; and linear pay television via Dish Network (as an app on internet-connected Hopper set-top boxes), YouTube TV, FuboTV and Sling TV. The service is operated from The Weather Channel's corporate headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia by a skeleton crew of three staff members.[citation needed] History On September 9, 2015, in published reports regarding The Weather Channel's planned overhaul of its programming schedule that would refocus on forecast-based news shows and weather-related reality/documentary programs as well as pending layoffs of around 50 of TWC's 1,400 employees, sources within The Weather Company (then the corporate parent of The Weather Channel) revealed that the consortium would launch a localized weather, news and traffic service intended for over-the-top streaming services offering tiered "skinny bundles" of cable-originated television channels. The service, which was named Local Now, would maintain a format similar to that of Weatherscan, a digital cable and satellite network featuring localized weather forecasts and traffic reports, which original TWC parent Landmark Communications launched in 1999. Developed as part of its plan to place emphasis on its internet and mobile properties, The Weather Company intended to distribute Local Now to OTT providers in lieu of or in conjunction with The Weather Channel. In preparation for the service's launch, The Weather Channel reached agreements with various information service providers to offer content for Local Now to supplement its in-house weather data and video content. Initial partners included the Associated Press, which provides headlines and video for its local and then showbiz news segments; Sportradar, a sports information agency which provides sports scores and schedules for its local sports segment; INRIX, which provides real-time incident data sourced from intelligent transportation systems; and TrafficLand, a traffic video integration service that provides footage from cameras maintained by state departments of transportation. The Weather Channel collaborated with Arris Global Services to provide technological management services for Local Now, handling design and integration, test validation, deployment, customized HTML software development and managed services. Local Now utilizes integration of the company's transcoders and Anevia's ViaMotion+ packaging software, and was the first service to implement CPE virtualization technology from ActiveVideo (a cloud video provider operated as joint venture of ARRIS and Charter Communications). Local Now launched on January 25, 2016, initially exclusive to subscribers of Sling TV that, at minimum, receive its base "Best of Live TV" tier, with support for Amazon Fire TV, Android devices (including Android TV), and Google Chromecast. The service was designed with younger news consumers in mind, allowing a viewer to get constantly updated local news, weather, sports and traffic information in a condensed format at any time of the day. As noted by Freddy Flaxman, chief operating officer of The Weather Group (which became The Weather Channel's corporate parent after IBM purchased The Weather Company's digital assets in January 2016), this allows Local Now to better compete in a media landscape where consumers are increasingly consuming local news content via the Internet and smartphone apps, instead of waiting to watch long-form newscasts that air between one and five times per day on most major network affiliates and some independent stations. On March 4, 2016, Local Now launched a channel on Roku, which provides live streams of the service's national and local feeds to OTT subscribers who use Roku's digital media players. On May 13, 2016, The Weather Channel announced that it would unveil standalone Local Now mobile apps for Apple and Android devices, which would extend access to the channel to cable and satellite subscribers who receive TWC. The apps, which were made available on the Apple App Store and Google Play on June 8, provide live streams of Local Now's 226 local feeds and The Weather Channel, accessible by entering an authenticated login from a participating conventional or over-the-top MVPD provider (those who do not subscribe to a participating provider can view the Local Now feeds via a 30-day free trial, in which users must enter their email address in the login dialog to send a linked message to their account which grants them access). On December 14, 2016, The Weather Group announced a multi-year distribution agreement with fuboTV, in which Local Now and The Weather Channel would be included as part of an expanded service set to launch in early 2017, designed to compete with Sling TV and other OTT competitors such as PlayStation Vue and DirecTV Now, that would offer 70+ broadcast and cable networks. On February 28, 2017, as part of Google's unveiling of YouTube TV, the company announced โ€“ through a carriage agreement with NBCUniversal โ€“ that Local Now and The Weather Channel would be among the channels included as part of the over-the-top MVPD service's initial lineup when it launched in select major U.S. cities that spring. YouTube TV did not include Local Now in its channel offerings at launch, and would not begin carrying the service until December 11, 2018. On March 27, 2017, The Weather Channel signed an agreement with OTT financial news channel Cheddar to provide daily business news updates for Local Now. On October 11, 2017, Dish Network began offering Local Now via an application on all generations of its internet-connected Hopper DVR set-top boxes; severe weather notifications provided by Local Now/The Weather Channel were also made available based on the user location. The following month on November 29, Xumo began offering the service as a premium digital channel through its Channel Plus tier for LG Electronics devices on channel IP-126. On March 22, 2018, Entertainment Studios (owned by comedian and producer Byron Allen) announced its intent to acquire The Weather Channel's television assets from an NBCUniversal/Blackstone Group partnership. The actual value is undisclosed, but was reported to be around $300 million; the channel's non-television assets, which were separately sold to IBM two years prior, were not included in the sale. On May 24, 2018, The Weather Group announced it had reached a content partnership with Tronc-owned news syndication service Tribune Content Agency (TCA) to provide supplementary community-focused content for the service's local news segments. On July 18, The Weather Group announced it had reached a content partnership with Yelp to provide recommendations, reviews, images, and videos of top local restaurants and bars in each Local Now market for the network's "Tasty Stuff" segment. Distribution and market coverage Although a spinoff of The Weather Channel, Local Now is formatted as a general news and weather channel. Because of the distribution structure of over-the-top subscription television, Local Now utilizes a version of TWC's IntelliStar unit โ€“ installed at The Weather Channel's uplink site in Atlanta โ€“ that are configured differently from that used by The Weather Channel and Weatherscan, allowing for the recycling of segments featured in one news block seamlessly into another and routine updating of segments to each of the localized feeds. Local Now's automated model โ€“ which leverages The Weather Channel's existing infrastructure and technology, and employs only three staff members โ€“ allows Local Now to be offered at a fraction of the retransmission rates charged by local broadcast stations. Users of the Local Now website and mobile app, and subscribers of over-the-top MVPD providers carrying the channel, are able to access their local feed based on ZIP code, by their IP address via geolocation, or by manual selection, allowing subscribers to access a feed from another city when they travel outside of their home market. As of April 2017[update], Local Now programs 226 individual feeds covering 207 of the 210 U.S. media markets that provide local news, weather and traffic content tailored to those communities (the St. Joseph, Missouri, Presque Isle, Maine and Zanesville, Ohio markets are served by the Kansas City, Bangor and Columbus area feeds by default), with 15 of them operating as subfeeds offering hyperlocal content to individual regions of the New York City, Atlanta, Denver and Dallas markets. Most markets are served by a single local feed, though Local Now plans to eventually launch additional subfeeds for most markets to "deliver a greater degree of [aggregated content of] local relevance" than can be incorporated within a local television newscast due to the market's geographical size and time constraints. Programming and content Local Now relies on information sourced from The Weather Channel and other content partnerships that the service maintains with the Associated Press, Reuters, Foursquare, American City Business Journals, Stadium, Cheddar, Pointslocal, SportRadar, the Internet Video Archive, TrafficLand, INRIX, Nextdoor, Fresco, FlightAware, the Tribune Content Agency and Yelp. In addition to supplying forecast data and other featured content, The Weather Channel also provides simulcasts of its live, wall-to-wall coverage in the event that a severe weather event, winter storm or landfalling tropical system affects the United States (accompanied by a red lower-tenth banner denoting the live TWC simulcast). Unlike TWC, which carries the Local on the 8s segments during storm coverage, Local Now suspends all regularly featured segments โ€“ including local forecasts โ€“ during the TWC simulcasts, with time allocated to commercial breaks on TWC filled by a slide denoting that the simulcast will return following the break. The channel originally featured a lower display line (LDL) similar to that seen on TWC at the bottom one-tenth of the screen, to display continuous weather information and inform viewers of current and forthcoming segments in tab form and the current time (the tab highlighting the segment being aired at the time cycled between the segment's title and a countdown clock). The national feed's LDL showed current conditions (denoting the sky condition, and cycling through the temperature, wind data and if applicable, apparent temperature) and daypart forecasts for 20 major U.S. cities, and the current time in all four time zones in the Contiguous U.S. The localized versions โ€“ which were keyed over the national LDL โ€“ cycled through current conditions and forecasts for cities within proximity of the metropolitan area, with the time bar corresponding to the local time zone. As part of a graphical overhaul on February 20, 2017, the LDL was replaced by a progress bar counting down the runtime of the current segment, which had previously appeared atop the LDL; the progress bar was eventually removed on March 1, 2018. On June 26, 2018, Local Now began employing Sasha Rionda (a veteran anchor/reporter who previously worked for E!, CNN International and CNN en Espaรฑol, among other news credits) as an on-air anchor to conduct certain national news and entertainment segments and provide occasional field reports. (The addition of Rionda coincided with a refresh of the app that allowed increased content selection functionality, chaptering functions, and advanced notifications and alerts.) The service maintains a "wheel" schedule that cycles in randomized intervals of, depending on the collective length of the included segments, between 15 and 20 minutes in length. (Originally, these cycles started at approximately the top of each hour, though since June 26, 2018, the segment cycles start immediately upon the user accessing an appropriate local feed.) Some segments โ€“ particularly weather and sports segments โ€“ featured in the cycle are routinely updated throughout the hour, while others โ€“ particularly news and entertainment segments โ€“ are updated every three to six hours. Each content cycle includes the following regular segments (listed in order of broadcast): Until June 26, 2018, the segment also featured a seven-day forecast product for the main city (which was split off into a separate segment that assumed the "Next 7 Days" originally used for the "Weather" segment from Local Now's inception), and formerly included city-specific video forecasts outlining weather for the day ahead โ€“ consisting of weather conditions for the surrounding area and daypart-based hourly forecasts for the metropolitan area โ€“ presented by The Weather Channel's meteorologists during the morning and late afternoon dayparts. In most markets, the segment also includes average delay times for flights arriving and departing from local airports; in smaller markets, this information may pertain to a distant regional or international airport. Through a content partnership with Local Now, on April 26, 2017, the segment also began to feature video clips of sports highlights and expert analysis from 120 Sports (later Stadium) pertaining to local and nearby major league sports teams, preceding the text-based sports news summaries. Each clip is 1โ€“5 minutes in length. Slogans See also References External links
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[SOURCE: https://pop.education.gov.il/?utm_source=chatgpt.com#third_406034] | [TOKENS: 332]
ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืžื™ื•ืžื ื•ื™ื•ืช ืžื” ื‘ื›ื•ืชืจื•ืช? ืžื•ืขื“ื™ื ื‘ืคืชื— ืœืžื™ื“ื” ืžืฉื•ืœื‘ืช ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœ ืคื•ืจื˜ืœ ื–ื” ื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ืžื•ืจื™ื ื•ื ื•ืขื“ ืœืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ืฆืจื›ื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ื”ืขืžื•ื“ ืžื›ื™ืœ ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ืœืืชืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ืฉืื™ื ื ืืชืจื™ ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ื—ื™ื ื•ืš. ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืืชืจื™ื ืืœื” ื•ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ ื‘ื”ื (ืœืจื‘ื•ืช ืคืจืกื•ืžื•ืช) ื”ื™ื ื• ื‘ืื—ืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืขืœื™ ื”ืืชืจื™ื ื‘ืœื‘ื“. ืื ื ืชืงืœืชื ื‘ื‘ืขื™ื” ื›ืœืฉื”ื™ ืื• ืฉื™ืฉ ืœื›ื ื”ืฆืขื•ืช ืื• ื”ืขืจื•ืช ื‘ื ื•ื’ืข ืœืชื•ื›ืŸ, ื‘ืืคืฉืจื•ืชื›ื ืœืคื ื•ืช ืืœื™ื ื• ื‘ืงื™ืฉื•ืจ ื–ื”.
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืคื•ืืจื˜ื•_ืจื™ืงื•] | [TOKENS: 9652]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืœื—ืฆื• ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืงื˜ื™ืŸ ื—ื–ืจื” ืœื—ืฆื• ืœื”ื’ื“ืœื” ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• (ื‘ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช: Puerto Rico) ื”ื•ื ืื™ ื‘ื™ื ื”ืงืจื™ื‘ื™ ื‘ืงื‘ื•ืฆืช ื”ืื ื˜ื™ืœื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื, ื”ืžื”ื•ื•ื” ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ื•ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื—ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืœืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ื ืจื—ื‘ ื•ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื” ื”ื ืื–ืจื—ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืืš ืื™ื ื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื•ืœื”ื™ื‘ื—ืจ. ืžื‘ื—ื™ื ื” ืชืจื‘ื•ืชื™ืช ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช. ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืœื ื”ืจื‘ื” ื™ื“ื•ืข ืขืœ ื”ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืœืคื ื™ ื‘ื•ืื ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื. ื”ืื ืฉื™ื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื”ืชื™ื™ืฉื‘ื• ื”ื™ื• ืื•ืจื˜ื•ื™ื•ืจื•ืื™ื“ื™ื (ืื '). ื‘ื—ืคื™ืจื” ืืจื›ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ื‘ืื™ ื•ื™ื™ืงืก ื‘-1990 ื ืžืฆืื• ืฉืจื™ื“ื™ ืื“ื ืž-2000 ืœืคื ื™ ื”ืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ืžื™ื•ื—ืกื™ื ืœืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื–ืืช. ื‘ื™ืŸ 120 ืœ-400 ืœืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ื’ื™ืขื• ืœืื™ ืฉื‘ื˜ ื”ืื™ื’ื ืจื™ ืžืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืื•ืจื™ื ื•ืงื•. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืžืื” ื”-7 ืœืžืื” ื”-11 ืœืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ืชืคืชื—ื” ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ื˜ืื™ื ื• ื•ื‘ืขืจืš ื‘ืฉื ืช 1000 ืœืกืคื™ืจื” ื”ืคื›ื” ืœืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ืช ืขื“ ืœื‘ื•ืื ืฉืœ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื. ื‘ืžืกืขื• ื”ืฉื ื™ ื”ื’ื™ืข ื›ืจื™ืกื˜ื•ืคืจ ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื•ืก ืœืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื‘-19 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1493. ื”ืื™ ื”ื™ื” ืžืื•ื›ืœืก ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ืžืฉื‘ื˜ ื”ืืจื•ื•ืง ื”ื™ื“ื•ืขื™ื ื‘ืฉื ื˜ืื™ื ื•. ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ื›ื™ื ื• ืืช ื”ืื™ ื‘ื•ืจื™ืงืŸ ืื• ื‘ื•ืจื™ื ืงืŸ. ืงื•ืœื•ืžื‘ื•ืก ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœื• ืืช ื”ืฉื ืกืŸ ื—ื•ืืŸ ื‘ืื•ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื” ืขืœ ืฉื ื™ื•ื—ื ืŸ ื”ืžื˜ื‘ื™ืœ. ื”ืขื™ืจ ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ื‘ืื™ ื ื•ืกื“ื” ื‘-1509, ื•ื ื—ืฉื‘ืช ืœืขื™ืจ ื”ืขืชื™ืงื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืขืงื‘ ื˜ืขื•ืช ืฉื ืคืœื” ื‘ืื—ืช ื”ืžืคื•ืช ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืงื“ืžื•ืช, ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ืขื™ืจ ื”ื ืžืœ ืืช ืฉืžื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ (ืกืŸ ื—ื•ืืŸ), ื•ืื™ืœื• ื”ืื™ ื›ื•ื ื” ื‘ืฉืžื” ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ (ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• โ€“ "ื ืžืœ ืขืฉื™ืจ"). ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื–ื” ื”ืคืš ืจืฉืžื™ ื‘-1521 ื•ืฉืžื•ืช ืืœื”, ืœืื™ ื•ืœืขื™ืจ, ื ื•ืชืจื• ืžืื–. ื‘-1510 ื—ื•ืืŸ ืคื•ื ืกื” ื“ื” ืœืื•ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืœืžื•ืฉืœ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™. ื‘ืžื”ืจื” ื”ืื™ ื™ื•ืฉื‘ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื, ื•ื”ื˜ืื™ื ื• ื ืืœืฆื• ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื ื•ืจื•ื‘ื ื”ื•ื›ื—ื“ื• ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืช ื•ื‘ืชื ืื™ ื”ืขื‘ื•ื“ื” ื”ืงืฉื™ื. ืืช ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ืช ื”ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช ื”ื—ืœื™ืคื• ืขื‘ื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื•ื‘ืื• ืžืืคืจื™ืงื”. ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื ื—ืฉื‘ื” ืœืขืžื“ื” ืืกื˜ืจื˜ื’ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืกืคืจื“ ื‘ืงืจื™ื‘ื™ื ื•ื›ื•ื ืชื” "ื”ืžืคืชื— ืœืืžืจื™ืงื•ืช". ืœืžืจื•ืช ื–ืืช ื‘ืžืื•ืช ื”-17 ื•ื”-18 ื”ื•ืคื ื• ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืฉืื‘ื™ื ืœืžื•ืฉื‘ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื‘ืฉืช. ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ื•ื ืžื™ืจื™ื‘ื™ื ืื™ืจื•ืคื™ื ื ื‘ื ื• ื—ื•ืžื•ืช ื•ืžืฆื•ื“ื•ืช ืœื”ื’ื ื” ืขืœ ื ืžืœ ืกืืŸ ื—ื•ืืŸ. ืขืœ ืืฃ ื ื™ืกื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื—ื•ื–ืจื™ื ื•ื ืฉื ื™ื ืœื ื”ืฆืœื™ื—ื• ื”ืื ื’ืœื™ื ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ื ื•ื”ื”ื•ืœื ื“ื™ื ืœื›ื‘ื•ืฉ ืืช ื”ืื™ ื•ืœื”ื—ื–ื™ืง ื‘ื• ื‘ืžืฉืš ืชืงื•ืคื” ืืจื•ื›ื”. ื”ื—ื•ืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ืกืŸ ื—ื•ืืŸ ื•ืฉื ื™ ื”ืžื‘ืฆืจื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืขื™ืจ, ืืœ ืžื•ืจื• ื•ืกืŸ ืงืจื™ืกื˜ื•ื‘ืœ, ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ื’ื ื‘ืžืื” ื”-21 ื•ืžื•ืฉื›ื™ื ืชื™ื™ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื. ื”ืจืคื•ืจืžื•ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19 ื’ืจืžื• ืœื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื•ืคืจื™ื—ืช ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื•ืœื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ื–ื”ื•ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื™. ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืงืžืชืŸ ืฉืœ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืขืฆืžืื™ื•ืช ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช ื ืฉืืจื• ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื•ืงื•ื‘ื” ื”ืฉืจื™ื“ ื”ืื—ืจื•ืŸ ืœืื™ืžืคืจื™ื” ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ื‘ืขื•ืœื ื”ื—ื“ืฉ. ื‘ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžืื” ื”-19 ื”ืขื•ื ื™ ื•ื”ืงืจืข ืขื ืกืคืจื“ ื’ืจืžื• ืœืื™ ืฉืงื˜ ื•ืœื”ืชืงื•ืžืžื•ืช ื‘-1868. ื”ืžืจื“ ื“ื•ื›ื ื‘ืžื”ื™ืจื•ืช ื•ื‘ืงืœื•ืช ืื‘ืœ ื”ื“ืจื™ืฉื” ืœืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ื ื•ืชืจื” ื‘ืขื™ื ื”, ื•ื‘-1897 ื”ืขื ื™ืงื” ื”ืžืžืฉืœื” ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช ื‘ืกืคืจื“ ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ืžื•ื’ื‘ืœ ืœืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื•ืงื•ื‘ื”, ืฉืœื ืฉืจื“ ื–ืžืŸ ืจื‘. ื‘-25 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1898, ืขื ืคืจื•ืฅ ืžืœื—ืžืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืชโ€“ืกืคืจื“, ืคืœืฉ ื›ื•ื— ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ ืœืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•. ื‘ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืžืœื—ืžื” ื ืืœืฆื• ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™ื, ืœืคื™ ืชื ืื™ ื—ื•ื–ื” ืคืจื™ื–, ืœืžืกื•ืจ ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืืช ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•, ืืช ืงื•ื‘ื”, ืืช ื”ืคื™ืœื™ืคื™ื ื™ื ื•ืืช ื’ื•ืื. ืขื“ 1900 ื ืฉืœื˜ื” ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื•ืฉืœ ืฆื‘ืื™ ืฉืžื™ื ื” ื ืฉื™ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื—ื•ืง ืคื•ืจืงืจ ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ืžืกื•ื™ื ืœืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ ื”ื›ื•ืœืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื. ื—ื•ืง ื’'ื•ื ืก-ืฉืคืจื•ืช ื”ืขื ื™ืง ืœืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ื”ืื™ ืื–ืจื—ื•ืช ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ืช ื•ื‘ื—ื™ืจืช ืกื ืื˜ ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ื”ืฉื ื™. ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ืงื ื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืฉื™ืจืชื• ื‘ืฆื‘ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืžืžืœื—ืžืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื•ืื™ืœืš. ืืกื•ื ื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืข ื•ื”ืฉืคืœ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ืคื’ืขื• ืงืฉื•ืช ื‘ื›ืœื›ืœืช ื”ืื™, ื•ื”ื—ืœื• ืœื”ื™ืฉืžืข ื“ืจื™ืฉื•ืช ืœืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•. ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื‘ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืื™ ื”ื’ื™ืข ืชื—ืช ื”ืžืžืฉืœื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื ืฉื™ืื™ื ืจื•ื–ื•ื•ืœื˜ ื•ื˜ืจื•ืžืŸ. ื‘-1946 ืžื™ื ื” ื”ื ืฉื™ื ื˜ืจื•ืžืŸ ืืช ื”ืžื•ืฉืœ ื™ืœื™ื“ ื”ืื™ ื”ืจืืฉื•ืŸ, ื•ื‘-1947 ื”ื•ืขื ืงื” ื”ื–ื›ื•ืช ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ ืžื•ืฉืœ ืœืื™. ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ืฉื”ืชืงื™ื™ืžื• ื‘-1948 ื ื‘ื—ืจ ืœื•ืื™ืก ืžื•ื ื™ื•ืก ืžืืจื™ืŸ (Luis Muรฑoz Marรญn) ืฉื›ื™ื”ืŸ ื‘ืชืคืงื™ื“ ืขื“ 1964. ืžืชืงื•ืคื” ื–ื• ื•ืื™ืœืš ื”ื—ืœื” ื”ื’ื™ืจื” ืžืกื™ื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื‘ื™ื™ื—ื•ื“ ืœืขื™ืจ ื ื™ื• ื™ื•ืจืง, ื‘ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืื—ืจื™ ืจืžืช ื—ื™ื™ื ื˜ื•ื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ. ืœืคื™ ื ืชื•ื ื™ ื”ืœืฉื›ื” ืœืกื˜ื˜ื™ืกื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืž-2003 ืžืกืคืจ ืื–ืจื—ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืฉืžื•ืฆืื ืžืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืขื•ืœื” ืขืœ ืžืกืคืจ ื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื‘ืื™. ืžืžืฉืœ ื˜ืจื•ืžืŸ ืื™ืฉืจ ืขืจื™ื›ืช ืžืฉืืœ ืขื ื‘ืฉืืœืช ื—ื•ืงื” ืžืงื•ืžื™ืช. ื‘-25 ื‘ื™ื•ืœื™ 1952 ืื™ืžืฆื” ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื—ื•ืงื” ื—ื“ืฉื” ืฉื”ื’ื“ื™ืจื” ืืช ืžืขืžื“ื” ื›ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ืขื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ื•ืช ื”ื—ืžื™ืฉื™ื ืขื‘ืจื” ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืชื™ืขื•ืฉ ืžื•ืืฅ ืฉืžื˜ืจืชื• ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืœื”ืคื•ืš ืื•ืชื” ืžื—ืงืœืื™ืช ืœืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช. ืžืขืžื“ื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื ืชื•ืŸ ื‘ืžื—ืœื•ืงืช ื‘ืงืจื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื‘ืื™. ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืœืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื ืžืขื˜ื™ื ื•ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ืžืชื—ืœืง ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืฉื•ื•ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ืคื™ื›ืชื” ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืœืžื“ื™ื ื” ืคื“ืจืœื™ืช ื‘ืžืกื’ืจืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื•ื‘ื™ืŸ ืชื•ืžื›ื™ ื”ืกื›ื ื”ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ ืขื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-80 ื•ื”-90 ื’ื‘ืจื” ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืœื”ื—ื–ืงืช ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ื‘ืื™ื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืฆื‘ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืขืœ ื–ืจื•ืขื•ืชื™ื•. ื”ืžืื‘ืง ื”ืชืžืงื“ ื‘ืžื™ื•ื—ื“ ื‘ืื™ ื•ื™ื™ืงืก (Vieques), ื”ื ืžืฆื ืžืžื–ืจื— ืœืื™ ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœ, ื•ื‘ื• ื ื™ื”ืœ ืฆื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืื™ืžื•ื ื™ื ื‘ื™ืจื™. ืœืื—ืจ ื”ืชื ื’ื“ื•ืช ืืจื•ื›ื”, ืฉืœื•ื•ืชื” ื‘ื”ืคื’ื ื•ืช ื•ื›ืŸ ื‘ืžืขืฉื™ ืืœื™ืžื•ืช, ืขื–ื‘ ื”ืฆื™ ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ืืช ื•ื™ื™ืงืก ื‘-2003. ืฉื˜ื—ื™ ื”ืื™ืžื•ื ื™ื ืœืฉืขื‘ืจ ื”ื ื›ื™ื•ื ืฉืžื•ืจื•ืช ื˜ื‘ืข ืžื˜ื•ืคื—ื•ืช. ืชื”ืœื™ืš ื“ื•ืžื” ืื™ืจืข ื’ื ื‘ืื™ ื”ืฉื›ืŸ, ื”ืงื˜ืŸ ื™ื•ืชืจ, ืงื•ืœื‘ืจื”. ืžืขืžื“ ื‘ื™ืŸ-ืœืื•ืžื™ ื‘-27 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 1953, ื›ืฉื ื” ืœืื—ืจ ื”ื’ื“ืจืช ืžืขืžื“ื” ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื›ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ื”ืžืื•ื—ื“ืช ืขื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ("commonwealth"), ืงื™ื‘ืœื” ื”ืขืฆืจืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืฉืœ ื”ืื•"ื ืืช ื”ื—ืœื˜ื” 748, ื”ืžื‘ื˜ืœืช ืืช ืกื™ื•ื•ื’ื” ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื›ื˜ืจื™ื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืœืœื ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ืขืœ-ืคื™ ืกืขื™ืฃ 73 ื‘ืžื’ื™ืœืช ื”ืื•"ื. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื”ืขืฆืจืช ื”ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืœื ืงื‘ืขื” ื”ืื ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืื›ืŸ ื”ืฉื™ื’ื” ืžืขืžื“ ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ืžืœื. ืขืœ-ืคื™ ื“ื•"ื— ืฆื•ื•ืช ื”ืžืฉื™ืžื” ืœืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืฉืœ ื”ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืœื‘ืŸ ืฉืคื•ืจืกื ื‘-2007, ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ื”ื•ื“ืขืชื” ืœืื•"ื ื‘-1953 ืœื ื”ืชื—ื™ื™ื‘ื” ื›ื™ ืœื ืชื•ื›ืœ ืœืฉื ื•ืช ืืช ืฆื•ืจืช ื™ื—ืกื™ื” ืขื ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืœืœื ื”ืกื›ืžืชื”. ื‘ื“ื•"ื— ื ืงื‘ืข ืืคื•ื ื›ื™ ืœืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื™ืฉ ืกืžื›ื•ืช ืขืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•. ื‘ื“ื•"ื— ืฉื”ื’ื™ืฉื” ื•ืขื“ื” ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ื‘ื•ื•ืฉื™ื ื’ื˜ื•ืŸ ืž-1996, ื ืงื‘ืข ื›ื™ ืžืขืžื“ื” ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืื™ื ื• ืขื•ืžื“ ื‘ืงืจื™ื˜ืจื™ื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ืžืœื. ื”ื“ื•"ื— ืกื™ื›ื ื›ื™ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื™ื ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ืขื“ื™ื™ืŸ ืฉื˜ื— ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื•ื›ื™ ื”ืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืขืฆืžื™ ื”ืงื™ื™ื ื‘ื” ื ื™ืชืŸ ืœื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื‘ืื•ืจื— ื—ื“-ืฆื“ื“ื™, ื•ื›ื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ืืฃ ื™ื›ื•ืœ ืœืฉืœื•ืœ ืืช ื”ืื–ืจื—ื•ืช ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ืฉืœ ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื‘ื›ืœ ืขืช, ืžืกื™ื‘ื” ืจืื•ื™ื”. ื•ืขื“ืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ืืฃ ืงื‘ืขื” ื›ื™ ื™ื™ืฉื•ื ื”ื—ื•ืงื” ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ืช ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื›ืคื•ืฃ ืœืคืกื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืขืœื™ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืืฉืจ ืงื‘ืข ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื›ื™ ื”ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืงื ื•ืช ื‘ื—ื•ืงื” ืื™ื ืŸ ื—ืœื•ืช ื‘ืื•ืจื— ืื•ื˜ื•ืžื˜ื™ ื‘ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื˜ื—ื™ื ื”ื ืžืฆืื™ื ื‘ืฉืœื™ื˜ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืžืื—ืจ ืฉืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืื™ื ื ื” ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช, ืื™ืŸ ื‘ื” ืฉื’ืจื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช. ืขื ื–ืืช, ื™ืฉ ื‘ื” ืขืฉืจื•ืช ืงื•ื ืกื•ืœื™ื•ืช, ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืืžืจื™ืงื” ื”ืœื˜ื™ื ื™ืช ื•ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื™ื ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื—ืกื•ืช ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืžืขืžื“ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“, ืขื ืื•ื˜ื•ื ื•ืžื™ื” ืžื ื”ืœื™ืช ื ืจื—ื‘ืช. ื›ื›ื–ืืช, "ืจืืฉ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื”" ื”ื•ื ืœืžืขืฉื” ื ืฉื™ื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื”ืฉืคื•ืช ื”ืจืฉืžื™ื•ืช ื‘ื” ื”ืŸ ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ื•ืื ื’ืœื™ืช. ื™ืฉ ืœื” ื—ื•ืงื” ืžืฉืœื”, ืฉืื•ืฉืจื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืงื•ื ื’ืจืก ื”ืืžืจื™ืงืื™. ืขืœ ืคื™ ื”ื—ื•ืงื”, ืคื•ืขืœื•ืช ื‘ื” ืฉืœื•ืฉ ืจืฉื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ: ื”ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืžื‘ืฆืขืช โ€“ ื‘ืจืืฉื•ืช ื”ืžื•ืฉืœ; ื”ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืžื—ื•ืงืงืช โ€“ ื”ื›ื•ืœืœืช ืืช ื”ืกื ืื˜ ื•ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•; ื•ื”ืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืฉื•ืคื˜ืช โ€“ ืžืขืจื›ืช ื‘ืชื™ ืžืฉืคื˜ ืขืฆืžืื™ืช, ื”ืžื‘ื•ืกืกืช ืขืœ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ื”ืกืคืจื“ื™. ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืื™ื ื ื–ื›ืื™ื ืœื‘ื—ื•ืจ ื•ืœื”ื™ื‘ื—ืจ ืœืžืžืฉืœ ื”ืคื“ืจืœื™ ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืœืžืขื˜ ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื‘ื—ื™ืจื”, ื”ื ื ื”ื ื™ื ื›ืžืขื˜ ืžื›ืœ ื”ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืื–ืจื— ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ ื•ื‘ื›ืœืœ ื–ื” ื”ื–ื›ื•ืช ืœื’ื•ืจ ื•ืœืขื‘ื•ื“ ื‘ื›ืœ ืื—ืช ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื— ืœืื•ืžื™ ื•ื“ืจื›ื•ืŸ ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™. ื”ืžื•ืฉืœ ื ื‘ื—ืจ ื‘ื‘ื—ื™ืจื•ืช ื™ืฉื™ืจื•ืช ืžื“ื™ 4 ืฉื ื™ื. ื›ืš ื’ื ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ื—ื‘ืจื™ ื”ืกื ืื˜ ื•ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ, ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• "ื ืฆื™ื‘ ืชื•ืฉื‘", ื”ืžืฉืžืฉ ื›ื ืฆื™ื’ื ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื ื‘ื—ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืœื ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ืฆื‘ืขื”. ืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ืžืคืœื’ื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื ื—ืœืงื•ืช ืื™ื“ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ืช ืกื‘ื™ื‘ ื”ื ื•ืฉื ืฉืœ ืžืขืžื“ื” ื”ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื•ื”ืงืฉืจ ืฉืœื” ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช: "ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืขืžืžื™ืช-ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ืช" ื“ื•ื’ืœืช ื‘ื”ืฉืืจืช ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื‘ืžืขืžื“ื” ื”ื ื•ื›ื—ื™, ื›ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื—ืกื•ืช ืขื ืžืžืฉืœ ืขืฆืžื™ ื ืจื—ื‘. "ื”ืžืคืœื’ื” ื”ืคืจื•ื’ืจืกื™ื‘ื™ืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”" ื“ื•ื’ืœืช ื‘ื”ืขื ืงืช ืžืขืžื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืžืœื, ื›ืื—ืช ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. "ืžืคืœื’ืช ื”ืขืฆืžืื•ืช" ื—ื•ืชืจืช ืœืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืžืœืื” ื•ื”ืงืžืช ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ืช ื‘ืžื ื•ืชืง ืžืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ืžืฉืืœ ื”ืขื ืฉื ืขืจืš ื‘ืื™ ื‘ื ื•ืฉื ื”ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื•ืช (1998) ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืชื•ืฆืืช ืจื•ื‘ ืงื˜ืŸ ืœื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ื”ื™ืฉืืจื•ืช ื›ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื—ืกื•ืช, ืขืœ ืคื ื™ ื”ื“ื•ื’ืœื™ื ื‘ืžืขืžื“ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืžืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื”ืชื•ืžื›ื™ื ื‘ืขืฆืžืื•ืช ืžืœืื” ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืžื™ืขื•ื˜ ืงื˜ืŸ, ื›-5%. ื‘-6 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 2012 ื ืขืจืš ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืžืฉืืœ ืขื ื ื•ืกืฃ. ื”ืคืขื ื—ื•ืœืง ืžืฉืืœ ื”ืขื ืœืฉืชื™ ืฉืืœื•ืช: ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื”ืจืืฉื•ื ื” ื ืฉืืœื• ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ืื ื”ื ืจื•ืฆื™ื ืœื”ืฉืื™ืจ ืืช ืžืขืžื“ื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™-ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื ื›ืคื™ ืฉื”ื•ื ืื• ืœืฉื ื•ืชื•. ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื, 54% ืžืŸ ื”ืงื•ืœื•ืช ื”ื›ืฉืจื™ื, ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืขื• ื‘ืขื“ ืฉื™ื ื•ื™ ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™-ืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•. ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” ื ื™ืชื ื” ืœืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ื‘ื—ื™ืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ 3 ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืœืจื™ื‘ื•ื ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื’ ื—ื“ืฉ: ื‘ืฉืืœื” ื–ื• ื”ืขื“ื™ืฃ ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื (61.13% ืžื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื ื‘ืื—ืช ืžืฉืœื•ืฉ ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ื™ื•ืช, ืฉื”ื 809,652 ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื) ืืช ื”ืืคืฉืจื•ืช ืœื”ืฆื˜ืจืฃ ื›ืžื“ื™ื ื” ื”-51 ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. 33.33% ืžืŸ ื”ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื (441,505 ื‘ื•ื—ืจื™ื) ื”ืขื“ื™ืคื• ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ื‘ืขืœืช ื‘ืจื™ืช ืœืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ื•ืื™ืœื• ืจืง 5.54% (73,362 ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื) ื”ืขื“ื™ืคื• ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืฆืžืื™ืช ืœื—ืœื•ื˜ื™ืŸ. ืžืฆื‘ื™ืขื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ื ืžื ืขื• ืžืœืขื ื•ืช ืขืœ ื”ืฉืืœื” ื”ืฉื ื™ื™ื” (472,674). ื‘ื™ื•ื ื™ 2017 ื ืขืจืš ืžืฉืืœ ืขื ื ื•ืกืฃ. ืœืžืจื•ืช ืื—ื•ื–ื™ ื”ื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื”ื™ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœ ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”, ื”ืฆื‘ื™ืขื• ื›-23% ืžื‘ืขืœื™ ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื”ืฆื‘ืขื” ื•ืžืชื•ื›ื ื›-97% ืชืžื›ื• ื‘ืื™ื—ื•ื“ ืขื ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื‘ืขื™ืงืจ ื‘ืฉืœ ื”ืžืฆื‘ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืงืฉื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื”. ื›ืœื›ืœื” ื‘ืชื—ื™ืœืช ื”ืžืื” ื”-20 ื”ืชื‘ืกืกื” ืจื•ื‘ ื›ืœื›ืœืช ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืขืœ ื—ืงืœืื•ืช. ืงื ื™ ืกื•ื›ืจ ื”ื™ื• ื’ื™ื“ื•ืœ ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™, ื•ืคืจื—ื” ื‘ื• ื”ืคืงืช ื”ืจื•ื. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-40 ื”ื—ืœ ืชื”ืœื™ืš ืชื™ืขื•ืฉ ืžื•ืืฅ ื‘ืขื™ื“ื•ื“ ืžืžืฉืœืช ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช, ืฉื”ืขื ื™ืงื” ื”ืงืœื•ืช ืžืก ืœื”ืงืžืช ืžืคืขืœื™ื ื‘ืื™. ื‘ืื™ ื”ื•ืงืžื• ืžืคืขืœื™ื ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื, ืžืคืขืœื™ื ืคื˜ืจื•-ื›ื™ืžื™ื™ื, ืžืคืขืœื™ ืชืจื•ืคื•ืช ื•ืžืคืขืœื™ ื ืฉืง. ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื—ืœื•ืช ื”ื’ื‘ืœื•ืช ื”ืžืกื—ืจ ื•ื—ื•ืงื™ ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ื” ื•ื”ืชืขืกื•ืงื” ืฉืœ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช. ื”ืžื˜ื‘ืข ื‘ื• ืžืฉืชืžืฉื™ื ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื•ื ื“ื•ืœืจ ืืžืจื™ืงืื™. ืชื™ื™ืจื•ืช ื”ื™ื ืžืงื•ืจ ื”ื›ื ืกื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื•. ืชื™ื™ืจื™ื ืจื‘ื™ื ืžืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื ืžืฉื›ื™ื ืœืืงืœื™ื ื”ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ ื•ืœื ื•ืคื™ื ื”ื™ืคื™ื ืฉื‘ืื™, ื•ื’ื ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ืงื ื™ื ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ื‘ืจื™ืช ื”ื™ื‘ืฉืชื™ืช ืžื’ื™ืขื™ื ืœื—ื•ืคืฉื•ืช ื‘ืื™. ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื™ื ื™ืขื“ ืžื‘ื•ืงืฉ ืœื˜ื™ื•ืœื™ ืฉื™ื˜ ืชืขื ื•ื’ื•ืช. ื›ืžืขื˜ ื›ืœ ื”ืกืคื™ื ื•ืช ืฉืฉื˜ื•ืช ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ืขื•ืฆืจื•ืช ืœืคื—ื•ืช ืœืœื™ืœื” ืื—ื“ ื‘ื ืžืœ ืกืŸ ื—ื•ืืŸ. ื‘ืžืื™ 2017 ื”ื›ืจื™ื–ื” ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืขืœ ืคืฉื™ื˜ืช ืจื’ืœ ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื—ื•ื‘ ืฉืœ 123 ืžื™ืœื™ืืจื“ ื“ื•ืœืจ. ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื”ื™ื ื—ืœืง ืžืืจื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืื™ื‘ืจื•-ืืžืจื™ืงื ื™ื•ืช, ื‘ื• ืžืฉืชืคื•ืช ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืื™ื‘ืจื•-ืืžืจื™ืงืื™ื•ืช ืคืขื•ืœื” ื‘ื ื•ืฉืื™ ื—ื™ื ื•ืš, ืžื“ืข ื•ืชืจื‘ื•ืช. ื“ืžื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืžื•ื ื” ื›-3.2 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ื ืคืฉ. ืชื•ื—ืœืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ืขื•ืžื“ืช ืขืœ ื›-78.2 ืฉื ื™ื ื‘ืžืžื•ืฆืข. ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืคืจื™ื•ืŸ ืขื•ืžื“ ืขืœ 1.1 ื™ืœื“ื™ื ืœืื™ืฉื”. ืžื—ืฆื™ืช ืžื”ืื•ื›ืœื•ืกื™ื™ื” ื”ื™ื ืžืขื•ืจื‘ืช (ืžื•ืœื˜ื™ื), 17% ืœื‘ื ื™ื, 7% ืฉื—ื•ืจื™ื, ื•ื”ื™ืชืจ ืืกื™ื™ืชื™ื, ื•ืžืขื˜ ืื™ื ื“ื™ืื ื™ื. ืฉื™ืขื•ืจ ื”ืขื™ืจื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ื•ื 75%. ืฉืคืช ื”ืื ืฉืœ ืžืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ืชื•ืฉื‘ื™ื ื”ื™ื ืกืคืจื“ื™ืช ืืš ืจื‘ื™ื ื“ื•ื‘ืจื™ื ื’ื ืื ื’ืœื™ืช ื•ืœืฉืชื™ื”ืŸ ืžืขืžื“ ืฉืœ ืฉืคื•ืช ืจืฉืžื™ื•ืช. ื’ืื•ื’ืจืคื™ื” ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืžื•ืจื›ื‘ืช ืžืื™ ืื—ื“ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ืฉื ืงืจื ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื•ืžืžืกืคืจ ืื™ื™ื ืงื˜ื ื™ื ื‘ืงืจื‘ืชื• - ื—ืœืงื ืžื™ื•ืฉื‘ื™ื (ื›ื’ื•ืŸ ื”ืื™ ื•ื™ื™ืงืก ื•ื”ืื™ ืงื•ืœื‘ืจื”) ื•ื—ืœืงื ืฉื•ืžืžื™ื (ื›ืžื• ื”ืื™ ืžื•ื ื”) ื•ืขืœ ื—ืœืงื ื ืžืฆืื™ื ืืš ื•ืจืง ื‘ืชื™ ืžืœื•ืŸ. ื”ืื™ ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ืžืชืคืจืก ืขืœ ืฉื˜ื— ืฉืœ 170 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ ืขืœ 60 ืงื™ืœื•ืžื˜ืจ. ืจื›ืกื™ ื”ืจื™ื ืžื”ื•ื•ื™ื ืืช ืจื•ื‘ ืฉื˜ื—ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืื™. ืงื•ืจื“ื™ื™ืจื” ืกื ื˜ืจืœ ื”ื•ื ืจื›ืก ื”ื”ืจื™ื ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ ื‘ืื™ ื•ื”ื”ืจ ื”ื’ื‘ื•ื” ื‘ืจื›ืก ื”ื•ื ืกืจื• ื“ื” ืคื•ื ื˜ื” ื‘ื’ื•ื‘ื” 1,338 ืžื˜ืจ. ืขื™ืจ ื”ื‘ื™ืจื” (ื•ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื” ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ), ืกืืŸ ื—ื•ืืŸ, ื ืžืฆืืช ืขืœ ื”ื—ื•ืฃ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™. ื‘ื–ื›ื•ืช ื”ื™ืžืฆืื•ืช ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื‘ืื–ื•ืจ ื˜ืจื•ืคื™ ื”ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื”ืžืžื•ืฆืขืช ื”ืฉื•ืจืจืช ื‘ืื™ ื”ื™ื 28 ืžืขืœื•ืช ืฆืœื–ื™ื•ืก ื‘ืžืฉืš ื›ืœ ื”ืฉื ื”. ื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ื“ืจื•ืžื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ ืชืžื™ื“ ื™ื•ืชืจ ื—ืžื™ื ืžื”ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ ืืš ืœื ื‘ื”ืคืจืฉ ื’ื“ื•ืœ. ืื™ืŸ ืฉื•ื ื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœ ื‘ื˜ืžืคืจื˜ื•ืจื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืขื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื”.ืกื•ืคื•ืช ื”ื•ืจื™ืงืŸ ืจื‘ื•ืช ืชื•ืงืคื•ืช ืืช ื”ืื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื—ื•ื“ืฉื™ื ื™ื•ื ื™ ืœื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ. ื‘ืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื™ืฉื ื 17 ืื’ืžื™ื ืืฉืจ ื›ื•ืœื ืžืœืื›ื•ืชื™ื™ื ื•ื™ื•ืชืจ ืž-50 ื ื”ืจื•ืช. ื”ื ื”ืจื•ืช ื‘ื—ืœืง ื”ืฆืคื•ื ื™ ืฉืœ ื”ืื™ ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ื•ื–ื•ืจืžื™ื ื‘ื”ื ื™ื•ืชืจ ืžื™ื ื‘ื”ืฉื•ื•ืื” ืœื ื”ืจื•ืช ื‘ื“ืจื•ื ื”ืื™. ื–ืืช ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ ื”ืื™ ื™ืฉ ื›ืžื•ืช ืจื‘ื” ื™ื•ืชืจ ืฉืœ ื’ืฉื ืžืืฉืจ ื‘ื“ืจื•ื. ื‘ืฆืคื•ืŸ-ืžืขืจื‘ ื”ืื™ ื ืžืฆื ื”ืคืืจืง ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ ืžืขืจื•ืช ืจื™ื• ืงืžื•ื™. ืชึทืจึฐื‘ึผื•ึผืช ืœืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื™ืฉ ืกืฆื ืช ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ืชื•ืกืกืช. ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ืžืคื•ืืจื˜ื• ืจื™ืงื• ื–ื›ืชื” ืœื”ื›ืจื” ืขื•ืœืžื™ืช. ื™ืฉื ื ืžืกืคืจ ืกื’ื ื•ื ื•ืช ืคื•ืคื•ืœืจื™ื™ื ืฉืœ ืžื•ื–ื™ืงื” ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ืงื ื™ืช. ืืจื‘ืขืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื™ื ื”ื: ืกืœืกื”, ื‘ื•ืžื‘ื”, ืคืœื ื” ื•ืจื’ื˜ื•ืŸ. ืžื•ื–ื™ืงืื™ื ื•ืœื”ืงื•ืช ืคื•ืจื˜ื•ืจื™ืงื ื™ื™ื ืžืคื•ืจืกืžื™ื ื›ืœืœื• ืืช: ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ_ืœืืžื ื•ืช_ื”ืืกืœืื] | [TOKENS: 4192]
ืชื•ื›ืŸ ืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœ. ื. ืžืื™ืจ ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ื”ื•ืงื ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื•ืจื” ื‘ืจื™ื™ืก ืกืœื•ืžื•ื ืก ื‘ืฉื ืช 1974 ืœื–ื›ืจื• ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ืืจื™ื” ืœืื•ืŸ ืžืื™ืจ ื•ืžื˜ืจืชื• ื—ืงืจ ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื, ื•ื”ืฆื’ืช ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืฉืœ ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ืœืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืจื—ื‘. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžืžื•ืงื ื‘ื’ื‘ื•ืœ ื”ืฉื›ื•ื ื•ืช ื˜ืœื‘ื™ื”, ืงืจื™ื™ืช ืฉืžื•ืืœ ื•ืงื˜ืžื•ืŸ ื”ื™ืฉื ื” ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื, ื‘ืฆื•ืžืช ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ืคืœืž"ื— ื•ืจื—ื•ื‘ ื”ื ืฉื™ื, ื‘ืงืจื‘ืช ืชื™ืื˜ืจื•ืŸ ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื ื•ืžืฉื›ืŸ ื ืฉื™ืื™ ื™ืฉืจืืœ. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืจืฉื•ื ื›ืขืžื•ืชื” ืžืฉื ืช 1994. ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžืฆื™ื’ ื›ืœื™ ื—ืจืก, ื˜ืงืกื˜ื™ืœ, ืชื›ืฉื™ื˜ื™ื ื•ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื ืฉืœ ืืžื ื•ืช ืืกืœืืžื™ืช ืžื›ืœ ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืืจืฆื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื - ืžืกืคืจื“ ืฉื‘ืžืขืจื‘ ื•ืขื“ ื”ื•ื“ื• ืฉื‘ืžื–ืจื—. ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืชืฉืข ื’ืœืจื™ื•ืช ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ืช ื‘ื”ื ืžืฆื™ื’ื” ืกืงื™ืจื” ื›ืœืœื™ืช ืขืœ ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ืžื›ืœ ื”ืชืงื•ืคื•ืช, ื—ืžืฉ ื’ืœืจื™ื•ืช ืžืกื•ื“ืจื•ืช ืœืคื™ ืกื“ืจ ื›ืจื•ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™, ืฉืชื™ ื’ืœืจื™ื•ืช ืœืชืขืจื•ื›ื•ืช ืžืชื—ืœืคื•ืช ื•ื’ืœืจื™ื™ืช ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื. ืžืจื‘ื™ืช ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื ืจื›ืฉื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืจื™ืฆ'ืจื“ ืื˜ื™ื ื’ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ (ืื ') ืžื›ืกืคื” ืฉืœ ื”ื’ื‘' ื•ืจื” ืกืœื•ืžื•ื ืก, ื•ืงื•ืžืฅ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื ืชืจืžื• ืžืื•ืกืคื• ืฉืœ ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ื. ืœ. ืžืื™ืจ. ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื›ืœื™ ืžืฉื—ืง (ืฉื—ืžื˜, ื“ื•ืžื™ื ื• ื•ืงืœืคื™ ืžืฉื—ืง), ื›ืœื™ ื ืฉืง (ื—ืจื‘ื•ืช, ืงืกื“ื•ืช), ื‘ื“ื™ื ื•ืฉื˜ื™ื—ื™ื, ืชื›ืฉื™ื˜ื™ื ื•ื—ืคืฆื™ ื–ื›ื•ื›ื™ืช. ื‘ืงื•ืžื” ื”ืชื—ืชื•ื ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžื•ืฆื’ "ืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื•ื™ื“ ืœ. ืกืœืžื•ื ืก", ืื—ื“ ืžืฉืœื•ืฉืช ื”ืื•ืกืคื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื‘ืขื•ืœื ืฉืœ ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืขืชื™ืงื™ื, ืฉืจื‘ื™ื ืžื”ื ื ื‘ื ื• ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฉืขืŸ-ื”ืืžืŸ ืื‘ืจื”ื-ืœื•ืื™ ื‘ืจื’ื”. ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื›ืš ื™ืฉ ื‘ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืชืฆื•ื’ืช ืงื‘ืข ืฉืœ ืขื™ืฆื•ื‘ื™ ืคื™ื™ื–ืœื™. ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืžื™ื™ืกื“ืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ื•ืจื” ื‘ืจื™ื™ืก ืกืœืžื•ื ืก, ืœืžื“ื” ื‘ืฆืขื™ืจื•ืชื” ืืžื ื•ืช ื•ืืฃ ืคืจืกืžื” ืžืกืคืจ ืžื—ืงืจื™ื ื‘ืชื—ื•ื, ืžืฆืื” ืขื ื™ื™ืŸ ืจื‘ ื‘ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื•ื‘ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื. ื•ืจื” ืžืชื—ื™ืœื” ืœืœืžื•ื“ ืืฆืœ ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ืžืื™ืจ ืืžื ื•ืช ืืกืœืืžื™ืช, ื•ืžืจื—ื™ื‘ื” ืืช ื”ื™ื“ืข ืฉืœื” ื‘ืชื—ื•ื. ื‘ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-60 ืžืžื ื” ื•ืจื” ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ืจื™ืฆ'ืจื“ ืื˜ื™ื ื’ื”ืื•ื–ืŸ, ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื•ืŸ ื•ืžื•ืžื—ื” ืขื•ืœืžื™ ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื, ืขืœ ืžืœืื›ืช ื”ืงืžืช ื”ืื•ืกืฃ - ืฉื”ืคืš ืœืื—ื“ ื”ืื•ืกืคื™ื ื”ื—ืฉื•ื‘ื™ื ื•ื”ืžืฉื•ื‘ื—ื™ื ืœืืžื ื•ืช ืืกืœืืžื™ืช. ื‘ืžืงื‘ื™ืœ ืžื™ื ืชื” ื•ืจื” ืืช ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ืื•ื˜ื• ืงื•ืจืฅ (ืื ') ืœื”ืงืžืช ืกืคืจื™ื” ืฉื”ื™ื•ื•ืชื” ืืช ื”ื‘ืกื™ืก ืœืžื›ื•ืŸ ื—ืงืจ ืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ืขืœ ืฉื ื”ืคืจื•ืคืกื•ืจ ืžืื™ืจ, ื‘ืชืงื•ื•ื” ืฉืœื™ืžื•ื“ ื”ื ื•ืฉื ื•ื”ืฆื’ืชื• ืœืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื™ื‘ื™ืื• ืœืงื™ืจื•ื‘ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื™ื”ื•ื“ื™ื ืœืขืจื‘ื™ื ื‘ืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ (ื‘ืฉื ืช 2016 ื‘ื™ืฉืจืืœ ืคื•ืจืงื” ื”ืกืคืจื™ื™ื”, ื•ื—ืœืงื” ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจ ืœืกืคืจื™ื” ื”ืœืื•ืžื™ืช ื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื). ื”ื’ื‘' ืกืœื•ืžื•ื ืก ื”ืงื“ื™ืฉื” ืืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœื—ื•ืงืจ ืœ.ื. ืžืื™ืจ. ืื“ืจื™ื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ื•ื ื“"ืจ ืืœื›ืกื ื“ืจ ืคืจื™ื“ืžืŸ. ื’ื ื‘ืช ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืื—ืช ื”ื’ืœืจื™ื•ืช ืžืฆื™ื’ื” ืืช ืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ ืกืœื•ืžื•ื ืก - ืžืจื‘ื™ืชื ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ื ื“ื™ืจื™ื ืžื”ืžืื•ืช ื”-18 ื•ื”-19 ื•ืžืงื•ืจื ื‘ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื”ื ื“ื™ืจื™ื ืฉื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื (ื•ื‘ื”ื ืฉืขื•ืŸ ืฉื ื‘ื ื” ืขื‘ื•ืจ ื”ืžืœื›ื” ืžืืจื™ ืื ื˜ื•ืื ื˜ ื•ื ืงืจื ืขืœ ืฉืžื”) ื ื’ื ื‘ื• ืžื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื‘-1983, ื™ื—ื“ ืขื ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื ื•ืกืคื™ื. ื—ืœืง ืžื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืื•ืชืจื• ื‘-2006 ื‘ื›ืกืคื•ืช ืฉื•ื ื•ืช ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ืื™ืจื•ืคื”. ื‘ืฉื ืช 2008 ื”ืชื’ืœื” ื›ื™ ื ืขืžืŸ ื“ื™ืœืจ, ืฉื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืฉื ืช 2004, ื”ื™ื” ื”ืคื•ืจืฅ ืฉื’ื ื‘ ืืช ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื. ืžื‘ื™ืŸ 106 ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืฉื•ื ื™ื ืฉื ื’ื ื‘ื• ืžื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ืื•ืชืจื• ื•ื”ื•ื—ื–ืจื• 96. ื”ืคื•ืจืฅ ื ืคื˜ืจ ื‘ืœื™ ืฉื”ืจื•ื•ื™ื— ื›ืžืขื˜ ื“ื‘ืจ ืžื”ื’ื ื‘ื” ืžืฉื•ื ืฉื”ื‘ื™ืŸ ืฉืื ื™ืžื›ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื, ื™ื™ืชืคืก. ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ื”ืชื’ืœื• ื‘ืขืช ืฉื™ื•ืจืฉื™ื• ื ื™ืกื• ืœืžื›ื•ืจ ืื•ืชื. ื”ืื•ืกืฃ ื”ื•ืฆื’ ืžื—ื“ืฉ, ื‘ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ืฉื ืงืจืื” "ื”ื–ืžืŸ ื”ื’ื ื•ื‘". ืจื•ื‘ ื”ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืกื‘ืœื• ืžืคื’ืขื™ ื–ืžืŸ ื•ืœื—ื•ืช, ื—ืœืงื ืคื•ืจืงื• ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืฉื™ื”ื™ื” ืงืœ ื™ื•ืชืจ ืœื”ืกืชื™ืจื ื•ืœื›ืŸ ื”ื™ื” ืฆืจื™ืš ืœื”ืขื‘ื™ืจ ืื•ืชื ื˜ื™ืคื•ืœ ืžื™ื•ื—ื“, ื‘ื ื•ืกืฃ ืœื˜ื™ืคื•ืœื™ ื ื™ืงื•ื™ ื•ืฉื™ืžื•ืŸ ื”ื ืขืฉื™ื ื“ืจืš ืฉื’ืจื” ื‘ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื. ืžื›ื™ืจืช ืคืจื˜ื™ื ืžืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืื•ืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ื”ืขืžื™ื“ ืœืžื›ื™ืจื” ื‘ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืกื•ืชื‘ื™'ืก 268 ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืžืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื” ืชื•ื›ื ื ื” ืœืื•ืงื˜ื•ื‘ืจ 2020, ื•ื ื“ื—ืชื” ืœื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ ื‘ืื•ืชื” ื”ืฉื ื”. ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ื˜ืขืŸ ื›ื™ ื”ื•ื ื’ื•ืฃ ืคืจื˜ื™ ื•ืขืœ ื›ืŸ ืœื ื“ื™ื•ื•ื— ืœืžืฉืจื“ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ืขืœ ื›ื•ื•ื ืช ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื”. ื”ื“ื‘ืจ ื ื•ื“ืข ืžืจืื™ื•ืŸ ืขื™ืชื•ื ืื™ ืฉืœ ื’ื•ืืœ ืคื™ื ื˜ื• ืขื ืžื ื›"ืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ื ื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ืืŸ. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืจืื™ื•ืŸ ื˜ืขืŸ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืžื•ืฆื’ื™ื ืฉื‘ื—ื–ืงืชื• ืฉื™ื™ื›ื™ื ืœืงืจืŸ ื”ืจืฉื•ืžื” ื‘ืœื™ื›ื˜ืฉื ื˜ื™ื™ืŸ, ื•ืœื” ื”ื•ืขื‘ืจื” ื”ื‘ืขืœื•ืช ืขืœื™ื”ื ื‘ืžื”ืœืš ืฉื ื•ืช ื”-90, ื›ืืฉืจ ื”ืขืžื•ืชื” ืฉื ื™ื”ืœื” ืืช ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืคื•ืจืงื”. ื”ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ื—ื•ืœืœื• ืกืขืจื” ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช ื•ืงืจื™ืื•ืช ืœื—ืฉื™ืคืช ืชื ืื™ ื”ื”ืงื“ืฉ ืฉื”ื•ืชื™ืจื” ืื—ืจื™ื” ื”ื ื“ื‘ื ื™ืช ื•ืจื” ืกื•ืœื•ืžื•ื ืก. ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืฉื”ื•ืฆืขื• ืœืžื›ื™ืจื” ื›ืœืœื• ืฉืขื•ื ื™ื ืžื”ืื•ืกืฃ ืฉืœ ื“ื™ื™ื•ื•ื™ื“ ืกืœื•ืžื•ื ืก, ื›ืชื‘ื™ ื™ื“ ื ื“ื™ืจื™ื (ื•ื‘ื™ื ื™ื”ื ื“ืคื™ ืงื•ืจืืŸ), ืฉื˜ื™ื—ื™ื, ื›ืœื™ ื ืฉืง ื•ืขื•ื“. ื‘ืขืงื‘ื•ืช ื”ืกืขืจื” ื”ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจื™ืช, ืฉืจ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช, ื—ื™ืœื™ ื˜ืจื•ืคืจ ื•ื”ื™ื•ืขืฅ ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ ืœืžืžืฉืœื”, ืžืชื—ื• ื‘ื™ืงื•ืจืช ื—ืจื™ืคื” ืขืœ ื”ื›ื•ื•ื ื” ืœืžื›ื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื. ื”ื ืฉื™ื ืจืื•ื‘ืŸ ืจื™ื‘ืœื™ืŸ ืงืจื ืœืžืฆื•ืช ืืช ื”ื›ืœื™ื ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื‘ื™ื ืœืื•ืžื™ื™ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœืขืฆื•ืจ ืืช ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื”. ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื” ืกื•ืชื‘ื™ืก ื“ืจืฉ 1.4 ืžื™ืœื™ื•ืŸ ืคืื•ื ื“ ื›ืคื™ืฆื•ื™ ืขืœ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื”. ื›ืคืฉืจื”, ืกื•ื›ื ืขื ืžืฉืจื“ ื”ืชืจื‘ื•ืช ื›ื™ ืชืชืืคืฉืจ ืžื›ื™ืจื” ืฉืœ ืžืกืคืจ ืžืฆื•ืžืฆื ืฉืœ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื. ื‘-18 ื‘ื ื•ื‘ืžื‘ืจ 2020, ืขืชืจื” ืขืžื•ืชืช ื”ืฉื‘ื” โ€“ ื”ืคื•ืจื•ื ืœืื™ืชื•ืจ ื•ื”ืฉื‘ืช ื™ืฆื™ืจื•ืช ืืžื ื•ืช ืฉื ื‘ื–ื–ื• ื‘ืฉื•ืื” (ื‘ื’"ืฅ 7847/20) ื ื’ื“ ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื”, ื‘ื˜ืขื ื”, ืฉืจืฉื•ืช ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื•ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืขื‘ืจื• ืขืœ ื—ื•ืง ื”ืขืชื™ืงื•ืช ื›ืฉืืคืฉืจื• ืืช ื”ื•ืฆืืช ื”ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืžืžื“ื™ื ืช ื™ืฉืจืืœ ื•ื”ืขื‘ืจืชื ืœืžื›ื™ืจื”. ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžืฉืคื˜ ืงื™ื‘ืœ ืืช ื”ืขืชื™ืจื”, ื•ื‘ื™ืงืฉ ืžื”ืฆื“ื“ื™ื ืœื”ื’ื™ืข ืœืคืฉืจื”. ืœื‘ืกื•ืฃ, ื”ื•ืฉื’ ื”ืกื›ื ื‘ื—ืกื•ืช ืงืจืŸ ืืœ-ืช'ืื ื™, ื”ืฉื™ื™ื›ืช ืœื‘ืŸ ื“ื•ื“ื• ืฉืœ ืืžื™ืจ ืงื˜ืจ. ื”ืงืจืŸ ืคื™ืฆืชื” ืืช ื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื•ืช ืกื•ืชื‘ื™'ืก ืขืœ ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ืœ ื”ืžื›ื™ืจื” ื”ืคื•ืžื‘ื™ืช ืฉืœ ืคืจื™ื˜ื™ื ืžื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ. ื‘ืชืžื•ืจื”, ื›ื“ ื›ืกืฃ, ืฉืžืชื•ืืจืš ืœืกื•ืฃ ื”ืžืื” ื”-11 ื”ื•ืฉืืœ ืœืชืฆื•ื’ื” ื‘ืชืขืจื•ื›ื” ืฉืœ ืื•ืกืฃ ื”ืงืจืŸ ื‘ืคืจื™ื–. ืžื ื”ืœ ื”ืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ, ื ื“ื™ื ืฉื™ื‘ืืŸ, ืคืจืฉ ืžืชืคืงื™ื“ื• ืขื ืกื™ื•ื ื”ืคืจืฉื”.. ื‘ื—ื•ื“ืฉ ืžืจืฅ 2022 ื—ื–ืจื• ืคืจื˜ื™ ื”ืื•ืกืฃ, ืฉื”ื•ืขืžื“ื• ืœืžื›ื™ืจื”, ืœืžื•ื–ื™ืื•ืŸ ืœืืžื ื•ืช ื”ืืกืœืื ืฉื‘ื™ืจื•ืฉืœื™ื. ืงื™ืฉื•ืจื™ื ื—ื™ืฆื•ื ื™ื™ื ื”ืขืจื•ืช ืฉื•ืœื™ื™ื
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